filename
stringlengths 1
91
| content
stringlengths 422
182k
| links
stringlengths 2
27.4k
|
|---|---|---|
Andrew_Jackson | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Andrew Jackson,Wikiquote,Wikisource,Wikimedia Commons,Pulitzer Prize for History,Robert V. Remini,Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.,Project Gutenberg,Biographical Directory of the United States Congress,William Cocke,List of United States Senators from Tennessee" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Andrew Jackson</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Andrew_Jackson";
var wgTitle = "Andrew Jackson";
var wgArticleId = 1623;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Andrew_Jackson">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Andrew Jackson</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.USA_Presidents.htm">USA Presidents</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox" style="width:23em; font-size:90%; text-align:left; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.5em;">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size:140%;"><b>Andrew Jackson</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/2/206.jpg.htm" title="Andrew Jackson"><img alt="Andrew Jackson" height="192" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andrew_Jackson.jpeg" src="../../images/2/206.jpg" width="160" /></a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:110%;">
<hr />
<div style="background:lavender;">7th <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1829 – <!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1837</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Vice President(s) </th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> John C. Calhoun (1829-1832),<br /><i>None</i> (1832-1833),<br /><a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Van_Buren.htm" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a> (1833-1837)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> John Quincy Adams</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Succeeded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Van_Buren.htm" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<hr />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Born</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> March 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1767<br /><!--del_lnk--> Waxhaw, <!--del_lnk--> South Carolina</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Died</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> June 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1845<br /><!--del_lnk--> The Hermitage, <!--del_lnk--> Nashville, <!--del_lnk--> Tennessee</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Political party</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Democratic-Republican and <!--del_lnk--> Democratic</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Spouse</th>
<td>Widowed. <!--del_lnk--> Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson. (Niece <!--del_lnk--> Emily Donelson Jackson and daughter-in-law <!--del_lnk--> Sarah Yorke Jackson were <!--del_lnk--> first ladies)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Religion</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Presbyterian</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Signature</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/2/207.gif.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="24" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andrew_Jackson_signature.gif" src="../../images/2/207.gif" width="128" /></a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Andrew Jackson</b> (<!--del_lnk--> March 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1767 – <!--del_lnk--> June 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1845) was the seventh <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1829-1837), He was <!--del_lnk--> military governor of <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> (1821), general of the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of New Orleans (1815), a co-founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Democratic Party, and the <!--del_lnk--> eponym of the era of <!--del_lnk--> Jacksonian democracy. He was a polarizing figure who helped shape the <!--del_lnk--> Second Party System of <!--del_lnk--> American politics in the 1820s and 1830s.<p>Nicknamed "Old Hickory" because he was renowned for his toughness, Jackson was the first President primarily associated with the American <!--del_lnk--> frontier (although born in <!--del_lnk--> South Carolina, he spent most of his life in <!--del_lnk--> Tennessee).<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Early_life_and_career" name="Early_life_and_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life and career</span></h2>
<p>Jackson was born in a backwoods settlement to <!--del_lnk--> Presbyterian <!--del_lnk--> Scots-Irish immigrants <!--del_lnk--> Andrew and <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Jackson in <!--del_lnk--> Lancaster County, <!--del_lnk--> South Carolina, on <!--del_lnk--> March 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1767. He was the youngest of three brothers and was born just a few weeks after his father's death. Both <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina and <!--del_lnk--> South Carolina have claimed Jackson as a "native son," because the community straddled the state line, and a cousin later claimed that Jackson was born on the North Carolina side. Jackson himself always stated that he was born in a cabin on the South Carolina side, a fact which historians accept, since he presumably was repeating the recollections of his mother and others in the immediate family. He received a sporadic education. At age thirteen, he joined the <!--del_lnk--> Continental Army as a <!--del_lnk--> courier. He was captured and imprisoned by the <!--del_lnk--> British during the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Revolutionary_War.htm" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>. Jackson was the last U.S. President to have been a veteran of the American Revolution, and the only President to have been a <!--del_lnk--> prisoner of war. The war took the lives of Jackson's entire immediate family.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/208.jpg.htm" title="Jackson refusing to clean a British officer's boots (1876 lithography)"><img alt="Jackson refusing to clean a British officer's boots (1876 lithography)" height="195" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andrew_Jackson_brave_boy_1780a.jpg" src="../../images/2/208.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/208.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Jackson refusing to clean a British officer's boots (1876 <!--del_lnk--> lithography)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Andrew and his brother Robert Jackson were taken as prisoners, and they nearly starved to death. When Andrew refused to clean the boots of a British officer, the irate redcoat slashed at him, giving him scars on his left hand and head, as well as an intense hatred for the British. Both of them contracted small pox while imprisoned, and Robert died days after their release. In addition Jackson's entire immediate family died from war-time hardships that Jackson also blamed upon the British. This <!--del_lnk--> anglophobia would help to inspire a distrust and dislike of Eastern "aristocrats," whom Jackson felt were too inclined to favour and emulate their former colonial "masters." Jackson admired <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> for his willingness to contest British military supremacy.<p>Jackson came to <!--del_lnk--> Tennessee by 1787. Though he could barely read law, he found he knew enough to become a young lawyer on the frontier. Since he was not from a distinguished family, he had to make his career by his own merits; and soon he began to prosper in the rough-and-tumble world of frontier law. Most of the actions grew out of disputed land-claims, or from assaults and battery. He was elected as Tennessee's first <!--del_lnk--> Congressman, upon its statehood in the late 1790s, and quickly became a <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Senate.htm" title="United States Senate">U.S. Senator</a> in 1797 but resigned within a year. In 1798, he was appointed judge on the <!--del_lnk--> Tennessee Supreme Court. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Military_career" name="Military_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Military career</span></h2>
<p><a id="Creek_War_and_War_of_1812" name="Creek_War_and_War_of_1812"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Creek War and War of 1812</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Jackson became a colonel in the Tennessee militia, which he had led since the beginning of his military career in 1801. In 1813, Northern <!--del_lnk--> Creek Band chieftain <!--del_lnk--> Peter McQueen massacred 400 men, women, and children at <!--del_lnk--> Fort Mims (in what is now Alabama). Jackson commanded in the campaign against the Northern Creek Indians of Alabama and Georgia, also known as the "<!--del_lnk--> Red Sticks." Creek leaders such as <!--del_lnk--> William Weatherford (Red Eagle), Peter McQueen, and <!--del_lnk--> Menawa, who had been allies of the British during the War of 1812, violently clashed with other chiefs of the Creek Nation over white encroachment on Creek lands and the "civilizing" programs administered by U.S. Indian Agent <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Hawkins.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> Creek War, a theatre of the <!--del_lnk--> War of 1812, Jackson defeated the Red Stick Creeks at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Horseshoe Bend. Jackson was aided by members of the Southern Creek Indian Band, who had requested Jackson's aid in putting down what they considered to be the "rebellious" Red Sticks, and some <!--del_lnk--> Cherokee Indians, who also sided with the Americans. 800 Northern Creek Band "Red Sticks" Indians were massacred. Jackson spared Weatherford's life from any acts of vengeance. <!--del_lnk--> Sam Houston and <!--del_lnk--> David Crockett, later to become famous themselves in <!--del_lnk--> Texas, served under Jackson at this time. Following the victory, Jackson imposed the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Fort Jackson upon both his Northern Creek enemy and Southern Creek allies, wresting 20 million acres (81,000 km²) from all Creeks for white settlement.<p>Jackson's service in the <!--del_lnk--> War of 1812 was conspicuous for its bravery and success. He was a strict officer, but was popular with his troops. It was said he was "tough as old hickory" wood on the battlefield, which gave him his nickname. The war, and particularly his command at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of New Orleans on <!--del_lnk--> January 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1815, made his national reputation. He advanced in rank to Major General. In the battle, Jackson's 6,000 militiamen behind barricades of cotton bales opposed 12,000 British regulars marching across an open field, led by General <!--del_lnk--> Edward Pakenham. The battle was a total American victory. The British had over 2,000 casualties to Jackson's 8 killed and 58 wounded or missing. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="First_Seminole_War" name="First_Seminole_War"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">First Seminole War</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Jackson served in the military again during the <!--del_lnk--> First Seminole War when he was ordered by President <a href="../../wp/j/James_Monroe.htm" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a> in December 1817<!--del_lnk--> to lead a campaign in <!--del_lnk--> Georgia against the <!--del_lnk--> Seminole and <!--del_lnk--> Creek Indians. Jackson was also charged with preventing <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Florida from becoming a refuge for runaway slaves. Critics later alleged that Jackson exceeded orders in his Florida actions, but Monroe and the public wanted Florida. Before going, Jackson wrote to Monroe, "Let it be signified to me through any channel... that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished." Monroe gave Jackson orders that were purposely ambiguous, sufficient for international denials.<p>Jackson's Tennessee volunteers were attacked by Seminoles, but this left their villages vulnerable, and Jackson burned them and their crops. He found letters that indicated that the Spanish and British were secretly assisting the Indians. Jackson believed that the United States would not be secure as long as Spain and Great Britain encouraged American Indians to fight and argued that his actions were undertaken in self-defense. Jackson captured <!--del_lnk--> Pensacola, Florida with little more than some warning shots and deposed the Spanish governor. He illegally tried, and then captured and executed two British subjects, Robert Ambrister and <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Arbuthnot who had been supplying and advising the Indians. Jackson's action also struck fear into the Seminole tribes as word of his ruthlessness in battle spread.<p>This also created an international incident, and many in the <a href="../../wp/j/James_Monroe.htm" title="James Monroe">Monroe</a> administration called for Jackson to be <!--del_lnk--> censured. However, Jackson's actions were defended by <!--del_lnk--> Secretary of State <!--del_lnk--> John Quincy Adams. When the Spanish minister demanded a "suitable punishment" for Jackson, Adams wrote back "Spain must immediately [decide] either to place a force in Florida adequate at once to the protection of her territory, ... or cede to the United States a province, of which she retains nothing but the nominal possession, but which is, in fact, ... a post of annoyance to them." Adams used Jackson's conquest, and Spain's own weaknesses, to convince the Spanish (in the <!--del_lnk--> Adams-Onís Treaty) to cede Florida to the United States. Jackson was subsequently named its territorial governor.<p><a id="Election_of_1824" name="Election_of_1824"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Election of 1824</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Tennessee legislature nominated Jackson for president in 1822. It also made him a Senator again in the United States Senate. In 1824, most of the <!--del_lnk--> Democratic-Republican Party in Congress had boycotted the traditional <!--del_lnk--> nominating caucus; those that adhered to it backed <!--del_lnk--> William H. Crawford for president and <!--del_lnk--> Albert Gallatin for vice president. A convention in <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania nominated Jackson for president almost a month later, on <!--del_lnk--> March 4. Gallatin critiqued Jackson as "an honest man and the idol of the worshippers of military glory, but from incapacity, military habits, and habitual disregard of laws and constitutional provisions, altogether unfit for the office." <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Jefferson.htm" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, who would later write to William Crawford and <!--del_lnk--> William Branch Giles in dismay at the outcome of the election, wrote to Jackson in December of 1823:<blockquote>
<p>"I recall with pleasure the remembrance of our joint labors while in the Senate together in times of great trial and of hard battling, battles indeed of words, not of blood, as those you have since fought so much for your own glory & that of your country; with the assurance that my attamts continue undiminished, accept that of my great respect & consideration."</blockquote>
<p>Biographer <!--del_lnk--> Robert V. Remini said that Jefferson "had no great love for Jackson." <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Webster wrote that Jefferson told him in December of 1824:<blockquote>
<p>"I feel much alarmed at the prospect of seeing General Jackson President. He is one of the most unfit men I know of for such a place. He has had very little respect for laws or constitutions, and is, in fact, an able military chief. His passions are terrible. When I was President of the Senate he was a Senator; and he could never speak on account of the rashness of his feelings. I have seen him attempt it repeatedly, and as often choke with rage. His passions are no doubt cooler now; he has been much tried since I knew him, but he is a dangerous man."</blockquote>
<p>During his first run for the presidency in <!--del_lnk--> 1824, Jackson received a plurality of both the popular and <!--del_lnk--> electoral votes. Since no candidate received a majority, the election decision was given to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_House_of_Representatives.htm" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a>, which chose <!--del_lnk--> John Quincy Adams as president in 1825. Jackson denounced it as a "<!--del_lnk--> corrupt bargain" because House Speaker <!--del_lnk--> Henry Clay gave his votes to Adams, who then appointed Clay <!--del_lnk--> Secretary of State. Jackson later called for the abolishment of the <!--del_lnk--> Electoral College. Jackson's defeat burnished his political credentials, however, since many voters believed the "man of the people" had been robbed by the "corrupt aristocrats of the East."<p><a id="Election_of_1828" name="Election_of_1828"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Election of 1828</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Tennessee legislature again nominated Jackson for the presidency. He resigned from United States Senate in 1825. Jackson allied himself with Vice President <!--del_lnk--> John C. Calhoun, <a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Van_Buren.htm" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a>, and former supporters of <!--del_lnk--> William H. Crawford; together they built a coalition that handily defeated the reelection of John Quincy Adams in 1828. His supporters called themselves "Jackson Men," or Jacksonians.<p><a id="Presidency_1829-1837" name="Presidency_1829-1837"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Presidency 1829-1837</span></h2>
<p><a id="Spoils_system" name="Spoils_system"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Spoils system</span></h3>
<p>When Jackson became President, he implemented the theory of rotation in office, declaring it "a leading principle in the republican creed." He believed that rotation in office would prevent the development of a corrupt civil service. On the other hand, Jackson's supporters wanted to use the civil service to reward party loyalists to make the party stronger. In practice, this meant replacing civil servants with friends or party loyalists into those offices. However, contrary to popular belief, the <!--del_lnk--> Spoils System, as the rotation in office system was called, did not originate with Jackson. It originated under <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Jefferson.htm" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> when he removed <!--del_lnk--> Federalist office-holders after becoming president. Also, Jackson did not out the entire civil service. At the end of his term, Jackson had only dismissed less than twenty percent of the original civil service. While Jackson did not start the "spoils system", he did indirectly encourage its growth for many years to come.<p><a id="Opposition_to_the_National_Bank" name="Opposition_to_the_National_Bank"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Opposition to the National Bank</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>As president, Jackson worked to take away the federal charter of the <!--del_lnk--> Second Bank of the United States (it would continue to exist as a state bank). The second Bank had been authorized, during <!--del_lnk--> James Madison's tenure in 1816, for a 20 year period. Jackson opposed the national bank concept on ideological grounds. In Jackson's veto message (written by <!--del_lnk--> George Bancroft), the bank needed to be abolished because:<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/210.jpg.htm" title="Democratic cartoon shows Jackson fighting the monster Bank"><img alt="Democratic cartoon shows Jackson fighting the monster Bank" height="243" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AJ%7Ebank.JPG" src="../../images/2/210.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/210.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Democratic cartoon shows Jackson fighting the monster Bank</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li>It concentrated an excessive amount of the nation's financial strength into a single institution<li>It exposed the government to control by "foreign interests"<li>It served mainly to make the rich richer<li>It exercised too much control over members of the Congress<li>It favored Northeastern states over Southern and Western states</ul>
<p>Jackson followed Jefferson as a supporter of the ideal of an "agricultural republic" and felt the bank improved the fortunes of an "elite circle" of commercial and industrial entrepreneurs at the expense of farmers and laborers. After a titanic struggle, Jackson succeeded in destroying the bank by vetoing its 1832 re-charter by Congress and by withdrawing U.S. funds in 1833. The bank's money-lending functions were taken over by the legions of local and state banks that sprang up feeding an expansion of credit and speculation; the commercial progress of the nation's economy was noticeably dented by the resulting failures.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/211.jpg.htm" title="1833 Democratic cartoon shows Jackson destroying the devil's Bank"><img alt="1833 Democratic cartoon shows Jackson destroying the devil's Bank" height="268" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1832bank1.jpg" src="../../images/2/211.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/211.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 1833 Democratic cartoon shows Jackson destroying the devil's Bank</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The U.S. Senate censured Jackson on <!--del_lnk--> March 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1834 for his actions in defunding the Bank of the United States; the censure was later expunged when the Jacksonians had a majority in the Senate.<p><a id="Nullification_crisis" name="Nullification_crisis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nullification crisis</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Another notable crisis during Jackson's period of office was the "<!--del_lnk--> nullification crisis," or "secession crisis," of 1828 – 1832, which merged issues of sectional strife with disagreements over tariffs. Critics alleged that high tariffs (the "<!--del_lnk--> Tariff of Abominations") on imports of common manufactured goods made in Europe made those goods more expensive than ones from the northern U.S., thus raising the prices paid by planters in the South. Southern politicians thus argued that tariffs benefited northern industrialists at the expense of southern farmers.<p>The issue came to a head when Vice President <!--del_lnk--> John C. Calhoun, in the <!--del_lnk--> South Carolina Exposition and Protest of 1828, supported the claim of his home state, <!--del_lnk--> South Carolina, that it had the right to "nullify"—declare illegal—the tariff legislation of 1828, and more generally the right of a state to nullify any Federal laws which went against its interests. Although Jackson sympathized with the South in the tariff debate, he was also a strong supporter of a strong union, with considerable powers for the central government. Jackson attempted to face Calhoun down over the issue, which developed into a bitter rivalry between the two men. Particularly infamous was an incident at the <!--del_lnk--> April 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1830 Jefferson Day dinner, involving after-dinner toasts. Jackson rose first and voice booming, and glaring at Calhoun, yelled out "Our federal Union: IT MUST BE PRESERVED!", a clear challenge to Calhoun. Calhoun glared at Jackson and yelled out, his voice trembling, but booming as well, "The Union: NEXT TO OUR LIBERTY, MOST DEAR!"<p>In response to South Carolina's threat, Congress passed a "<!--del_lnk--> Force Bill" in 1833, and Jackson vowed to send troops to South Carolina in order to enforce the laws. In December 1832, he issued a resounding proclamation against the "nullifiers," stating that he considered "the power to annul a law of the United States, assumed by one State, incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the <!--del_lnk--> Constitution, unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed." South Carolina, the President declared, stood on "the brink of insurrection and treason," and he appealed to the people of the state to reassert their allegiance to that Union for which their ancestors had fought. Jackson also denied the right of secession: "The Constitution...forms a <i>government</i> not a league.... To say that any State may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the United States is not a nation."<p>The crisis was resolved when Jackson sent warships to Charleston, South Carolina and enforced Congress acts through the Force Bill. Tariffs gradually lowered until 1842.<p>Passage of the Force Bill depended on the vote of Henry Clay. Clay would finally yield to those urging him to save the day. He introduced a plan to reduce the tariff gradually until 1842, by which time no rate would be more than 20 percent. The Compromise Tariff of 1833 was to be a resolution to the Nullification Crisis. On March 1, 1833 Congress passed the Force Bill and the compromise tariff and Jackson signed both. The South Carolina Convention then met and rescinded its nullification ordinance. The Force Bill was then nullified because Jackson no longer had a need for it. Henry Clay had saved the day.<p><a name=".22Indian_Removal.22"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">"Indian Removal"</span></h3>
<p>Perhaps the most controversial aspect of Andrew Jackson's presidency was his policy regarding <!--del_lnk--> American Indians. Jackson was a leading advocate of a policy known as "<!--del_lnk--> Indian Removal," signing the <!--del_lnk--> Indian Removal Act into law in 1830. The Act authorized the President to negotiate treaties to purchase tribal lands in the east in exchange for lands further west, outside of existing U.S. state borders.<p>According to biographer <!--del_lnk--> Robert V. Remini, Jackson promoted this policy primarily for reasons of national security, seeing that <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> had recruited Native Americans within U.S. borders in previous wars with the United States. According to historian Anthony Wallace, Jackson never publicly advocated removing American Indians by force. Instead, Jackson made the negotiation of treaties priority: nearly seventy Indian treaties—many of them land sales—were ratified during his presidency, more than in any other administration.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/212.jpg.htm" title="Statue of Andrew Jackson in Nashville, Tennessee."><img alt="Statue of Andrew Jackson in Nashville, Tennessee." height="190" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andrew_Jackson_Statue_Nashville.jpg" src="../../images/2/212.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/212.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Statue of Andrew Jackson in <a href="../../wp/n/Nashville%252C_Tennessee.htm" title="Nashville, Tennessee">Nashville, Tennessee</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Removal Act was especially popular in the <!--del_lnk--> South, where population growth and the discovery of gold on <!--del_lnk--> Cherokee land had increased pressure on tribal lands. The state of <!--del_lnk--> Georgia became involved in a contentious jurisdictional dispute with the Cherokees, culminating in the 1832 <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Supreme Court decision (<i><!--del_lnk--> Worcester v. Georgia</i>) that ruled that Georgia could not impose its laws upon Cherokee tribal lands. About this case, Jackson is often quoted as having said, "<a href="../../wp/j/John_Marshall.htm" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> has made his decision, now let him enforce it!" Jackson probably never said this; the popular story that Jackson defied the Supreme Court in carrying out Indian Removal is untrue. Instead, Jackson used the Georgia crisis to pressure Cherokee leaders to sign a removal treaty. A faction of Cherokees led by Jackson's old ally <!--del_lnk--> Major Ridge negotiated the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of New Echota with Jackson's administration, a document which was rejected by most Cherokees. The terms of the treaty were strictly enforced by Jackson's successor, <a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Van_Buren.htm" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a>, which resulted in the deaths of over 4000 Cherokee on the "<!--del_lnk--> Trail of Tears."<p>In all, more than 45,000 American Indians were relocated to the West during Jackson's administration. During this time, the administration purchased about 100 million acres (400,000 km²) of Indian land for about $68 million and 32 million acres (130,000 km²) of western land. Jackson was criticized at the time for his role in these events, and the criticism has grown over the years. Remini characterizes the Indian Removal era as "one of the unhappiest chapters in American history."<p><a id="Assassination_attempt" name="Assassination_attempt"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Assassination attempt</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> January 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1835 an unsuccessful attack occurred in the <!--del_lnk--> United States Capitol Building; it was the first assassination attempt made against an American President. One <!--del_lnk--> Richard Lawrence approached Jackson and fired two pistols, which both misfired. Jackson proceeded to attack Lawrence with his cane, prompting his aides to restrain him. As a result, Jackson's statue in the <!--del_lnk--> Capitol Rotunda is placed in front of the doorway in which the attempt occurred. Lawrence was later found to be mentally ill.<p><a id="Administration_and_Cabinet" name="Administration_and_Cabinet"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Administration and Cabinet</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:166px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/108/10868.gif.htm" title="Official White House portrait of Jackson."><img alt="Official White House portrait of Jackson." height="265" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andrew_jackson_head.gif" src="../../images/2/213.gif" width="164" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/108/10868.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Official <!--del_lnk--> White House portrait of Jackson.</div>
</div>
</div>
<table align="left" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;">
<tr>
<th bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3">
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><b>OFFICE</b></td>
<td align="left"><b>NAME</b></td>
<td align="left"><b>TERM</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3">
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President</a></td>
<td align="left"><b>Andrew Jackson</b></td>
<td align="left">1829–1837</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Vice President</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> John C. Calhoun</b></td>
<td align="left">1829–1832</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Van_Buren.htm" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a></b></td>
<td align="left">1833–1837</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3">
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of State</td>
<td align="left"><b><a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Van_Buren.htm" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a></b></td>
<td align="left">1829–1831</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Edward Livingston</b></td>
<td align="left">1831–1833</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Louis McLane</b></td>
<td align="left">1833–1834</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> John Forsyth</b></td>
<td align="left">1834–1837</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Treasury</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Samuel D. Ingham</b></td>
<td align="left">1829–1831</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Louis McLane</b></td>
<td align="left">1831–1833</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> William Duane</b></td>
<td align="left">1833</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Roger B. Taney</b></td>
<td align="left">1833–1834</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Levi Woodbury</b></td>
<td align="left">1834–1837</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of War</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> John H. Eaton</b></td>
<td align="left">1829–1831</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Lewis Cass</b></td>
<td align="left">1831–1836</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Attorney General</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> John M. Berrien</b></td>
<td align="left">1829–1831</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Roger B. Taney</b></td>
<td align="left">1831–1833</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Benjamin F. Butler</b></td>
<td align="left">1833–1837</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Postmaster General</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> William T. Barry</b></td>
<td align="left">1829–1835</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Amos Kendall</b></td>
<td align="left">1835–1837</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Navy</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> John Branch</b></td>
<td align="left">1829–1831</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Levi Woodbury</b></td>
<td align="left">1831–1834</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Mahlon Dickerson</b></td>
<td align="left">1834–1837</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Supreme_Court_appointments" name="Supreme_Court_appointments"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Supreme Court appointments</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> John McLean</b> – 1830<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Henry Baldwin</b> – 1830<li><b><!--del_lnk--> James Moore Wayne</b> – 1835<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Roger Brooke Taney</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Chief Justice) – 1836<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Philip Pendleton Barbour</b> – 1836<li><b><!--del_lnk--> John Catron</b> – 1837</ul>
<p><a id="Major_Supreme_Court_cases" name="Major_Supreme_Court_cases"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Major Supreme Court cases</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Cherokee Nation vs. Georgia</i>, 1831<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Worcester v. Georgia</i>, 1832<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge</i>, 1837</ul>
<p><a id="States_admitted_to_the_Union" name="States_admitted_to_the_Union"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">States admitted to the Union</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Arkansas</b> - June 15, 1836<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Michigan</b> - January 26, 1837</ul>
<p><a id="Family_and_personal_life" name="Family_and_personal_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Family and personal life</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/214.jpg.htm" title="Portrait of Andrew Jackson"><img alt="Portrait of Andrew Jackson" height="236" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andrew_Jackson_Portrait.jpg" src="../../images/2/214.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/214.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Portrait of Andrew Jackson</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/215.jpg.htm" title="Daguerreotype of Andrew Jackson (1844/1845)"><img alt="Daguerreotype of Andrew Jackson (1844/1845)" height="236" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andrew_Jackson-1844-2.jpg" src="../../images/2/215.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/215.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Daguerreotype of Andrew Jackson (1844/1845)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Jackson met <!--del_lnk--> Rachel after her first husband, Colonel Lewis Robards, left her to get a divorce. They fell in love and quickly married. Robards returned two years later without ever having obtained a divorce. Rachel quickly divorced her first husband and then legally married Jackson. This remained a sore point for Jackson who deeply resented attacks on his wife's honor. Jackson fought 103 duels, many nominally over his wife's honour. <!--del_lnk--> Charles Dickinson, the only man Jackson ever killed in a duel, had been goaded into angering Jackson by Jackson's political opponents. Fought over a horse-racing debt and an insult to his wife on <!--del_lnk--> May 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1806, Dickinson shot Jackson in the ribs before Jackson returned the fatal shot. The bullet that struck Jackson was so close to his heart that it could never be safely removed. Jackson had been wounded so frequently in duels that it was said he "rattled like a bag of marbles." . At times he would cough up blood, and he experienced considerable pain from his wounds for the rest of his life.<p>Rachel died of an unknown cause two months prior to Jackson taking office as President. Jackson blamed <!--del_lnk--> John Quincy Adams for Rachel's death because the marital scandal was brought up in the election of 1828. He felt that this had hastened her death and never forgave Adams.<p>Jackson had two adopted sons, Andrew Jackson Jr., the son of Rachel's brother Severn Donelson, and Lyncoya, a Creek Indian orphan adopted by Jackson after the Creek War. Lyncoya died in 1828 at age 16, probably from pneumonia or tuberculosis.<p>The Jacksons also acted as guardians for eight other children. John Samuel Donelson, Daniel Donelson, and <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Jackson Donelson were the sons of Rachel's brother Samuel Donelson who died in 1804. Andrew Jackson Hutchings was Rachel's orphaned grand nephew. Caroline Butler, Eliza Butler, Edward Butler, and Anthony Butler were the orphaned children of Edward Butler, a family friend. They came to live with the Jacksons after the death of their father.<p>The widower Jackson invited Rachel's niece <!--del_lnk--> Emily Donelson to serve as hostess at the White House. Emily was married to <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Jackson Donelson, who acted as Jackson's private secretary. The relationship between the President and Emily became strained during the <!--del_lnk--> Petticoat Affair, and the two became estranged for over a year. They eventually reconciled and she resumed her duties as White House hostess. <!--del_lnk--> Sarah Yorke Jackson, the wife of Andrew Jackson Jr., became co-hostess of the White House in 1834. It was the only time in history when two women simultaneously acted as unofficial First Lady. Sarah took over all hostess duties after Emily died from <a href="../../wp/t/Tuberculosis.htm" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> in 1836.<p>Jackson remained influential in both national and state politics after retiring to "<!--del_lnk--> The Hermitage," his <a href="../../wp/n/Nashville%252C_Tennessee.htm" title="Nashville, Tennessee">Nashville</a> home, in 1837. Though a slave-holder, Jackson was a firm advocate of the federal union of the states, and declined to give any support to talk of secession.<p>Jackson was a lean figure standing at 6 feet, 1 inch (1.85 m) tall, and weighing between 130 and 140 pounds (64 kg) on average. Jackson also had an unruly shock of red hair, which had completely grayed by the time he became president at age 61. He had penetrating deep blue eyes. Jackson was one of the more sickly presidents, suffering from chronic headaches, abdominal pains, and a hacking cough, caused by a musket ball in his lung which was never removed, that often brought up blood and sometimes even made his whole body shake. After retiring to Nashville, he enjoyed eight years of retirement and died at the Hermitage on <!--del_lnk--> June 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1845 at the age of 78, of chronic <a href="../../wp/t/Tuberculosis.htm" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, "<!--del_lnk--> dropsy" and heart failure.<p>In his will, Jackson left his entire estate to his adopted son, Andrew Jackson Jr., except for specifically enumerated items that were left to various other friends and family members. Jackson left several slaves to his daughter-in-law and grandchildren.<p><a id="Memorials_and_movies" name="Memorials_and_movies"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Memorials and movies</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/216.jpg.htm" title="Jackson Square in New Orleans."><img alt="Jackson Square in New Orleans." height="233" longdesc="/wiki/Image:StLouisCathedralJacksonStatue.jpg" src="../../images/2/216.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/216.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Jackson Square in <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans.</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li>Memorials to Jackson include a set of three identical equestrian statues located in different parts of the country. One is in <!--del_lnk--> Jackson Square in <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans, Louisiana. Another is in <a href="../../wp/n/Nashville%252C_Tennessee.htm" title="Nashville, Tennessee">Nashville</a> on the grounds of the <!--del_lnk--> Tennessee State Capitol. The other is in <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> near the <!--del_lnk--> White House.<li>Numerous counties and cities are named after him, including <!--del_lnk--> Jacksonville, Florida, <!--del_lnk--> Jackson, Michigan, <!--del_lnk--> Jackson, Mississippi, <!--del_lnk--> Jackson, Missouri, <!--del_lnk--> Jackson, Tennessee, <!--del_lnk--> Jackson County, Florida, and <!--del_lnk--> Jackson County, Missouri.<li>Jackson's portrait appears on the <!--del_lnk--> American twenty dollar bill. He has appeared on $5, $10, $50, and $10,000 bills in the past, as well as a <!--del_lnk--> Confederate $1,000 bill.<li>Jackson's image is on the <!--del_lnk--> Blackjack postage stamp<li>The story of Andrew and Rachel Jackson's life together was told in <!--del_lnk--> Irving Stone's best-selling 1951 novel <i>The President's Lady</i>, which was made into the 1953 film of the same title, starring <!--del_lnk--> Susan Hayward, <!--del_lnk--> Charlton Heston, <!--del_lnk--> John McIntire, and <!--del_lnk--> Carl Betz and directed by <!--del_lnk--> Henry Levin. The relationship between the two was also the basis of a successful documentary by the <!--del_lnk--> Public Broadcasting Service, called <i>Rachel and Andrew Jackson: A Love Story.</i><li>Heston played Jackson in the 1958 version of <i><!--del_lnk--> The Buccaneer</i>, a film about the role of pirate <!--del_lnk--> Jean Lafitte in the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of New Orleans. <!--del_lnk--> Hugh Sothern played Jackson in the original 1938 version of the film.</ul>
<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:137px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/217.jpg.htm" title="U.S. $20 bill"><img alt="U.S. $20 bill" height="175" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andrew_jackson_20bill.jpg" src="../../images/2/217.jpg" width="135" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/217.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> U.S. $20 bill</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li>During Jackson's Administration, the U.S Government was, for the first and last time, debt free.<li>During the 1828 election, his opponents referred to him as a "<!--del_lnk--> Jackass." Jackson liked the name and used the jackass as a symbol for a while, but it died out. However, it later became the symbol for the Democratic Party. <!--del_lnk--> <li>Andrew Jackson was the first president to be born in a <!--del_lnk--> log cabin. He also was the first president to ride a <!--del_lnk--> railroad train while in office.<li>Was the only U.S. president to be a prisoner of war.<li>Jackson held an open house party where a 1,400 pound (635 kg) wheel of <!--del_lnk--> cheddar cheese was served as refreshment. The cheese was consumed in two hours. <!--del_lnk--> <li>Of the first seven presidents, Jackson was the last of five Veterans of the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution to become President (<a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" title="George Washington">Washington</a> and <a href="../../wp/j/James_Monroe.htm" title="James Monroe">Monroe</a> were in the <!--del_lnk--> Continental Army; <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Jefferson.htm" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Madison were Colonels in the Virginia Militia).<li>Jackson was the first president to be the target of a known assassination attempt (see above, "<!--del_lnk--> Assassination Attempt").<li>Andrew Johnson, Lincoln's vice-president, greatly admired Jackson and wanted to be just like him when Johnson became president after Lincoln was assassinated.<li>Jackson disliked paper money, as he preferred coined money instead, and ironically, he is featured on the U.S. $20 bill.<li>At President Andrew Jackson's funeral in 1845 his pet parrot was removed for swearing.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Jackson"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['President of the United States', 'Martin Van Buren', 'Martin Van Buren', 'President of the United States', 'Florida', 'American Revolutionary War', 'Napoleon I of France', 'United States Senate', 'James Monroe', 'James Monroe', 'Thomas Jefferson', 'United States House of Representatives', 'Martin Van Buren', 'Thomas Jefferson', 'Great Britain', 'Spain', 'Nashville, Tennessee', 'John Marshall', 'Martin Van Buren', 'President of the United States', 'Martin Van Buren', 'Martin Van Buren', 'Tuberculosis', 'Nashville, Tennessee', 'Tuberculosis', 'Nashville, Tennessee', 'Washington, D.C.', 'George Washington', 'James Monroe', 'Thomas Jefferson'] |
Andrew_Johnson | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Andrew Johnson,1808,1857,1862,1865,1867,1868,1869,1875,1942,Aaron Burr" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Andrew Johnson</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Andrew_Johnson";
var wgTitle = "Andrew Johnson";
var wgArticleId = 1624;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Andrew_Johnson">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Andrew Johnson</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.USA_Presidents.htm">USA Presidents</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox" style="width:23em; font-size:90%; text-align:left; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.5em;">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size:140%;"><b>Andrew Johnson</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/152/15235.jpg.htm" title="Andrew Johnson"><img alt="Andrew Johnson" height="213" longdesc="/wiki/Image:President_Andrew_Johnson_standing.jpg" src="../../images/152/15235.jpg" width="160" /></a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:110%;">
<hr />
<div style="background:lavender;">17th <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a></div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> April 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1865 – <!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1869</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Vice President(s) </th>
<td>none</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Abraham_Lincoln.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Succeeded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/Ulysses_S._Grant.htm" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:110%;">
<hr />
<div style="background:lavender;">16th <!--del_lnk--> Vice President of the United States</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1865 – <!--del_lnk--> April 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1865</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>President</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Abraham_Lincoln.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hannibal Hamlin</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Succeeded by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Schuyler Colfax</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<hr />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Born</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1808<br /><!--del_lnk--> Raleigh, North Carolina</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Died</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> July 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1875<br /><!--del_lnk--> Greeneville, Tennessee</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Political party</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Democratic until 1864 and after 1869; elected Vice President in 1864 on a <!--del_lnk--> National Union ticket; no party affiliation 1865-1869</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Spouse</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Eliza McCardle Johnson</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Religion</th>
<td>Christian (no denomination)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Signature</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/152/15236.gif.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="33" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andrew_Johnson_signature.gif" src="../../images/152/15236.gif" width="128" /></a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Andrew Johnson</b> (<!--del_lnk--> December 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1808 – <!--del_lnk--> July 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1875) was the seventeenth <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1865–1869), succeeding to the presidency upon the assassination of <a href="../../wp/a/Abraham_Lincoln.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>.<p>Johnson was a <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Senate.htm" title="United States Senate">US Senator</a> from Tennessee at the time of the secession of the southern states. He was the only Southern Senator not to quit his post upon secession. He was representative of the slaveowning War Democrats from the border states who supported the Union. In 1862 Johnson was appointed military governor of Tennessee, and fought the rebellion there. Lincoln selected Johnson for the <!--del_lnk--> Vice President slot in 1864 on the "Union Party." As president he took charge of Presidential Reconstruction—that is, the first phase of <!--del_lnk--> Reconstruction—which lasted until the Radical Republicans gained control of Congress in the 1866 elections. His conciliatory policies towards the South, his hurry to reincorporate the former Confederates back into the union, and his vetoes of civil rights bills embroiled him in a bitter dispute with the Radical Republicans. The Radicals in the <!--del_lnk--> House of Representatives impeached him in 1868; he was the first President to be impeached, but he was acquitted by a single vote in the <!--del_lnk--> Senate.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Presidency_1865-1869" name="Presidency_1865-1869"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Presidency 1865-1869</span></h2>
<p><a id="Taking_Office" name="Taking_Office"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Taking Office</span></h3>
<p>As a leading <!--del_lnk--> War Democrat and pro-Union southerner, Johnson was an ideal candidate for the Republicans in 1864 as they tried to enlarge their base to include War Democrats and temporarily changed the party name to the "National Union" party. He was elected <!--del_lnk--> Vice President of the United States and was inaugurated <!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1865. At the ceremony Johnson, who had been drinking to deal with a cold, gave a rambling speech and appeared intoxicated to many. In early 1865, Johnson talked harshly of hanging traitors like <!--del_lnk--> Jefferson Davis, which endeared him to the Radicals. He became President of the United States on <!--del_lnk--> April 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1865, upon the death of Lincoln. He was the first Vice President to succeed to the U.S. Presidency upon the assassination of a President and the third to succeed upon the death of a President.<p>Johnson had an ambiguous party status. The National Union party vanished after the 1864 election, but he did not identify with either party while President—though he did try for the Democratic nomination in 1868. Asked in 1868 why he did not become a Democrat, he said "It is true I am asked why don't I join the Democratic party. Why don't they join me?" <p><a id="Foreign_Policy" name="Foreign_Policy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Foreign Policy</span></h3>
<p>Johnson forced the French out of Mexico by sending a combat army to the border and issuing an ultimatum. The French withdrew in 1867, and their puppet government quickly collapsed. Secretary of State <!--del_lnk--> William H. Seward negotiated the <!--del_lnk--> purchase of Alaska from Russia on <!--del_lnk--> April 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1867 for $7.2 Million. Critics sneered at "Seward's Folly" and "Seward's Icebox." Seward also negotiated to purchase the <!--del_lnk--> Danish West Indies, but the Senate refused to approve the purchase in 1867. The Senate likewise rejected Seward's arrangement with <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> to arbitrate the <!--del_lnk--> Alabama claims. The U.S. experienced tense relations with Britain and its colonial government in Canada in the aftermath of the war. Lingering resentment over a perception of British sympathy towards the Confederacy resulted in Johnson initially turning a blind eye towards a series of armed incursions by Irish-American civil war veterans into British territory in Canada, named the Fenian Raids. Eventually Johnson ordered the Fenians disarmed and barred from crossing the border, but his initially hesitant reaction to the crisis created outrage throughout Canada and helped motivate the Confederation movement.<p><a id="Reconstruction" name="Reconstruction"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Reconstruction</span></h3>
<p>At first Johnson talked harshly, telling an Indiana delegation in late April, 1865, "Treason must be made odious... traitors must be punished and impoverished... their social power must be destroyed." But then he struck another note: "I say, as to the leaders, punishment. I also say leniency, reconciliation and amnesty to the thousands whom they have misled and deceived." . His class-based resentment of the rich appeared in a May, 1865 statement to W.H. Holden, the man he appointed governor of North Carolina, "I intend to confiscate the lands of these rich men whom I have excluded from pardon by my proclamation, and divide the proceeds thereof among the families of the wool hat boys, the Confederate soldiers, whom these men forced into battle to protect their property in slaves."Johnson in practice was not at all harsh toward the Confederate leaders. He allowed the Southern states to hold elections in 1865 in which prominent ex-Confederates were elected to the U.S. Congress. Congress did not seat them. Congress and Johnson argued in an increasingly public way about <!--del_lnk--> Reconstruction and the manner in which the Southern secessionist states would be readmitted to the Union. Johnson favored a very quick restoration of all rights and privileges of other states -- and in many ways followed the similar plan of leniency that Lincoln advocated before his death.<p><a id="Break_with_the_Republicans:_1866" name="Break_with_the_Republicans:_1866"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Break with the Republicans: 1866</span></h3>
<p>The Johnson-appointed governments all passed <i><!--del_lnk--> Black Codes</i> that gave the Freedmen second class status. In response to the Black codes and worrisome signs of Southern recalcitrance, the Radical Republicans blocked the readmission of the ex-rebellious states to the Congress in fall 1865. Congress also renewed the <!--del_lnk--> Freedman's Bureau, but Johnson vetoed it. Senator <!--del_lnk--> Lyman Trumbull of Illinois, leader of the moderate Republicans, took affront at the black codes. He proposed the first <b>Civil Rights Law</b>.<p>Although strongly urged by moderates in Congress to sign the Civil Rights bill, Johnson broke decisively with them by vetoing it on March 27. His veto message objected to the measure because it conferred citizenship on the Freedmen at a time when eleven out of thirty-six States were unrepresented and attempted to fix by Federal law "a perfect equality of the white and black races in every State of the Union." Johnson said it was an invasion by Federal authority of the rights of the States; it had no warrant in the Constitution and was contrary to all precedents. It was a "stride toward centralization and the concentration of all legislative power in the national government." <p>The Democratic party, proclaiming itself the party of white men, north and south, supported Johnson. However the Republicans in Congress overrode his veto (the Senate by the vote of 33:15, the House by 122:41) and the Civil Rights bill became law.<div class="floatleft"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/152/15237.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="50" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andrewjohnson.jpg" src="../../images/152/15237.jpg" width="50" /></a></span></div>
<p>The last moderate proposal was the <a href="../../wp/f/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution.htm" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>, also authored by moderate Trumbull. It was designed to put the key provisions of the Civil Rights Act into the Constitution, but it went much further. It extended citizenship to everyone born in the United States (except visitors and Indians on reservations), penalized states that did not give the vote to Freedmen, and most importantly, created new federal civil rights that could be protected by federal courts. It guaranteed the Federal war debt (and promised the Confederate debt would never be paid). Johnson used his influence to block the amendment in the states, as three-fourths of the states were required for ratification. (The Amendment was later ratified.) The moderate effort to compromise with Johnson had failed and an all-out political war broke out between the Republicans (both Radical and moderate) on one side, and on the other Johnson and his allies in the Democratic party in the North, and the conservative groupings in the South. The decisive battle was the <!--del_lnk--> election of 1866. Johnson campaigned vigorously but was widely ridiculed. The Republicans won by a landslide (the Southern states were not allowed to vote), and took full control of Reconstruction. Johnson was almost powerless.<p>Historian James Ford Rhodes has explained Johnson's inability to engage in serious negotiations:<blockquote>
<p>As Senator <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Sumner.htm" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a> shrewdly said, "the President himself is his own worst counsellor, as he is his own worst defender." Johnson acted in accordance with his nature. He had intellectual force but it worked in a groove. Obstinate rather than firm it undoubtedly seemed to him that following counsel and making concessions were a display of weakness. At all events from his December message to the veto of the Civil Rights Bill he yielded not a jot to Congress. The moderate senators and representatives (who constituted a majority of the Union party) asked him for only a slight compromise; their action was really an entreaty that he would unite with them to preserve Congress and the country from the policy of the radicals. The two projects which Johnson had most at heart were the speedy admission of the Southern senators and representatives to Congress and the relegation of the question of negro suffrage to the States themselves. Himself shrinking from the imposition on these communities of the franchise for the coloured people, his unyielding disposition in regard to matters involving no vital principle did much to bring it about. His quarrel with Congress prevented the readmission into the Union on generous terms of the members of the late Confederacy; and for the quarrel and its unhappy results Johnson's lack of imagination and his inordinate sensitiveness to political gadflies were largely responsible: it was not a contest in which fundamentals were involved. He sacrificed two important objects to petty considerations. His pride of opinion, his desire to beat, blinded him to the real welfare of the South and of the whole country.</blockquote>
<p><a id="Impeachment:The_First_attempt" name="Impeachment:The_First_attempt"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Impeachment:The First attempt</span></h3>
<p>There were two attempts to remove President Johnson from office. The first occurred in the fall of 1867. On November 21st of that year, the House Judiciary committee produced a bill of impeachment that was basically a hodgepodge of complaints against him. After a furious debate, there was a formal vote in the House of Representatives on December 5th, which failed 108-57. <p><a id="Impeachment:_the_Second_attempt" name="Impeachment:_the_Second_attempt"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Impeachment: the Second attempt</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/283/28348.jpg.htm" title="Harper's Weekly illustration of Johnson's impeachment trial in the United States Senate."><img alt="Harper's Weekly illustration of Johnson's impeachment trial in the United States Senate." height="166" longdesc="/wiki/Image:3a05488v.jpg" src="../../images/152/15238.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/283/28348.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Harper's Weekly</i> illustration of Johnson's impeachment trial in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Senate.htm" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In February 1868, Johnson notified Congress that he had removed <!--del_lnk--> Edwin Stanton as Secretary of War and was replacing him in the interim with Adjutant-General <!--del_lnk--> Lorenzo Thomas. Johnson had wanted to replace Stanton with former General <a href="../../wp/u/Ulysses_S._Grant.htm" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>, who refused to accept the position. This violated the <!--del_lnk--> Tenure of Office Act, a law enacted by Congress on <!--del_lnk--> March 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1867 over Johnson's veto, specifically designed to protect Stanton. Johnson had vetoed the act, claiming it was unconstitutional. The act said, "...every person holding any civil office, to which he has been appointed by and with the advice and consent of the Senate ... shall be entitled to hold such office until a successor shall have been in like manner appointed and duly qualified," thus removing the President's previous unlimited power to remove any of his Cabinet members at will. Years later in the case <i><!--del_lnk--> Myers v. United States</i> in 1926, the <a href="../../wp/s/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States.htm" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> ruled that such laws were indeed unconstitutional.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15239.jpg.htm" title="The 1868 Impeachment Resolution"><img alt="The 1868 Impeachment Resolution" height="233" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AJohnsonimpeach.jpg" src="../../images/152/15239.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15239.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The 1868 Impeachment Resolution</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Senate and House entered into debate. Thomas attempted to move into the war office, for which Stanton had Thomas arrested. Three days after Stanton's removal, the House <!--del_lnk--> impeached Johnson for intentionally violating the Tenure of Office Act.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> March 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1868, a court of impeachment was constituted in the Senate to hear charges against the President. <!--del_lnk--> William M. Evarts served as his counsel. Eleven articles were set out in the resolution, and the trial before the Senate lasted almost three months. Johnson's defense was based on a clause in the Tenure of Office Act stating that the then-current secretaries would hold their posts throughout the term of the President who appointed them. Since Lincoln had appointed Stanton, it was claimed, the applicability of the act had already run its course.<p>There were three votes in the Senate: one on May 16 for the 11th article of impeachment, which included many of the charges contained in the other articles, and two on May 26 for the second and third articles, after which the trial adjourned. On all three occasions, thirty-five Senators voted "Guilty" and nineteen "Not Guilty". As the Constitution requires a two-thirds majority for conviction in impeachment trials, Johnson was acquitted.<p>A single changed vote would have sufficed to return a "Guilty" verdict. The decisive vote had been that of a young <!--del_lnk--> Radical Republican named <!--del_lnk--> Edmund G. Ross. Despite monumental pressure from fellow Radicals prior to the first vote, and dire warnings that a vote for acquittal would end his political career, Ross stood up at the appropriate moment and quietly announced "not guilty," effectively ending the impeachment trial.<p>The impeachment of Andrew Johnson is widely regarded as one of the most shameful episodes in the history of the Federal Government. Had Johnson been successfully removed from office, this would have established a precedent that a President could be removed not for "high crimes and misdemeanors" but for purely political differences.<p><a id="Administration_and_Cabinet" name="Administration_and_Cabinet"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Administration and Cabinet</span></h3>
<table align="left" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;">
<tr>
<th bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3">
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><b>OFFICE</b></td>
<td align="left"><b>NAME</b></td>
<td align="left"><b>TERM</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3">
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President</a></td>
<td align="left"><b>Andrew Johnson</b></td>
<td align="left">1865–1869</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Vice President</td>
<td align="left"><i>None</i></td>
<td align="left"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3">
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of State</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> William H. Seward</b></td>
<td align="left">1865–1869</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Treasury</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Hugh McCulloch</b></td>
<td align="left">1865–1869</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of War</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Edwin M. Stanton</b></td>
<td align="left">1865–1868</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> John M. Schofield</b></td>
<td align="left">1868–1869</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Attorney General</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> James Speed</b></td>
<td align="left">1865–1866</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Henry Stanberry</b></td>
<td align="left">1866–1868</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> William M. Evarts</b></td>
<td align="left">1868–1869</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Postmaster General</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> William Dennison</b></td>
<td align="left">1865–1866</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Alexander Randall</b></td>
<td align="left">1866–1869</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Navy</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Gideon Welles</b></td>
<td align="left">1865–1869</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Interior</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> John P. Usher</b></td>
<td align="left">1865</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> James Harlan</b></td>
<td align="left">1865–1866</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Orville H. Browning</b></td>
<td align="left">1866–1869</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="States_admitted_to_the_Union" name="States_admitted_to_the_Union"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">States admitted to the Union</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Nebraska - March 1, 1867</ul>
<p><a id="Post-Presidency" name="Post-Presidency"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Post-Presidency</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/108/10878.jpg.htm" title="President Andrew Johnson"><img alt="President Andrew Johnson" height="288" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pres_andrew_johnson.jpg" src="../../images/152/15240.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/108/10878.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> President Andrew Johnson</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Johnson was an unsuccessful candidate for election to the United States Senate from Tennessee in 1868 and to the House of Representatives in 1872. However, in 1874 the Tennessee legislature did elect him to the US Senate. Johnson served from March 4, 1875, until his death near <!--del_lnk--> Elizabethton, Tennessee, on July 31 that same year. In his first speech since returning to the Senate, which was also his last, Johnson denounced the corruptions of the Grant Presidency and his passions aroused a standing ovation from many of his fellow senators who had once voted to remove him from the presidency. He is the only President to serve in the Senate after his presidency.<p>Interment was in the Andrew Johnson National Cemetery, <!--del_lnk--> Greeneville, Tennessee, where he was buried with a copy of the Constitution. Andrew Johnson National Cemetery is now part of the <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Johnson National Historic Site.<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>In his lifetime Andrew Johnson, the son of a tailor, occupied every major non-judicial elected office in the American political system - city councilman, mayor, state representative, state senator, governor, representative, senator, vice-president, and president. He is the only person to have held all of those positions.<li>Speaking to a crowd of African Americans in Nashville during the 1864 campaign, he referred to himself as "the Moses" of the black people.<li>Johnson was the subject of a sympathetic, but inaccurate, <!--del_lnk--> 1942 film titled <i><!--del_lnk--> Tennessee Johnson</i>, starring <!--del_lnk--> Van Heflin as Johnson and <!--del_lnk--> Lionel Barrymore as his nemesis, <!--del_lnk--> Thaddeus Stevens. Among other historical errors, the film's climax depicts Johnson passionately delivering an oration in his own defense on the U.S. Senate floor near the end of his impeachment trial. In fact, Johnson never appeared in person at his trial and was represented by legal counsel only.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Johnson"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['President of the United States', 'Abraham Lincoln', 'Ulysses S. Grant', 'Abraham Lincoln', 'President of the United States', 'Abraham Lincoln', 'United States Senate', 'Great Britain', 'Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution', 'Charles Sumner', 'United States Senate', 'Ulysses S. Grant', 'Supreme Court of the United States', 'President of the United States'] |
Andrew_Robinson | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Andrew Robinson,1942,1971 in film,1973 in film,1975 in film,1976 in television,1978 in television,1980 in television,1985 in film,1986 in film,1987 in film" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Andrew Robinson</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Andrew_Robinson";
var wgTitle = "Andrew Robinson";
var wgArticleId = 301799;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Andrew_Robinson">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Andrew Robinson</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Actors_models_and_celebrities.htm">Actors, models and celebrities</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<p><b>Andrew Jordt Robinson</b> (born <!--del_lnk--> February 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1942) is an <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Film">film</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Theatre.htm" title="Theatre">stage</a>, and <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">television</a> <a href="../../wp/a/Actor.htm" title="Actor">actor</a>. Robinson is a <!--del_lnk--> character actor known to specialize in playing devious and psychotic roles. Originally a stage actor, he works predominantly in supporting roles on television and in low-budget films. He is best known for his role as the <!--del_lnk--> serial-killer Scorpio in the crime film <i><!--del_lnk--> Dirty Harry</i> (1971), the role of Larry Cotton in the <!--del_lnk--> horror film <i><!--del_lnk--> Hellraiser</i> (1987), and the recurring role as <!--del_lnk--> Elim Garak on the <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">television</a> show <i><a href="../../wp/s/Star_Trek__Deep_Space_Nine.htm" title="Star Trek: Deep Space Nine">Star Trek: Deep Space Nine</a></i> (1993–1999).<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Education_and_early_roles" name="Education_and_early_roles"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education and early roles</span></h2>
<p>Robinson was born in <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a>. His father was a soldier in <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, and was killed when Robinson was three years old. After his father's death, he and his mother moved to <!--del_lnk--> Hartford, Connecticut to be raised with her family. In his later childhood, Robinson had become a juvenile delinquent, and was eventually sent to St. Andrew's School in <a href="../../wp/r/Rhode_Island.htm" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a>, a boarding school for troubled children.<p>After graduating from high school, Robinson attended the <!--del_lnk--> University of New Hampshire. After picketing the school's <!--del_lnk--> ROTC program his degree was withheld by the university, so he transferred to the New School for Social Research in New York City, and graduated with a <!--del_lnk--> Bachelor of Arts in English. He originally intended to become a journalist, but went into acting after gaining a <!--del_lnk--> Fulbright Scholarship on the suggestion of an art history professor. After graduating, he went to the London Academy for Music and Dramatic Arts on the scholarship.<p>Robinson began acting in high school and college theatre. While attending the London Academy for Music and Dramatic Arts, Robinson studied <a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a> and voice training. His first professional roles were as a stage actor and playwright in New York. His first role in New York was in the play <i>Macbird-Macbeth</i>. He would go on to act in productions throughout North America and Europe, including <i><!--del_lnk--> Woyzeck</i>, <i>Futz</i>, and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Cannibals</i>. In 1969 he had his first television role with a guest part on <i><!--del_lnk--> N.Y.P.D.</i> at the age of 26. In 1971 he would begin acting in feature films.<p><a id="Career" name="Career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Career</span></h2>
<p><a id="Dirty_Harry" name="Dirty_Harry"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline"><i>Dirty Harry</i></span></h4>
<p>Robinson's first feature film role was in 1971's <i><!--del_lnk--> Dirty Harry</i>. Don Siegel, the film's director, and <!--del_lnk--> Clint Eastwood picked Robinson for the role after seeing him in a production of <a href="../../wp/f/Fyodor_Dostoevsky.htm" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a>'s <i><!--del_lnk--> The Idiot</i>. Robinson was cast as the Scorpio killer, the antagonist of the film. The Scorpio killer was heavily based on the real life <!--del_lnk--> serial killer known as the <!--del_lnk--> Zodiac Killer, and Robinson integrated many known aspects of the killer's personality into his acting, such as a disturbed sense of humor and a <!--del_lnk--> sadistic inclination to taunt his pursuers. In the film, his character murdered several young women and took hostage a school bus full of young children. His portrayal of the serial killer was so convincing that he began getting serious death threats after the film's release. Director Don Siegel noted that he cast Robinson because he had the face of "a choir boy."<p>Critical reactions to Robinson's role were generally positive. <i>Box Office Magazine</i> wrote that, "Andy Robinson is the maniacal Scorpio ... a good blending of cunning and savagery." Despite the widespread exposure the role gave him, Robinson also found himself <!--del_lnk--> typecast as "psycho" characters. He has also claimed that the role severely limited his casting options, as film producers were reluctant to cast him as any "good guy" roles. Some of Robinson's notable "psycho" roles include a demented military barber in <i><!--del_lnk--> Child's Play 3</i> (1991), and the character Larry Cotton in the horror film <i><!--del_lnk--> Hellraiser</i> (1987), in which Robinson had his first lead role in a feature film.<p><a id="Film_and_television.2C_1971.E2.80.931992" name="Film_and_television.2C_1971.E2.80.931992"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Film and television, 1971–1992</span></h4>
<p>Robinson starred in <i><!--del_lnk--> Charley Varrick</i>, a 1973 film with <!--del_lnk--> Walter Matthau. He played the role of Frank Ryan on the <!--del_lnk--> soap opera <i><!--del_lnk--> Ryan's Hope</i> from 1976 until 1978, for which he received a daytime Emmy nomination. His part was later recast with <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Hugh Kelly, reportedly because the producers of the show were concerned that having the actor who played the Scorpio killer as a lead on a soap opera was detracting their audience.<p>Robinson has had many one-time and recurring roles on a wide variety of television shows. His lengthy television filmography includes guest roles on <i><!--del_lnk--> Bonanza</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Kung Fu</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> S.W.A.T.</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Streets of San Francisco</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Kojak</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Incredible Hulk</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> CHiPs</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Mrs. Columbo</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Dukes of Hazzard</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The A-Team</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Moonlighting</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> L.A. Law</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Matlock</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Law & Order</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Walker, Texas Ranger</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Murder, She Wrote</i>, <i><a href="../../wp/t/The_X-Files.htm" title="The X-Files">The X-Files</a></i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Without a Trace</i>, and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Practice</i>.<p>He met his wife Irene after wrapping a production of <i>Springvoices</i>, and the two married in 1970. He has two stepsons from his wife's previous marriage and one daughter named Rachel, who became an actor herself. In 1978 Robinson left acting professionally for five years, and concentrated on raising his family in the <!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles suburb of <!--del_lnk--> Idyllwild, California. During that time he taught community theatre for middle and high school students, and also worked as a <!--del_lnk--> carpenter to bring in a regular salary. He returned to acting professionally in the mid-1980s.<p>In 1986 he played <!--del_lnk--> President <a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy.htm" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> in an episode of the 1980s revival of <!--del_lnk--> <i>The Twilight Zone</i>, "<!--del_lnk--> Profile in Silver." In 1988 he portrayed <!--del_lnk--> Liberace in a television <!--del_lnk--> biopic. With one of Robinson's acting trademarks being his effeminate voice, he was well suited for the part. Robinson had described it as one of his favorite roles, and that, "The most fun was wearing his furs and jewelry and singing 'I'll be Seeing You.'" <!--del_lnk--> The New York Times review wrote that, "Robinson does rather well in the leading role." Robinson also returned to the stage in 1993 with a <!--del_lnk--> Broadway production of Frank Gilroy's <i>Any Given Day</i>, but the play closed after only six weeks.<p><a id="Star_Trek:_Deep_Space_Nine" name="Star_Trek:_Deep_Space_Nine"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline"><i>Star Trek: Deep Space Nine</i></span></h4>
<p>In 1993 Robinson was cast in his first regular television role since <i>Ryan's Hope</i> in 1978. He played <!--del_lnk--> Elim Garak on <i><a href="../../wp/s/Star_Trek__Deep_Space_Nine.htm" title="Star Trek: Deep Space Nine">Star Trek: Deep Space Nine</a></i>, a <!--del_lnk--> Cardassian tailor, with a past as a spy and an assassin. The character was intended to be a <!--del_lnk--> foil for the character of <!--del_lnk--> Julian Bashir (played by Siddig el-Fadil, later known as <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Siddig), and the two were often paired together on-screen. The multidimensional character possessed sharp comic timing and an extensive knowledge of art and literature. Garak was also a practiced liar. Prior to being cast in the role, Robinson knew little of the <i>Star Trek</i> franchise and had never seen an episode of any of the television series.<p>Robinson was offered the role of Garak after originally auditioned for the role of <!--del_lnk--> Odo, which eventually went to <!--del_lnk--> Rene Auberjonois. He almost did not accept the role, but was pressured into accepting because of financial reasons. Like the character, he is claustrophobic and at first had trouble performing in heavy makeup. His character was originally intended to appear in only one episode, but eventually became one of the most frequent recurring characters of the series, appearing in 41 of the 176 episodes as the writers of the show enjoyed working with the character. Originally meant to be an antagonist, the character became more sympathetic as the show progressed, and became one of the main protagonists by the end of the series. Robinson has described the role as being complex, he has said in a StarTrek.com interview that, "the subtext is far more powerful than the actual text. Garak for me was like an iceberg. The tip is easy to define, but it's the rest of the character that's the challenge."<p>After working on <i>Deep Space Nine</i> for several years, Robinson began a career in television directing, after directing the 1996 episode "<!--del_lnk--> Looking for par'Mach in All the Wrong Places." He went on to direct two episodes of <i><!--del_lnk--> Star Trek: Voyager</i> and seven episodes of the courtroom drama <i><!--del_lnk--> Judging Amy</i>, where his daughter Rachel Robinson played a recurring character. In 2000 he authored the novel <i><!--del_lnk--> A Stitch in Time</i>, based on his character on <i>Deep Space Nine</i>. Robinson has stated that one of the reasons he wrote the novel was to get "total closure" of the character.<p>In 1993 Robinson founded the Matrix Theatre Company in <!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles. Currently he is heading a <!--del_lnk--> MFA program in acting at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Southern California, and also directs performances for the Matrix Company. Robinson and his <i>Deep Space Nine</i> co-star <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Siddig are also known to perform one act plays at Star Trek conventions.<p><a id="Filmography" name="Filmography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Filmography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Film" name="Film"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Film</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<th>Year</th>
<th>Film</th>
<th>Role</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1971</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Dirty Harry</i></td>
<td>Scorpio</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1973</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Charley Varrick</i></td>
<td>Harman Sullivan</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1975</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> The Drowning Pool</i></td>
<td>Pat Reavis</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1975</td>
<td><i>A Woman for All Men</i></td>
<td>Steve McCoy</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1985</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Mask</i></td>
<td>Dr. Vinton</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1986</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Cobra</i></td>
<td>Monte</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1987</td>
<td><i>The Verne Miller Story</i></td>
<td>Pretty Boy Floyd</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1987</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Hellraiser</i></td>
<td>Larry Cotton</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1988</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Shoot to Kill</i></td>
<td>Harvey</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1991</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Child's Play 3</i></td>
<td>Sgt. Botnick</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1991</td>
<td><i>Prime Target</i></td>
<td>Commissioner</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1994</td>
<td><i>There Goes My Baby</i></td>
<td>Frank</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1994</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> The Puppet Masters</i></td>
<td>Hawthorne</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1994</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Pumpkinhead II: Blood Wings</i></td>
<td>Sean Braddock</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1998</td>
<td><i>Running Woman</i></td>
<td>Captain Don Gibbs</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2004</td>
<td><i>Homeland Security</i></td>
<td>Senator</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Television" name="Television"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Television</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<th>Year</th>
<th>Program</th>
<th>Role</th>
<th>Other notes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1976–<!--del_lnk--> 1978</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Ryan's Hope</i></td>
<td>Frank Ryan #2</td>
<td>Daytime <!--del_lnk--> Emmy nomination</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1976–<!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Barnaby Jones</i></td>
<td>(Various)</td>
<td>Recurring</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Vega$</i></td>
<td>Derek Razzio</td>
<td>Recurring</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1988</td>
<td><i>Liberace</i></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Liberace</td>
<td>Made-for-television film</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1993–<!--del_lnk--> 1999</td>
<td><i><a href="../../wp/s/Star_Trek__Deep_Space_Nine.htm" title="Star Trek: Deep Space Nine">Star Trek: Deep Space Nine</a></i></td>
<td>Garak</td>
<td>Directed one episode</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1994</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> M.A.N.T.I.S.</i></td>
<td>Solomon Box</td>
<td>Recurring</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1999, <!--del_lnk--> 2004</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> JAG</i></td>
<td>Admiral Thomas Kly</td>
<td>Recurring</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1997–<!--del_lnk--> 1998</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Star Trek: Voyager</i></td>
<td> </td>
<td>Directed two episodes</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1999–<!--del_lnk--> 2005</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Judging Amy</i></td>
<td>Daniel McGill</td>
<td>Directed seven episodes</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2002</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Presidio Med</i></td>
<td>Jesse</td>
<td>Recurring</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Robinson"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['United States', 'Film', 'Theatre', 'Television', 'Actor', 'Television', 'Star Trek: Deep Space Nine', 'New York City', 'World War II', 'Rhode Island', 'Shakespeare', 'Fyodor Dostoevsky', 'The X-Files', 'John F. Kennedy', 'Star Trek: Deep Space Nine', 'Star Trek: Deep Space Nine'] |
Andriyivskyy_Descent | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Andriyivskyy Descent,Andriyivskyy Descent,12th century,18th century,1902,1904,1989,1991,19th century,Andrew the Apostle,Austria" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Andriyivskyy Descent</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Andriyivskyy_Descent";
var wgTitle = "Andriyivskyy Descent";
var wgArticleId = 3953131;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Andriyivskyy_Descent">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Andriyivskyy Descent</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Asia.htm">Geography of Asia</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<p><span class="plainlinksneverexpand" id="coordinates"><!--del_lnk--> Coordinates: <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">50°27′36″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">30°30′59″E</span></span></span><div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/63/6377.jpg.htm" title="General view of the Andriyivskyy Descent with the Castle of Richard Lionheart on the left and the St Andrew's Church in the background."><img alt="General view of the Andriyivskyy Descent with the Castle of Richard Lionheart on the left and the St Andrew's Church in the background." height="224" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andriyivskyy_Uzviz.jpeg" src="../../images/165/16541.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/63/6377.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> General view of the Andriyivskyy Descent with the <!--del_lnk--> Castle of Richard Lionheart on the left and the <!--del_lnk--> St Andrew's Church in the background.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>Andriyivskyy Descent</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Ukrainian: <span lang="uk" xml:lang="uk">Андріївський узвіз, <!--del_lnk--> translit.: <i>Andriyivs’kyi uzviz</i></span>; <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">Андреевский спуск, <!--del_lnk--> translit.: <i>Andreevsky spusk</i></span>, literally <b>Andrew's Descent</b>) is one of the best known historic streets and a major tourist attraction in <a href="../../wp/k/Kiev.htm" title="Kiev">Kiev</a>, the capital of <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>. It is often advertised as the <!--del_lnk--> Montmartre of Kiev.<p>The descent contains the: <!--del_lnk--> Castle of Richard Lionheart; the baroque <!--del_lnk--> St Andrew's Church; <!--del_lnk--> Mikhail Bulgakov's house, a famous Kiev-born <!--del_lnk--> Russian writer; and numerous other monuments.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Description" name="Description"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Description</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:237px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/62/6275.jpg.htm" title="The beginning of the Andriyivskyy Descent near the St Andrew's Church."><img alt="The beginning of the Andriyivskyy Descent near the St Andrew's Church." height="176" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andreevskaja_cerkov.jpg" src="../../images/165/16542.jpg" width="235" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/62/6275.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The beginning of the Andriyivskyy Descent near the <!--del_lnk--> St Andrew's Church.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The street begins on the <!--del_lnk--> hilltop near the delicate late-<!--del_lnk--> baroque <!--del_lnk--> St Andrew's Church, which gave the street its current name, and descends to the <!--del_lnk--> Podil district were it ends at the <!--del_lnk--> Kontraktova Square. In past times the descent was known as <i><!--del_lnk--> Borychiv Descent</i> mentioned as "Боричев увоз" (<i>Borichev uvoz</i>) by <!--del_lnk--> Nestor in his <!--del_lnk--> Primary Chronicle and in the 12th century poem, <!--del_lnk--> The Tale of Igor's Campaign (<i>Slovo o polku Ihorevim</i>). The current name comes from the <a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th century</a>, the time when the church was erected atop the hill.<p>During the 18th and 19th centuries, merchants and craftspeople inhabited the street. Although they are long gone due to the sweeping demographic changes in Kiev during times of the late <!--del_lnk--> Russian Empire and the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, the street is once again thriving thanks to its unique topology, architecture, rich history and also many gift shops and small art galleries showcasing various paintings and sculptures by Ukrainian artists. The Descent is one of the favorite spots for Kievans and tourists alike. It is also notable for the many <!--del_lnk--> festivals it holds, including various art festivals and the Kiev Day celebration on the last weekend of May. The street's location and its attraction made it lately a highly prestigious area and several luxurious restaurants moved there as well. Recently, a decision was made to close off the descent for 2 years, in order to change the nearby sewer systems.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>The descent, located between two hills, is the shortest passageway from the historic <i>Old</i> or <i>Upper Town</i> ("Князівська Гора"; <i>Kniazivs’ka Hora</i>) to the commercial <!--del_lnk--> Podil neighbourhood. One of the hills, known as <i>Uzdyhal’nytsia</i>, was the place where <!--del_lnk--> pre-Christian idols once stood (<i>see: <!--del_lnk--> Baptism of Kiev</i>), and another hill, called <i><!--del_lnk--> Zamkova (Castle)</i>, served as a <!--del_lnk--> castle hill during the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. For many centuries, this passageway was very steep and inconvenient, which is the reason why it was not inhabited for a long time. Therefore the first buildings were erected here only in the 17th Century, and the first apartment buildings appeared in the end of the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>.<p><a id="Legends" name="Legends"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Legends</span></h3>
<p>According to one legend, <!--del_lnk--> Andrew the Apostle visited the uninhabited mountains in the mid-stream of the <!--del_lnk--> Dnieper River. He put up a cross atop of the hill where the descent starts and prophecied a foundation of a great Christian city. Since then, wooden churches were built in the vicinity.<p>According to another legend, there was once a sea where the <!--del_lnk--> Dnieper River now flows. When <!--del_lnk--> St. Andrew came to Kiev and erected a cross on the place where the <!--del_lnk--> St Andrew's Church now stands, the sea went away. The only part that remained of the sea is under the mountain on which Kiev sits today. When the church was built there in the 18th century, a spring opened under the alter. The church has no bells, because, according to the legend, when the first bell strikes, the water can revive again and flood the left bank of Kiev.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:237px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16544.jpg.htm" title="The Castle of Richard Lionheart."><img alt="The Castle of Richard Lionheart." height="313" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Castle_of_Richard_Lionhart.JPG" src="../../images/165/16544.jpg" width="235" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16544.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Castle of Richard Lionheart.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Attractions" name="Attractions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Attractions</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> St Andrew's Church (18th century)<li><!--del_lnk--> Mikhail Bulgakov's house (late 19th century)<li>The Castle of <!--del_lnk--> Richard the Lionheart (20th century)<li>The Museum of One Street<li>Numerous monuments</ul>
<p><a id="The_Castle_of_Richard_Lionheart" name="The_Castle_of_Richard_Lionheart"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Castle of Richard Lionheart</span></h3>
<p>The "Castle of Richard Lionheart" house was built from <!--del_lnk--> 1902–<!--del_lnk--> 1904. It was originally supposed to be called Orlov House, as it was built by one Dimitri Orlov. But because its owner failed to clear the house construction with the city's authorities, a major scandal arose. <!--del_lnk--> Viktor Nekrasov named the building "The Castle of <!--del_lnk--> Richard Lionheart", after the <a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th century</a> English king in his book. It has been established that the modernized <!--del_lnk--> Gothic fronts were practically copied from a published design for a <a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Petersburg.htm" title="St. Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a> building by the architect R. Marfeld. But the stunning relief of Andriyivskyy Descent softened the effect of this plagiarism. <p>The cellar of the building contained a barber's shop, a grocery store and a butcher shop. The remaining premises were used as apartments for rent. When Dimitri Orlov died in 1911 while building a railroad in the Far East, his widow, left with five children, had to sell off the house to pay her family's debts. The house is currently being converted into a hotel.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:115px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16545.jpg.htm" title="The address plaque at the Bulgakov House displays an "incorrect" street name."><img alt="The address plaque at the Bulgakov House displays an "incorrect" street name." height="148" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Alekseevsky_spusk_13.jpg" src="../../images/165/16545.jpg" width="113" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16545.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The address plaque at the <!--del_lnk--> Bulgakov House displays an "incorrect" street name.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Mikhail_Bulgakov.27s_house" name="Mikhail_Bulgakov.27s_house"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Mikhail Bulgakov's house</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Mikhail Bulgakov, a famous Kiev-born <!--del_lnk--> Russian writer, and his family lived on the street at two different houses in the early-20th century. In Bulgakov's novel <i><!--del_lnk--> The White Guard</i> the author vividly describes the street (he calls it <i>Aleksey Descent</i> - "Alekseyevskiy Spusk") in the turbulent times of the <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_Revolution_of_1917.htm" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">1917 Russian Revolution</a>. The address, at <i>№13, Andriyivskyy Descent</i> is still commonly called the Bulgakov House and displays a plaque with the address the writer used in his book (<i>№13 Alekseyevsky spusk</i>).<p>A museum was opened inside the preserved building to mark the 100th birthday of Mikhail Bulgakov on <!--del_lnk--> May 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1991. The upper floor of the museum houses an exhibition of various Bulgakov objects, and the lower floor contains thematic exhibitions. The house, built in 1888 and designed by architect N. Gardenin, was thoroughly renovated before the opening of the museum. A memorial plaque with Bulgakov's portrait is now hanging on the front of the building.<p><a id="St._Andrew.27s_Church" name="St._Andrew.27s_Church"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">St. Andrew's Church</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Another attration of the Andriyivskyy Descent is the <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">baroque</a> St. Andrew's Church. It is located overlooking the Podil neighbourhood from the Andriyivskyy Descent, which gave the church its name. The idea to construct the St. Andrew's Church came from the Russian <!--del_lnk--> Tsaress <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Petrovna. When she visited Kiev in 1747–1754, she laid the foundation brick of the church with her own hand, after which the church was constructed, to a design by the imperial architect <!--del_lnk--> Bartolomeo Rastrelli.<p>As the Tsaress planned to take personal care of the church, the church has no parish, and there is no belltower to call the congregation to divine service. But she died before the construction ended, so the church was never cared for by Elizabeth Petrovna. After Elizabeth's death, the Kiev court took no interest in the church, which was last consecrated in 1767. Later, there were not enough funds to maintain the church, which left the maintaining of the church to private and voluntary funds, such as Andrey Muraviov.<p>In 1963, Rastrelli's original plans for the building were found in <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a>. This made it possible to reconstruct the original images on the building. The plan of restoration was carried out in the 1970s, overlooked by the main architect-restorer, V. Korneyeva. Since 1968, the church has been opened as a museum to tourists and visitors.<p><a id="The_One_Street_Museum" name="The_One_Street_Museum"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The One Street Museum</span></h3>
<p>The One Street Museum is another main attraction of the Andriyivskyy Descent, which houses many of the historic items of the descent, containing more than 6,500 exhibits. They include information about the St Andrew's Church, the castle of Richard Lionheart, and the many other buildings of the Descent.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:237px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16547.jpg.htm" title="The monument to Pronya Prokopovna and Svirid Golohvastov"><img alt="The monument to Pronya Prokopovna and Svirid Golohvastov" height="313" longdesc="/wiki/Image:PronyaGolohvastov.jpg" src="../../images/165/16547.jpg" width="235" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16547.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The monument to Pronya Prokopovna and Svirid Golohvastov</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Also, the museum has a unique collection of various works by Ukrainian philologist P. Zhitetsky, Arabist and professor of the Kiev University T. Kezma, journalist and public figure A.Savenko, Ukrainian writer G.Tyutyunnyk, which have lived in the house <i>№34</i> in the different periods of the twentieth century. Another important part of the collection in the museum are the is the memorabilia of professors of Kiev Theological Academy A. Bulgakov, S. Golubev, P. Kudryavtsev, F. Titov, A.Glagolev, famed doctors Th. Janovsky and D. Popov, and other prominent figures.<p>The museum also has a large collection of antique books. Book relics of the exposition include a famous <i>Trebnik</i> of the Metropolitan of Kiev <!--del_lnk--> Petro Mohyla, rare editions of works written by professors and graduates of the <!--del_lnk--> Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, unique books written by the <i>Ukrainian Walter Scott</i>, M.Grabovsky, the <i>Defender of Orthodoxy</i>, A.Muravyov, and the works of <!--del_lnk--> Mikhail Bulgakov published in his lifetime.<p><a id="Monuments" name="Monuments"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Monuments</span></h3>
<p>The Andriyivskyy Descent also has a number of monuments. One of them is the <i>monument to <!--del_lnk--> Yaroslav the Wise</i>, the Grand Prince of <!--del_lnk--> Novgorod and Kiev, depicts him holding a model of the <!--del_lnk--> Saint Sophia Cathedral. Another is the <i>monument to Pronya Prokopovna and Svirid Golohvastov</i>, which was unveiled in <!--del_lnk--> 1989, depicting two <!--del_lnk--> characters, Pronya Prokopovna and Svirid Golohvastov, from the play "Chasing Two Rabbits", which was written by <!--del_lnk--> Myhailo Starytskyi. And the last of the main monuments is the one dedicated to the famous Ukrainian poet and artist, <!--del_lnk--> Taras Shevchenko, located to the right of the monument to Yaroslav the Wise.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andriyivskyy_Descent"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Russian language', 'Kiev', 'Ukraine', '18th century', 'Soviet Union', 'Middle Ages', '19th century', '12th century', 'St. Petersburg', 'Russian Revolution of 1917', 'Baroque', 'Vienna', 'Austria'] |
Andromeda_Galaxy | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Andromeda Galaxy,'Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi,1 E22 m,2006,2C,2MASS,Absolute magnitude,Active galaxy,Andromeda's satellite galaxies,Andromeda (constellation),Angular diameter" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Andromeda Galaxy</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Andromeda_Galaxy";
var wgTitle = "Andromeda Galaxy";
var wgArticleId = 74331;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Andromeda_Galaxy">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Andromeda Galaxy</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="toccolours" style="float: right; clear:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;">
<caption><b>Andromeda Galaxy</b></caption>
<tr>
<th style="background-color: #30D5C8;"><small><a href="../../wp/g/Galaxy.htm" title="Galaxy">Galaxy</a></small></th>
<td align="center"><small><!--del_lnk--> List of galaxies</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/165/16548.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:M31_Lanoue.png" src="../../images/165/16548.png" width="300" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background-color: #30D5C8; text-align: center;">Observation data<br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> Epoch <!--del_lnk--> J2000)</small></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;"><!--del_lnk--> Constellation</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Andromeda</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;"><!--del_lnk--> Right ascension</th>
<td><span style="white-space:nowrap;">00<sup>h</sup> 42<sup>m</sup> 44.3<sup>s</sup></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;"><!--del_lnk--> Declination</th>
<td><span style="white-space:nowrap;">+41° 16′ 9″</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;"><a href="../../wp/r/Redshift.htm" title="Redshift">Redshift</a></th>
<td>-301 ± 1 <!--del_lnk--> km/<!--del_lnk--> s</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;">Distance</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2.52 ± 0.14 <!--del_lnk--> Mly<br /> (770 ± 40 <!--del_lnk--> kpc)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Type</span></th>
<td>SA(s)b I-II</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;">Apparent dimensions <small title="in visual light">(V)</small></th>
<td>190′ × 60′</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;"><!--del_lnk--> Apparent magnitude <small title="in visual light">(V)</small></th>
<td>+4.36</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;">Notable features</th>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background-color: #30D5C8; text-align: center;">Other designations</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<center>
<div style="width: 300px;"><!--del_lnk--> M31, <!--del_lnk--> NGC 224, <!--del_lnk--> UGC 454, <!--del_lnk--> PGC 2557</div>
</center>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16549.jpg.htm" title="M31 in a small telescope"><img alt="M31 in a small telescope" height="134" longdesc="/wiki/Image:M31.jpg" src="../../images/165/16549.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16549.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> M31 in a small telescope</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <b>Andromeda Galaxy</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ˌanˈdrɒmədə/</span>, also known as <b>Messier 31</b>, <b>M31</b>, or <b>NGC 224</b>; older texts often called it the <i>Andromeda Nebula</i>) is a <!--del_lnk--> spiral galaxy approximately 2.5 million <!--del_lnk--> light-years away in the <!--del_lnk--> constellation <!--del_lnk--> Andromeda.<p>Andromeda was believed to be the largest galaxy of the <!--del_lnk--> Local Group of galaxies, which consists of the Andromeda Galaxy, the <!--del_lnk--> Milky Way Galaxy, and the <!--del_lnk--> Triangulum Galaxy, and about 30 other smaller galaxies. Due to recent findings based on improved measurements and data, <!--del_lnk--> scientists now believe that the Milky Way contains more <!--del_lnk--> dark matter and may be the most massive in the grouping. However, recent observations by the <!--del_lnk--> Spitzer Space Telescope revealed that M31 contains one trillion (10<sup>12</sup>) stars, greatly exceeding the number of stars in our own galaxy. <!--del_lnk--> 2006 estimates put the mass of the Milky Way to be ~80% of the mass of Andromeda, which is estimated to be 7.1×10<sup>11</sup><!--del_lnk--> M<sub>☉</sub>.<p>The Andromeda Galaxy is easily visible to the <!--del_lnk--> naked eye in a moderately dark sky, though such a sky is available only in smaller towns and isolated areas reasonably far from population centers and sources of <!--del_lnk--> light pollution. It appears quite small without a telescope because only the central part is bright enough to be visible, but the full <!--del_lnk--> angular diameter of the galaxy is seven times that of the full <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">moon</a>.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Observation_history" name="Observation_history"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Observation history</span></h2>
<p>The earliest recorded observation of the Andromeda Galaxy was in 905 by the Persian <!--del_lnk--> astronomer <!--del_lnk--> 'Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi, who described it as a "small cloud". Star charts of that period have it labeled as the <i>Little Cloud</i>. The first description of the object based on telescopic observation was given by <!--del_lnk--> Simon Marius (1612). In 1764, <!--del_lnk--> Charles Messier catalogued it as object M31 and incorrectly credited Simon Marius as the discoverer, unaware of Al Sufi's earlier work.<p>In 1785, the astronomer <!--del_lnk--> William Herschel noted a faint reddish hue in the core region of the galaxy. He believed it to be the nearest of all the "great nebulae" and, based on the colour and magnitude of the nebula, he estimated (incorrectly) that it was no more than 2,000 times the distance of <a href="../../wp/s/Sirius.htm" title="Sirius">Sirius</a>.<p><!--del_lnk--> William Huggins in 1864 observed the <!--del_lnk--> spectrum of Andromeda and noted that it differed from a gaseous nebula. The spectra of Andromeda displayed a <!--del_lnk--> continuum of <!--del_lnk--> frequencies, superimposed with <!--del_lnk--> dark lines. This was very similar to the spectra of individual stars. From this it was deduced that Andromeda had a stellar nature.<p>In 1885, a <!--del_lnk--> supernova (known as "<!--del_lnk--> S Andromedae") was seen in the Andromeda Galaxy, the first and so far only one observed in that galaxy. At the time, it was thought to be a much less luminous and unrelated event called a <!--del_lnk--> nova, and was named accordingly Nova 1885.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16550.jpg.htm" title="Great Andromeda Nebula by Isaac Roberts."><img alt="Great Andromeda Nebula by Isaac Roberts." height="130" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pic_iroberts1.jpg" src="../../images/165/16550.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16550.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Great Andromeda Nebula by <!--del_lnk--> Isaac Roberts.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The first <!--del_lnk--> photographs of this galaxy were taken in 1887 by <!--del_lnk--> Isaac Roberts from his private observatory in <!--del_lnk--> Sussex. The long-duration exposure allowed the spiral structure of the galaxy to be seen for the first time. However, at the time this object was commonly believed to be a nebula within our galaxy, and Roberts mistakenly believed that M31 and similar spiral nebulae were actually solar systems being formed, with the satellites birthing planets.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> radial velocity of this object with respect to our <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a> was measured in 1912 by <!--del_lnk--> Vesto Slipher at the <!--del_lnk--> Lowell Observatory, using <!--del_lnk--> spectroscopy. The result was the largest velocity recorded at that time, at 300 kilometres per second (186 miles/sec.), moving in the direction of the Sun.<p><a id="Island_universe" name="Island_universe"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Island universe</span></h3>
<p>In 1917, <!--del_lnk--> Heber Curtis had observed a nova within M31. Searching the photographic record, 11 more novae were discovered. Curtis noticed that these novae were, on average, 10 <!--del_lnk--> magnitudes fainter than those that occurred within our galaxy. As a result he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 500,000 light-years. He became a proponent of the so-called "island universes" hypothesis that held the <!--del_lnk--> spiral nebulae were actually independent galaxies.<p>In 1920 the <!--del_lnk--> Great Debate between <!--del_lnk--> Harlow Shapley and <!--del_lnk--> Heber Curtis took place, concerning the nature of the <a href="../../wp/m/Milky_Way.htm" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>, <!--del_lnk--> spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the <a href="../../wp/u/Universe.htm" title="Universe">universe</a>. To support his claim that M31 was an external galaxy, Curtis also noted the appearance of dark lanes resembling the dust clouds in our own galaxies, as well as the significant <!--del_lnk--> doppler shift.<p><!--del_lnk--> Edwin Hubble settled the debate in 1925 when he identified extragalactic <!--del_lnk--> Cepheid <!--del_lnk--> variable stars for the first time on astronomical photos of this galaxy. These were made using a 2.5-<!--del_lnk--> metre (100 in.) <!--del_lnk--> reflecting telescope, and they enabled the distance of M31 to be determined. His measurement demonstrated conclusively that this feature was not a cluster of stars and gas within our galaxy, but an entirely separate galaxy located a significant distance from our own.<p>This galaxy plays an important role in galactic studies, since it is the nearest giant spiral (although not the nearest galaxy). In 1943, <!--del_lnk--> Walter Baade was the first person to resolve stars in the central region of the Andromeda Galaxy. Based on his observations of this galaxy, he was able to discern two distinct populations of stars, naming the young, high velocity stars in the disk <!--del_lnk--> Type I and the older, red stars in the bulge <!--del_lnk--> Type II. This nomenclature was subsequently adopted for stars within the Milky Way, and elsewhere. (The existence of two distinct populations had been noted earlier by <!--del_lnk--> Jan Oort.) Dr. Baade also discovered that there were two types of <!--del_lnk--> Cepheid variables, which resulted in a doubling of the distance estimate to M31, as well as the remainder of the Universe.<p>The first <!--del_lnk--> radio maps of the Andromeda Galaxy were made in the 1950s by <!--del_lnk--> John Baldwin and collaborators at the <!--del_lnk--> Cambridge Radio Astronomy Group. The core of the Andromeda Galaxy is called 2C 56 in the <!--del_lnk--> 2C radio astronomy catalogue.<p><a id="General_information" name="General_information"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">General information</span></h2>
<p>The Andromeda Galaxy is approaching the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a> at about 300 <!--del_lnk--> kilometres per second (186 miles/sec.), so it is one of the few <!--del_lnk--> blue shifted galaxies. Given the motion of the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> inside the Milky Way, one finds that the Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way are approaching one another at a speed of 100 to 140 kilometres per second (62–87 miles/sec.). However, this does not mean it will definitely <!--del_lnk--> collide with the Milky Way, since the galaxy's tangential velocity is unknown. If it is on a collision course, the impact is predicted to occur in about 3 billion (10<sup>9</sup>) years. In that case the two galaxies will likely merge to form a giant <!--del_lnk--> elliptical galaxy. Such events are frequent among the galaxies in <!--del_lnk--> galaxy groups.<p>The measured distance to the Andromeda Galaxy was doubled in 1953 when it was discovered that there is another, dimmer type of Cepheid. In the 1990s, <i><!--del_lnk--> Hipparcos</i> satellite measurements were used to calibrate the Cepheid distances. The corrected value gives the Andromeda Galaxy a distance of 2.9 million light-years. Unfortunately, all Cepheids lie further than <i>Hipparcos</i> could measure accurately, and it became clear that <i>Hipparcos</i>-calibrated values for Cepheids were not reliable.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16551.jpg.htm" title="The Andromeda Galaxy pictured in ultraviolet light by GALEX"><img alt="The Andromeda Galaxy pictured in ultraviolet light by GALEX" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andromeda_galaxy.jpg" src="../../images/165/16551.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16551.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Andromeda Galaxy pictured in <a href="../../wp/u/Ultraviolet.htm" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> light by <!--del_lnk--> GALEX</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In 2005, a group of astronomers consisting of <!--del_lnk--> Ignasi Ribas (<!--del_lnk--> CSIC, <!--del_lnk--> IEEC) and his colleagues announced the discovery of an <!--del_lnk--> eclipsing binary star in the Andromeda Galaxy. The binary star, designated M31VJ00443799+4129236, has two luminous and hot blue stars of <!--del_lnk--> types O and B. By studying the eclipses of the stars, which occur every 3.54969 days, the astronomers were able to measure their sizes. Knowing the sizes and temperatures of the stars they were able to measure the <!--del_lnk--> absolute magnitude of the stars. When the <!--del_lnk--> visual and absolute magnitudes are known, the distance to the star can be measured. The stars lie at the distance of 2.52 ± 0.14 million light-years and the whole Andromeda Galaxy at about 2.5 million light-years. This new value is in excellent agreement with the previous, independent Cepheid-based distance value.<p>Current mass estimates for the Andromeda halo (including <!--del_lnk--> dark matter) give a value of approximately 1.23 × 10<sup>12</sup> <!--del_lnk--> <i>M</i><sub>☉</sub> (or 1.2 <!--del_lnk--> million million <!--del_lnk--> solar masses) compared to 1.9 × 10<sup>12</sup> <i>M</i><sub>☉</sub> for the Milky Way. Thus M31 may be less massive than our own galaxy, although the error range is still too large to say for certain. M31 does contain many more stars than our own galaxy and has a much larger size.<p>In particular, M31 appears to have significantly more common stars than the Milky Way, and the estimated luminosity of M31 is double that of our own galaxy. However the rate of star formation in the Milky Way is much higher, with M31 only producing about one solar mass per year compared to 3–5 solar masses for the Milky Way. The rate of <!--del_lnk--> novae in the Milky Way is also double that of M31. This suggests that M31 has experienced a great star formation phase in its past, while the Milky Way is in the middle of a current star formation phase. This could mean that in the future, the number of stars in the Milky Way will match the number observed in M31.<p><a id="Structure" name="Structure"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Structure</span></h2>
<p>Based on its appearance in visible light, the Andromeda galaxy is classified as an SA(s)b galaxy in the <!--del_lnk--> de Vaucouleurs-Sandage extended classification system of spiral galaxies. However, data from the <!--del_lnk--> 2MASS survey showed that the bulge of M31 has a box-like appearance, which implies that the galaxy is actually a barred galaxy with the bar viewed nearly directly along its long axis. Andromeda is also a LINER-type galaxy (<i>Low-Ionization Nuclear Emission-line Region</i>), the most common class of <!--del_lnk--> active nuclei galaxies.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16552.jpg.htm" title="The Andromeda Galaxy seen in infrared by the Spitzer Space Telescope, one of NASA's four Great Space Observatories"><img alt="The Andromeda Galaxy seen in infrared by the Spitzer Space Telescope, one of NASA's four Great Space Observatories" height="108" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Infraredandromeda.jpg" src="../../images/165/16552.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16552.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Andromeda Galaxy seen in <!--del_lnk--> infrared by the <!--del_lnk--> Spitzer Space Telescope, one of <!--del_lnk--> NASA's four <!--del_lnk--> Great Space Observatories</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In 2005, astronomers used the <!--del_lnk--> Keck telescopes to show that the tenuous sprinkle of stars extending outward from the galaxy are actually part of the main disk itself. This means that the spiral disk of stars in Andromeda is three times larger in diameter than previously estimated. This constitutes evidence that there is a vast, extended stellar disk that makes the galaxy more than 220,000 light-years in diameter. Previously, estimates of Andromeda's size ranged from 70,000 to 120,000 light-years across.<p>The galaxy is inclined an estimated 77° relative to the Earth (where an angle of 90° would be viewed directly from the side.) Analysis of the cross-sectional shape of the galaxy appears to demonstrate a pronounced, S-shaped warp, rather than just a flat disk. A possible cause of such a warp could be gravitational interaction with the satellite galaxies near M31.<p>Spectroscopic studies have provided detailed measurements of the <!--del_lnk--> rotational velocity of this galaxy at various radii from the core. In the vicinity of the core, the rotational velocity climbs to a peak of 225 kilometres per second (140 miles/sec.) at a radius of 1,300 <!--del_lnk--> light-years, then descends to a minimum at 7,000 light-years where the rotation velocity may be as low as 50 kilometres per second (31 miles/sec.). Thereafter the velocity steadily climbs again out to a radius of 33,000 light-years, where it reaches a peak of 250 kilometres per second (155 miles/sec.). The velocities slowly decline beyond that distance, dropping to around 200 kilometres per second (124 miles/sec.) at 80,000 light-years. These velocity measurements imply a concentrated mass of about 6 × 10<sup>9</sup> <!--del_lnk--> M<sub>☉</sub> in the nucleus. The total mass of the galaxy increases <!--del_lnk--> linearly out to 45,000 light-years, then more slowly beyond that radius.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> spiral arms of Andromeda are outlined by a series of <a href="../../wp/h/H_II_region.htm" title="H II region">H II regions</a> that Baade described as resembling "beads on a string". They appear to be tightly wound, although they are more widely spaced than in our galaxy. Rectified images of the galaxy show a fairly normal spiral galaxy with the arms wound up in a clockwise direction. There are two continuous trailing arms that are separated from each other by a minimum of about 13,000 light-years. These can be followed outward from a distance of roughly 1,600 light-years from the core. The most likely cause of the spiral pattern is thought to be interaction with <!--del_lnk--> M32. This can be seen by the displacement of the <!--del_lnk--> neutral hydrogen clouds from the stars.<div class="center">
<div class="thumb tnone">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16553.jpg.htm" title="Image of Andromeda Galaxy (M31) taken by Spitzer in infrared, 24 micrometres (Credit:NASA/JPL-Caltech/K. Gordon (University of Arizona)"><img alt="Image of Andromeda Galaxy (M31) taken by Spitzer in infrared, 24 micrometres (Credit:NASA/JPL-Caltech/K. Gordon (University of Arizona)" height="118" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andromeda_galaxy_Ssc2005-20a1_halfsize.jpg" src="../../images/165/16553.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16553.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Image of Andromeda Galaxy (M31) taken by <!--del_lnk--> Spitzer in infrared, 24 <!--del_lnk--> micrometres (Credit:<!--del_lnk--> NASA/<!--del_lnk--> JPL-<!--del_lnk--> Caltech/K. Gordon (<!--del_lnk--> University of Arizona)</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In 1998, images from the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Space_Agency.htm" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Infrared Space Observatory demonstrated that the overall form of the Andromeda galaxy may be transitioning into a <!--del_lnk--> ring galaxy. The gas and dust within Andromeda is generally formed into several overlapping rings, with a particularly prominent ring formed at a radius of 32,000 light-years from the core. This ring is hidden from visible light images of the galaxy because it is composed primarily of cold dust.<p>Close examination of the inner region of Andromeda showed a smaller dust ring that is believed to have been caused by the interaction with M32 more than 200 million years ago. Simulations show that the smaller galaxy passed through the disk of Andromeda along the later's polar axis. This collision stripped more than half the mass from the smaller M32 and created the ring structures in Andromeda.<p>Studies of the extended halo of M31 show that it is roughly comparable to that of the Milky Way, with stars in the halo being generally "metal"-poor, and increasingly so with greater distance. This evidence indicates that the two galaxies have followed similar evolutionary paths. They are likely to have accreted and assimilated about 1–200 low-mass galaxies during the past 12 thousand million years The stars in the extended halos of M31 and the Milky Way may extend nearly <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub> the distance separating the two galaxies.<p><a id="Features" name="Features"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Features</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16554.jpg.htm" title="HST image of Andromeda galaxy core showing possible double structure. NASA photo."><img alt="HST image of Andromeda galaxy core showing possible double structure. NASA photo." height="161" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1993-18-a-web.jpg" src="../../images/165/16554.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16554.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> HST image of Andromeda galaxy core showing possible double structure. <i><!--del_lnk--> NASA photo</i>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In 1991 the Planetary Camera then onboard the <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> imaged Andromeda's core. To everyone's surprise its nucleus showed a double structure, with two nuclear hot-spots located within a few light-years of each other. Subsequent ground-based observations have led to speculation that indeed two nuclei exist and are moving with respect to each other, that one nucleus is slowly tidally disrupting the other, and that one nucleus may be the remnant of a smaller galaxy "eaten" by M31. The nuclei of many galaxies, including M31, are known to be quite violent places, and the existence of <!--del_lnk--> supermassive black holes is frequently postulated to explain them.<p>Multiple X-ray sources have been detected in the Andromeda Galaxy, using observations from the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Space_Agency.htm" title="European Space Agency">ESA's</a> <!--del_lnk--> XMM-Newton orbiting observatory. Dr. <!--del_lnk--> Robin Barnard <i>et al</i> hypothesized that these are candidate black holes or <!--del_lnk--> neutron stars, which are heating incoming gas to millions of kelvins and emitting X-rays. The spectrum of the neutron stars is the same as the hypothesized black holes, but can be distinguished by their masses.<p>There are approximately 460 <a href="../../wp/g/Globular_cluster.htm" title="Globular cluster">globular clusters</a> associated with the Andromeda galaxy The most massive of these clusters, identified as <!--del_lnk--> Mayall II, nicknamed Globular One, has a greater luminosity than any known globular cluster in the <!--del_lnk--> local group of galaxies. It contains several million stars, and is about twice as luminous as <!--del_lnk--> Omega Centauri, the brightest known globular cluster in the <a href="../../wp/m/Milky_Way.htm" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>. Globular One (or G1) has several stellar populations and a structure too massive for an ordinary globular. As a result, some consider G1 to be the remnant core of a <!--del_lnk--> dwarf galaxy that was consumed by M31 in the distant past. The globular with the greatest apparent brightness is <!--del_lnk--> G76 which is located in the south-west arm's eastern half.<p>In 2005, astronomers discovered a completely new type of star cluster in M31. The new-found clusters contain hundreds of thousands of stars, a similar number of stars that can be found in globular clusters. What distinguishes them from the globular clusters is that they are much larger – several hundred light-years across – and hundreds of times less dense. The distances between the stars are, therefore, much greater within the newly discovered extended clusters.<p><a id="Satellites" name="Satellites"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Satellites</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Like our <a href="../../wp/m/Milky_Way.htm" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>, <b>Andromeda</b> has <!--del_lnk--> satellite galaxies, consisting of 14 known <!--del_lnk--> dwarf galaxies. The best known and most readily observed satellite galaxies are <!--del_lnk--> M32 and <!--del_lnk--> M110.<p>Based on current evidence, it appears that M32 underwent a close encounter with M31 in the past. M32 may once have been a larger galaxy that had its stellar disk removed by M31, and underwent a sharp increase of star formation in the core region, which lasted until the relative recent past.<p>M110 also appears to be interacting with M31, and astronomers have found a stream of metal-rich stars in the halo of M31 that appears to have been stripped from these satellite galaxies. M110 does contain a dusty lane, which is a hint for recent or ongoing star formation. This is unusual in <!--del_lnk--> elliptical galaxies, which are usually fairly low in dust and gas.<p>In 2006 it was discovered that nine of these galaxies lie along a plane that intersects the core of the Andromeda Galaxy, rather than being randomly generated. This may indicate a common origin for the satellites.<div style="clear: both">
</div>
<table cellpadding="2" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;border-collapse:collapse;">
<caption><b>Andromeda's satellites discovered before 1900</b></caption>
<tr style="background:#efefef;">
<th>Name</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Type</th>
<th>Distance<br /> from <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> Mly)</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Magnitude</th>
<th>Discovered by</th>
<th>Year<br /> discovered</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background:#eeeeff;">
<td><!--del_lnk--> M32</td>
<td>cE2</td>
<td>2.65 ± 0.10</td>
<td>+9.0</td>
<td style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Guillaume Le Gentil</td>
<td>1749</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background:#ccccff">
<td><!--del_lnk--> M110</td>
<td>E5 pec</td>
<td>2.9</td>
<td>+8.9</td>
<td style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Charles Messier</td>
<td>1773</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background:#eeeeff;">
<td><!--del_lnk--> NGC 185</td>
<td>dSph/dE3</td>
<td>2.08 ± 0.15</td>
<td>+10.1</td>
<td style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> William Herschel</td>
<td>1787</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background:#ccccff">
<td><!--del_lnk--> NGC 147</td>
<td>dSph/dE5</td>
<td>2.67 ± 0.18</td>
<td>+10.5</td>
<td style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> John Herschel</td>
<td>1829</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Andromeda_Galaxy_in_fiction" name="Andromeda_Galaxy_in_fiction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Andromeda Galaxy in fiction</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The Andromeda galaxy has had a role in a number of <!--del_lnk--> science fiction works. It has been used as a source of <a href="../../wp/e/Extraterrestrial_life.htm" title="Extraterrestrial life">alien</a> life forms that are in the process of invading the <a href="../../wp/m/Milky_Way.htm" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> galaxy, or as a setting for alien worlds and territories.<p>It has been hinted that the <a href="../../wp/s/Star_Wars.htm" title="Star Wars">Star Wars</a> galaxy is the Andromeda Galaxy.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Galaxy', 'Redshift', 'Moon', 'Sirius', 'Solar system', 'Milky Way', 'Universe', 'Sun', 'Solar System', 'Ultraviolet', 'H II region', 'European Space Agency', 'Hubble Space Telescope', 'European Space Agency', 'Globular cluster', 'Milky Way', 'Milky Way', 'Sun', 'Extraterrestrial life', 'Milky Way', 'Star Wars'] |
Andrés_Nocioni | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Andrés Nocioni,1979,2004,2004 Summer Olympics,2005-06 NBA season,2006,2006 FIBA World Championship,Argentina,Argentina national basketball team,Argentine Basketball Federation,Asociación de Clubs de Baloncesto" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Andrés Nocioni</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Andrés_Nocioni";
var wgTitle = "Andrés Nocioni";
var wgArticleId = 1686703;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Andrés_Nocioni">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Andrés Nocioni</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Sports_and_games_people.htm">Sports and games people</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table cellspacing="3" class="infobox" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; width: 22em; font-size: 90%; clear: right;">
<caption style="text-align: center; font-size: larger; font-weight: bold;">Andrés Nocioni</caption>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Position</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Small forward/<!--del_lnk--> Power forward</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Height</th>
<td>6 <!--del_lnk--> ft 7 <!--del_lnk--> in (2.01 <!--del_lnk--> m)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Weight</th>
<td>225 <!--del_lnk--> lb (102 <!--del_lnk--> kg)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Team</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chicago Bulls</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Nationality</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1447.png.htm" title="Flag of Argentina"><img alt="Flag of Argentina" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Argentina.svg" src="../../images/14/1447.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Born</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1979<br /><!--del_lnk--> Santa Fe, Argentina</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Draft</th>
<td>undrafted</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Pro career</th>
<td>2004 – present</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Andrés Marcelo Nocioni</b> (born <!--del_lnk--> November 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1979 in <!--del_lnk--> Santa Fe, <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>) is a <a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">basketball</a> player for the <!--del_lnk--> NBA's <!--del_lnk--> Chicago Bulls, and the <!--del_lnk--> Argentine national team. Nocioni won a gold medal with the Argentine national team at the 2004 Olympics in <!--del_lnk--> Athens, Greece. His natural position is <!--del_lnk--> small forward, though with the Bulls he has played some minutes at <!--del_lnk--> power forward. He shares both <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentine</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italian</a> citizenship. Nocioni is known as <i>Chapu</i> after the <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexican</a> children TV series <i><!--del_lnk--> El Chapulín Colorado.</i> Nocioni has a wife named Paula and a son named Laureano.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="International_career" name="International_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">International career</span></h2>
<table class="infobox" style="width: 25em; font-size: 90%;">
<tr align="center" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<th colspan="3">Olympic medal record</th>
</tr>
<tr align="center" bgcolor="#EEEEEE">
<th colspan="4"><b>Competitor for <a class="image" href="../../images/14/1447.png.htm" title="Flag of Argentina"><img alt="Flag of Argentina" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Argentina.svg" src="../../images/14/1447.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr align="center" bgcolor="#EEEEEE">
<th colspan="4">Men's <!--del_lnk--> basketball</th>
</tr>
<tr align="center" bgcolor="white" valign="middle">
<td bgcolor="gold"><b>Gold</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2004 Athens</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Team</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Nocioni's professional career began in the <!--del_lnk--> Argentine basketball league (LNB) in the 1995/96 season, and in 1998/99 he was already named <i>Best Sixth Man</i>. A year later, he was called up to the national team that won the silver medal at the <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South American</a> basketball championship.<p>In 2001, Nocioni played on the Argentina national team that won the 2001 South American Title. In 2002, Nocioni was part of a team that made basketball history, when Argentina became the first team to beat the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> team at the <!--del_lnk--> Basketball World Championship, held that year in <!--del_lnk--> Indianapolis, Indiana. His team once again earned the silver medal, losing to <a href="../../wp/y/Yugoslavia.htm" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> in a controversial final. In 2003, Nocioni went to Europe, where he spent two seasons as a <i>refuerzo</i> (reinforcement player) with <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> TAU Cerámica of the <!--del_lnk--> ACB Spanish professional league. He was the league's <!--del_lnk--> 2004 <!--del_lnk--> Most Valuable Player. In 2004, Nocioni was a key factor when Argentina became the first South American team, as well as the first <!--del_lnk--> Latin American one, in <a href="../../wp/o/Olympic_Games.htm" title="Olympic Games">Olympic</a> basketball history (and the fourth team ever, after the United States, <a href="../../wp/y/Yugoslavia.htm" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>, and the <!--del_lnk--> USSR) to win the <!--del_lnk--> Olympic Gold medal.<p>The Argentine national team has 4 NBA players among which is Nocioni, who is currently starting for Argentina, in the <!--del_lnk--> FIBA World Championship. In a game against <!--del_lnk--> Venezuela, Nocioni landed on an opponent's foot and looked to have injured his ankle, though he was cleared to play in Argentina's next game against <!--del_lnk--> Nigeria. In Argentina’s game against Nigeria, Nocioni led the team in scoring with 23 points playing 18 minutes, while not missing a single shot. Nocioni was 9-9 from the field including 5-5 from the 3-point line. "I don't think I've ever played a game where I didn't miss a shot - at least not for the national team." Argentina secured winning group A of the tournament, going a perfect 5-0 in the first round of play. <p>Argentina lost to <!--del_lnk--> Spain's national team in the FIBA 2006 world championships semi-final, with a final score of 75-74. Nocioni had a chance to win the game for Argentina, but his three pointer at the end of the game missed, giving Spain the win, and the chance to win the championship. Nocioni's Argentine team next played the <!--del_lnk--> US team in the bronze medal game, which Argentina lost 96-81. Nocioni scored 18 points in this game, in which he played against NBA teammate <!--del_lnk--> Kirk Hinrich.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16555.jpg.htm" title="Andrés Nocioni signing basketballs for fans"><img alt="Andrés Nocioni signing basketballs for fans" height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andres_Nocioni.jpg" src="../../images/165/16555.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16555.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Andrés Nocioni signing basketballs for fans</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="NBA_career" name="NBA_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">NBA career</span></h2>
<p>After winning the gold medal in the Olympics, Nocioni was signed as a undrafted rookie free-agent by the Bulls. He joined <a href="../../wp/p/Puerto_Rico.htm" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Carlos Arroyo and <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Santiago, <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Leandro Barbosa and <!--del_lnk--> Nenê, <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Eduardo Nájera, Hispanic-American <!--del_lnk--> Gilbert Arenas and his countrymen <!--del_lnk--> Manu Ginobili and <!--del_lnk--> Carlos Delfino, as NBA players.<p>He played in 81 games during his rookie campaign and posted averages of 8.3 ppg, 4.8 rpg, 1.5 apg and 23.4 mpg. Nocioni's physical style of defense created controversy around the league, and he was suspended for one game after a hard foul to Detroit's <!--del_lnk--> Tayshaun Prince. Nocioni had previously committed a hard foul on the Miami Heat’s <!--del_lnk--> Dwyane Wade and then was shoved past photographers and into the first row of spectators by <!--del_lnk--> Udonis Haslem. A spectator tossed a drink at Nocioni, which was similar to the incident that triggered a massive brawl at <!--del_lnk--> The Palace of Auburn Hills. The fan was ejected by security. For the insident Nocioni received a flagrant-one foul (which is a foul involving excessive or unjustified contact) and a <!--del_lnk--> technical. Haslem received a technical and a <!--del_lnk--> ejection.<p>While giving a <!--del_lnk--> teleconference interview with <!--del_lnk--> NBA.com, Nocioni spoke about the hard fouls and his suspension, "First, the one with Wade was completely my fault. It was a bad reaction on my part. If I had received any penalties because of it, it would be a fair sanction, but it was not given. However, the sanction set after the game against the Pistons is totally unfair. I see it as a totally real play taken out of context in the game — absolutely nothing happened. It was an accidental blow. Without purposely trying to, I hit him. I apologized on the court. I also asked Carlos Delfino to give my apologies to him, so I don’t understand why there is a sanction for something totally normal in a game."<p>In Nocioni's first NBA playoff game, he scored 25 points and grabbed 18 rebounds, the most by a rookie in a playoff game in NBA history, while playing all 48 minutes.<p>In Nocioni's second season with the Chicago Bulls, he averaged 13.0 ppg, 6.1 rpg,and 1.4 apg, while playing in all 82 games, 43 of them starts. Nocioni was named the Chicago Bulls <!--del_lnk--> CDW/<!--del_lnk--> Lenovo Player of the Year for the <!--del_lnk--> 2005-06 NBA season . In the playoffs Nocioni averaged 22.8 points, 9.6 rebounds, 1.6 assists including two <!--del_lnk--> double doubles. In game two against the <!--del_lnk--> Miami Heat he scored 30 points shooting 10-12 overall from the field (83.3%), including 3-3 in from the three point line and 1-1 in free throws, with 6 rebounds and one steal in almost 40 minutes played. Nocioni got to score 30 points again on November 19, during the 82-72 defeat against L.A. Lakers<p><a id="Titles" name="Titles"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Titles</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>1995 South America Youth Championship (Argentina)<li>2001 South America Title (Argentina)<li>2002 <!--del_lnk--> Copa del Rey (Tau Cerámica)<li>2004 <!--del_lnk--> Olympic Gold medal (Argentina)</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Nocioni"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Argentina', 'Argentina', 'Basketball', 'Argentina', 'Italy', 'Mexico', 'Argentina', 'South America', 'United States', 'Yugoslavia', 'Spain', 'Olympic Games', 'Yugoslavia', 'Puerto Rico', 'Brazil', 'Mexico'] |
Andy_Warhol | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" />
<meta content="Andy Warhol,16 mm film,1928,1964,1968,1987,2006,24 (TV series),25 Cats Name Sam and One Blue Pussy,54 (film),A, a novel" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Andy Warhol</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">/*<![CDATA[*/
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false;
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Andy_Warhol";
var wgTitle = "Andy Warhol";
var wgAction = "view";
var wgArticleId = "864";
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserGroups = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
var wgBreakFrames = false;
var wgCurRevisionId = "128143002";
/*]]>*/</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Andy_Warhol">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Andy Warhol</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Artists.htm">Artists</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table cellspacing="5" class="infobox vcard" style="width:21em; font-size:90%;">
<tr>
<td class="fn" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; background-color:#c0c0c0; color:#000000;"><b>Andy Warhol</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;"><a class="image" href="../../images/0/32.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="265" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andy_Warhol_1977.jpg" src="../../images/0/32.jpg" width="220" /></a><br /><small>Warhol in 1977</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:right;"><b>Birth name</b></td>
<td class="nickname">Andrew Warhola</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" width="85px"><b>Born</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> August 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1928<br /><!--del_lnk--> Pittsburgh, <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><b>Died</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> February 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1987<br /><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <!--del_lnk--> New York</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><b>Nationality</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><b>Field</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Painting.htm" title="Painting">Painting</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Cinema</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><b>Training</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carnegie Mellon University</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><b>Movement</b></td>
<td><span class="role"><!--del_lnk--> Pop Art</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><b>Famous works</b></td>
<td><span class="note"><i>Campbell's Soup Can</i> (1968), <i><!--del_lnk--> Chelsea Girls</i> (1966), <i><!--del_lnk--> Exploding Plastic Inevitable</i> (1966)</span></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Andy Warhol</b> (<!--del_lnk--> August 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1928 — <!--del_lnk--> February 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1987) was an <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <!--del_lnk--> artist, a central figure in the movement known as <!--del_lnk--> Pop Art. After a successful career as a commercial illustrator, Warhol became famous worldwide for his work as a painter, an <!--del_lnk--> avant-garde <!--del_lnk--> filmmaker, a record producer, an author and a <!--del_lnk--> public figure known for his presence in wildly diverse social circles that included bohemian street people, distinguished intellectuals, Hollywood celebrities and wealthy aristocrats.<p>A controversial figure during his lifetime (his work was often derided by critics as a hoax or "put-on"), Warhol has been the subject of numerous retrospective exhibitions, books and documentary films since his death in 1987. He is generally acknowledged as one of the most influential artists of the twentieth century.<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script>
<p><a id="Biography" name="Biography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Childhood_and_early_career" name="Childhood_and_early_career"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Childhood and early career</span></h3>
<p>Warhol was born <b>Andrew Warhola</b> in <!--del_lnk--> Pittsburgh, <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>. His parents, Andrej (Andrew) Warhola (the surname was spelled Varchola in Europe, and was modified after emigrating to America) and Ulja (Julia) Justyna Zavacka, were working-class immigrants of <!--del_lnk--> Rusyn (Ruthenian) ethnicity from <!--del_lnk--> Mikova in northeast <a href="../../wp/s/Slovakia.htm" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>. Despite stories circulating about Warhol's father working in coal mines, Andrej Warhola actually worked in construction in <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania, and the family lived at 55 Beelen Street. The family was <!--del_lnk--> Byzantine Catholic.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> third grade, Warhol came down with <!--del_lnk--> St. Vitus' disease, an affliction of the nervous system causing involuntary movements which is believed to be a complication of <!--del_lnk--> scarlet fever. This disease led to a blotchiness in pigmentation of his skin and, as a child, he became somewhat of a <!--del_lnk--> hypochondriac, developing a fear of hospitals and medical doctors. Because he was at times bed-ridden as a child, he became an outcast among his school-mates and bonded with his mother very strongly (Guiles, 1989). When in bed he used to draw, listen to the radio and collect pictures of movie stars around his bed. Looking back later, Warhol described the period of his sickness as very important in the development of his personality and in the forming of his skill-set and preferences.<p>Warhol showed an early artistic talent and studied <!--del_lnk--> commercial art at <!--del_lnk--> Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh (Carnegie Tech, at the time). In 1949, he moved to <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> and began a successful career in <!--del_lnk--> magazine illustration and <a href="../../wp/a/Advertising.htm" title="Advertising">advertising</a>. He became well-known mainly for his whimsical ink drawings of shoes done in a loose, blotted ink style. These figured in some of his earliest showings in New York at the <!--del_lnk--> Bodley Gallery.<p><a id="The_1960s" name="The_1960s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The 1960s</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
</div>
<p>During the 1960s, Warhol transformed himself from an advertising illustrator into one of the most famous American artists of the day. In many ways, Andy Warhol and his circle helped define the decade.<p>It was during the 1960s that Warhol began to make paintings of famous American products such as <!--del_lnk--> Campbell's Soup Cans from the <!--del_lnk--> Campbell Soup Company and <!--del_lnk--> Coca-Cola, as well as paintings of celebrities like <!--del_lnk--> Marilyn Monroe, <!--del_lnk--> Troy Donahue, and <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Taylor. He founded "<!--del_lnk--> The Factory", his studio, during these years, and gathered around himself a wide range of artists, writers, musicians and underground celebrities. He switched to <!--del_lnk--> silkscreen prints, which he produced serially, seeking not only to make art of <!--del_lnk--> mass-produced items but to mass produce the art itself. In declaring that he wanted to be "a machine", and in minimizing the role of his own creative insight in the production of his work, Warhol sparked a revolution in art - his work quickly became very controversial, and popular.<p>Warhol's work from this period revolves around American Pop (Popular) Culture. He painted dollar bills, celebrities, brand name products, and images from newspaper clippings - many of the latter were iconic images from headline stories of the decade (e.g. photographs of <!--del_lnk--> mushroom clouds, and police dogs attacking <!--del_lnk--> civil rights protesters). His subjects were instantly recognizable, and often had a mass appeal - this aspect interested him most, and it unifies his paintings from this period. Take, for example, Warhol's comments on the appeal of Coke:<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
<p>What's great about this country is that America started the tradition where the richest consumers buy essentially the same things as the poorest. You can be watching TV and see Coca Cola, and you know that the President drinks Coca Cola, Liz Taylor drinks Coca Cola, and just think, you can drink Coca Cola, too. A coke is a coke and no amount of money can get you a better coke than the one the bum on the corner is drinking. All the cokes are the same and all the cokes are good. Liz Taylor knows it, the President knows it, the bum knows it, and you know it.<p style="text-align: right;">– <cite style="font-style:normal;"><i>The Philosophy of Andy Warhol: (From A to B and Back Again)</i>, <i>1975, <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-15-671720-4</i></cite></blockquote>
<p>This quotation both expresses his affection for popular culture, and evidences an ambiguity of perspective that cuts across nearly all of the artist's statements about his own work.<p>New York's <!--del_lnk--> Museum of Modern Art hosted a Symposium on <!--del_lnk--> Pop Art in December 1962, during which artists like Warhol were attacked for "capitulating" to consumerism. Critics were scandalized by Warhol's open embrace of market culture. This symposium set the tone for Warhol's reception - though throughout the decade it became more and more clear that there had been a profound change in the culture of the art world, and that Warhol was at the centre of that shift.<p>A pivotal event was the 1964 exhibit "The American Supermarket", a show held in Paul Bianchini's Upper East Side gallery. The show was presented as a typical small supermarket environment, except that everything in it—the produce, canned goods, meat, posters on the wall, etc.—was created by six prominent pop artists of the time, including the controversial (and like-minded) <!--del_lnk--> Billy Apple, Mary Inman, and Robert Watts. Warhol's painting of a can of Campbell's soup cost $1,500, while each autographed can sold for $6. The exhibit was one of the first mass events that directly confronted the general public with both Pop Art and the perennial question of what is art.<div class="thumb tright">
</div>
<p>As an advertisement illustrator in the 1950s Warhol used assistants to increase his productivity. Collaboration would remain a defining (and controversial) aspect of his working methods throughout his career - in the 1960s, however, this was particularly true. One of the most important collaborators during this period was <!--del_lnk--> Gerard Malanga. Malanga assisted the artist with producing silkscreens, films, sculpture, and other works at "<!--del_lnk--> The Factory", Warhol's aluminium foil-and-silver-paint lined studio on 47th Street (later moved to Broadway). Other members of Warhol's Factory crowd included <!--del_lnk--> Freddie Herko, <!--del_lnk--> Ondine, <!--del_lnk--> Ronald Tavel, <!--del_lnk--> Mary Woronov, <!--del_lnk--> Pietro Psaier, Billy Name, and <!--del_lnk--> Brigid Berlin (from whom he apparently got the idea to tape record his phone conversations). During this decade, Warhol also groomed a retinue of bohemian eccentrics upon whom he bestowed the designation "<!--del_lnk--> Superstars", including <!--del_lnk--> Edie Sedgwick, <!--del_lnk--> Viva, and <!--del_lnk--> Ultra Violet. These people all participated in the Factory films, and some, like Berlin, remained friends with Warhol until his death. Important figures in the New York underground art/cinema world (e.g. writer <!--del_lnk--> John Giorno, film-maker <!--del_lnk--> Jack Smith) also appear in Warhol films of the 1960s, revealing Warhol's connections to a diverse range of artistic scenes during this period. By the end of the decade Andy Warhol was himself a celebrity, appearing frequently in newspapers and magazines alongside Factory cohorts like Sedgwick.<p><a id="Shooting" name="Shooting"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Shooting</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> June 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1968, <!--del_lnk--> Valerie Solanas turned up at Warhol's studio. She then shot the artist and Mario Amaya.<p>Before the shooting, Solanas had been a marginal figure in the factory scene. She founded a "group" (she was its only member) called the "Society for Cutting Up Men" (S.C.U.M.) and authored the scabrous <!--del_lnk--> S.C.U.M. Manifesto, a <!--del_lnk--> radical feminist attack on patriarchy. Solanas appears in the 1968 Warhol film, "I, A Man." Earlier on the day of the attack, Solanas had been turned away from the Factory after asking for the return of a script she had given to Warhol. The script, apparently, had been misplaced.<p>Warhol was seriously wounded by the attack and barely survived (doctors cut open his chest and massaged his heart to help stimulate its movement again). He suffered physical effects for the rest of his life (he had to wear a corset, for example, to support his abdomen). The shooting had a profound effect on Warhol's life and art.<p>Solanas was arrested the day after the assault (coincidentally, the day that <!--del_lnk--> Robert F. Kennedy was shot). By way of explanation, she said that "He had too much control over my life." After the shooting, the Factory scene became much more tightly controlled, and for many this event brought the "Factory 60s" to an end.<p><a id="The_1970s" name="The_1970s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The 1970s</span></h3>
<p>Compared to the success and scandal of Warhol's work in the 1960s, the 1970s would prove a much quieter decade. This period, however, saw Warhol becoming more entrepreneurial. According to <!--del_lnk--> Bob Colacello, Warhol devoted much of his time to rounding up new, rich patrons for portrait commissions — including <!--del_lnk--> Mick Jagger, <!--del_lnk--> Liza Minnelli, <!--del_lnk--> John Lennon, <!--del_lnk--> Diana Ross, <!--del_lnk--> Brigitte Bardot, and <!--del_lnk--> Michael Jackson. Warhol's famous portrait of Chinese Communist dictator <a href="../../wp/m/Mao_Zedong.htm" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> was created in 1973. He also founded, with <!--del_lnk--> Gerard Malanga, <i><!--del_lnk--> Interview</i> magazine, and published <i>The Philosophy of Andy Warhol</i> (1975). In this book he presents his ideas on the nature of art: "Making <a href="../../wp/m/Money.htm" title="Money">money</a> is art, and working is art and good business is the best art."<p>Warhol used to socialize at <!--del_lnk--> Serendipity 3 and, later in the 70s, <!--del_lnk--> Studio 54, nightspots in New York City. He was generally regarded as quiet, shy, and as a meticulous observer. Art critic <!--del_lnk--> Robert Hughes called him "the white mole of <!--del_lnk--> Union Square".<p><a id="The_1980s" name="The_1980s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The 1980s</span></h3>
<p>Warhol had a re-emergence of critical and financial success in the 1980s, partially due to his affiliation and friendships with a number of prolific younger artists, who were dominating the "<!--del_lnk--> bull market" of '80s New York art: <!--del_lnk--> Jean-Michel Basquiat, <!--del_lnk--> Julian Schnabel, <!--del_lnk--> David Salle and the so-called <!--del_lnk--> Neo-Expressionists, as well as <!--del_lnk--> Francesco Clemente, <!--del_lnk--> Enzo Cucchi and members of the <!--del_lnk--> Transavantguardia movement, which had become influential. In 1985, Andy Warhol was selected as one of the <!--del_lnk--> Absolut Vodka artists, and several of his paintings incorporating the Absolut Vodka bottle in it were used in advertisements, bringing his art to the attention of a broader audience. <p>Warhol also had an appreciation for intense Hollywood glamor. He once said: "I love Los Angeles. I love Hollywood. They're so beautiful. Everything's plastic, but I love plastic. I want to be plastic."<p><a id="Sexuality" name="Sexuality"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sexuality</span></h3>
<p>Warhol was one of the first major American artists to be open about his homosexuality. Many people think of Warhol as "<!--del_lnk--> asexual" and merely a "<!--del_lnk--> voyeur", but these notions have been debunked by biographers (such as <!--del_lnk--> Victor Bockris), explored by other members of the factory scene such as <!--del_lnk--> Bob Colacello (in his book <i>Holy Terror: Andy Warhol Close Up</i>), and by scholars like art historian Richard Meyer (in his book <i>Outlaw Representation</i>). The question of how his sexuality informed Warhol's work and shaped his relationship to the art world is a major subject of scholarship on the artist, and is an issue that Warhol himself addressed in interviews, in conversation with his contemporaries, and in his publications (e.g. <i>Popism: The Warhol Sixties</i>).<p>Throughout his career, Warhol produced erotic photography and drawings of male nudes. Many of his most famous works (portraits of <!--del_lnk--> Liza Minnelli, <!--del_lnk--> Judy Garland, <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Taylor, and films like <i><!--del_lnk--> Blow Job</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> My Hustler</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Lonesome Cowboys</i>) draw from gay underground culture and/or openly explore the complexity of sexuality and desire. Many of his films premiered in gay porn theaters. That said, some stories about Warhol's development as an artist revolve around the obstacle his sexuality initially presented as he tried to launch his career. The first works that he submitted to a gallery in the pursuit of a career as an artist were homoerotic drawings of male nudes. They were rejected for being too openly gay.<!--del_lnk--> In <i><!--del_lnk--> Popism</i>, furthermore, the artist recalls a conversation with the film maker <!--del_lnk--> Emile de Antonio about the difficulty Warhol had being accepted socially by the then-more-famous (but closeted) gay artists <!--del_lnk--> Jasper Johns and <!--del_lnk--> Robert Rauschenberg. De Antonio explained that Warhol was "too swish and that upsets them." In response to this, Warhol writes, "There was nothing I could say to that. It was all too true. So I decided I just wasn't going to care, because those were all the things that I didn't want to change anyway, that I didn't think I 'should' want to change ... Other people could change their attitudes but not me". In exploring Warhol's biography, many turn to this period - the late 1950s and early 1960s - as a key moment in the development of his persona. Some have suggested that his frequent refusal to comment on his work, to speak about himself (confining himself in interviews to responses like "Uhm, No" and "Uhm, Yes", and allowing others often to speak for him), and even the evolution of his Pop style can be traced to the years when Warhol was first dismissed by the inner circles of the New York art world.<p><a id="Religious_beliefs" name="Religious_beliefs"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Religious beliefs</span></h3>
<p>Warhol was a practicing Byzantine Rite Catholic. He regularly volunteered at <!--del_lnk--> homeless shelters in New York, particularly during the busier times of the year, and described himself as a religious person. Many of his later works contain almost-hidden religious themes or subjects, and a body of religious-themed works was found posthumously in his estate. Warhol also regularly attended <!--del_lnk--> mass during his life, and the pastor of Warhol's church, Saint Vincent's, said that the artist went there almost daily. His art is noticably influenced by the eastern Christian <!--del_lnk--> iconographic tradition which were so evident in his places of worship.<p>Warhol's brother has described the artist as "really religious, but he didn't want people to know about that because [it was] private". Despite the private nature of his faith, in Warhol's eulogy John Richardson depicted it as devout: "To my certain knowledge, he was responsible for at least one conversion. He took considerable pride in financing his nephew's studies for the priesthood". <p><a id="Death" name="Death"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Death</span></h3>
<p>At the relatively young age of 58, Warhol died in New York City at 6:32 a.m. on <!--del_lnk--> February 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1987. According to news reports, he had been making good recovery from a routine <!--del_lnk--> gallbladder surgery at <!--del_lnk--> New York Hospital before dying in his sleep from a sudden <a href="../../wp/m/Myocardial_infarction.htm" title="Myocardial infarction">heart attack</a>. The hospital staff had failed to adequately monitor his condition and overloaded him with fluids after his operation, causing him to suffer from a fatal case of <!--del_lnk--> water intoxication, which prompted Warhol's lawyers to sue the hospital for <!--del_lnk--> negligence. Prior to his diagnosis and operation, Warhol delayed having his recurring gallbladder problems checked, as he was afraid to enter hospitals and see doctors.<p>Warhol's body was taken back to Pittsburgh by his brothers for burial. The wake was at Thomas P. Kunsak Funeral Home and was an open-coffin ceremony. The coffin was a solid bronze casket with gold plated rails and white upholstery. Warhol wore a black cashmere suit, a paisley tie, a platinum wig, and sunglasses. He was holding a small prayer book and a red rose.<p>The funeral liturgy was held at the Holy Ghost Byzantine Catholic Church on Pittsburgh's <!--del_lnk--> North Side. The eulogy was given by Monsignor Peter Tay. Fellow artist <!--del_lnk--> Yoko Ono also made an appearance. The coffin was covered with white roses and asparagus ferns.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/1/134.jpg.htm" title="Warhol's grave at St. John the Baptist Byzantine Catholic Cemetery."><img alt="Warhol's grave at St. John the Baptist Byzantine Catholic Cemetery." class="thumbimage" height="198" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Warhol_grave.jpg" src="../../images/1/134.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/1/134.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Warhol's grave at <!--del_lnk--> St. John the Baptist Byzantine Catholic Cemetery.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>After the liturgy, the coffin was driven to <!--del_lnk--> St. John the Baptist Byzantine Catholic Cemetery in <!--del_lnk--> Bethel Park, a south suburb of Pittsburgh. At the grave, the priest said a brief prayer and sprinkled holy water on the casket. Before the coffin was lowered, Paige Powell dropped a copy of <i>Interview</i> magazine, an <i>Interview</i> t-shirt, and a bottle of the <!--del_lnk--> Estee Lauder perfume "Beautiful" into the grave. Warhol was buried next to his mother and father.<p>Weeks later a memorial service was held in Manhattan for Warhol on <!--del_lnk--> April Fool's Day at <!--del_lnk--> St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York.<p>Warhol had so many possessions that it took <!--del_lnk--> Sotheby's nine days to auction his estate after his death; the auction grossed more than US$20 million. His total estate was worth considerably more, in no small part due to shrewd investments over the years.<p>On the twentieth anniversary of his death The Gershwin Hotel in <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> held a week-long series of events commemorating Warhol's art and his superstars. There was an award ceremony, a fashion show, and <!--del_lnk--> Blondie performed at the closing party. At the same time, The Carrozzini von Buhler Gallery in New York City held an exhibit titled, <i>Andy Warhol: In His Wake.</i> The exhibit featured the art of Warhol's superstars <!--del_lnk--> Ultra Violet, <!--del_lnk--> Billy Name, <!--del_lnk--> Taylor Mead, and Ivy Nicholson as well as art by a younger generation of artists who have been inspired by Warhol. One interactive sculpture in the exhibit, <i>The Great Warhola</i>, by <!--del_lnk--> Cynthia von Buhler, depicted Warhol as an arcade fortune-telling machine. The gallery was transformed to look like Warhol's silver factory. <i><!--del_lnk--> Factory Girl</i>, a film about the life of <!--del_lnk--> Edie Sedgwick, starring <!--del_lnk--> Sienna Miller, was also released one week before the anniversary of Warhol's death.<p><a id="Works" name="Works"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Works</span></h2>
<p><a id="Paintings" name="Paintings"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Paintings</span></h3>
<p>By the beginning of the 1960s, Warhol was a very successful commercial illustrator. His detailed and elegant drawings for I. Miller shoes were particularly popular. These illustrations consisted mainly of "blotted ink" drawings (<!--del_lnk--> monoprints)—a technique which he applied in much of his early art. Although many artists of this period worked in commercial art, most did so discreetly. Warhol was so successful, however, that his profile as an illustrator seemed to undermine his efforts to be taken seriously as an artist.<p>In the early 1960s Warhol tried to exhibit some of his drawings using these techniques in a gallery, only to be turned down. He began to rethink the relationship between his commercial work and the rest of his art. Instead of treating these things as opposites, he merged them, and began to take commercial and popular culture more explicitly as his topic.<p><!--del_lnk--> Pop Art was an experimental form that several artists were independently adopting; some of these pioneers, such as <!--del_lnk--> Roy Lichtenstein, would later become synonymous with the movement. Warhol, who would become famous as the "Pope of Pop", turned to this new style, where popular subjects could be part of the artist's palette. His early paintings show images taken from <!--del_lnk--> cartoons and advertisements, hand-painted with paint drips. Those drips emulated the style of successful abstract expressionists (such as <!--del_lnk--> Robert Rauschenberg). Eventually, Warhol pared his image vocabulary down to the icon itself—to brand names, celebrities, dollar signs—and removed all traces of the artist's "hand" in the production of his paintings.<p>To him, part of defining a niche was defining his subject matter. Cartoons were already being used by Lichtenstein, <!--del_lnk--> typography by <!--del_lnk--> Jasper Johns, and so on; Warhol wanted a distinguishing subject. His friends suggested he should paint the things he loved the most. In his signature way of taking things literally, for his first major <!--del_lnk--> exhibition he painted his famous cans of <!--del_lnk--> Campbell's Soup, which he claimed to have had for lunch for most of his life.<p>He loved <!--del_lnk--> celebrities, so he painted them as well. From these beginnings he developed his later style and subjects. Instead of working on a signature subject matter, as he started out to do, he worked more and more on a signature style, slowly eliminating the hand-made from the artistic process. Warhol frequently used <!--del_lnk--> silk-screening; his later drawings were traced from slide projections. Warhol went from being a <!--del_lnk--> painter to being a <!--del_lnk--> designer of paintings. At the height of his fame as a painter, Warhol had several assistants who produced his silk-screen multiples, following his directions to make different versions and variations.<p>Warhol produced both comic and serious works; his subject could be a soup can or an electric chair. Warhol used the same techniques—silkscreens, reproduced serially, and often painted with bright colors—whether he painted celebrities, everyday objects, or images of suicide, car crashes, and disasters (as part of a 1962-1963 series called "Death and Disaster"). The "Death and Disaster" paintings (such as "Red Car Crash", "Purple Jumping Man", "Orange Disaster") transform personal tragedies into public spectacles, and signal the prominence of images of disaster in the <a href="../../wp/m/Mass_media.htm" title="Mass media">media</a>, showing how the mass reproduction of these images numbs the public.<p>The unifying element in Warhol's work is his deadpan <!--del_lnk--> Keatonesque style—artistically and personally affectless. This was mirrored by Warhol's own demeanor, as he often played "dumb" to the media, and refused to explain his work. The artist was famous for having said that all you need to know about him and his works is already there, "on the surface." Before this blankness, the lack of <!--del_lnk--> signifiers of sincerity, the viewer is tempted to read beyond the surface to try and discover what the 'real Andy' thinks. Is Andy horrified by death or does he think it is funny? Are his soup can paintings a cynical joke about the cheapness of mass culture, or are they homages to the simple comforts of home? His refusal to speak to how his work ought to be read made it all the more interesting—he left its interpretation entirely up to his audience.<p>One might say that Warhol's work as a Pop Artist was always somewhat <!--del_lnk--> conceptual. His series of <!--del_lnk--> do it yourself paintings and <!--del_lnk--> Rorschach blots are intended as <!--del_lnk--> pop comments on art and what art could be. His cow wallpaper (literally, wallpaper with a cow <!--del_lnk--> motif) and his <!--del_lnk--> oxidation paintings (canvases prepared with copper paint that was then oxidized with <!--del_lnk--> urine) are also noteworthy in this context. Equally noteworthy is the way these works—and their <!--del_lnk--> means of production—mirrored the atmosphere at Andy's New York "Factory." <!--del_lnk--> Biographer Bob Colacello provides some details on Andy's "piss paintings":<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
<p>Victor... was Andy's ghost pisser on the Oxidations. He would come to the Factory to urinate on canvases that had already been primed with copper-based paint by Andy or Ronnie Cutrone, who was a second ghost pisser, much appreciated by Andy, who said that the vitamin B that Ronnie took made a prettier colour when the acid in the urine turned the copper green. Did Andy ever use his own urine? My diary shows that when he first began the series, in December 1977, he did, and there were many others: boys who'd come to lunch and drink too much wine, and find it funny or even flattering to be asked to help Andy 'paint.' Andy always had a little extra bounce in his walk as he led them to his studio...<p style="text-align: right;">– <cite style="font-style:normal;">Holy Terror—Andy Warhol Close Up, <i>New York, Harper/Collins, 1990, p. 343</i></cite></blockquote>
<p>One could say that these "piss paintings" could be seen as a parody of <!--del_lnk--> Abstract Expressionism and <!--del_lnk--> Jackson Pollock (who was famous for pouring paint all over his canvases, often directly from the can). One could also find in them a reflection of some subsets of the gay underworld of New York of that era, including fascination with and sexual focus on urine and excretory matter in general. Demi-monde New York nightclubs of that period include "The Toilet," a spot featuring public urination acts (to include being doused by others, or drinking their urine) and others of a similar nature, such as "The Anvil." Andy visited these spots, although he was not recorded as a subject of undinistic practices, but rather, as so often, as an observer. In any case, he was wholly familiar with the undinistic, urologic, and other "watersports" practices of the day.<p>Warhol's paintings have left a profound legacy in contemporary art, influencing artists such as <!--del_lnk--> Dexter Dalwood, <!--del_lnk--> Will Teather and <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Peyton.<p><a id="Films" name="Films"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Films</span></h3>
<p>Warhol worked across a wide range of media — painting, photography, drawing, and sculpture. In addition, he was a highly prolific filmmaker. Between 1963 and 1968, he made more than sixty films. One of his most famous films, <i><!--del_lnk--> Sleep</i> (1963), monitors poet <!--del_lnk--> John Giorno sleeping for six hours. The 35-minute film <i><!--del_lnk--> Blow Job</i> (1963) is one continuous shot of the face of DeVerne Bookwalter supposedly receiving <!--del_lnk--> oral sex, although the camera never tilts down to see this. Another, <!--del_lnk--> <i>Empire</i> (1964), consists of eight hours of footage of the <!--del_lnk--> Empire State Building in New York City at dusk.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Batman Dracula</i> is a <!--del_lnk--> 1964 film that was produced and directed by Warhol, without the permission of <!--del_lnk--> DC Comics. It was screened only at his art exhibits. A fan of the Batman series, Warhol's movie was an "homage" to the series, and is considered the first appearance of a blatantly campy Batman. No prints of the film are known to exist.<p>Warhol's 1965 film <i><!--del_lnk--> Vinyl</i> is an adaptation of <!--del_lnk--> Anthony Burgess' popular <!--del_lnk--> dystopian novel <i><!--del_lnk--> A Clockwork Orange</i>. Others record improvised encounters between Factory regulars such as Brigid Berlin, <!--del_lnk--> Viva, <!--del_lnk--> Edie Sedgwick, <!--del_lnk--> Candy Darling, <!--del_lnk--> Holly Woodlawn, Ondine, <!--del_lnk--> Nico, and <!--del_lnk--> Jackie Curtis. Legendary underground artist <!--del_lnk--> Jack Smith appears in the film <i>Camp</i>.<p>His most popular and critically successful film was <i><!--del_lnk--> Chelsea Girls</i> (1966). The film was highly innovative in that it consisted of two <!--del_lnk--> 16 mm films being projected simultaneously, with two different stories being shown in tandem. From the projection booth, the sound would be raised for one film to elucidate that "story" while it was lowered for the other. Then it would be the other film's turn to bask in the glory of sound. The multiplication of images evoked Warhol's seminal silk-screen works of the early 1960s. The influence of the film's split-screen, multi-narrative style could be felt in such modern work as <!--del_lnk--> Mike Figgis' <i><!--del_lnk--> Timecode</i> and, however indirectly, the early seasons of <!--del_lnk--> <i>24</i>.<p>Other important films include <i><!--del_lnk--> Bike Boy</i> (1967-1968), <i><!--del_lnk--> My Hustler</i> (1965) and <i><!--del_lnk--> Lonesome Cowboys</i> (1968), a raunchy pseudo-<!--del_lnk--> Western. These and other titles document gay underground and camp culture, and continue to feature prominently in scholarship about sexuality and art - see, for example, Mathew Tinkom's <i>Working Like a Homosexual</i> (Duke University Press, 2002) or Juan Suarez's <i>Bike Boys, Drag Queens, and Superstars</i> (Indiana University Press, 1996). <i><!--del_lnk--> Blue Movie</i>, a film in which Warhol superstar Viva makes love and fools around in bed with a man for 33 minutes of the film's playing-time, was Warhol's last film as director. The film was at the time scandalous for its frank approach to a sexual encounter. For many years Viva refused to allow it to be screened. It was publicly screened in New York in 2005 for the first time in over thirty years.<p>After his <!--del_lnk--> June 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1968 shooting, a reclusive Warhol relinquished his personal involvement in filmmaking. His acolyte and assistant director, <!--del_lnk--> Paul Morrissey, took over the film-making chores for the <!--del_lnk--> Factory collective, steering Warhol-branded cinema towards more <!--del_lnk--> mainstream, <!--del_lnk--> narrative-based, <!--del_lnk--> B-movie <!--del_lnk--> exploitation fare with <i><!--del_lnk--> Flesh</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Trash</i>, and <i><!--del_lnk--> Heat</i>. All of these films, including the later <i><!--del_lnk--> Andy Warhol's Dracula</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Andy Warhol's Frankenstein</i>, were far more mainstream than anything Warhol as a director had attempted. These latter "Warhol" films starred <!--del_lnk--> Joe Dallesandro, who was more of a Morrissey star than a true <!--del_lnk--> Warhol superstar.<p>In order to facilitate the success of these Warhol-branded, Morrissey-directed movies in the marketplace, all of Warhol's earlier avant-garde films were removed from distribution and exhibition by 1972.<p>Another film, <i><!--del_lnk--> Bad</i>, made significant impact as a "Warhol" film yet was directed by Jed Johnson. <i>Bad</i> starred the infamous <!--del_lnk--> Carroll Baker and a young <!--del_lnk--> Perry King.<p>The first volume of a <!--del_lnk--> catalogue raisonne for the Factory film archive, edited by Callie Angell, was published in the spring of 2006.<p><a id="Factory_in_New_York" name="Factory_in_New_York"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Factory in New York</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Factory: 231 East 47th street 1963-1967<li>Factory: 1342 Lexington Avenue (the first Factory)<li>Factory: 860 Broadway (in front of 33 Union Square) 1973-1984 (the building has now been completely remodeled and was for a time (2000-2001) the headquarters of the <!--del_lnk--> dotcom consultancy <!--del_lnk--> Scient)<li>Factory: 22 East 33rd Street 1984-1987 (the building no longer exists)<li>Factory: 33 Union Square 1967-1973 (Becker Building)<li>Home: 57 East 66th street (Warhol's last home)<li>Last personal studio: 158 Madison Avenue<li>Home: 242 Lexington Avenue</ul>
<p><a id="Filmography" name="Filmography"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Filmography</span></h3>
<div class="references-small" style="column-count:3;-moz-column-count:3;">
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Blow Job</i> (1963)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Eat</i> (1963)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Haircut</i> (1963)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Kiss</i> (1963)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Naomi's Birthday Party</i> (1963)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Sleep</i> (1963)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> 13 Most Beautiful Women</i> (1964)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Batman Dracula</i> (1964)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Clockwork</i> (1964)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Couch</i> (1964)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Drunk</i> (1964)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Empire</i> (1964)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The End of Dawn</i> (1964)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Lips</i> (1964)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Mario Banana I</i> (1964)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Mario Banana II</i> (1964)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Messy Lives</i> (1964)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Naomi and Rufus Kiss</i> (1964)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Tarzan and Jane Regained... Sort of</i> (1964)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Thirteen Most Beautiful Boys</i> (1964)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Beauty #2</i> (1965)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Bitch</i> (1965)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Camp</i> (1965)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Harlot</i> (1965)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Horse</i> (1965)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Kitchen</i> (1965)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Life of Juanita Castro</i> (1965)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> My Hustler</i> (1965)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Poor Little Rich Girl</i> (1965)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Restaurant</i> (1965)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Space</i> (1965)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Taylor Mead's Ass</i> (1965)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Vinyl</i> (1965)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Screen Test</i> (1965)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Screen Test #2</i> (1965)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Ari and Mario</i> (1966)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Hedy (film)</i> (1966)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Kiss the Boot</i> (1966)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Milk</i> (1966)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Salvador Dalí</i> (1966)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Shower</i> (1966)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Sunset</i> (1966)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Superboy</i> (1966)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Closet</i> (1966)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Chelsea Girls</i> (1966)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Beard (film)</i> (1966)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> More Milk, Yvette</i> (1966)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Outer and Inner Space</i> (1966)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Velvet Underground and Nico</i> (1966)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Andy Warhol Story</i> (1967)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Tiger Morse</i> (1967)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> ****</i> (1967)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Imitation of Christ</i> (1967)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Nude Restaurant</i> (1967)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Bike Boy</i> (1967)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> I, a Man</i> (1967)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> San Diego Surf</i> (1968)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Loves of Ondine</i> (1968)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Blue Movie</i> (1969)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Lonesome Cowboys</i> (1969)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> L'Amour</i> (1972)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Flesh (film)</i> (1968)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Flesh for Frankenstein</i> (1973)<br /><small>aka Andy Warhol's Frankenstein (USA)</small><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Blood for Dracula</i> (1974)<br /><small>aka Andy Warhol's Dracula (USA)</small></ul>
</div>
<p><a id="Music" name="Music"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Music</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
</div>
<p>Warhol adopted the band the <!--del_lnk--> Velvet Underground as one of his projects in the 1960s, "producing" their first album <i><!--del_lnk--> The Velvet Underground and Nico</i> as well as providing the album art. His actual participation in the album's production amounted to simply paying for the studio time. After the band's first album, Warhol and band leader <!--del_lnk--> Lou Reed started to disagree more about the direction the band should take, and the contact between them faded. On <!--del_lnk--> December 16, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 collector Warren Hill successfully sold an acetate <!--del_lnk--> demo LP version, which he had retrieved on a flea market for $0.75, on <!--del_lnk--> eBay for $25,200.<p>Warhol designed the cover art for <a href="../../wp/t/The_Rolling_Stones.htm" title="The Rolling Stones">The Rolling Stones</a> albums <i><!--del_lnk--> Sticky Fingers</i> (1971) and <i><!--del_lnk--> Love You Live</i> (1977). In 1975, Warhol was commissioned to do several portraits of the band's frontman <!--del_lnk--> Mick Jagger.<p>In 1990 Reed recorded the album <i><!--del_lnk--> Songs for Drella</i> (one of Warhol's nicknames was Drella, a combination of Dracula and Cinderella) with fellow <!--del_lnk--> Velvet Underground alumnus <!--del_lnk--> John Cale. On <i>Drella</i>, Reed apologizes and comes to terms with his part in their conflict.<p>Warhol was also friendly with many musicians, including <a href="../../wp/b/Bob_Dylan.htm" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a> and <!--del_lnk--> John Lennon - he designed the cover to Lennon's 1986 posthumously released <!--del_lnk--> Menlove Avenue. Warhol also appeared as a bartender in <!--del_lnk--> The Cars' <!--del_lnk--> music video for their <!--del_lnk--> single "Hello Again," and <!--del_lnk--> Curiosity Killed The Cat's video for their "Misfit" single (both videos, and others, were produced by Warhol's video production company).<p>Warhol strongly influenced the <!--del_lnk--> new wave/<!--del_lnk--> punk rock band <!--del_lnk--> Devo, as well as <!--del_lnk--> David Bowie. Bowie recorded a song entitled "<!--del_lnk--> Andy Warhol" for his 1971 <i><!--del_lnk--> Hunky Dory</i> album.<div class="thumb tright">
</div>
<p><a id="Books_and_print" name="Books_and_print"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Books and print</span></h3>
<p>Beginning in the early 1950s Warhol produced several unbound portfolios of his work.<p>The first of several bound self-published books by Warhol was <i><!--del_lnk--> 25 Cats Name Sam and One Blue Pussy</i>, printed in 1954 by <!--del_lnk--> Seymour Berlin on Artches brand watermarked paper using his blotted line technique for the lithographs. The original edition was limited to 190 numbered, hand colored copies, using Dr. Martin's ink washes. Most of these were given by Warhol as gifts to clients and friends. Copy #4, inscribed "Jerry" on the front cover, was given to <!--del_lnk--> Geraldine Stutz, who at the time was with <!--del_lnk--> I. Miller Shoes. Later the president of <!--del_lnk--> Henri Bendel and then while head of <!--del_lnk--> Panache Press an imprint of <!--del_lnk--> Random House she used this copy for a facsimile printing in 1987. Her estate consigned the original limited edition to <!--del_lnk--> Doyle New York where it sold in May of 2006 for US $35,000.<p>Other self-published books by Warhol include:<ul>
<li><i>Gold Book</i><li><i>Wild Raspberries</i><li><i>Holy Cats</i></ul>
<p>Later Warhol "wrote" several books that were commercially printed.<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> A, a novel</i> (1968, <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-8021-3553-6) is a literal transcription - containing spelling errors and phonetically written background noise and mumbling - of audio recordings of <!--del_lnk--> Ondine and several of Andy Warhol's friends hanging out at the Factory, talking, going out.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Philosophy of Andy Warhol; from A to B and back again</i> (1975, <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-15-671720-4) - according to Pat Hackett's introduction to <i>The Andy Warhol Diaries</i>, Pat Hackett did the transcriptions and text for the book based on daily phone conversations, sometimes (when Warhol was traveling) using audio cassettes that Andy Warhol gave her. Said cassettes contained conversations with <!--del_lnk--> Brigid Berlin (also known as Brigid Polk) and former <i>Interview</i> magazine editor <!--del_lnk--> Bob Colacello.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Popism: The Warhol Sixties</i> (1980, <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-15-672960-1), authored by Warhol and <!--del_lnk--> Pat Hackett is a retrospective view of the sixties and the role of Pop Art.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Andy Warhol Diaries</i> (1989, <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-446-39138-7, edited by Pat Hackett) is an edited diary that was dictated by Warhol to Hackett in daily phone conversations. Warhol started keeping a diary to keep track of his expenses after being audited, although it soon evolved to include his personal and cultural observations.</ul>
<p>Warhol created the fashion magazine <i><!--del_lnk--> Interview</i> that is still published today. The loopy title script on the cover is thought to be either his own handwriting or that of his mother, Julia Warhola, who would often do text work for his early commercial pieces.<h3> <span class="mw-headline">Producer and product</span></h3>
<p>In many ways Warhol refined and expanded the idea of what it means to be an artist. Warhol frequently took on the position of a producer, rather than a creator - this is true not only of his work as a painter (he had assistants do much of the work of producing his paintings), it is true of his film-making and commercial enterprises as well. He liked to coin an idea and then oversee or delegate its execution. As he refined this element of his work The <!--del_lnk--> Factory evolved from an atelier into an office. He became (and still is) the public face of a company, and a brand.<p>He founded the gossip magazine <!--del_lnk--> Interview, a stage for celebrities he "endorsed" and a business staffed by his friends. He collaborated with others on all of his books (some of which were written with Pat Hackett.) He adopted the young painter <!--del_lnk--> Jean-Michel Basquiat, and the band <!--del_lnk--> The Velvet Underground, presenting them to the public as his latest interest, and collaborating with them. One might even say that he produced people (as in the Warholian "Superstar" and the Warholian portrait). He endorsed products, appeared in commercials, and made frequent celebrity guest appearances on television shows and in films (he appeared in everything from <!--del_lnk--> Love Boat to <!--del_lnk--> Saturday Night Live and the <!--del_lnk--> Richard Pryor movie, <i>Dynamite Chicken</i>).<p>In this respect Warhol was a fan of "Art Business" and "Business Art" - he, in fact, wrote about his interest in thinking about art as business in <i>The Philosophy of Andy Warhol from A to B and Back Again.</i> This was a radical new stance, as artists traditionally positioned themselves against commercialism. Warhol and other pop-artists helped redefine the artist's position as professional, commercial, and popular. He did this using methods, imagery and talents that were (or at least seemed to be) available to everyone. Perhaps that has been the most meaningful result of (his) Pop Art: a philosophical and practical incorporation of art into popular culture and society, and art offered to us as a product of that society.<p><a id="Museums" name="Museums"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Museums</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Andy Warhol Museum is located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It is the largest American art museum dedicated to a single artist, holding more than 12,000 works by the artist himself.<p>Among others, Andy's brother, John Warhol and the Warhol Foundation in New York, established in 1992 the Warhol Family Museum of Modern Art in the remote town of <!--del_lnk--> Medzilaborce, <a href="../../wp/s/Slovakia.htm" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>. Andy's parents were born 15 kilometers away in the village of Mikova. The museum houses several originals donated mainly by the Andy Warhol Foundation in New York and also personal items donated by Warhol's relatives.<p><a id="Films_portraying_Warhol" name="Films_portraying_Warhol"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Films portraying Warhol</span></h2>
<p>Andy Warhol is portrayed by <!--del_lnk--> Crispin Glover in <!--del_lnk--> Oliver Stone's film <i><!--del_lnk--> The Doors</i> (1991). He is also played by <!--del_lnk--> David Bowie in <i><!--del_lnk--> Basquiat</i>, a film by <!--del_lnk--> Julian Schnabel. In the film <i><!--del_lnk--> I Shot Andy Warhol</i>, directed by <!--del_lnk--> Mary Harron (1996), the actor <!--del_lnk--> Jared Harris portrayed Warhol. <!--del_lnk--> Sean Gregory Sullivan depicted Warhol in the film <i><!--del_lnk--> 54</i> (1998). The latest film actor to portray the artist is <!--del_lnk--> Guy Pearce in the 2007 film, <i><!--del_lnk--> Factory Girl</i>.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Andy Warhol: A Documentary Film</i> is a reverential four-hour 2006 movie by <!--del_lnk--> Ric Burns.<p><!--del_lnk--> Gus Van Sant was planning a version of Warhol's life with <!--del_lnk--> River Phoenix in the lead role just before the latter's death in the early 1990s (as discussed in an interview with the two, included in the published <i><!--del_lnk--> My Own Private Idaho</i> script book).<p><a id="Official_links_of_Andy_Warhol" name="Official_links_of_Andy_Warhol"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Official links of Andy Warhol</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> The Andy Warhol Foundation<li><!--del_lnk--> The Warhol</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Warhol"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['United States', 'New York City', 'United States', 'Painting', 'United States', 'United States', 'Slovakia', 'New York City', 'Advertising', 'Mao Zedong', 'Money', 'Myocardial infarction', 'New York City', 'Mass media', 'The Rolling Stones', 'Bob Dylan', 'Slovakia'] |
Anemia | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Anemia,Pallor,Heart failure,Palpitation,Shortness of breath,Cardiac output,1934,1999,2004,Acute coronary syndrome,Acute lymphocytic leukemia" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Anaemia</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Anemia";
var wgTitle = "Anaemia";
var wgArticleId = 83537;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Anemia">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Anaemia</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Health_and_medicine.htm">Health and medicine</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox" style="width: 20em; font-size: 95%; text-align: left;">
<caption style="background: lightgrey; font-size: 95%;"><b>Anaemia</b><br /><i>Classifications and external resources</i></caption>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> ICD-<!--del_lnk--> 10</th>
<td>D50-D64</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> ICD-<!--del_lnk--> 9</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 280-<!--del_lnk--> 285</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DiseasesDB</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 663</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> MedlinePlus</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 000560</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> eMedicine</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> med/132 <!--del_lnk--> emerg/808 <!--del_lnk--> emerg/734</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Anaemia</b> (<a href="../../wp/a/American_English.htm" title="American English">AmE</a>) or <b>anaemia</b> (<a href="../../wp/b/British_English.htm" title="British English">BrE</a>), from the <!--del_lnk--> Greek (<span class="polytonic" lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀναιμία</span>) meaning "without blood", refers to a deficiency of <!--del_lnk--> red blood cells (RBCs) and/or <!--del_lnk--> hemoglobin. This results in a reduced ability of blood to transfer <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> to the <!--del_lnk--> tissues, causing <!--del_lnk--> hypoxia; since all human cells depend on oxygen for survival, varying degrees of anaemia can have a wide range of clinical consequences. <!--del_lnk--> Hemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying <a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" title="Protein">protein</a> in the red blood cells) has to be present to ensure adequate oxygenation of all body tissues and organs.<p>The three main classes of anaemia include excessive blood loss (acutely such as a <!--del_lnk--> hemorrhage or chronically through low-volume loss), excessive blood cell destruction (<!--del_lnk--> hemolysis) or deficient red blood cell production (ineffective <!--del_lnk--> hematopoiesis). In menstruating women, dietary iron deficiency is a common cause of deficient red blood cell production.<p>Anemia is the most common disorder of the blood. There are several kinds of anemia, produced by a variety of underlying causes. Anaemia can be classified in a variety of ways, based on the morphology of RBCs, underlying etiologic mechanisms, and discernible clinical spectra, to mention a few.<p>Different clinicians approach anemia in different ways; two major approaches of classifying anaemias include the "kinetic" approach which involves evaluating production, destruction and loss<!--del_lnk--> , and the "morphologic" approach which groups anaemia by red blood cell size. The morphologic approach uses a quickly available and cheap lab test as its starting point (the <!--del_lnk--> MCV). On the other hand, focusing early on the question of production (e.g., via the <!--del_lnk--> reticulocyte count) may allow the clinician more rapidly to expose cases where multiple causes of anemia coexist. Regardless of one's philosophy about the classification of anaemia, however, any methodical clinical evaluation should yield equally good results.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Signs_and_symptoms" name="Signs_and_symptoms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Signs and symptoms</span></h2>
<p>Anemia goes undetected in many people, and symptoms can be vague. Most commonly, people with anemia report a feeling of weakness or fatigue, general malaise and sometimes a poor concentration. People with more severe anaemia sometimes report <!--del_lnk--> shortness of breath. Very severe anaemia prompts the body to compensate by increasing <!--del_lnk--> cardiac output, leading to <!--del_lnk--> palpitations and sweatiness, and to <!--del_lnk--> heart failure.<p><!--del_lnk--> Pallor (pale skin, mucosal linings and nail beds) is often a useful diagnostic sign in moderate or severe anaemia, but it is not always apparent.<p><a id="Diagnosis" name="Diagnosis"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Diagnosis</span></h2>
<p>The only way to diagnose most cases of anaemia is with a <!--del_lnk--> blood test. Generally, clinicians order a <!--del_lnk--> full blood count. Apart from reporting the number of <!--del_lnk--> red blood cells and the <!--del_lnk--> hemoglobin level, the <!--del_lnk--> automatic counters also measure the size of the red blood cells by <!--del_lnk--> flow cytometry, which is an important tool in distinguishing between the causes of anaemia. A visual examination of a <!--del_lnk--> blood smear can also be helpful, and is sometimes a necessity in regions of the world where automated analysis is less accessible.<p>In modern counters, four parameters (RBC Count, hemoglobin concentration, MCV and <!--del_lnk--> RDW) are measured, allowing others (hematocrit, <!--del_lnk--> MCH and <!--del_lnk--> MCHC) to be calculated, and compared to values adjusted for age and sex. For males, the hemoglobin level that is suggestive of anaemia is usually less than 13.0 g/dl, and for females, it is less than 12.0 g/dl.<p>Depending on the clinical philosophy, whether the hospital's automated counter can immediately add it to the initial tests, and the clinicians' attitudes towards ordering tests, a <!--del_lnk--> reticulocyte count may be ordered either as part of the initial workup or during followup tests. This is a nearly direct measure of the <!--del_lnk--> bone marrow's capacity to produce new red blood cells, and is thus the most used method of evaluating the problem of production. This can be especially important in cases where both loss and a production problem may co-exist. Many physicians use the <!--del_lnk--> reticulocyte production index – a calculation of the ratio between the level of anaemia and the extent to which the reticulocyte count has risen in response. Even in cases where an obvious source of loss exists, this helps evaluate whether the bone marrow will be able to compensate for the loss, and at what rate.<p>When the cause is not obvious, clinicians use other tests to further distinguish the cause for anaemia. These are discussed with the differential diagnosis, below. A clinician may also decide to order other screening blood tests that might identify the cause of fatigue; serum <!--del_lnk--> glucose, <!--del_lnk--> ESR, <!--del_lnk--> ferritin, <!--del_lnk--> serum iron, <!--del_lnk--> RBC folate level, <!--del_lnk--> serum vitamin B12, <!--del_lnk--> renal function tests (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> serum creatinine) and <!--del_lnk--> electrolytes may be part of such a workup.<p><a id="Classification" name="Classification"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Classification</span></h2>
<p><a id="Production_vs._destruction_or_loss" name="Production_vs._destruction_or_loss"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Production vs. destruction or loss</span></h3>
<p>The "kinetic" approach to anemia yields what many argue is the most clinically relevant classification of anaemia. This classification depends on evaluation of several hematological parameters, particularly the blood <!--del_lnk--> reticulocyte (precursor of mature RBCs) count. This then yields the classification of defects by decreased RBC production versus increased RBC destruction and/or loss. Clinical signs of loss or destruction include abnormal <!--del_lnk--> peripheral blood smear with signs of hemolysis; elevated <!--del_lnk--> LDH suggesting cell destruction; or clinical signs of bleeding, such as guiaic-positive stool, radiographic findings, or frank bleeding.<p>Here is a simplified schematic of this approach:<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="">
<tr align="center">
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; padding: 0.2em;"><strong class="selflink">Anaemia</strong></td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td>
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td>
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; padding: 0.2em;"><!--del_lnk--> Reticulocyte production index shows inadequate production response to anaemia.</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; padding: 0.2em;"><!--del_lnk--> Reticulocyte production index shows appropriate response to anaemia = <b>ongoing</b> hemolysis or blood loss without RBC production problem.</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td>
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td>
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td>
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; padding: 0.2em;">No clinical findings consistent with hemolysis or blood loss: pure disorder of production.</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; padding: 0.2em;">Clinical findings <b>and</b> abnormal MCV: hemolysis or loss <b>and</b> chronic disorder of production*.</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; padding: 0.2em;">Clinical findings <b>and</b> normal MCV= <b>acute</b> hemolysis or loss without adequate time for <!--del_lnk--> bone marrow production to compensate**.</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td>
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td>
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td>
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td>
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; padding: 0.2em;"><!--del_lnk--> Macrocytic anaemia (MCV>100)</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; padding: 0.2em;"><!--del_lnk--> Normocytic anaemia (80<MCV<100)</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; padding: 0.2em;"><!--del_lnk--> Microcytic anaemia (MCV<80)</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><i>*</i> <i>For instance, sickle cell anemia with superimposed iron deficiency; chronic gastric bleeding with B12 and folate deficiency; and other instances of anaemia with more than one cause.</i> <i>**</i> <i>Confirm by repeating reticulocyte count: ongoing combination of low reticulocyte production index, normal MCV and hemolysis or loss may be seen in bone marrow failure or anaemia of chronic disease, with superimposed or related hemolysis or blood loss.</i><p><a id="Red_blood_cell_size" name="Red_blood_cell_size"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Red blood cell size</span></h3>
<p>In the morphological approach, anaemia is classified by the size of red blood cells; this is either done automatically or on microscopic examination of a peripheral blood smear. The size is reflected in the <i><!--del_lnk--> mean corpuscular volume</i> (MCV). If the cells are smaller than normal (under 80 <!--del_lnk--> fl), the anaemia is said to be <i>microcytic</i>; if they are normal size (80-100 fl), <i>normocytic</i>; and if they are larger than normal (over 100 fl), the anaemia is classified as <i>macrocytic</i>. This scheme quickly exposes some of the most common causes of anemia; for instance, a microcytic anaemia is often the result of <!--del_lnk--> iron deficiency. In clinical workup, the MCV will be one of the first pieces of information available; so even among clinicians who consider the "kinetic" approach more useful philosophically, morphology will remain an important element of classification and diagnosis.<p>Here is a schematic representation of how to consider anaemia with MCV as the starting point:<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="">
<tr align="center">
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; padding: 0.2em;"><strong class="selflink">Anaemia</strong></td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td>
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td>
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td>
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; padding: 0.2em;"><!--del_lnk--> Macrocytic anaemia (MCV>100)</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; padding: 0.2em;"><!--del_lnk--> Normocytic anaemia (80<MCV<100)</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; padding: 0.2em;"><!--del_lnk--> Microcytic anaemia (MCV<80)</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td>
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td>
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">
<div style="width: 1em; height: 1em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; padding: 0.2em;">High <!--del_lnk--> reticulocyte count</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; padding: 0.2em;">Low <!--del_lnk--> reticulocyte count</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<div style="width: 2em; height: 2em;"><span style="font: 1px/1px serif;"> </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Other characteristics visible on the peripheral smear may provide valuable clues about a more specific diagnosis; for example, abnormal <!--del_lnk--> white blood cells may point to a cause in the <!--del_lnk--> bone marrow.<p><a id="Microcytic_anemia" name="Microcytic_anemia"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Microcytic anaemia</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Iron deficiency anaemia is the most common type of anemia overall, and it is often hypochromic microcytic. Iron deficiency anaemia is caused when the dietary intake or absorption of <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> is insufficient. Iron is an essential part of hemoglobin, and low iron levels result in decreased incorporation of hemoglobin into red blood cells. In the United States, 20% of all women of childbearing age have iron deficiency anemia, compared with only 2% of adult men. The principal cause of iron deficiency anaemia in premenopausal women is blood lost during <!--del_lnk--> menses. Studies have shown that iron deficiency without anaemia causes poor school performance and lower <!--del_lnk--> IQ in teenage girls.</ul>
<p>In older patients, iron deficiency anaemia is often due to bleeding lesions of the <!--del_lnk--> gastrointestinal tract; <!--del_lnk--> fecal occult blood testing, <!--del_lnk--> upper endoscopy and <!--del_lnk--> lower endoscopy are often performed to identify bleeding lesions, which can be <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">malignant</a>. Iron deficiency is the most prevalent deficiency state on a worldwide basis. Iron deficiency affects women from different <a href="../../wp/c/Culture.htm" title="Culture">cultures</a> and <!--del_lnk--> ethnicities. Iron found in animal meats are more easily absorbed by the body than iron found in non-meat sources. In countries where meat consumption is not as common, iron deficiency anaemia is six to eight times more prevalent than in North America and Europe. This is due to the importance of meat in the diets of North Americans and Europeans. Iron deficiency is sometimes the cause of abnormal fissuring of the angular (corner) sections of the lips (<!--del_lnk--> angular cheilitis).<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Hemoglobinopathies -- much rarer (apart from communities where these conditions are prevalent) <ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/s/Sickle-cell_disease.htm" title="Sickle-cell disease">Sickle-cell disease</a><li><a href="../../wp/t/Thalassemia.htm" title="Thalassemia">Thalassemia</a></ul>
</ul>
<p>Microcytic anaemia is primarily a result of hemoglobin synthesis failure/insufficiency, which could be caused by several etiologies:<ul>
<li>Heme synthesis defect <ul>
<li>Iron deficiency<li><!--del_lnk--> Anaemia of Chronic Disorders (which, sometimes, is grouped into normocytic anaemia)</ul>
<li>Globin synthesis defect <ul>
<li>alpha-, and beta-thalassemia<li>HbE syndrome<li>HbC syndrome<li>and various other unstable hemoglobin diseases</ul>
<li>Sideroblastic defect <ul>
<li>Hereditary Sideroblastic anaemia<li>Acquired Sideroblastic anaemia including <a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">lead</a> toxicity<li>Reversible Sideroblastic anaemia</ul>
</ul>
<p>A <!--del_lnk--> mnemonic commonly used to remember causes of microcytic anaemia is <i><b>TAILS</b></i>: <i><b>T</b></i> - Thalassemia, <i><b>A</b></i> - Anaemia of chronic disease, <i><b>I</b></i> - Iron deficiency anaemia, <i><b>L</b></i> - Lead toxicity associated anaemia, <i><b>S</b></i> - Sideroblastic anaemia.<p><a id="Normocytic_anemia" name="Normocytic_anemia"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Normocytic anaemia</span></h4>
<p>Normocytic anaemia is when the overal Hb levels are decreased, but the red blood cell size (<!--del_lnk--> MCV) remains normal. Causes include:<ul>
<li>Acute <!--del_lnk--> blood loss<li><!--del_lnk--> Anaemia of chronic disease<li><!--del_lnk--> Aplastic anaemia (bone marrow failure)</ul>
<p><a id="Macrocytic_anemia" name="Macrocytic_anemia"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Macrocytic anaemia</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Megaloblastic anaemia due to a deficiency of either <!--del_lnk--> vitamin B12 or <a href="../../wp/f/Folic_acid.htm" title="Folic acid">folic acid</a> (or both) due either to inadequate intake or <!--del_lnk--> insufficient absorption. Folate deficiency normally does not produce neurological symptoms, while B12 deficiency does. Megaloblastic anemia is the most common cause of macrocytic anaemia.<li><a href="../../wp/p/Pernicious_anemia.htm" title="Pernicious anemia">Pernicious anaemia</a> is an <!--del_lnk--> autoimmune condition directed against the <!--del_lnk--> parietal cells of the stomach. Parietal cells produce <!--del_lnk--> intrinsic factor, required to absorb vitamin B12 from food. Therefore, the destruction of the parietal cells causes a lack of intrinsic factor, leading to poor absorption of vitamin B12.<li><!--del_lnk--> Alcoholism<li><!--del_lnk--> Methotrexate, <!--del_lnk--> zidovudine, and other drugs that inhibit <!--del_lnk--> DNA replication. This is the most common etiology in nonalcoholic patients.</ul>
<p>Macrocytic anemia can be further divided into "megaloblastic anemia" or "non-megaloblastic macrocytic anemia". The cause of megaloblastic anemia is primarily a failure of DNA synthesis with preserved RNA synthesis, which result in restricted cell division of the progenitor cells. The megaloblastic anemias often present with neutrophil hypersegmentation (6-10 lobes). The non-megaloblastic macrocytic anaemias have different etiologies (i.e. there is unimpaired DNA synthesis,) which occur, for example in alcoholism.<p>The treatment for vitamin B12-deficient macrocytic and pernicious anaemias was first devised by <!--del_lnk--> William Murphy who bled dogs to make them anaemia and then fed them various substances to see what (if anything) would make them healthy again. He discovered that ingesting large amounts of liver seemed to cure the disease. <!--del_lnk--> George Minot and <!--del_lnk--> George Whipple then set about to chemically isolate the curative substance and ultimately were able to isolate the <!--del_lnk--> vitamin B12 from the liver. For this, all three shared the <!--del_lnk--> 1934 <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize in Medicine. Symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency include having a smooth, red tongue.<p><a id="Dimorphic_anemia" name="Dimorphic_anemia"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Dimorphic anaemia</span></h4>
<p>Here there are two types of anaemia simultaneously, e.g., macrocytic <!--del_lnk--> hypochromic, due to <!--del_lnk--> hookworm infestation leading to deficiency of both <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> and <!--del_lnk--> vitamin B12 or <a href="../../wp/f/Folic_acid.htm" title="Folic acid">folic acid</a> <!--del_lnk--> or following a <!--del_lnk--> blood transfusion. One hint that this kind of anaemia may exist is a wide RBC distribution width (RDW), which suggests a wider-than-normal range of sizes of red blood cells.<p><a id="Specific_anemias" name="Specific_anemias"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Specific anaemias</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Fanconi anaemia is an hereditary disorder or defect featuring <!--del_lnk--> aplastic anaemia and various other abnormalities<li><!--del_lnk--> Hemolytic anaemia causes a separate constellation of symptoms (also featuring <!--del_lnk--> jaundice and elevated <!--del_lnk--> LDH levels) with numerous potential causes. It can be <!--del_lnk--> autoimmune, <!--del_lnk--> immune, <!--del_lnk--> hereditary or mechanical (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> heart surgery). It can result (because of cell fragmentation) in a microcytic anemia, a normochromic anemia, or (because of premature release of immature red blood cells from the bone marrow), a macrocytic anaemia.<li><!--del_lnk--> Hereditary spherocytosis is a hereditary defect that results in defects in the RBC cell membrane, causing the erythrocytes to be sequestered and destroyed by the spleen. This leads to a decrease in the number of circulating RBCs and, hence, anaemia.<li><a href="../../wp/s/Sickle-cell_disease.htm" title="Sickle-cell disease">Sickle-cell anaemia</a>, a hereditary disorder, is due to the presence of the mutant hemoglobin S gene.<li><!--del_lnk--> Warm autoimmune hemolytic anaemia is an anaemia caused by autoimmune attack against red blood cells, primarily by IgG<li><!--del_lnk--> Cold Agglutinin hemolytic anaemia is primarily mediated by IgM</ul>
<p><a id="Possible_complications" name="Possible_complications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Possible complications</span></h2>
<p>Anaemia diminishes the capability of individuals who are affected to perform physical labor. This is a result of one's muscles being forced to depend on <!--del_lnk--> anaerobic metabolism. The lack of iron associated with anaemia can cause many complications, including <!--del_lnk--> hypoxemia, <!--del_lnk--> brittle or rigid fingernails, cold intolerance, impaired immune function, and possible behavioural disturbances in children.<p>Hypoxemia resulting from anemia can worsen the cardio-pulmonary status of patients with pre-existing chronic pulmonary disease. Brittle or rigid fingernails may be a result of abnormal thinness of nails due to insufficient iron supply. Cold intolerance occurs in one in five patients with iron deficiency anaemia, and becomes visible through numbness and tingling. Impaired immune functioning leading to increased likelihood of sickness is another possible complication.<p>Doctors attempt to avoid <!--del_lnk--> blood transfusion in general, but there are several instances where doctors are now more aggressive than in the past. For instance, the currently accepted Rivers protocol for <!--del_lnk--> early goal directed therapy for <!--del_lnk--> sepsis requires keeping the <!--del_lnk--> hematocrit above 30; this is based on evidence that even moderate anaemia reduces survival <!--del_lnk--> . The presumed physiological principle is that the reduction in oxygen delivery associated with anaemia is especially dangerous to people who are already at risk for organ damage from lack of <!--del_lnk--> perfusion. There is controversy about what hematocrit or hemoglobin levels should be used as "triggers" for transfusion in other settings. Anaemia also may be especially risky for people with <!--del_lnk--> acute coronary syndromes, again because anaemia hampers already-impaired oxygen delivery to the heart.<!--del_lnk--> However, the point at which this danger emerges in other settings is controversial and awaits further study. <!--del_lnk--> <p>Finally, chronic anemia may result in behavioral disturbances in children as a direct result of impaired neurological development in infants, and reduced scholastic performance in children of school age. Behavioural disturbances may even surface as an <!--del_lnk--> attention deficit disorder.<p><a id="Anemia_during_pregnancy" name="Anemia_during_pregnancy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Anaemia during pregnancy</span></h2>
<p>Anaemia affects 20% of all females of childbearing age in the United States. Because of the subtlety of the symptoms, women are often unaware that they have this disorder, as they attribute the symptoms to the stresses of their daily lives. Possible problems for the fetus include increased risk of growth retardation, <!--del_lnk--> prematurity, <!--del_lnk--> intrauterine death, rupture of the <!--del_lnk--> amnion and infection.<p>During pregnancy, women should be especially aware of the symptoms of anaemia, as an adult female loses an average of two milligrams of iron daily. Therefore, she must intake a similar quantity of iron in order to make up for this loss. Additionally, a woman loses approximately 500 milligrams of iron with each pregnancy, compared to a loss of 4-100 milligrams of iron with each <!--del_lnk--> period. Possible consequences for the mother include cardiovascular symptoms, reduced physical and mental performance, reduced immune function, tiredness, reduced peripartal blood reserves and increased need for blood transfusion in the postpartum period.<p><a id="Diet_and_anemia" name="Diet_and_anemia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Diet and anaemia</span></h2>
<p>Consumption of food rich in iron is essential to prevention of iron deficiency anemia; however, the average adult has approximately nine years worth of B12 stored in the liver, and it would take four to five years of an iron-deficient diet to create iron-deficiency anaemia from diet alone.<p>Iron-rich foods include <!--del_lnk--> red meat; <!--del_lnk--> green, leafy vegetables; dried <!--del_lnk--> beans; dried <a href="../../wp/a/Apricot.htm" title="Apricot">apricots</a>, <!--del_lnk--> prunes, <!--del_lnk--> raisins, and other <!--del_lnk--> dried fruits; <a href="../../wp/a/Almond.htm" title="Almond">almonds</a>; <!--del_lnk--> seaweeds; <a href="../../wp/p/Parsley.htm" title="Parsley">parsley</a>; <!--del_lnk--> whole grains; and <!--del_lnk--> yams. In extreme cases of anaemia, researchers recommend consumption of beef liver, lean meat, oysters, lamb or chicken, or iron drops/tablets may be introduced. Certain foods have been found to interfere with iron absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, and these foods should be avoided. They include tea, coffee, wheat bran, rhubarb, chocolate, soft drinks, red wine, ice cream, and candy bars (Bauer, 2). With the exception of milk and eggs, animal sources of iron provide iron with better <!--del_lnk--> bioavailability than vegetable sources (Scrimshaw).<p><a id="Treatments_for_anemia" name="Treatments_for_anemia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Treatments for anaemia</span></h2>
<p>There are many different treatments for anemia, including increasing dietary intake of readily available iron and iron supplementation; the treatment is determined by the type of anaemia that is diagnosed.<p>If an increase in dietary intake is prescribed, then additionally increasing one's intake of <a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin_C.htm" title="Vitamin C">Vitamin C</a> may aid in the body's ability to absorb iron.<p>In anemia of chronic disease, anemia associated with chemotherapy, or anaemia associated with renal disease, some clinicians prescribe a <!--del_lnk--> recombinant protein version of <!--del_lnk--> erythropoietin, <!--del_lnk--> epoetin alfa, to stimulate red blood cell production.<p>In severe cases of anaemia, a blood transfusion may be necessary.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaemia"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['American English', 'British English', 'Oxygen', 'Protein', 'Iron', 'Cancer', 'Culture', 'Sickle-cell disease', 'Thalassemia', 'Lead', 'Folic acid', 'Pernicious anemia', 'Iron', 'Folic acid', 'Sickle-cell disease', 'Apricot', 'Almond', 'Parsley', 'Vitamin C'] |
Angel_shark | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Angel sharks,1978,2006,African angelshark,Anal fin,André Marie Constant Duméril,Angular angel shark,Animal,Argentine angelshark,Australian angelshark,Batoidea" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Angel sharks</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Angel_sharks";
var wgTitle = "Angel sharks";
var wgArticleId = 480212;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Angel_sharks">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Angel sharks</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Insects_Reptiles_and_Fish.htm">Insects, Reptiles and Fish</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Angel sharks</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/2/220.png.htm" title="Sand devil, Squatina dumeril"><img alt="Sand devil, Squatina dumeril" height="138" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sand_devil.png" src="../../images/2/220.png" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Sand devil, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina dumeril</i></small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center; background:pink;">
<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="">
<div style="text-align:center"><a class="image" href="../../images/2/221.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn3.1_CR.svg" src="../../images/2/221.png" width="200" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Critically endangered (CR)</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chordata<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chondrichthyes<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Subclass:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Elasmobranchii<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><b>Squatiniformes</b><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Buen, 1926</small></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><b>Squatinidae</b><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Bonaparte, 1838</small></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Squatina</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Duméril, 1806</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Species</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<p>See text.</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>angel sharks</b> are an unusual group of <a href="../../wp/s/Shark.htm" title="Shark">sharks</a> with flattened bodies and broad <!--del_lnk--> pectoral fins that give them a strong resemblance to <!--del_lnk--> skates and <!--del_lnk--> rays. The 16-odd known species are all classified in a single genus, <i><b>Squatina</b></i>, belonging to its own family, <b>Squatinidae</b>, and order <b>Squatiniformes</b>. They occur worldwide in temperate and tropical seas.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Appearance" name="Appearance"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Appearance</span></h2>
<p>While the forward part of the angel shark's body is broad and flattened, the rear part retains a muscular appearance more typical of other sharks. The eyes and <!--del_lnk--> spiracles are on top, and the five <!--del_lnk--> gill slits are on bottom. Both the pectorals and the <!--del_lnk--> pelvic fins are large and held horizontally. There are two <!--del_lnk--> dorsal fins, no <!--del_lnk--> anal fin, and unusually for sharks, the lower lobe of the <!--del_lnk--> caudal fin is longer than the upper lobe. Most types grow to a length of 1.5 <!--del_lnk--> m (5 ft), with the <!--del_lnk--> Japanese angelshark, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina japonica</i>, known to reach 2 meters.<p><a id="Habitat" name="Habitat"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Habitat</span></h2>
<p>Angel sharks are bottom-dwellers, burying themselves in sand or mud, then lunging to snap up prey, which includes <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Crustacean.htm" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, and various types of <!--del_lnk--> mollusks. The <!--del_lnk--> Pacific angelshark, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina californica</i>, is also known to leave the bottom at night to forage.<p><a id="Behavior" name="Behavior"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Behaviour</span></h2>
<p>Although they are not normally aggressive, they do bite when stepped on or handled.<p><a id="Reproduction" name="Reproduction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reproduction</span></h2>
<p>Angel sharks are <!--del_lnk--> ovoviviparous, with litters known up to 13 pups.<p><a id="Commercial_value" name="Commercial_value"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Commercial value</span></h2>
<p>The sharks were long considered of no commercial interest, but in <!--del_lnk--> 1978, <!--del_lnk--> Michael Wagner, a fish processor in <!--del_lnk--> Santa Barbara, California began to promote angel sharks, and 310 metric tons were taken off California in 1984. The fishery devastated the population and is now regulated.<p><a id="Protection" name="Protection"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Protection</span></h2>
<p>Angel sharks have been declared a <!--del_lnk--> critically endangered species by the <!--del_lnk--> World Conservation Union (<!--del_lnk--> IUCN). Their numbers have deteriorated so much that in some bodies of water, including the <a href="../../wp/n/North_Sea.htm" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>, they have become <!--del_lnk--> extinct.<p><a id="Species" name="Species"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Species</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Sawback angelshark, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina aculeata</i> <small>Cuvier, 1829</small><li><!--del_lnk--> African angelshark, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina africana</i> <small>Regan, 1908</small><li><!--del_lnk--> Argentine angelshark, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina argentina</i> <small>(Marini, 1930)</small><li><!--del_lnk--> Chilean angelshark, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina armata</i> <small>(Philippi, 1887)</small><li><!--del_lnk--> Australian angelshark, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina australis</i> <small>Regan, 1906</small><li><!--del_lnk--> Pacific angelshark, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina californica</i> <small>Ayres, 1859</small><li><!--del_lnk--> Sand devil, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina dumeril</i> <small>Lesueur, 1818</small><li><!--del_lnk--> Taiwan angelshark, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina formosa</i> <small>Shen & Ting, 1972</small><li><!--del_lnk--> Angular angel shark, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina guggenheim</i> <small>Marini, 1936</small><li><!--del_lnk--> Japanese angelshark, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina japonica</i> <small>Bleeker, 1858</small><li><!--del_lnk--> Clouded angelshark, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina nebulosa</i> <small>Regan, 1906</small><li><!--del_lnk--> Smoothback angelshark, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina oculata</i> <small>Bonaparte, 1840</small><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina punctata</i> <small>Marini, 1936</small><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina squatina</i> <small>(Linnaeus, 1758)</small><li><!--del_lnk--> Ornate angelshark, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina tergocellata</i> <small>McCulloch, 1914</small><li><!--del_lnk--> Ocellated angelshark, <i><!--del_lnk--> Squatina tergocellatoides</i> <small>Chen, 1963</small><li><!--del_lnk--> Eastern Australian angelshark, Squatina sp. A (provisional scientic name)<li><!--del_lnk--> Western Australian angelshark, Squatina sp. B (provisional scientic name)<li><!--del_lnk--> Cortez angelshark, Squatina sp. (provisional scientic name)</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel_sharks"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Shark', 'Fish', 'Crustacean', 'North Sea'] |
Angelica | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Angelica,Angelica (disambiguation),Angelica gigas,Angelica sinensis,Angelica sylvestris,Apiaceae,Apiales,Bordered Pug,Carolus Linnaeus,Celery,Chartreuse" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Angelica</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Angelica";
var wgTitle = "Angelica";
var wgArticleId = 462566;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Angelica">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Angelica</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Plants.htm">Plants</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: lightgreen;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><i><b>Angelica</b></i></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/2/223.jpg.htm" title="Wild Angelica (Angelica sylvestris)"><img alt="Wild Angelica (Angelica sylvestris)" height="333" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gewone_engwortel_R0012880_Plant.JPG" src="../../images/2/223.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Wild Angelica (<i>Angelica sylvestris</i>)</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: lightgreen;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">Plantae</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Division:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliophyta<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliopsida<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Apiales<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Apiaceae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Angelica</b></i><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">L.</a></small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="lightgreen">
<th>
<center>Species</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<p>About 50 species; see text</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><i><b>Angelica</b></i> is a genus of about 50 species of tall biennial and perennial <!--del_lnk--> herbs in the family <!--del_lnk--> Apiaceae, native to temperate and subarctic regions of the <!--del_lnk--> Northern Hemisphere, reaching as far North as <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Lapland. They grow to 1-2 m tall, with large bipinnate <!--del_lnk--> leaves and large compound umbels of white or greenish-white <a href="../../wp/f/Flower.htm" title="Flower">flowers</a>.<dl>
<dt>Species</dl>
<ul>
<li><i>Angelica ampla</i> - Giant Angelica<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Angelica archangelica</i> - Garden Angelica, Archangel, Angelique<li><i>Angelica arguta</i> - Lyall's Angelica<li><i>Angelica atropurpurea</i> - Purplestem Angelica, Alexanders<li><i>Angelica breweri</i> - Brewer's Angelica<li><i>Angelica californica</i> - California Angelica<li><i>Angelica callii</i> - Call's Angelica<li><i>Angelica canbyi</i> - Canby's Angelica<li><i>Angelica cartilaginomarginata</i><li><i>Angelica dahurica</i> - <i>bai zhi</i> in Chinese<li><i>Angelica dawsonii</i> - Dawson's Angelica<li><i>Angelica dentata</i> - Coastalplain Angelica<li><i>Angelica genuflexa</i> - Kneeling Angelica<li><i>Angelica gigas</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Angelica gigas</i> - <i>Cham dangwi</i> in Korean<li><i>Angelica glabra</i> - synonym for <i>Angelica dahurica</i><li><i>Angelica grayi</i> - Gray's Angelica<li><i>Angelica hendersonii</i> - Henderson's Angelica<li><i>Angelica kingii</i> - King's Angelica<li><i>Angelica lineariloba</i> - Poison Angelica<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Angelica lucida</i> - Seacoast Angelica<li><i>Angelica pachyacarpa</i><li><i>Angelica palustris</i><li><i>Angelica pinnata</i> - Small-leaf Angelica<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Angelica pubescens</i><li><i>Angelica roseana</i> - Rose Angelica<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Angelica sinensis</i> - Dong quai<li><i>Angelica scabrida</i> - Charleston Mountain Angelica<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Angelica sylvestris</i> - Wild Angelica<li><i>Angelica tomentosa</i> - Woolly Angelica<li><i>Angelica triquinata</i> - Filmy Angelica<li><i>Angelica venosa</i> - Hairy Angelica<li><i>Angelica wheeleri</i> - Utah Angelica</ul>
<p><a id="Cultivation_and_uses" name="Cultivation_and_uses"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cultivation and uses</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/224.jpg.htm" title="Wild Angelica (Angelica sylvestris) from Thomé, Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz 1885"><img alt="Wild Angelica (Angelica sylvestris) from Thomé, Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz 1885" height="293" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Illustration_Angelica_silvestris0.jpg" src="../../images/2/224.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/224.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wild Angelica (<i>Angelica sylvestris</i>) from Thomé, <i>Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz</i> 1885</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Some members are grown as a <!--del_lnk--> flavoring agent and for their <!--del_lnk--> medicinal properties. The most notable of these is <!--del_lnk--> Garden Angelica (<i>A. archangelica</i>) which is commonly known just as <b>Angelica</b>. Natives of Lapland use the fleshy roots as food and the stalks as medicine. Crystallized strips of young angelica stems and midribs are green in colour and are sold as decorative and flavoursome cake decoration material. The roots and seeds are sometimes employed to flavor <!--del_lnk--> gin and <!--del_lnk--> Chartreuse.<p><!--del_lnk--> Seacoast Angelica (<i>A. lucida</i>) has been eaten as a sort of "wild <a href="../../wp/c/Celery.htm" title="Celery">celery</a>".<p><i>A. sylvestris</i> and some other species are eaten by the <!--del_lnk--> larvae of some <!--del_lnk--> Lepidoptera species including <!--del_lnk--> Bordered Pug, <!--del_lnk--> Grey Pug, <!--del_lnk--> Lime-speck Pug and <!--del_lnk--> The V-Pug.<p><i>A. dawsonii</i> was used by several first nations in North America for ritual purposes<p><i>A. atropurpurea</i> is found in North America from <!--del_lnk--> Newfoundland west to <!--del_lnk--> Wisconsin and south to <!--del_lnk--> Maryland and was smoked by Missouri tribes for colds and respiratory ailments. This species is very similar in appearance to the poisonous <!--del_lnk--> water hemlock<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelica"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Plant', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Iceland', 'Flower', 'Celery'] |
Angkor | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Angkor,1112,1150,1177,1200,14th century,15th century,1907,1970,1993,1995" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Angkor</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Angkor";
var wgTitle = "Angkor";
var wgArticleId = 89811;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Angkor">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Angkor</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.African_Geography.htm">African Geography</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table align="right">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/225.jpg.htm" title="Angkor viewed from space"><img alt="Angkor viewed from space" height="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Angkor_Ruins_from_Space.jpg" src="../../images/2/225.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/225.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Angkor viewed from space</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/226.jpg.htm" title="The Bayon temple at Angkor Thom"><img alt="The Bayon temple at Angkor Thom" height="224" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bayon.jpg" src="../../images/2/226.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/226.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Bayon temple at Angkor Thom</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Angkor</b> was the site of a series of capital cities of the <!--del_lnk--> Khmer empire for much of the period from the <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th century</a> to the <a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th century</a> <!--del_lnk--> CE. Their ruins (13°24'N, 103°51'E) are located amid forests and farmland to the north of the Great Lake (<!--del_lnk--> Tonle Sap), near modern day <!--del_lnk--> Siem Reap, <a href="../../wp/c/Cambodia.htm" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, and are a <!--del_lnk--> UNESCO <a href="../../wp/w/World_Heritage_Site.htm" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>. The temples of the Angkor area number over one thousand, ranging in scale from nondescript piles of brick rubble scattered through rice fields to the magnificent <a href="../../wp/a/Angkor_Wat.htm" title="Angkor Wat">Angkor Wat</a>, said to be the world's largest single religious monument. Many of the temples at Angkor have been restored, and together they comprise the premier collection of examples of <!--del_lnk--> Khmer architecture. Visitor numbers approach one million annually.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Over a period of 300 years, between <!--del_lnk--> 900 and <!--del_lnk--> 1200 AD, the <!--del_lnk--> Khmer empire produced some of the world's most magnificent architectural masterpieces on the northern shore of the <!--del_lnk--> Tonle Sap, near the present town of <!--del_lnk--> Siem Reap. Most are concentrated in an area approximately 15 miles east to west and 5 miles north to south, although the Angkor Archaeological Park which administers the area includes sites as far away as <!--del_lnk--> Kbal Spean, about 30 miles to the north. Some 72 major temples or other buildings dot the area.<p>The principal temple, <a href="../../wp/a/Angkor_Wat.htm" title="Angkor Wat">Angkor Wat</a>, was built between <!--del_lnk--> 1112 and <!--del_lnk--> 1150 by <!--del_lnk--> Suryavarman II. With walls nearly one-half mile long on each side, Angkor Wat grandly portrays the <!--del_lnk--> Hindu cosmology, with the central towers representing <!--del_lnk--> Mount Meru, home of the gods; the outer walls, the mountains enclosing the world; and the moat, the oceans beyond. The later capital of <!--del_lnk--> Angkor Thom, built after the Cham sack of <!--del_lnk--> 1177, has at its centre the <!--del_lnk--> Bayon. Construction of Angkor Thom coincided with a change from <a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> to <!--del_lnk--> Mahayana Buddhism. Temples were altered to display images of the <a href="../../wp/b/Buddha.htm" title="Buddha">Buddha</a>, and Angkor Wat briefly became a Buddhist shrine. A subsequent Hindu revival included a large-scale campaign of desecration of Buddhist images, before <!--del_lnk--> Theravada Buddhism became established from the <a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th century</a>.<p>During the <a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th century</a>, nearly all of Angkor was abandoned after Siamese attacks, except Angkor Wat, which remained a shrine for Buddhist <!--del_lnk--> pilgrims. The great city and temples remained largely cloaked by the forest until the late <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a> when French archaeologists began a long restoration process. From <!--del_lnk--> 1907 to <!--del_lnk--> 1970 restoration of Angkor was under the direction of the Ecole Française d'Extrême-Orient, which worked to clear away the forest, repair foundations, and install drains to protect the buildings from water damage. After the end of the civil war, work began again, and since <!--del_lnk--> 1993 it has been jointly co-ordinated by the French, <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> and UNESCO through the International Co-ordinating Committee on the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC), while Cambodian work is carried out by the Authority for the Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap (APSARA), created in <!--del_lnk--> 1995. Some temples have been carefully taken apart stone by stone and reassembled on concrete foundations. Since the end of the civil war, international tourism to Angkor has increased, posing additional conservation problems but also financial assistance to the restoration projects.<p><!--del_lnk--> 2001 saw the release of the movie <i><!--del_lnk--> Lara Croft: Tomb Raider</i>, filmed on location at various Angkor sites. Wong Kar-wai's <i><!--del_lnk--> In the Mood for Love</i>, also incorporated scenes filmed at Angkor.<p>Angkor will play host to the Angkor-<a href="../../wp/g/Gyeongju.htm" title="Gyeongju">Gyeongju</a> World Culture Expo 2006 from November 21-January 9, 2007.<p><a id="Sites" name="Sites"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sites</span></h2>
<p>The area covers many significant archaeological sites, including:<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/227.jpg.htm" title="The naga bridge of Angkor Wat at sunrise."><img alt="The naga bridge of Angkor Wat at sunrise." height="362" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Awatnagabridgesunrise01.JPG" src="../../images/2/227.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/227.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> naga bridge of Angkor Wat at sunrise.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/229.jpg.htm" title="Aerial view of Angkor Wat"><img alt="Aerial view of Angkor Wat" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Angkor-Wat-from-the-air.JPG" src="../../images/2/228.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/229.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aerial view of Angkor Wat</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Angkor Thom<li><a href="../../wp/a/Angkor_Wat.htm" title="Angkor Wat">Angkor Wat</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Baksei Chamkrong<li><!--del_lnk--> Banteay Kdei<li><!--del_lnk--> Banteay Samré<li><!--del_lnk--> Banteay Srei<li><!--del_lnk--> Baphuon<li>the <!--del_lnk--> Bayon<li><!--del_lnk--> Chau Say Tevoda<li><!--del_lnk--> East Baray<li><!--del_lnk--> East Mebon<li><!--del_lnk--> Kbal Spean<li>the <!--del_lnk--> Khleangs<li><!--del_lnk--> Krol Ko<li><!--del_lnk--> Lolei<li><!--del_lnk--> Neak Pean<li><!--del_lnk--> Phimeanakas<li><!--del_lnk--> Phnom Bakheng<li><!--del_lnk--> Phnom Krom<li><!--del_lnk--> Prasat Ak Yum<li><!--del_lnk--> Prasat Kravan<li><!--del_lnk--> Preah Khan<li><!--del_lnk--> Preah Ko<li><!--del_lnk--> Preah Palilay<li><!--del_lnk--> Preah Pithu<li><!--del_lnk--> Pre Rup<li><!--del_lnk--> Spean Thma<li><!--del_lnk--> Srah Srang<li><!--del_lnk--> Ta Prohm<li><!--del_lnk--> Ta Som<li><!--del_lnk--> Ta Keo<li><!--del_lnk--> Terrace of the Elephants<li><!--del_lnk--> Terrace of the Leper King<li><!--del_lnk--> Thommanon<li><!--del_lnk--> West Baray<li><!--del_lnk--> West Mebon</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angkor"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['9th century', '15th century', 'Cambodia', 'World Heritage Site', 'Angkor Wat', 'Angkor Wat', 'Hinduism', 'Buddha', '14th century', '15th century', '19th century', 'Japan', 'Gyeongju', 'Angkor Wat'] |
Angkor_Wat | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Angkor Wat,1999,2003,2003 Phnom Penh riots,2005,Ancient Greece,Ancient Rome,Angkor,Angkor Thom,Antonio da Magdalena,April 9" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Angkor Wat</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Angkor_Wat";
var wgTitle = "Angkor Wat";
var wgArticleId = 189351;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Angkor_Wat">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Angkor Wat</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Architecture.htm">Architecture</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:282px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/229.jpg.htm" title="Aerial view of Angkor Wat"><img alt="Aerial view of Angkor Wat" height="210" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Angkor-Wat-from-the-air.JPG" src="../../images/2/229.jpg" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/229.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aerial view of Angkor Wat</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:282px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/25/2552.jpg.htm" title="The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the Naga causeway"><img alt="The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the Naga causeway" height="210" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Angkor_wat_temple.jpg" src="../../images/2/230.jpg" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/25/2552.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the <!--del_lnk--> Naga causeway</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>Angkor Wat</b> (or <b>Angkor Vat</b>) is a temple at <a href="../../wp/a/Angkor.htm" title="Angkor">Angkor</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Cambodia.htm" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, built for king <!--del_lnk--> Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. The largest and best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a significant religious centre—first <!--del_lnk--> Hindu, then <!--del_lnk--> Buddhist—since its foundation. The temple is the epitome of the high classical style of <!--del_lnk--> Khmer <!--del_lnk--> architecture. It has become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its <!--del_lnk--> national flag, and it is the country's prime attraction for visitors. Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple <a href="../../wp/a/Architecture.htm" title="Architecture">architecture</a>: the <!--del_lnk--> temple mountain and the later <!--del_lnk--> galleried temples. It is designed to represent <!--del_lnk--> Mount Meru, home of the gods in <!--del_lnk--> Hindu mythology: within a <!--del_lnk--> moat and an outer wall 3.6 km (2.2 miles) long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple stands a <!--del_lnk--> quincunx of towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the <!--del_lnk--> west; scholars are divided as to the significance of this. As well as for the grandeur and harmony of the <a href="../../wp/a/Architecture.htm" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, the temple is admired for its extensive <!--del_lnk--> bas-reliefs and for the numerous <!--del_lnk--> devatas adorning its walls.<p>According to <!--del_lnk--> Guinness World Records, it is the largest religious structure in the world.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:251px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/231.png.htm" title="Angkor Wat is the southernmost temple of Angkor's main group of sites."><img alt="Angkor Wat is the southernmost temple of Angkor's main group of sites." height="206" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Locationtempleawat.png" src="../../images/2/231.png" width="249" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Angkor Wat is the southernmost temple of Angkor's main group of sites.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The initial design and construction of the temple took place in the first half of the 12th century, during the reign of <!--del_lnk--> Suryavarman II (ruled 1113–c. 1150). Dedicated to <!--del_lnk--> Vishnu, it was built as the king's state temple and capital city. As neither the foundation <!--del_lnk--> stela nor any contemporary inscriptions referring to the temple have been found, its original name is unknown. It is located 5.5 km north of the modern town of <!--del_lnk--> Siem Reap, and a short distance south and slightly east of the previous capital, which was centred on the <!--del_lnk--> Baphuon. Work seems to have come to an end on the king's death, with some of the bas-reliefs unfinished. In 1177 Angkor was sacked by the <!--del_lnk--> Chams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer. Thereafter the empire was restored by a new king, <!--del_lnk--> Jayavarman VII, who established a new capital and state temple (<!--del_lnk--> Angkor Thom and the <!--del_lnk--> Bayon respectively) which lie a few kilometres to the north.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:282px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/232.jpg.htm" title="An 1866 photograph of Angkor Wat by Emile Gsell."><img alt="An 1866 photograph of Angkor Wat by Emile Gsell." height="216" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Angkor1866.jpg" src="../../images/2/232.jpg" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/232.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An 1866 photograph of Angkor Wat by <!--del_lnk--> Emile Gsell.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In the 14th or 15th century the temple was converted to <!--del_lnk--> Theravada Buddhist use, which continues to the present day. Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor temples in that although it was somewhat neglected after the 16th century it was never completely abandoned. Its moat also provided some protection from encroachment by the jungle. Around this time the temple was known as <i>Preah Pisnulok</i>, after the posthumous title of Suryavarman. The modern name, in use by the 16th century, means "City Temple": <i>Angkor</i> is a vernacular form of the word <i><!--del_lnk--> nokor</i> which comes from the <a href="../../wp/s/Sanskrit.htm" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> word <i>nagara</i> (capital), while <i><!--del_lnk--> wat</i> is the <!--del_lnk--> Khmer word for <!--del_lnk--> temple.<p>One of the first <!--del_lnk--> Western visitors to the temple was <!--del_lnk--> Antonio da Magdalena, a <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> monk who visited in 1586 and said that it "is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a pen, particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of". However, the temple was popularised in the West only in the mid-19th century on the publication of <!--del_lnk--> Henri Mouhot's travel notes. The <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> explorer wrote of it:<blockquote>
<p>One of these temples—a rival to that of <!--del_lnk--> Solomon, and erected by some ancient <a href="../../wp/m/Michelangelo.htm" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>—might take an honourable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander than anything left to us by <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a> or <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a>, and presents a sad contrast to the state of barbarism in which the nation is now plunged.</blockquote>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:190px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/5/594.png.htm" title="The Cambodian flag includes a depiction of Angkor Wat."><img alt="The Cambodian flag includes a depiction of Angkor Wat." height="125" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg" src="../../images/2/233.png" width="188" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/5/594.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Cambodian flag includes a depiction of Angkor Wat.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Mouhot, like other early Western visitors, was unable to believe that the Khmers could have built the temple, and mistakenly dated it to around the same era as Rome. The true history of Angkor Wat was pieced together only from stylistic and <!--del_lnk--> epigraphic evidence accumulated during the subsequent clearing and restoration work carried out across the whole Angkor site.<p>Angkor Wat required considerable restoration in the 20th century, mainly the removal of accumulated earth and vegetation. Work was interrupted by the civil war and <!--del_lnk--> Khmer Rouge control of the country during the 1970s and 1980s, but relatively little damage was done during this period other than the theft and destruction of mostly post-Angkorian statues.<p>The temple has become a symbol of Cambodia, and is a source of great pride for the country's people. A depiction of Angkor Wat has been a part of every <!--del_lnk--> Cambodian national flag since the introduction of the first version circa 1863—the only building to appear on any national flag. In <!--del_lnk--> January 2003 riots erupted in <!--del_lnk--> Phnom Penh when a false rumour circulated that a <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thai</a> <!--del_lnk--> soap opera actress had claimed that Angkor Wat belonged to Thailand.<p><a id="Style" name="Style"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Style</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/234.jpg.htm" title="Devatas are characteristic of the Angkor Wat style."><img alt="Devatas are characteristic of the Angkor Wat style." height="184" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Awatdevatasupperlevel01.JPG" src="../../images/2/234.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/234.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Devatas are characteristic of the Angkor Wat style.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Angkor Wat is the prime example of the classical style of <!--del_lnk--> Khmer architecture—the Angkor Wat style—to which it has given its name. By the 12th century Khmer architects had become more skilled and confident than before in the use of <!--del_lnk--> sandstone (rather than <!--del_lnk--> brick or <!--del_lnk--> laterite) as the main building material. The Angkor Wat style was followed by that of the <!--del_lnk--> Bayon period, in which quality was often sacrificed to quantity. Other temples in the style are <!--del_lnk--> Banteay Samré, <!--del_lnk--> Thommanon, <!--del_lnk--> Chao Say Tevoda and the early temples of <!--del_lnk--> Preah Pithu at <a href="../../wp/a/Angkor.htm" title="Angkor">Angkor</a>; outside Angkor, <!--del_lnk--> Beng Mealea and parts of <!--del_lnk--> Phanom Rung and <!--del_lnk--> Phimai.<p>Angkor Wat has drawn praise above all for the harmony of its design, which has been compared to the architecture of <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a> or <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a>. According to <!--del_lnk--> Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a work of power, unity and style." <p>Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the <!--del_lnk--> ogival, redented towers shaped like <!--del_lnk--> lotus buds; half-<!--del_lnk--> galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Most of the visible areas are of sandstone blocks, while laterite was used for the outer wall and for hidden structural parts. The binding agent used to join the blocks is yet to be identified, although natural <!--del_lnk--> resins or <!--del_lnk--> slaked lime have been suggested. Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time, including <!--del_lnk--> gilded <!--del_lnk--> stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors. Typical decorative elements are <!--del_lnk--> devatas (or apsaras), <!--del_lnk--> bas-reliefs, and on <!--del_lnk--> pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes. Statuary is conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work.<p><a id="The_site" name="The_site"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The site</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:482px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/235.png.htm" title="A plan of Angkor Wat"><img alt="A plan of Angkor Wat" height="404" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Awatplan04colours.png" src="../../images/2/235.png" width="480" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/235.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A plan of Angkor Wat</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Angkor Wat, located at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">13°24′40″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">103°52′9″E</span></span>, is a unique combination of the <!--del_lnk--> temple mountain and the later <!--del_lnk--> Chola of <!--del_lnk--> Tamil Nadu <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>. Particularly the model of the temple and the architecture was that of the Cholas, especially after Raja Raja Chola and his son Rajendra Cholan, The work perhaps started from the early period of 12 th Century.]], the standard design for the empire's state temples, and the later plan of concentric <!--del_lnk--> galleries. The temple is a representation of <!--del_lnk--> Mount Meru, the home of the gods: the central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level.<p>Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west rather than the east. This has led many (including Glaize and <!--del_lnk--> George Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to serve as his funerary temple. Further evidence for this view is provided by the <!--del_lnk--> bas-reliefs, which proceed in an anti-clockwise direction—<i><!--del_lnk--> prasavya</i> in Hindu terminology—as this is the reverse of the normal order. Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services. The archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container which may have been a funerary jar which was recovered from the central tower. Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with the west. <p>A further interpretation of Angkor Wat has been proposed by <!--del_lnk--> Eleanor Mannikka. Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and arrangement of the bas-reliefs, she argues that these indicate a claimed new era of peace under king <!--del_lnk--> Suryavarman II: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honour and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above." Mannikka's suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circles. She distances herself from the speculations of others, such as <!--del_lnk--> Graham Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the constellation <!--del_lnk--> Draco.<p><a id="Outer_enclosure" name="Outer_enclosure"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Outer enclosure</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/236.jpg.htm" title="A model of Angkor Wat prior to its ruin shows the half-galleries of the lower level and intact towers at the corners of the second-level galleries."><img alt="A model of Angkor Wat prior to its ruin shows the half-galleries of the lower level and intact towers at the corners of the second-level galleries." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dsc04092.jpg" src="../../images/2/236.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/236.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A model of Angkor Wat prior to its ruin shows the half-galleries of the lower level and intact towers at the corners of the second-level galleries.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The outer wall, 1025 by 802 m and 4.5 m high, is surrounded by a 30 m apron of open ground and a moat 190 m wide. Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west; the latter, the main entrance, is a later addition, possibly replacing a wooden bridge. There are <!--del_lnk--> gopuras at each of the <!--del_lnk--> cardinal points; the western is much the largest and has three ruined towers. Glaize notes that this gopura both hides and echoes the form of the temple proper. Under the southern tower is a statue of <!--del_lnk--> Vishnu, known as <i>Ta Reach</i>, which may originally have occupied the temple's central shrine. Galleries run between the towers and as far as two further entrances on either side of the gopura often referred to as "<a href="../../wp/e/Elephant.htm" title="Elephant">elephant</a> gates", as they are large enough to admit those animals. These galleries have square pillars on the outer (west) side and a closed wall on the inner (east) side. The ceiling between the pillars is decorated with <!--del_lnk--> lotus rosettes; the west face of the wall with dancing figures; and the east face of the wall with balustered windows, dancing male figures on prancing animals, and <!--del_lnk--> devatas, including (south of the entrance) the only one in the temple to be showing her teeth.<p>The outer wall encloses a space of 820,000 square metres (203 acres), which besides the temple proper was originally occupied by the city and, to the north of the temple, the royal palace. Like all secular buildings of Angkor, these were built of perishable materials rather than of stone, so nothing remains of them except the outlines of some of the streets. Most of the area is now covered by forest. A 350 m causeway connects the western gopura to the temple proper, with <!--del_lnk--> naga balustrades and six sets of steps leading down to the city on either side. Each side also features a <!--del_lnk--> library with entrances at each cardinal point, in front of the third set of stairs from the entrance, and a pond between the library and the temple itself. The ponds are later additions to the design, as is the cruciform terrace guarded by lions connecting the causeway to the central structure.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/237.jpg.htm" title="A view along the main axis of a model of Angkor Wat: in the foreground is the cruciform terrace which lies in front of the central structure."><img alt="A view along the main axis of a model of Angkor Wat: in the foreground is the cruciform terrace which lies in front of the central structure." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Angkor-wat-central.jpg" src="../../images/2/237.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/237.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A view along the main axis of a model of Angkor Wat: in the foreground is the cruciform terrace which lies in front of the central structure.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Central_structure" name="Central_structure"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Central structure</span></h3>
<p>The temple proper stands on a terrace raised above the level of the city. It consists essentially of three rectangular <!--del_lnk--> galleries rising to a central tower; with each level higher than the last. Mannikka interprets these galleries as being dedicated to the king, <!--del_lnk--> Brahma and the <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">moon</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Vishnu, respectively. Each gallery has a gopura at each of the cardinal points, and the two inner galleries each have towers at their corners, forming a <!--del_lnk--> quincunx with the central tower. Because of the temple's westward orientation, the features are all set back towards the east, leaving more space to be filled in each enclosure and gallery on the west side; for the same reason the west-facing steps are shallower than those on the other sides.<p>The outer gallery measures 187 by 215 m, with pavilions rather than towers at the corners. The gallery is open to the outside of the temple, with columned half-galleries extending and buttressing the structure. The inner walls bear a series of bas-reliefs, depicting large-scale scenes mainly from the <a href="../../wp/r/Ramayana.htm" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a> and the <a href="../../wp/m/Mahabharata.htm" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>. Higham has called these, "the greatest known linear arrangement of stone carving". From the north-west corner anti-clockwise, the western gallery shows the Battle of Lanka (from the Ramayana, in which <a href="../../wp/r/Rama.htm" title="Rama">Rama</a> defeats <!--del_lnk--> Ravana) and the Battle of Kurukshetra (from the Mahabharata, showing the mutual annihilation of the <!--del_lnk--> Kaurava and <!--del_lnk--> Pandava clans). On the southern gallery follow the only historical scene, a procession of <!--del_lnk--> Suryavarman II, then the 32 <!--del_lnk--> hells and 37 <!--del_lnk--> heavens of Hindu mythology. Glaize writes of;<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/238.jpg.htm" title="The bas-relief of the Churning of the Sea of Milk shows Vishnu in the centre, his turtle avatar Kurma below, asuras and devas to left and right, and apsaras and Indra above."><img alt="The bas-relief of the Churning of the Sea of Milk shows Vishnu in the centre, his turtle avatar Kurma below, asuras and devas to left and right, and apsaras and Indra above." height="232" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Awatoceanofmilk01.JPG" src="../../images/2/238.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/238.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The bas-relief of the <!--del_lnk--> Churning of the Sea of Milk shows <!--del_lnk--> Vishnu in the centre, his turtle <!--del_lnk--> avatar <!--del_lnk--> Kurma below, <!--del_lnk--> asuras and <!--del_lnk--> devas to left and right, and <!--del_lnk--> apsaras and <!--del_lnk--> Indra above.</div>
</div>
</div>
<blockquote>
<p>those unfortunate souls who are to be thrown down to hell to suffer a refined cruelty which, at times, seems to be a little disproportionate to the severity of the crimes committed. So it is that people who have damaged others' property have their bones broken, that the glutton is cleaved in two, that rice thieves are afflicted with enormous bellies of hot iron, that those who picked the flowers in the garden of <!--del_lnk--> Shiva have their heads pierced with nails, and thieves are exposed to cold discomfort.</blockquote>
<p>On the eastern gallery is one of the most celebrated scenes, the <!--del_lnk--> Churning of the Sea of Milk, showing 92 <!--del_lnk--> asuras and 88 <!--del_lnk--> devas using the serpent <!--del_lnk--> Vasuki to churn the sea under Vishnu's direction (Mannikka counts only 91 asuras, and explains the asymmetrical numbers as representing the number of days from the <!--del_lnk--> winter solstice to the <!--del_lnk--> spring equinox, and from the equinox to the <!--del_lnk--> summer solstice). It is followed by Vishnu defeating <!--del_lnk--> asuras (a 16th-century addition). The northern gallery shows Krishna's victory over <!--del_lnk--> Bana (where according to Glaize, "The workmanship is at its worst") and a battle between the Hindu gods and asuras. The north-west and south-west corner pavilions both feature much smaller-scale scenes, some unidentified but most from the Ramayana or the life of <!--del_lnk--> Krishna.<p>Connecting the outer gallery to the second enclosure on the west side is a cruciform cloister, known by the modern name of <i>Preah Poan</i> (the "Hall of a Thousand Buddhas"). <a href="../../wp/b/Buddha.htm" title="Buddha">Buddha</a> images were left in the cloister by <!--del_lnk--> pilgrims over the centuries, although most have now been removed. This area has many inscriptions relating the good deeds of pilgrims, most written in <!--del_lnk--> Khmer but others in <!--del_lnk--> Burmese and <!--del_lnk--> Japanese. The four small courtyards marked out by the cloister may originally have been filled with water. North and south of the cloister are <!--del_lnk--> libraries.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/239.jpg.htm" title="The north-west tower of the inner gallery at sunset."><img alt="The north-west tower of the inner gallery at sunset." height="266" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Awatcornertower01.JPG" src="../../images/2/239.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/239.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The north-west tower of the inner gallery at sunset.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Beyond, the second and inner galleries are connected to each other and to two flanking libraries by another cruciform terrace, again a later addition. From the second level upwards, <!--del_lnk--> devatas abound on the walls, singly or in groups of up to four. The second-level enclosure is 100 by 115 m, and may originally have been flooded to represent the ocean around <!--del_lnk--> Mount Meru. Three sets of steps on each side lead up to the corner towers and gopuras of the inner gallery. The very steep stairways represent the difficulty of ascending to the kingdom of the gods. This inner gallery, called the <i>Bakan</i>, is a 60 m square with axial galleries connecting each gopura with the central shrine, and subsidiary shrines located below the corner towers. The roofings of the galleries are decorated with the motif of the body of a snake ending in the heads of <a href="../../wp/l/Lion.htm" title="Lion">lions</a> or <!--del_lnk--> garudas. Carved <!--del_lnk--> lintels and pediments decorate the entrances to the galleries and to the shrines. The tower above the central shrine rises 43 m to a height of 65 m above the ground; unlike those of previous temple mountains, the central tower is raised above the surrounding four. The shrine itself, originally occupied by a statue of Vishnu and open on each side, was walled in when the temple was converted to <!--del_lnk--> Theravada Buddhism, the new walls featuring standing Buddhas. In 1934 the conservator George Trouvé excavated the pit beneath the central shrine: filled with sand and water it had already been robbed of its treasure, but he did find a sacred foundation deposit of <!--del_lnk--> gold leaf two metres above ground level.<p><a id="Angkor_Wat_today" name="Angkor_Wat_today"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Angkor Wat today</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/240.jpg.htm" title="The Temple viewed from inside the NW corner of the outer wall"><img alt="The Temple viewed from inside the NW corner of the outer wall" height="89" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Angor_Wat_NW_Cnr.jpg" src="../../images/2/240.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/240.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Temple viewed from inside the NW corner of the outer wall</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Since the 1990s Angkor Wat has seen a resumption of conservation efforts and a massive increase in <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourism</a>. The temple is part of the Angkor <a href="../../wp/w/World_Heritage_Site.htm" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>, established in 1992, which has provided some funding and has encouraged the Cambodian government to protect the site. The <!--del_lnk--> German Apsara Conservation Project (GACP) is working to protect the <!--del_lnk--> devatas and other bas-reliefs which decorate the temple from damage. The organisation's survey found that around 20% of the devatas were in very poor condition, mainly because of natural erosion and deterioration of the stone but in part also due to earlier restoration efforts. Other work involves the repair of collapsed sections of the structure, and prevention of further collapse: the west facade of the upper level, for example, has been buttressed by scaffolding since 2002, while a Japanese team completed restoration of the north library of the outer enclosure in 2005.<p>Angkor Wat has become a major tourist destination: attendance figures for the temple are not published, but in 2004 the country received just over a million international arrivals, of whom according to the Ministry of Tourism 57% planned to visit the temple. The influx of tourists has so far caused relatively little damage, other than some <!--del_lnk--> graffiti; ropes and wooden steps have been introduced to protect the bas-reliefs and floors, respectively. Tourism has also provided some additional funds for maintenance—approximately 28% of ticket revenues across the whole <a href="../../wp/a/Angkor.htm" title="Angkor">Angkor</a> site is spent on the temples—although most work is carried out by foreign government-sponsored teams rather than by the Cambodian authorities.<p>Angkor Wat is a finalist for the <!--del_lnk--> New Seven Wonders of the World, along with 20 other would-be wonders.<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angkor_Wat"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Angkor', 'Cambodia', 'Architecture', 'Architecture', 'Sanskrit', 'Portugal', 'France', 'Michelangelo', 'Ancient Greece', 'Ancient Rome', 'Thailand', 'Angkor', 'Ancient Greece', 'Ancient Rome', 'India', 'Elephant', 'Moon', 'Ramayana', 'Mahabharata', 'Rama', 'Buddha', 'Lion', 'Tourism', 'World Heritage Site', 'Angkor'] |
Anglican_Church_of_Australia | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Anglican Church of Australia,Anglican Churches,Anglican Churches,1787,1825,1829,1836,1842,1847,1962,1981" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Anglican Church of Australia</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Anglican_Church_of_Australia";
var wgTitle = "Anglican Church of Australia";
var wgArticleId = 556494;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Anglican_Church_of_Australia">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Anglican Church of Australia</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Religion.Religious_movements_traditions_and_organizations.htm">Religious movements, traditions and organizations</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:74px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/247.png.htm" title="Arms of the Anglican Church of Australia"><img alt="Arms of the Anglican Church of Australia" height="89" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Angl-Australia-Arms.svg" src="../../images/2/247.png" width="72" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/247.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Arms of the Anglican Church of Australia</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <b>Anglican Church of Australia</b>, a member church of the <a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Communion.htm" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Communion</a>, was previously officially known as the <b>Church of England in Australia and Tasmania</b> (renamed in <!--del_lnk--> 1981). It is the second largest church in Australia, behind the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic Church in Australia.<p>When the <!--del_lnk--> First Fleet was sent to <!--del_lnk--> New South Wales in <!--del_lnk--> 1787, the <!--del_lnk--> Reverend <!--del_lnk--> Richard Johnson was licensed as chaplain to the Fleet and the settlement. In <!--del_lnk--> 1825 the Revd <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Scott was appointed <!--del_lnk--> Archdeacon of Australia under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of <!--del_lnk--> Calcutta. The Revd <!--del_lnk--> William Grant Broughton, who succeeded Scott in <!--del_lnk--> 1829, was consecrated the first (and only) <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of Australia in <!--del_lnk--> 1836. In <!--del_lnk--> 1842 the Diocese of Tasmania was also created. In <!--del_lnk--> 1847 the rest of the Diocese of Australia was divided into the three separate dioceses of <a href="../../wp/a/Adelaide.htm" title="Adelaide">Adelaide</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Newcastle and <a href="../../wp/m/Melbourne.htm" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a>. Over the following eighty years the number of dioceses increased to twenty-five.<p>Since <!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1962 the <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australian</a> church has been <!--del_lnk--> autocephalous and headed by its own <!--del_lnk--> primate. The current primate is the <!--del_lnk--> Archbishop of <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane, the Most Reverend <!--del_lnk--> Phillip Aspinall.<p>The Australian church consists of twenty-three <!--del_lnk--> dioceses arranged into five provinces (except for <!--del_lnk--> Tasmania) with the <!--del_lnk--> metropolitical sees in the states' capital cities.<p><a id="Provinces_and_dioceses" name="Provinces_and_dioceses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Provinces and dioceses</span></h2>
<p>The provinces and dioceses are listed with each dioceses's bishop or archbishop:<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/248.jpg.htm" title="Inside St Mary the Virgin Church in South Perth. View is from the entrance towards the altar, note that the Stain glass windows are only on the northern side of the church"><img alt="Inside St Mary the Virgin Church in South Perth. View is from the entrance towards the altar, note that the Stain glass windows are only on the northern side of the church" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Internal_St_Marys_SthPerth_1.JPG" src="../../images/2/248.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/248.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Inside St Mary the Virgin Church in <!--del_lnk--> South Perth. View is from the entrance towards the altar, note that the Stain glass windows are only on the northern side of the church</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><b>The Province of <!--del_lnk--> New South Wales</b> (Metropolitan: The Most Revd <!--del_lnk--> Peter Jensen) <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Armidale (The Right Revd Peter Brain)<li><!--del_lnk--> Bathurst (<!--del_lnk--> The Right Revd Richard Hurford)<li><!--del_lnk--> Canberra and Goulburn (The Right Revd <!--del_lnk--> George Browning)<li><!--del_lnk--> Grafton (The Right Revd Kenneth Slater)<li><!--del_lnk--> Newcastle (<!--del_lnk--> The Right Revd Brian Farran)<li><!--del_lnk--> Riverina (<!--del_lnk--> The Right Revd Douglas Stephens)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sydney (Archbishop: The Most Revd <!--del_lnk--> Peter Jensen)</ul>
<li><b>The Province of <!--del_lnk--> Queensland</b> (Metropolitan: The Most Revd <!--del_lnk--> Phillip Aspinall) <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Brisbane (Archbishop: The Most Revd <!--del_lnk--> Phillip Aspinall)<li><!--del_lnk--> North Queensland (The Right Revd John Noble)<li><!--del_lnk--> The Northern Territory (The Right Revd <!--del_lnk--> Philip Freier)<li><!--del_lnk--> Rockhampton (The Right Revd Godfrey Fryar)</ul>
<li><b>The Province of <!--del_lnk--> South Australia</b> (Metropolitan: The Most Revd Jeffrey Driver) <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Adelaide (Archbishop: The Most Revd Jeffrey Driver))<li><!--del_lnk--> The Murray (The Right Revd Ross Davies)<li><!--del_lnk--> Willochra (The Right Revd Garry Weatherill)</ul>
<li><b>The Province of <!--del_lnk--> Victoria</b> (Metropolitan-Elect: The Right Revd <!--del_lnk--> Philip Freier) <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Ballarat (The Right Revd Michael Hough)<li><!--del_lnk--> Bendigo (The Right Revd Andrew Curnow)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gippsland (The Right Revd John McIntyre)<li><!--del_lnk--> Melbourne (Archbishop-Elect: The Right Revd <!--del_lnk--> Philip Freier)<li><!--del_lnk--> Wangaratta (The Right Revd David Farrer)</ul>
<li><b>The Province of <!--del_lnk--> Western Australia</b> (Metropolitan: The Most Reverend Roger Herft) <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Bunbury (The Right Revd David McCall)<li><!--del_lnk--> North West Australia (The Right Revd David Mulready)<li><!--del_lnk--> Perth (Archbishop: The Most Reverend <!--del_lnk--> Roger Herft)</ul>
<li><b>Extra Provincial Diocese</b><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Tasmania (The Right Revd John Harrower)</ul>
</ul>
<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Church_of_Australia"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Anglican Communion', 'Adelaide', 'Melbourne', 'Australia'] |
Anglican_Communion | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Anglican Communion,Anglicanism,Anglican Churches,Anglicanism,Anglican Churches,17th century,1814,1824,1836,1841,1861" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Anglican Communion</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Anglican_Communion";
var wgTitle = "Anglican Communion";
var wgArticleId = 909;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Anglican_Communion">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Anglican Communion</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Religion.Religious_movements_traditions_and_organizations.htm">Religious movements, traditions and organizations</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The <b>Anglican Communion</b> is a world-wide affiliation of <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Churches. There is no single "Anglican Church" with universal juridical authority, since each national or regional church has full autonomy. As the name suggests, the Anglican <i>Communion</i> is an association of these churches in <!--del_lnk--> full communion with the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> (which may be regarded as the "mother church" of the worldwide communion), and specifically with its <!--del_lnk--> primate, the <a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a>. With over seventy million members, the Anglican Communion is the fourth largest communion in the world, after the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> the <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Orthodox Churches and the <!--del_lnk--> Methodists.<p>The status of full communion means that all <!--del_lnk--> rites conducted in one church are recognised by the other. Some of these churches are known as Anglican, explicitly recognising the link to England (<i>Ecclesia Anglicana</i> means "Church of England"); others, such as the <!--del_lnk--> American and <a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Episcopal_Church.htm" title="Scottish Episcopal Church">Scottish</a> Episcopal churches, or the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_Ireland.htm" title="Church of Ireland">Church of Ireland</a>, prefer a separate name. Each church has its own <!--del_lnk--> doctrine and <!--del_lnk--> liturgy, based in most cases on that of the Church of England; and each church has its own legislative process and overall <a href="../../wp/e/Episcopal_polity.htm" title="Episcopal polity">episcopal polity</a>, under the leadership of a local primate.<p>The <a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a>, religious head of the Church of England, has no formal authority outside that jurisdiction, but is recognised as symbolic head of the worldwide communion. Among the other primates, he is <i><!--del_lnk--> primus inter pares</i>, or "first among equals." If the Archbishop of Canterbury is compared with other religious leaders such as the <a href="../../wp/p/Pope.htm" title="Pope">Pope</a>, therefore, it is only because of his prominent <!--del_lnk--> figurehead role in the media. He has no formal authority outside his own province. Nonetheless, churches are not considered to be in the Anglican Communion unless they are in full communion with him.<p>Although they are not considered members, some non-Anglican bodies have entered into communion with the Communion as a whole or with its constituent member churches, despite having non-Anglican origins and traditions. There are also a number of jurisdictions which do have Anglican origins and traditions but have separated from a member church of the Anglican Communion. They thus are no longer in communion with Canterbury, although some are in communion with individual provinces of the Communion. Nonetheless, these bodies self-identify as Anglican and are referred to as Anglican by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Many are part of the <!--del_lnk--> Continuing Anglican Movement. It is estimated that there are approximately forty million non-Canterbury Anglicans worldwide as against seventy million members of the Anglican Communion.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="What_holds_the_Communion_together.3F" name="What_holds_the_Communion_together.3F"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">What holds the Communion together?</span></h2>
<table cellspacing="3px" class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align:center;">
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><small>Part of the series on</small><br /><font size="4"><b><a href="../../wp/a/Anglicanism.htm" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></b></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/2/246.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Canterbury_cathedral.jpg" src="../../images/2/250.jpg" width="150" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size:11px"><b><strong class="selflink">Anglican Communion</strong></b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="font-size:11px; background:#ccccff">Background</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size:11px">
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a><br /><a href="../../wp/e/English_Reformation.htm" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a><br /><a href="../../wp/a/Apostolic_Succession.htm" title="Apostolic Succession">Apostolic Succession</a><br /><a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholicism</a><br /><a href="../../wp/e/Episcopal_polity.htm" title="Episcopal polity">Episcopal polity</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="font-size:11px; background:#ccccff">People</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size:11px">
<p><a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Cranmer.htm" title="Thomas Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a><br /><a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Richard Hooker<br /><a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> John Wesley<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="font-size:11px; background:#ccccff">Instruments of Unity</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size:11px">
<p><a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Lambeth Conferences<br /><!--del_lnk--> Anglican Consultative Council<br /><!--del_lnk--> Primates' Meeting<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="font-size:11px; background:#ccccff">Liturgy and Worship</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size:11px">
<p><a href="../../wp/b/Book_of_Common_Prayer.htm" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> High Church · <!--del_lnk--> Low Church<br /><!--del_lnk--> Broad Church<br /><!--del_lnk--> Oxford Movement<br /><!--del_lnk--> Thirty-Nine Articles<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ministry<br /><!--del_lnk--> Saints in Anglicanism</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The Anglican Communion has no official legal existence nor any governing structure which might exercise authority over the member churches. There is an <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Communion Office in London, under the aegis of the Archbishop of Canterbury; but it serves merely a supporting and organisational role. Instead, the communion is held together by a shared history, expressed in its <!--del_lnk--> ecclesiology, <!--del_lnk--> polity, and <!--del_lnk--> ethos; and by participation in international consultative bodies.<p><a id="Ecclesiology.2C_polity.2C_and_ethos" name="Ecclesiology.2C_polity.2C_and_ethos"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ecclesiology, polity, and ethos</span></h3>
<p>Three elements have been important in holding the Communion together: First, the shared ecclesial structure of the churches, manifested in an <a href="../../wp/e/Episcopal_polity.htm" title="Episcopal polity">episcopal polity</a> maintained through the <!--del_lnk--> apostolic succession of bishops and <!--del_lnk--> synodical government; second, the principle of belief expressed in worship, investing importance in approved prayer books and their rubrics; and third, the historical documents and standard <!--del_lnk--> divines that have influenced the ethos of the Communion.<p>Originally, the Church of England was self-contained, and relied for its unity and identity on its own history, its traditional legal and episcopal structure, and its status as an <!--del_lnk--> established church of the state. As such, Anglicanism was from the outset a movement with an explicitly <a href="../../wp/e/Episcopal_polity.htm" title="Episcopal polity">episcopal polity</a>, a characteristic which has been vital in maintaining the unity of the Communion by conveying the episcopate's role in manifesting visible catholicity and ecumenism.<p>Early in its development, the Church developed a vernacular prayer book, called the <a href="../../wp/b/Book_of_Common_Prayer.htm" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a>. Unlike other traditions, Anglicanism has never been governed by a <!--del_lnk--> magisterium nor by appeal to a founding <!--del_lnk--> theologian, nor by an extra-credal summary of doctrine (such as the <!--del_lnk--> Westminster Confession of the <!--del_lnk--> Presbyterian Church). Instead, Anglicans have typically appealed to the Book of Common Prayer and its offshoots as a guide to Anglican theology and practice. This had the effect of inculcating the principle of <i><!--del_lnk--> lex orandi, lex credendi</i> ("the law of prayer is the law of belief") as the foundation of Anglican identity and confession.<p>Protracted conflict through the seventeenth century with more radical <!--del_lnk--> Protestants on the one hand and <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholics who still recognised the supremacy of the <a href="../../wp/p/Pope.htm" title="Pope">Pope</a> on the other, resulted in a Church that was both deliberately vague about doctrinal principles, yet bold in developing parameters of acceptable deviation. These parameters were most clearly articulated in the various <!--del_lnk--> rubrics of the successive prayer books, as well as the <!--del_lnk--> Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion. These Articles, while never binding, have had an influence on the ethos of the Communion, an ethos reinforced by their interpretation and expansion by such influential early theologians as <!--del_lnk--> Richard Hooker, <!--del_lnk--> Lancelot Andrewes, <!--del_lnk--> John Cosin, and others.<p>With the expansion of Anglicanism outside <!--del_lnk--> Britain and <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, the Communion sought to establish new vehicles of unity. The first major expression of this were the <!--del_lnk--> Lambeth Conferences of the Communion's bishops, first convened by Archbishop of Canterbury <!--del_lnk--> Charles Longley in 1867. From the outset, these were not intended to displace the autonomy of the emerging provinces of the Communion, but to "discuss matters of practical interest, and pronounce what we deem expedient in resolutions which may serve as safe guides to future action." One of the enduringly influential early resolutions of the Conference was the so-called <!--del_lnk--> Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral of <!--del_lnk--> 1888. Its intent was to provide the basis for discussions of reunion with the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches, but it had the ancillary effect of establishing parameters of Anglican identity. Its four principles are:<ol>
<li>"The Holy Scriptures of the <!--del_lnk--> Old and <!--del_lnk--> New Testaments, as 'containing all things necessary to salvation', and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith."<li>"The <!--del_lnk--> Apostles' Creed, as the Baptismal Symbol; and the <!--del_lnk--> Nicene Creed, as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith."<li>"The two <!--del_lnk--> Sacraments ordained by Christ Himself - Baptism and the Supper of the Lord - ministered with unfailing use of Christ's words of Institution, and of the elements ordained by Him."<li>"The Historic <!--del_lnk--> Episcopate, locally adapted in the methods of its administration to the varying needs of the nations and peoples called of God into the Unity of His Church."</ol>
<p><a id="Instruments_of_Unity" name="Instruments_of_Unity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Instruments of Unity</span></h3>
<p>As mentioned above, the Anglican Communion has no international juridical organisation. The Archbishop of Canterbury's role is strictly symbolic and unifying; and the Communion's three international bodies are consultative and collaborative, their resolutions having no legal effect on the independent provinces of the Communion. Taken together, however, the four do function as "instruments of unity", since all churches of the Communion partcipate in them. In order of antiquity, they are:<ol>
<li>The <a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a> (<i>ab origine</i>) functions as the spiritual head of the Communion. He is the focus of unity, since no church claims membership in the Communion without being in communion with him. The present incumbent is Dr. <a href="../../wp/r/Rowan_Williams.htm" title="Rowan Williams">Rowan Williams</a>.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Lambeth Conference (first held in <!--del_lnk--> 1867) is the oldest international consultation. It is a forum for bishops of the Communion to reinforce unity and collegiality through manifesting the <!--del_lnk--> episcopate, to discuss matters of mutual concern, and to pass resolutions intended to act as guideposts. It is held roughly every ten years and invitation is by the Archbishop of Canterbury.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Consultative Council (first met in <!--del_lnk--> 1971) was created by a 1968 Lambeth Conference resolution, and meets usually at three year intervals. The council consists of representative bishops, clergy, and laity chosen by the thirty-eight provinces. The body has a permanent secretariat, the Anglican Communion Office, of which the Archbishop of Canterbury is president.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Primates' Meeting (first met in <!--del_lnk--> 1979) is the most recent manifestation of international consultation and deliberation, having been first convened by Archbishop <!--del_lnk--> Donald Coggan as a forum for "leisurely thought, prayer and deep consultation."</ol>
<p>Since there is no binding authority in the Communion, these international bodies are a vehicle for consultation and persuasion. In recent years, persuasion has tipped over into debates over conformity in certain areas of doctrine, discipline, worship, and ethics. The most notable example has been the objection of some provinces of the Communion (particularly in Africa, Asia and Sydney Australia) to the changing role of homosexuals in the North American churches (e.g., by <!--del_lnk--> blessing same-sex unions and ordaining and consecrating gays and lesbians in same-sex relationships), and to the process by which changes were undertaken. Those who objected condemned these actions as unscsriptural, unilateral, and without the agreement of the Communion prior to these steps being taken. In response, the <!--del_lnk--> American Episcopal Church and the <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Church of Canada answered that the actions had been undertaken after lengthy scriptural and theological reflection, legally in accordance with their own <!--del_lnk--> canons and constitutions and after extensive consultation with the provinces of the Communion.<p>The Primates' Meeting voted to request the two churches to withdraw their delegates from the 2005 meeting of the Anglican Consultative Council, and Canada and the United States decided to attend the meeting but without exercising their right to vote. They have not been expelled or suspended, since there is no mechanism in this voluntary association to suspend or expel an independent province of the Communion. Since membership is based on a province's communion with Canterbury, expulsion would require the Archbishop of Canterbury's refusal to be in communion with the affected jurisdiction(s). In line with the suggestion of the <!--del_lnk--> Windsor Report, Dr. Williams has recently established a working group to examine the feasibility of an Anglican <!--del_lnk--> covenant which would articulate the conditions for communion in some fashion.<p><a id="Provinces_of_the_Anglican_Communion" name="Provinces_of_the_Anglican_Communion"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Provinces of the Anglican Communion</span></h2>
<p>All thirty-eight provinces of the Anglican Communion are independent, each with its own <!--del_lnk--> primate and governing structure. These provinces may take the form of national churches (such as in Canada, Uganda, or Japan) or a collection of nations (such as the West Indies, Central Africa, or Southeast Asia). They are, in alphabetical order:<ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand, and Polynesia<li>The <a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Church_of_Australia.htm" title="Anglican Church of Australia">Anglican Church of Australia</a><li>The <!--del_lnk--> Church of Bangladesh<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Igreja Episcopal Anglicana do Brasil (Anglican Episcopal Church of Brazil)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Church of Burundi<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Church of Canada<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Church of the Province of Central Africa<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Iglesia Anglicana de la Region Central America (Anglican Church in the Central Region of America)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Province de L'Eglise Anglicane Du Congo (Province of the Anglican Church of Congo)<li>The <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Sheng Kung Hui (Hong Kong Anglican Church (Episcopal))<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Church of the Province of the Indian Ocean<li>The <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_Ireland.htm" title="Church of Ireland">Church of Ireland</a><li>The <!--del_lnk--> Nippon Sei Ko Kai (The Anglican Communion in Japan)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Church of Kenya<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Church of Korea<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Church of the Province of Melanesia<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Church of Mexico<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Church of the Province of Myanmar (Burma)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Church of Nigeria<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Church of North India<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Church of Pakistan<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Episcopal Church of the Philippines<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Church of the Province of Rwanda<li>The <a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Episcopal_Church.htm" title="Scottish Episcopal Church">Scottish Episcopal Church</a><li>The <!--del_lnk--> Church of the Province of South East Asia<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Church of South India<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Church of Southern Africa<li><!--del_lnk--> Iglesia Anglicana del Cono Sur de las Americas (Anglican Church of the Southern Cone of the Americas)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Episcopal Church of the Sudan<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Church of Tanzania<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Church of Uganda<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Episcopal Church in the United States of America<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Church in Wales<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Church of the Province of West Africa<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Church in the Province of the West Indies</ul>
<p>In addition, there are six extra-provincial churches, five of which are under the <!--del_lnk--> metropolitical authority of the Archbishop of Canterbury.<ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Church of Bermuda (extra-provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury)<li><!--del_lnk--> Iglesia Episcopal de Cuba (Episcopal Church of Cuba) (under a metropolitan council)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Parish of the Falkland Islands (extra-provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church of <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> (extra-provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church (extra-provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Church of Ceylon (<a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>) (extra-provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury)</ul>
<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>The Anglican Communion is a relatively recent concept. Ever since the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> (which until the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a> included the <!--del_lnk--> Church in Wales) broke from <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Rome</a> in the reign of <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>, it has thought of itself not as a new foundation but rather as a reformed continuation of the ancient "English church" and a reassertion of that church's rights. As such it was a distinctly local phenomenon.<p>Thus the only members of the present Anglican Communion existing by the mid-<a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th century</a> were the Church of England, its closely-linked sister church, the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_Ireland.htm" title="Church of Ireland">Church of Ireland</a> (which also broke from Rome under Henry VIII), and the <a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Episcopal_Church.htm" title="Scottish Episcopal Church">Scottish Episcopal Church</a>, which for parts of the <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a> and 18th centuries was partially underground (it was suspected of <!--del_lnk--> Jacobite sympathies).<p>However, the enormous expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries of the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> brought the church along with it. At first all these colonial churches were under the jurisdiction of the <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of London. After the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution, the parishes in the newly independent country found it necessary to break formally from a church whose <!--del_lnk--> Supreme Governor was (and remains) the <a href="../../wp/b/British_monarchy.htm" title="British monarchy">British monarch</a>. Thus they formed their own dioceses and national church, the <!--del_lnk--> Episcopal Church in the United States of America, in a mostly amicable separation.<p>At about the same time, in the colonies which remained linked to the crown, the Church of England began to appoint colonial bishops. In 1787 a bishop of <!--del_lnk--> Nova Scotia was appointed with a jurisdiction over all of British North America; in time several more colleagues were appointed to other cities in present-day <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>. In <!--del_lnk--> 1814 a bishop of <!--del_lnk--> Calcutta was made; in <!--del_lnk--> 1824 the first bishop was sent to the <!--del_lnk--> West Indies and in <!--del_lnk--> 1836 to <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>. By 1840 there were still only ten colonial bishops for the Church of England; but even this small beginning greatly facilitated the growth of Anglicanism around the world. In <!--del_lnk--> 1841 a "Colonial Bishoprics Council" was set up and soon many more dioceses were created.<p>In time, it became natural to group these into provinces, and a <!--del_lnk--> metropolitan appointed for each province. Although it had at first been somewhat established in many colonies, in <!--del_lnk--> 1861 it was ruled that, except where specifically established, the Church of England had just the same legal position as any other church. Thus a colonial bishop and colonial diocese was by nature quite a different thing from their counterparts back home. In time bishops came to be appointed locally rather than from England, and eventually national synods began to pass ecclesiastical legislation independent of England.<p>A crucial step in the development of the modern communion was the idea of the Lambeth Conferences, as discussed above. These conferences demonstrated that the bishops of disparate churches could manifest the unity of the church in their episcopal collegiality, despite the absence of universal legal ties. Some bishops were initially reluctant to attend, fearing that the meeting would declare itself a council with power to legislate for the church; but it agreed to pass only advisory resolutions. These Lambeth Conferences have been held roughly decennially since 1878 (the second such conference), and remain the most visible coming-together of the whole Communion.<p><a id="Controversies" name="Controversies"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Controversies</span></h2>
<p>One effect of the Communion's dispersed authority has been that conflict and controversy regularly arise over the effect divergent practices and doctrines in one part of the Communion have on others. Disputes that had been confined to the Church of England could be dealt with legislatively in that realm, but as the Communion spread out into new nations and disparate cultures, such controversies multiplied and intensified. These controversies have generally been of two types: liturgical and social.<p>The first such controversy of note concerned that of the growing influence of the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic Revival manifested in the so-called <!--del_lnk--> ritualism controversies of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Later, rapid social change and the dissipation of British cultural hegemony over its former colonies contributed to disputes over the role of women, the parameters of marriage and divorce, and the practice of <!--del_lnk--> contraception and <!--del_lnk--> abortion. More recently, disagreements over homosexuality have strained the unity of the Communion as well as its relationships with other Christian denominations (<i>see <!--del_lnk--> Anglican views of homosexuality</i>). Simultaneous with debates about social theology and ethics, the Communion has debated prayer book revision and the acceptable grounds for achieving full communion with non-Anglican churches.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> A Letter From The Episcopal Church Historical Society On Bishop Polk And Sewanee</ul>
<p><a id="Ecumenical_relations" name="Ecumenical_relations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ecumenical relations</span></h2>
<p>Anglican interest in <!--del_lnk--> ecumenical dialogue can be traced back to the time of the Reformation and dialogues with both Orthodox and Lutheran churches in the sixteenth century. In the nineteenth century, with the rise of the Oxford Movement, there arose greater concern for reunion of the churches of "Catholic confession." This desire to work towards full <!--del_lnk--> communion with other denominations led to the development of the <!--del_lnk--> Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral, approved by the Third <!--del_lnk--> Lambeth Conference of 1888. The four points (the sufficiency of scripture, the historic creeds, the two dominical sacraments, and the historic episcopate) were proposed as a basis for discussion, although they have frequently been taken as a non-negotiable bottom-line for reunion.<p><a id="World_Council_of_Churches" name="World_Council_of_Churches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">World Council of Churches</span></h3>
<p>Ecumenical dialogue has been particularly fruitful in three realms. The first is the <!--del_lnk--> World Council of Churches and its predecessors, in which Anglicans have been involved from the first. Anglican representatives were particularly involved in the development of the seminal Faith and Order paper, <i>Baptism, Eucharist, and Ministry</i>, which sought to develop common ground concerning these issues, and have been at the centre of the process of developing recent work on the "Nature and Mission of the Church".<p><a id="Roman_Catholic_Church" name="Roman_Catholic_Church"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Roman Catholic Church</span></h3>
<p>The second concerns dialogue with the Roman Catholic Church. Long-term hostility between the two Communions had undermined the prospects of dialogue. Although <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic Emancipation in the United Kingdom relieved some of the tension, the Catholic response to the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral was articulated in <i><!--del_lnk--> Apostolicae Curae</i>, an 1896 <!--del_lnk--> papal bull which declared Anglican <!--del_lnk--> holy orders null and void. Rapprochement was finally achieved in 1966, with the visit of Archbishop <a href="../../wp/m/Michael_Ramsey.htm" title="Michael Ramsey">Michael Ramsey</a> to Pope <!--del_lnk--> Paul VI. The following year, the <!--del_lnk--> Anglican-Roman Catholic International Commission was established. Its first project focused on the authority of Scripture, and the Commission has since produced nine agreed statements. Phase One of ARCIC ended in 1981 with the publication of a final report, <i>Elucidations on Authority in the Church</i>. Phase Two lasted between 1983 and 2004, and a third phase is expected. The most recent agreed statement dealt with Marian theology, and was published in 2004. In 2000, following a successful meeting of Anglican and Roman Catholic bishops in Mississauga in Canada, a new commission, the International Anglican Roman Catholic Commission for Unity and Mission, was established to promote practical co-operation between Anglicans and Roman Catholics, and the reception of the fruits of the theological dialogue.<p>Despite the productivity of these discussions, dialogue is strained by developments in some provinces of the Communion, primarily concerning the <a href="../../wp/o/Ordination_of_women.htm" title="Ordination of women">ordination of women</a> and the ordination of those in public same-sex sexual relationships including, in one case, a bishop (<!--del_lnk--> Gene Robinson). Pope <a href="../../wp/p/Pope_John_Paul_II.htm" title="John Paul II">John Paul II</a> made a <!--del_lnk--> Pastoral Provision for a small number parishes led by former Episcopal clergy who have converted to the Roman Catholic Church. There are approximately a half-dozen of these <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Use parishes, so called because they have been permitted the temporary use of a Roman Catholic adaptation of the Book of Common Prayer, although not the Episcopal Book of Common Prayer itself. In addition, there is one <!--del_lnk--> Continuing Anglican church jurisdiction, the <!--del_lnk--> Traditional Anglican Communion, currently seeking to achieve full communion with Rome while retaining its own faith and practices.<p><a id="Lutheran_Churches" name="Lutheran_Churches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lutheran Churches</span></h3>
<p>Another fruitful realm of dialogue has been with various <!--del_lnk--> Lutheran churches. In 1994, the <!--del_lnk--> Porvoo Communion was formed, bringing the Anglican churches of England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland and the Episcopal churches of Portugal and Spain into full communion with the Lutheran churches of Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, and Lithuania. In 2001, the <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Church of Canada and the <!--del_lnk--> Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada achieved full communion <!--del_lnk--> , as did the <!--del_lnk--> Episcopal Church in the United States and the <!--del_lnk--> Evangelical Lutheran Church in America <!--del_lnk--> . In addition, full communion agreements have been reached between various <!--del_lnk--> ecclesiastical provinces and smaller, mostly <!--del_lnk--> Catholic denominations, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Old Catholic Church after the <!--del_lnk--> Bonn Agreement of 1931.<p><a id="Orthodox_Churches" name="Orthodox_Churches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Orthodox Churches</span></h3>
<p>Dialogue has also been fruitful with the Orthodox Churches. The current <!--del_lnk--> International Commission of the Anglican-Orthodox Theological Dialogue was established in 1999, building on the work of earlier commissions, which had published their work in the Dublin Statement, and the <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Oriental Orthodox International Commission was established in 2001.<p><a id="Other_churches" name="Other_churches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other churches</span></h3>
<p>Consultations with Protestant churches other than Lutherans have also been fruitful. However, movements toward full communion between the Anglican Church of Canada and the <!--del_lnk--> United Church of Canada, as well as between the Church of England and the <!--del_lnk--> Methodist Church of Great Britain were both derailed because of the issue of episcopacy, specifically, <!--del_lnk--> apostolic succession. This, as well as Anglican stands on certain social issues, has likewise hindered dialogue between Anglicans and conservative <!--del_lnk--> evangelical Protestant denominations. This has not prevented a range of reports by bilateral commissions producing descriptions of converging theology and practice however, such as Conversations around the World (2005), a report of conversations between the representatives of the Anglican Communion and the Baptist World Alliance.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Communion"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Church of England', 'Archbishop of Canterbury', 'Roman Catholic Church', 'Scottish Episcopal Church', 'Church of Ireland', 'Episcopal polity', 'Archbishop of Canterbury', 'Pope', 'Anglicanism', 'Christianity', 'English Reformation', 'Apostolic Succession', 'Roman Catholic Church', 'Episcopal polity', 'Thomas Cranmer', 'Henry VIII of England', 'Elizabeth I of England', 'Archbishop of Canterbury', 'Book of Common Prayer', 'Episcopal polity', 'Episcopal polity', 'Book of Common Prayer', 'Pope', 'Ireland', 'Archbishop of Canterbury', 'Rowan Williams', 'Anglican Church of Australia', 'Church of England', 'Church of Ireland', 'Scottish Episcopal Church', 'Portugal', 'Sri Lanka', 'Church of England', '20th century', 'Roman Catholic Church', 'Henry VIII of England', '18th century', 'Church of Ireland', 'Scottish Episcopal Church', '17th century', 'British Empire', 'British monarchy', 'Canada', 'Australia', 'Michael Ramsey', 'Ordination of women', 'John Paul II'] |
Anglicanism | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Anglicanism,Anglicanism,Anglicanism,1489,1533,1534,1538,1540,1549,1552,1556" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Anglicanism</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Anglicanism";
var wgTitle = "Anglicanism";
var wgArticleId = 1214;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Anglicanism">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Anglicanism</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Religion.Religious_movements_traditions_and_organizations.htm">Religious movements, traditions and organizations</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<p>The term <b>Anglican</b> (from medieval <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>ecclesia Anglicana</i> meaning 'the <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> church') is used to describe the people, institutions, and churches as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the <!--del_lnk--> established <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>, the <a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Communion.htm" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Communion</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Continuing Anglican Churches (a loosely affiliated group of independent churches which have seceded from the Anglican Communion as a result of doctrinal and liturgical differences with its various provinces). In some parts of the world, an Anglican is known as an <b>Episcopalian</b>.<p>The <a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Communion.htm" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Communion</a> considers itself to be part of the <!--del_lnk--> One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church and as being both Catholic and Reformed. For some adherents, it represents a non-papal Catholicism, for others a Protestantism without a dominant figure such as a <a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Luther.htm" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Knox, <a href="../../wp/j/John_Calvin.htm" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a>, or <!--del_lnk--> Wesley. For many Anglicans, self-identity represents some combination of the two. The Communion is a theologically broad and often divergent affiliation of thirty-eight provinces that are in communion with the <a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a>. The Anglican Communion is one of the larger <!--del_lnk--> Christian denominations in the world, with approximately 73 million members<!--del_lnk--> .<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<table cellspacing="3px" class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align:center;">
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><small>Part of the series on</small><br /><font size="4"><b><strong class="selflink">Anglicanism</strong></b></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/2/246.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Canterbury_cathedral.jpg" src="../../images/2/250.jpg" width="150" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size:11px"><b><a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Communion.htm" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Communion</a></b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="font-size:11px; background:#ccccff">Background</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size:11px">
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a><br /><a href="../../wp/e/English_Reformation.htm" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a><br /><a href="../../wp/a/Apostolic_Succession.htm" title="Apostolic Succession">Apostolic Succession</a><br /><a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholicism</a><br /><a href="../../wp/e/Episcopal_polity.htm" title="Episcopal polity">Episcopal polity</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="font-size:11px; background:#ccccff">People</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size:11px">
<p><a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Cranmer.htm" title="Thomas Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a><br /><a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Richard Hooker<br /><a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> John Wesley<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="font-size:11px; background:#ccccff">Instruments of Unity</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size:11px">
<p><a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Lambeth Conferences<br /><!--del_lnk--> Anglican Consultative Council<br /><!--del_lnk--> Primates' Meeting<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="font-size:11px; background:#ccccff">Liturgy and Worship</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size:11px">
<p><a href="../../wp/b/Book_of_Common_Prayer.htm" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> High Church · <!--del_lnk--> Low Church<br /><!--del_lnk--> Broad Church<br /><!--del_lnk--> Oxford Movement<br /><!--del_lnk--> Thirty-Nine Articles<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ministry<br /><!--del_lnk--> Saints in Anglicanism</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Pre-Reformation" name="Pre-Reformation"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Pre-Reformation</span></h4>
<p>Anglicans traditionally date the origins of their Church to the arrival in England of the first Archbishop of Canterbury, <!--del_lnk--> Saint Augustine of Canterbury at the end of the <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th century</a>. However, the origins of the English Church extend farther back, Christianity having first gained a foothold during the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Britain.htm" title="Roman Britain">Roman occupation</a> prior to the <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th century</a>, possibly as early as the <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st century</a>. The first recorded Christian martyr in Britain, <!--del_lnk--> Saint Alban, is thought to have lived in the early <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th century</a>, and his prominence in Anglican <!--del_lnk--> hagiography is reflected in the number of <!--del_lnk--> parish churches of which he is patron. Irish Anglicans also trace their origins back to the founding saint of Irish Christianity (<!--del_lnk--> Saint Patrick) who was a Roman Briton and pre-dated Anglo-Saxon Christianity.<p>Anglicans consider <!--del_lnk--> Celtic Christianity a forerunner of their church, since the re-establishment of Christianity in the early sixth century came via <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Irish</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> missionaries, notably <!--del_lnk--> Saint Patrick and <a href="../../wp/c/Columba.htm" title="Columba">Saint Columba</a>. This distinctive form of Catholic Christianity remained, even after the <!--del_lnk--> Synod of Whitby in <!--del_lnk--> 664 decided that the church throughout Britain should conform to the contemporary Roman customs introduced by Augustine and other missionaries to the Anglo-Saxons. This persistence of Celtic traditions, along with the implementation of <!--del_lnk--> Pope Gregory I's instructions to Augustine to incorporate pagan customs and festivals into religious life and practice, meant that English Christianity assumed a distinctive indigenous character<p><a id="Reformation" name="Reformation"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Reformation</span></h4>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>While Anglicans acknowledge that the repudiation of papal authority by <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII of England</a> led to the Church of England existing as a separate entity, they also stress its continuity with the pre-Reformation Church of England. Quite apart from its distinct customs and liturgies (such as the <!--del_lnk--> Sarum rite), the organizational machinery of the Church of England was in place by the time of the Synod of Hertford in <!--del_lnk--> 672–<!--del_lnk--> 673 when the English bishops were for the first time able to act as one body under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury. The effect of Henry's <!--del_lnk--> Act in Restraint of Appeals (<!--del_lnk--> 1533) and the <!--del_lnk--> Acts of Supremacy (<!--del_lnk--> 1534) was simply to declare that the English crown was "the only supreme head in earth of the Church of England, called <i>Ecclesia Anglicana</i>," and that the <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of Rome had no "greater jurisdiction in England than any other foreign bishop." The development of the <!--del_lnk--> Thirty-Nine Articles of religion and the passage of the <!--del_lnk--> Acts of Uniformity culminating in the <!--del_lnk--> Elizabethan Religious Settlement resulted in a Church that is both Catholic and Reformed with the English (later British) monarch as its <!--del_lnk--> Supreme Governor.<p>The <a href="../../wp/e/English_Reformation.htm" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a> was initially driven by the dynastic goals of Henry VIII, who, in his quest for a <!--del_lnk--> consort who would bear him a male heir, found it expedient to replace <a href="../../wp/p/Pope.htm" title="Papacy">papal supremacy</a> with the supremacy of the English crown. A close reading of the early legislation, limiting itself as it does to questions of temporal and spiritual supremacy, suggest that it was not Henry's intention to found a new church. He was well-informed enough about history to know that the powers he was claiming were those which had been exercised by European monarchs over the church in their dominions since the time of <!--del_lnk--> Constantine the Great, and that what had changed since then had been the growth of papal power. The original Acts sought to reverse this by placing Henry at the head of the church. Subsequent legislation put a decidedly <!--del_lnk--> Protestant spin on Henry's agenda, however. The introduction of the <!--del_lnk--> Great Bible in <!--del_lnk--> 1538 brought a <!--del_lnk--> vernacular translation of the Scriptures into churches, and the <!--del_lnk--> Dissolution of the Monasteries by <!--del_lnk--> 1540 brought huge amounts of church land and property under the jurisdiction of the Crown, and ultimately into the hands of the English nobility. This created vested interests which made a powerful material incentive to support a separate Christian church in England under the rule of the Crown.<p>By <!--del_lnk--> 1549, the process of creating a new and distinct national church was fully initiated by the publication of the first vernacular prayer book, the <a href="../../wp/b/Book_of_Common_Prayer.htm" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a>, and the enforcement of the <!--del_lnk--> Acts of Uniformity, establishing English as the language of public worship. The theological justification for Anglican distinctiveness was begun by the <a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a> <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Cranmer.htm" title="Thomas Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a>, the principal author of the first Prayer Book, and continued by other thinkers such as <!--del_lnk--> Richard Hooker and <!--del_lnk--> Lancelot Andrewes. Cranmer had studied in Europe and was influenced by the ideas of the <!--del_lnk--> Reformers <a href="../../wp/j/John_Calvin.htm" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Martin Bucer, as well as the Roman Catholic theologian <!--del_lnk--> Desiderius Erasmus.<p>During the short reign of <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VI_of_England.htm" title="Edward VI of England">Edward VI</a>, Henry's son, Cranmer and others moved the Church of England significantly towards a more Protestant <!--del_lnk--> Calvinist position, which was reflected in the development of the second Prayer Book (<!--del_lnk--> 1552) and of the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion (originally numbering forty-two). This reform was reversed abruptly in the subsequent reign of <a href="../../wp/m/Mary_I_of_England.htm" title="Mary I of England">Queen Mary</a>, a Roman Catholic who re-established papal supremacy. Only under <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Queen Elizabeth I</a> was the English church established as a reformed <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> incorporating aspects of <!--del_lnk--> Protestant theology.<p><a id="Post-Reformation" name="Post-Reformation"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Post-Reformation</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/5/521.jpg.htm" title="Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556), Henry VIII's Archbishop of Canterbury and principal author of the first and second Books of Common Prayer."><img alt="Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556), Henry VIII's Archbishop of Canterbury and principal author of the first and second Books of Common Prayer." height="223" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Thomas-Cranmer-ez.jpg" src="../../images/2/252.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/5/521.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Cranmer.htm" title="Thomas Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1489–<!--del_lnk--> 1556), <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>'s <a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a> and principal author of the first and second <a href="../../wp/b/Book_of_Common_Prayer.htm" title="Book of Common Prayer">Books of Common Prayer</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In the <a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th century</a> religious life was an important part of the cement which held society together, and formed an important basis for extending and consolidating political power. Differences in religion were likely to lead to civil unrest at the very least, with <!--del_lnk--> treason and foreign invasion acting as real threats. Elizabeth's solution to the problem of minimising bloodshed over religion in her dominions was the <!--del_lnk--> religious settlement most compellingly articulated in the development of the <!--del_lnk--> 1559 Book of Common Prayer. This version of the prayer book combined elements of the <!--del_lnk--> Calvinist <!--del_lnk--> 1552 version with the traditional Catholic liturgy of Sarum, as transcribed in the 1549 version. The prayer book revision was buttressed by a revision of the Articles of Religion and mediating <!--del_lnk--> rubrics concerning vestments and liturgy. Elizabeth's goal was a church with a fixed form of worship in which everybody was expected to participate, but a belief system that was formulated in such a way that most in the theological spectrum would be able to give assent. Article VI of the <!--del_lnk--> Thirty-Nine Articles, by the use of negative terminology, subtly inverted the Protestant principle that all things must be proved from the Scriptures so that only those things which could be proved by an appeal to the Scriptures must be believed as articles of the faith. The bulk of the population acceded to Elizabeth's religious settlement with varying degrees of enthusiasm or resignation, but more militant Protestants (the so-called <!--del_lnk--> Puritans) and those who continued to recognise papal supremacy opposed it, and cracks in the façade of religious unity in England appeared.<p>For the next century, through the reigns of <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James I</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a>, and culminating in the <!--del_lnk--> English Civil War and the protectorate of <a href="../../wp/o/Oliver_Cromwell.htm" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>, there were significant swings back and forth between two factions: the Puritans (and other radicals) who sought more far-reaching reform, and the more conservative churchmen who aimed to keep closer to traditional beliefs and practices. The failure of political and ecclesiastical authorities to submit to Puritan demands for more extensive reform was one of the causes of open warfare. By continental standards the level of violence over religion was not high, but the casualties included a king, <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> and an Archbishop of Canterbury, <!--del_lnk--> William Laud. Under <!--del_lnk--> the Protectorate of the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of England from <!--del_lnk--> 1649 to <!--del_lnk--> 1660, Anglicanism was <!--del_lnk--> disestablished, <!--del_lnk--> presbyterian <!--del_lnk--> ecclesiology was introduced as an adjunct to the episcopal system, the Articles were replaced with the <!--del_lnk--> Westminster Confession, and the Book of Common Prayer was replaced by the <!--del_lnk--> Directory of Public Worship. Despite this, about one quarter of English clergy refused to conform.<p>With the <!--del_lnk--> Restoration of <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_II_of_England.htm" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a>, Anglicanism too was restored in a form not far removed from the Elizabethan version. One difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation, taken for granted by the <!--del_lnk--> Tudors, had to be abandoned. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with an Anglican established church occupying the middle ground, and Roman Catholics and those Puritans who dissented from the establishment, too strong to be suppressed altogether, having to continue their existence outside the national church rather than controlling it. Restrictions and continuing official suspicion continued well into the nineteenth century. The Elizabethan Settlement failed in that it was never able to win the assent of the entire English people, let alone the other peoples of the British Isles. Yet as the Anglican form of Christianity is now found all over the world it may possibly have succeeded beyond the wildest expectations of anybody alive in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.<p><a id="Spread_of_Anglicanism_outside_England" name="Spread_of_Anglicanism_outside_England"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Spread of Anglicanism outside England</span></h4>
<p>The history of Anglicanism since the <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th century</a> has been one of greater geographical and cultural expansion and diversity, accompanied by a concomitant diversity of liturgical and theological profession and practice.<p>At the same time as the English reformation, the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_Ireland.htm" title="Church of Ireland">Church of Ireland</a> was also separated from Rome and adopted articles of faith similar to England's Thirty-Nine Articles. However, unlike England, the Anglican church there was never able to capture the loyalty of the majority of the population (who still adhered to Roman Catholicism). As early as 1582, the <a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Episcopal_Church.htm" title="Scottish Episcopal Church">Scottish Episcopal Church</a> was inaugurated when <!--del_lnk--> James VI of Scotland sought to reintroduce bishops when the <!--del_lnk--> Church of Scotland became fully <!--del_lnk--> presbyterian (see <!--del_lnk--> Scottish reformation). The Scottish Episcopal Church enabled the creation of the <!--del_lnk--> Episcopal Church in the United States of America after the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution, by consecrating in <a href="../../wp/a/Aberdeen.htm" title="Aberdeen">Aberdeen</a> the first American bishop, <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Seabury, who had been refused consecration by bishops in England, due to his inability to take the oath of allegiance to the <!--del_lnk--> English crown prescribed in the <!--del_lnk--> Order for the Consecration of Bishops. The polity and ecclesiology of the Scottish and American churches, as well as their daughter churches, thus tends to be distinct from those spawned by the English church - reflected, for example, in their looser conception of <!--del_lnk--> provincial government, and their leadership by a <!--del_lnk--> presiding bishop or <!--del_lnk--> primus rather than by a <!--del_lnk--> metropolitan or <!--del_lnk--> archbishop. The names of the Scottish and American churches inspire the customary term <i>Episcopalian</i> for an Anglican; the term being used in these and other parts of the world. <i>See also: <!--del_lnk--> American Episcopalians, <!--del_lnk--> Scottish Episcopalians</i><div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/256.png.htm" title="The arms of the US Episcopal Church."><img alt="The arms of the US Episcopal Church." height="130" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ECUSA_arms.svg" src="../../images/2/256.png" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/256.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The arms of the <!--del_lnk--> US Episcopal Church.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>At the time of the Reformation the four Welsh dioceses were all part of the Province of Canterbury, and remained so until 1920 when the <!--del_lnk--> Church in Wales was created as a province of the Anglican Communion. The intense interest in the Christian faith which characterised the Welsh in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was not present in the sixteenth, and most Welsh people went along with the Reformation more because the English government was strong enough to impose its wishes in Wales, rather than out of any real conviction.<p>Anglicanism spread outside of the British Isles by means of emigration as well as missionary effort. English missionary organisations such as <!--del_lnk--> USPG - then known as the <!--del_lnk--> Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, the <!--del_lnk--> Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge (SPCK) and the <!--del_lnk--> Church Missionary Society (CMS) were established in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to bring Anglican Christianity to the British colonies. By the nineteenth century, such missions were extended to other areas of the world. The liturgical and theological orientations of these missionary organisations were diverse. The SPG, for example, was influenced by the <!--del_lnk--> Catholic Revival in the Church of England, while CMS was influenced by the <!--del_lnk--> Evangelicalism of the earlier <!--del_lnk--> Evangelical Revival. As a result, the piety, liturgy, and polity of the indigenous churches they established came to reflect these diverse orientations.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:74px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/247.png.htm" title="Arms of the Anglican Church of Australia."><img alt="Arms of the Anglican Church of Australia." height="89" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Angl-Australia-Arms.svg" src="../../images/2/247.png" width="72" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/247.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Arms of the <a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Church_of_Australia.htm" title="Anglican Church of Australia">Anglican Church of Australia</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The growth of the twin "revivals" in nineteenth century Anglicanism - Evangelical and Catholic - were hugely influential. The Evangelical Revival informed important social movements such as <!--del_lnk--> the abolition of slavery, child welfare legislation, <!--del_lnk--> prohibition of alcohol, the development of <!--del_lnk--> public health and <!--del_lnk--> public education. It also led to the creation of the <!--del_lnk--> Church Army, an evangelical and social welfare association and informed piety and liturgy, most notably in the development of <!--del_lnk--> Methodism. The Catholic Revival, arguably, had a more penetrating impact. It succeeded in transforming the liturgy of the Anglican Church, repositioning the <!--del_lnk--> Eucharist as the central act of worship in place of the <!--del_lnk--> daily offices, and reintroducing the use of vestments, ceremonial, and acts of piety (such as <!--del_lnk--> Eucharistic adoration) that had long been prohibited in the English church and (to a certain extent) in its daughter churches. It also had an impact on Anglican theology, especially through the <!--del_lnk--> Christian socialism of such Catholic Revival figures as <!--del_lnk--> Frederick Denison Maurice, <!--del_lnk--> Charles Gore, and - later - <!--del_lnk--> William Temple.<p><a id="Organisation" name="Organisation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Organisation</span></h2>
<p><a id="Principles_of_governance" name="Principles_of_governance"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Principles of governance</span></h3>
<p>Contrary to popular misconception, the British monarch is not the constitutional "Head" of the Church of England, nor does he or she have any role in provinces outside England and Wales. The role of the crown in the Church of England is practically limited to the appointment of bishops, including the Archbishop of Canterbury. This process is accomplished through collaboration with and consent of ecclesial representatives <i>(see <!--del_lnk--> Ecclesiastical Commissioners)</i>. The monarch has no constitutional role in Anglican churches in other parts of the world, although the prayer books of several countries where she is head of state maintain prayers for her as sovereign.<p>A characteristic of Anglicanism is that it has no international juridical authority. All thirty-nine provinces of the Anglican Communion are independent, each with their own <!--del_lnk--> primate and governing structure. These provinces may take the form of national churches (such as in Canada, Uganda, or Japan) or a collection of nations (such as the West Indies, Central Africa, or South Asia). Within these Communion provinces may exist subdivisions called <!--del_lnk--> ecclesiastical provinces, under the jurisdiction of a <!--del_lnk--> metropolitan. All provinces of the Anglican Communion consist of <!--del_lnk--> dioceses, under the jurisdiction of a bishop. In the Anglican tradition, bishops must be consecrated according to the strictures of <!--del_lnk--> apostolic succession, which Anglicans consider one of the marks of <!--del_lnk--> catholicity. Apart from bishops, there are two other orders of ordained ministry: <!--del_lnk--> deacon and <!--del_lnk--> priest. No requirement is made for <!--del_lnk--> clerical celibacy and women may be ordained as deacons in almost all provinces, as priests in some, and as bishops in a few provinces. <!--del_lnk--> Anglican religious orders and communities, suppressed in England during the Reformation, have re-emerged since the mid-nineteenth century, and now have an international presence and influence.<p>Government in the Anglican Communion is <!--del_lnk--> synodical, consisting of three houses of <!--del_lnk--> laity (usually elected parish representatives), <!--del_lnk--> clergy, and bishops. National, provincial, and diocesan synods maintain different scopes of authority, depending on their <!--del_lnk--> canons and constitutions. Anglicanism is not <!--del_lnk--> congregational in its polity: It is the diocese, not the parish church, which is the smallest unit of authority in the church, and bishops must give their assent to resolutions passed by synods. <i>(See <a href="../../wp/e/Episcopal_polity.htm" title="Episcopal polity">Episcopal polity</a>).</i><p><a id="The_Archbishop_of_Canterbury" name="The_Archbishop_of_Canterbury"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Archbishop of Canterbury</span></h3>
<p>The Archbishop of Canterbury has a precedence of honour over the other primates of the Anglican Communion, and for a province to be considered a part of the Communion means specifically to be in communion with the <!--del_lnk--> See of <!--del_lnk--> Canterbury. The Archbishop is, therefore recognised as <i><!--del_lnk--> primus inter pares</i>, or first amongst equals even though he does not exercise any direct authority in any <!--del_lnk--> province outside England, of which he is chief primate. The current Archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="../../wp/r/Rowan_Williams.htm" title="Rowan Williams">Rowan Williams</a>, as former <!--del_lnk--> Archbishop of Wales, is the first appointed from outside the Church of England since the Reformation.<p>As "spiritual head" of the Communion, the Archbishop of Canterbury maintains a certain moral authority, and has the right to determine which churches will be in communion with his <!--del_lnk--> See. He hosts and chairs the <!--del_lnk--> Lambeth Conferences of Anglican Communion bishops, as well as the <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Communion Primates' Meeting. He acts as president of the secretariat of the Anglican Communion Office, and its deliberative body, the <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Consultative Council.<p><a id="International_bodies" name="International_bodies"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">International bodies</span></h3>
<p>The Anglican Communion has no international juridical organisation. All international bodies are consultative and collaborative, and their resolutions are not legally binding on the independent provinces of the Communion. There are three international bodies of note.<ol>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Lambeth Conference is the oldest international consultation. It was first convened by Archbishop <!--del_lnk--> Charles Longley in 1867 as a vehicle for bishops of the Communion to "discuss matters of practical interest, and pronounce what we deem expedient in resolutions which may serve as safe guides to future action." Since then, it has been held roughly every ten years. Invitation is by the Archbishop of Canterbury.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Consultative Council was created by a 1968 Lambeth Conference resolution, and meets <!--del_lnk--> biennially. The council consists of representative bishops, clergy, and laity chosen by the thirty-eight provinces. The body has a permanent secretariat, the Anglican Communion Office, of which the Archbishop of Canterbury is president.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Communion Primates' Meeting is the most recent manifestation of international consultation and deliberation, having been first convened by Archbishop <!--del_lnk--> Donald Coggan in 1978 as a forum for "leisurely thought, prayer and deep consultation."</ol>
<p><a id="United_Churches" name="United_Churches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">United Churches</span></h3>
<p>In the Indian subcontinent most Anglican churches have entered into formal union with Protestant denominations while remaining part of the Anglican Communion. These agreements, which date from the 1940s and 50s, led to the creation of the <!--del_lnk--> Church of North India, the <!--del_lnk--> Church of South India, the <!--del_lnk--> Church of Pakistan and the <!--del_lnk--> Church of Bangladesh. The united churches maintain an episcopal and synodical structure and consecrate bishops in apostolic succession. As a percentage of the total population in the region, these united churches are not significant, but aside from <a href="../../wp/b/Bangladesh.htm" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, they are numerically very substantial.<p>Those which did not join with the union agreements in South Asia retained the name Anglican Church of India or adopted a similar one using the word "Anglican." The total membership of these churches has been estimated at 800,000. Most have recently entered into communion with churches of the <!--del_lnk--> Continuing Anglican Movement and have North American parishes.<p><a id="Anglican_Churches_outside_the_Anglican_Communion" name="Anglican_Churches_outside_the_Anglican_Communion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Anglican Churches outside the Anglican Communion</span></h3>
<p>There are a number of jurisdictions which identify themselves as "Anglican" but are not in communion with Canterbury. They therefore are outside the Anglican Communion. Several, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Free Church of England and the <!--del_lnk--> Reformed Episcopal Church in the United States left the Anglican Communion in the 1800s in reaction to the inroads of the Catholic Revival and the controversy over <!--del_lnk--> ritualism which it produced in the church.<p>Later, during the 1960s and 70s, disagreements with certain provincial bodies — chiefly in North America and in the United Kingdom — over such issues as prayer book revision, the remarriage of divorced persons, the ordination of women, and the acceptance by the church of homosexual relationships led to another and quite different schism. These Anglican churches are usually termed "<!--del_lnk--> Continuing Anglican churches" because of their determination to preserve (or "continue") the episcopate in <a href="../../wp/a/Apostolic_Succession.htm" title="Apostolic Succession">Apostolic Succession</a>, whereas the older Reformed Episcopal churches maintained the lineage of bishops without accepting the idea that sacraments are valid only if administered by clergy in such a lineage.<p>There are also independent jurisdictions unrelated to the preceding schisms. The <!--del_lnk--> Church of England in South Africa is conservative, long-established, and has a substantial membership. It is separate from the <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Church of Southern Africa, which is part of the Anglican Communion. Other churches, however, have adopted the Anglican name, the Book of Common Prayer, Anglican vestments, and — in some cases — the Thirty Nine Articles of Religion, but have no historic connection to the Anglican Communion. Unlike the socially conservative Continuing Anglican churches and the Church of England in South Africa, some of these tiny jurisdictions are openly oriented towards the Gay and Lesbian community and do ordain women clergy.<p>Given the range of concerns and the grounds for schism, there is as much diversity in the theological and liturgical orientations of the Free Churches, the Continuing Anglican churches, and the independent Anglican bodies as there is among churches of the Anglican Communion. Some are Evangelical, others charismatic and Evangelical, and yet others are <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Catholic. What they have in common is a conviction that mainstream Anglicanism in North America, the United Kingdom, and elsewhere has departed from acceptable principles of belief and/or practice.<p><a id="Doctrine" name="Doctrine"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Doctrine</span></h2>
<p><a id="Catholic_and_Reformed" name="Catholic_and_Reformed"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Catholic and Reformed</span></h3>
<p>Rather than theological disagreement, the origin of Anglicanism was based on questions of jurisdiction - namely, the belief that national churches should be autonomous. The effort to create a national church in continuity with its traditions, but inclusive of the doctrinal and liturgical insights of the <!--del_lnk--> Reformation was joined by a real concern to make the institution as hospitable as possible to people of different theological inclinations, so as to maintain social peace and cohesion. The result has been a movement with a distinctive self-image among Christian movements. The question often arises whether the Anglican Communion should be identified as a <!--del_lnk--> Protestant or <!--del_lnk--> Catholic church, or perhaps a distinct branch of Christianity altogether.<p>The distinction between Protestant and Catholic, and the coherence of the two, is routinely a matter of debate both within specific Anglican Churches and throughout the Anglican Communion by members themselves. Since the <!--del_lnk--> Oxford Movement of the mid-19th century, many churches of the Communion have embraced and extended liturgical and pastoral practices dissimilar to most Reformed Protestant theology. This extends beyond the ceremony of <!--del_lnk--> High Church services to even more theologically significant territory, such as sacramental theology (see <!--del_lnk--> Anglican sacraments). Nevertheless, while Anglo-Catholic practices, particularly liturgical ones, have become much more mainstream within the denomination over the last century, there remain many areas where practices and beliefs remain on the more Protestant or Evangelical side.<p><a id="Guiding_principles" name="Guiding_principles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Guiding principles</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/259.jpg.htm" title="Richard Hooker (1554–1600), one of the most influential figures in shaping Anglican theology and self-identity"><img alt="Richard Hooker (1554–1600), one of the most influential figures in shaping Anglican theology and self-identity" height="215" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hooker-Statue.jpeg" src="../../images/2/259.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/259.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Richard Hooker (1554–1600), one of the most influential figures in shaping Anglican theology and self-identity</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Unlike other Christian movements, Anglican doctrine is neither established by a <!--del_lnk--> magisterium, nor derived from the theology of an <!--del_lnk--> eponymous founder (such as <!--del_lnk--> Lutheranism or <!--del_lnk--> Calvinism), nor summed up in a confession of faith (beyond those of the <!--del_lnk--> creeds). Instead, the earliest Anglican theological documents are its prayer books, which were themselves the products of profound theological reflection and compromise. It is within the <a href="../../wp/b/Book_of_Common_Prayer.htm" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a> that Anglican doctrine was originally expressed in the selection, arrangement, and composition of prayers and exhortations, the selection and arrangement of daily scripture readings (the <!--del_lnk--> lectionary), and in the stipulation of the <!--del_lnk--> rubrics for permissible <!--del_lnk--> liturgical action and any variations in the prayers and exhortations. The principle of looking to the prayer books as a guide to the parameters of belief and practice is called by the Latin name <i><!--del_lnk--> lex orandi, lex credendi</i> ("the law of prayer is the law of belief"). Within the prayer books are the so-called fundamentals of Anglican doctrine: The <!--del_lnk--> Apostles' and <!--del_lnk--> Nicene Creeds, the scriptures (via the lectionary), the sacraments, daily prayer, the <!--del_lnk--> catechism, and apostolic succession in the context of the historic threefold ministry.<p>Beyond the prayer books of various provinces, however, there are other important principles that have had an impact on Anglican belief. The earliest are contained within the <i><!--del_lnk--> Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion</i>, as they appear in their final, 1604 form. Historically, Anglican clergy had to take an oath of subscription to the Articles, although the practice has become uncommon. Despite this, they have never been considered binding, but rather advisory. The degree to which each of the articles has remained influential varies. Arguably, the most influential of them has been Article VI on the "sufficiency of Scripture," which states that "Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation: so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man, that it should be believed as an article of the Faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation." This article has informed Anglican biblical <!--del_lnk--> exegesis and <!--del_lnk--> hermeneutics since earliest times.<p>Anglicans also look for authority in their so-called "standard divines" (see below). Historically, the most influential of these - apart from Cranmer - has been the sixteeth century cleric and theologian <!--del_lnk--> Richard Hooker. Hooker's description of Anglican authority as being akin to a three-legged stool of Scripture, informed by reason (the intellect and the experience of God) and tradition (the practices and beliefs of the historical church), has influenced Anglican self-identity and doctrinal reflection perhaps more powerfully than any other formula.<p>Finally, the extension of Anglicanism into non-English cultures, the growing diversity of prayer books, and the increasing interest in ecumenical dialogue has led to further reflection on the parameters of Anglican identity. Many Anglicans look to the <!--del_lnk--> Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral of 1888 as the "<i>sine qua non</i>" of Communal identity. In brief, the Quadrilateral's four points are the Holy Scriptures, as containing all things necessary to salvation; the Creeds (specifically, the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds), as the sufficient statement of Christian faith; the dominical sacraments of <!--del_lnk--> Baptism and <!--del_lnk--> Holy Communion; and the historic <!--del_lnk--> episcopate, locally adapted.<p><a id="Anglican_divines" name="Anglican_divines"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Anglican divines</span></h3>
<p>Within the Anglican tradition, there have been certain theological writers whose works have been considered standards for faith, doctrine, worship, and spirituality. While there is no authoritative list of these Anglican divines, there are some whose names would likely be found on most lists - those who are commemorated in <!--del_lnk--> lesser feasts of the Church, and those whose works are frequently <!--del_lnk--> anthologized.<p>The corpus produced by Anglican divines is diverse. What they have in common is a commitment to the faith as conveyed by Scripture and the Book of Common Prayer, thus regarding prayer and theology in a manner akin to that of the <!--del_lnk--> Apostolic Fathers. On the whole, Anglican divines view the <!--del_lnk--> via media of Anglicanism, not as a compromise, but "a positive position, witnessing to the universality of God and God's kingdom working through the fallible, earthly <i>ecclesia Anglicana</i>." These theologians regard Scripture as interpreted through tradition and reason as authoritative in matters concerning salvation. Reason and tradition, indeed, is extant in and presupposed by Scripture, thus implying co-operation between God and humanity, God and nature, and between the sacred and secular. Faith is thus regarded as <!--del_lnk--> incarnational, and authority as dispersed.<p>Among the early Anglican divines of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the names of Thomas Cranmer, <!--del_lnk--> John Jewel, Richard Hooker, <!--del_lnk--> Lancelot Andrewes, and <!--del_lnk--> Jeremy Taylor predominate. The influential character of Hooker's <i><!--del_lnk--> Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity</i> cannot be overestimated. Published in 1593 and subsequently, Hooker's eight volume work is primarily a treatise on Church-state relations, but it also deals comprehensively with issues of <!--del_lnk--> biblical interpretation, <!--del_lnk--> soteriology, <a href="../../wp/e/Ethics.htm" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> sanctification. Throughout the work, Hooker makes clear that theology involves prayer and is concerned with ultimate issues, and also that theology is relevant to the social mission of the church.<p>The eighteenth century saw the rise of two important movements in Anglicanism: <!--del_lnk--> Cambridge Platonism, with its mystical understanding of reason as the "candle of the Lord," and the <!--del_lnk--> Evangelical Revival, with its emphasis on the personal experience of the <!--del_lnk--> Holy Spirit. The Cambridge Platonist movement evolved into a school called <!--del_lnk--> Latitudinarianism, which emphasized reason as the barometer of discernment and took a stance of indifference towards doctrinal and ecclesiological differences. The Evangelical Revival, influenced by such figures as <!--del_lnk--> John Wesley and <!--del_lnk--> Charles Simeon, re-emphasized the importance of <!--del_lnk--> justification through faith and the consequent importance of personal conversion. Some in this movement, such as Wesley and <!--del_lnk--> George Whitefield, took the message to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, influencing the <!--del_lnk--> First Great Awakening, and also created an Anglo-American movement called <!--del_lnk--> Methodism that would eventually break away from the Anglican churches.<p>By the nineteenth century, there was a renewed emphasis on the teachings of the earlier Anglican divines: Theologians such as <!--del_lnk--> John Keble, <!--del_lnk--> Edward Bouverie Pusey, and <!--del_lnk--> John Henry Newman had widespread influence in the realm of polemics, homiletics, and theological and devotional works. Their work is largely credited with the development of the <!--del_lnk--> Oxford Movement, which sought to reassert Catholic identity and practice in the Anglican Church. Through such works as <i><!--del_lnk--> The Kingdom of Christ</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Frederick Denison Maurice played a pivotal role in inaugurating another movement, <!--del_lnk--> Christian socialism. In this, Maurice transformed Hooker's emphasis on the <!--del_lnk--> incarnational nature of Anglican spirituality to an imperative for social justice. Also in the nineteenth century, Anglican biblical scholarship began to assume a distinct character, represented by the so-called "Cambridge triumvirate" of <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Lightfoot, <!--del_lnk--> F.J.A. Hort, and <!--del_lnk--> Brooke Foss Westcott. Their orientation is best summed up by Lightfoot's observation that "Life which Christ is and which Christ communicates, the life which fills our whole beings as we realise its capacities, is active fellowship with God."<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/260.jpg.htm" title="A priest in Anglican choir habit. Normally worn at non-Eucharistic liturgies and offices, the vesture is also worn by many "low church" or evangelical Anglicans to preside at the Eucharist"><img alt="A priest in Anglican choir habit. Normally worn at non-Eucharistic liturgies and offices, the vesture is also worn by many "low church" or evangelical Anglicans to preside at the Eucharist" height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Choirhabit.jpg" src="../../images/2/260.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/260.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A priest in Anglican <!--del_lnk--> choir habit. Normally worn at non-Eucharistic liturgies and offices, the vesture is also worn by many "low church" or evangelical Anglicans to preside at the Eucharist</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/261.jpg.htm" title="An Anglican priest in eucharistic vestments. Many Anglican clergy vest in a similar way to Roman Catholic clergy, especially at the Eucharist. While the chasuble is often considered to be more "high church" by some Anglicans, the alb and stole have become common vesture."><img alt="An Anglican priest in eucharistic vestments. Many Anglican clergy vest in a similar way to Roman Catholic clergy, especially at the Eucharist. While the chasuble is often considered to be more "high church" by some Anglicans, the alb and stole have become common vesture." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Chasublepurple.jpg" src="../../images/2/261.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/261.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An Anglican priest in eucharistic <!--del_lnk--> vestments. Many Anglican clergy vest in a similar way to Roman Catholic clergy, especially at the <!--del_lnk--> Eucharist. While the <!--del_lnk--> chasuble is often considered to be more "high church" by some Anglicans, the <!--del_lnk--> alb and <!--del_lnk--> stole have become common vesture.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The twentieth century is marked by figures such as <!--del_lnk--> Charles Gore, with his emphasis on natural revelation, <!--del_lnk--> William Temple's focus on Christianity and society, and <!--del_lnk--> J.A.T. Robinson's provocative discussions of deism and theism. Outside England, one sees such figures as <!--del_lnk--> William Porcher DuBose, <!--del_lnk--> William Meade, and <!--del_lnk--> Charles Henry Brent in the United States. More recently, theologians such as <!--del_lnk--> Jeffrey John, <!--del_lnk--> N.T. Wright, and <a href="../../wp/r/Rowan_Williams.htm" title="Rowan Williams">Rowan Williams</a> have added to the mix.<p><a id="Ordained_ministry" name="Ordained_ministry"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ordained ministry</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Like the <a href="../../wp/e/Eastern_Orthodox_Church.htm" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Catholic churches (but unlike most Protestant churches), the Anglican Communion maintains the three-fold ministry of deacons, priests, and bishops. Bishops of the church are members of the <!--del_lnk--> historic episcopate, and derive their authority through <!--del_lnk--> apostolic succession — an unbroken line of bishops that can be traced back to the apostles of <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> of Nazareth. The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches either do not recognize the apostolic succession in Anglican orders or do not consider that any existing line of succession among Anglicans confers validity. In contrast, the Anglican Communion recognizes Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox ordinations as valid. Outside the Anglican Communion, Anglican ordinations (at least of male priests) are recognized by the Old Catholics, many <!--del_lnk--> Lutherans, other Protestants, and various <!--del_lnk--> Independent Catholic Churches.<p><a id="Churchmanship" name="Churchmanship"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Churchmanship</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/262.jpg.htm" title="An eastward-facing high mass, an Anglo-Catholic liturgical phenomenon which appeared in Anglicanism following the Catholic Revival of the nineteenth century"><img alt="An eastward-facing high mass, an Anglo-Catholic liturgical phenomenon which appeared in Anglicanism following the Catholic Revival of the nineteenth century" height="285" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tridentine_mass.jpg" src="../../images/2/262.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/262.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An eastward-facing high mass, an <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Catholic liturgical phenomenon which appeared in Anglicanism following the <!--del_lnk--> Catholic Revival of the nineteenth century</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>"Churchmanship" can be defined as the manifestation of theology in the realms of liturgy, piety, and - to some extent - spirituality. In Anglicanism diversity in this respect has tended to reflect the diversity in the movement's Protestant and Catholic identity. Different individuals, groups, parishes, dioceses, and provinces may identify more with one or the other, or some balance of the two.<p>The range of Anglican belief and practice became particularly divisive during the 19th century when some clergy were disciplined and even imprisoned on charges of <!--del_lnk--> ritualism while, at the same time, others were criticized for engaging in public worship servuces with ministers of Reformed churches. Resistance to the growing acceptance of so-called Catholic ceremonial by the mainstream of Anglicanism and the unwillingness of the mainstream churches to require adherence to the existing regulations against certain of the elements of this Catholic "Revival" ultimately led to schism, with the creation of the <!--del_lnk--> Free Church of England in England (1844) and the <!--del_lnk--> Reformed Episcopal Church in North America (1873).<p>Anglo-Catholic (and some Broad Church) Anglicans undertake public liturgy in a fashion that resembles that of the contemporary Roman Catholic Church, in sometimes an even more traditional manner (e.g., an "eastward orientation" at the altar). The Eucharist may be conducted by priest, deacon, and <!--del_lnk--> subdeacon dressed in their traditional vestments, using incense and <!--del_lnk--> sanctus bells, and with "secret prayers" said by the presiding celebrant. Such churches may practice <!--del_lnk--> Eucharistic adoration, such as solemn benediction of the reserved sacrament. In terms of personal piety, such Anglicans may recite the <!--del_lnk--> rosary and <!--del_lnk--> angelus, be involved in a devotional society dedicated to "Our Lady" (the <!--del_lnk--> Blessed Virgin Mary), and seek the intercession of the saints. In recent years, prayer books of several provinces have, out of deference to a greater agreement with Eastern <!--del_lnk--> Conciliarism (and a perceived greater respect accorded Anglicanism by Eastern Orthodoxy than by Roman Catholicism), instituted a number of historically Eastern and <!--del_lnk--> Oriental Orthodox elements in their liturgies, including introduction of the <!--del_lnk--> Trisagion and deletion of the <!--del_lnk--> filioque clause from the <!--del_lnk--> Nicene Creed.<p>For their part, those <!--del_lnk--> Evangelical (and some Broad Church) Anglicans who emphasise the Protestant nature of the Church stress the Reformation theme of <!--del_lnk--> salvation by grace through faith. They emphasize the two dominical sacraments of Baptism and Eucharist, viewing the other five as "lesser rites." Such Anglicans tend to take the inerrancy of Scripture literally, adopting the view of Article VI that it contains all things necessary to salvation in an explicit sense. Worship in churches influenced by these principles tends to be significantly less elaborate, with greater emphasis on the Liturgy of the Word (the reading of the scriptures, the sermon, and the intercessory prayers). The Order for Holy Communion may be celebrated bi-weekly or monthly (in preference to the <!--del_lnk--> daily offices), by priests attired in <!--del_lnk--> choir habit rather than Eucharistic vestments. Ceremonial may be in keeping with the restrictive provisions of the <!--del_lnk--> Ornaments Rubric of the historic English prayer books — no candles, no incense, no bells, and a minimum of manual action by the presiding celebrant (such as touching the elements at the <!--del_lnk--> Words of Institution).<p>In recent years, there has been a surge of <!--del_lnk--> charismatic worship among Anglicans. Both Anglo-Catholics and Evangelicals have been affected by this movement such that it is not uncommon to find typically charismatic postures, music, and other themes evident during the services of otherwise Anglo-Catholic or Evangelical parishes.<p>The spectrum of Anglican beliefs and practice is too large to be fit into these labels. Many Anglicans locate themselves somewhere in the spectrum of the Broad Church tradition, and consider themselves an amalgam of Evangelical and Catholic. Such Anglicans stress that Anglicanism is the "<i><!--del_lnk--> via media</i>" (middle way) between the two major strains of Western Christianity. <i>Via media</i> may also be understood as underscoring Anglicanism's preference for a communitarian and methodological approach to theological issues rather than relativism.<p><a id="Social_issues" name="Social_issues"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Social issues</span></h2>
<p>Anglican concern with broader issues of social justice can be traced to its earliest divines. Richard Hooker, for instance, wrote that "God hath created nothing simply for itself, but each thing in all things, and of every thing each part in other have such interest, that in the whole world nothing is found whereunto any thing created can say, 'I need thee not.'" This, and related statements reflect the deep thread of <!--del_lnk--> incarnational theology running through Anglican social thought - a theology which sees God, nature, and humanity in dynamic interaction, and the interpenetration of the secular and the sacred in the make-up of the cosmos. Such theology is informed by a traditional English spiritual ethos, rooted in Celtic Christianity, and reinforced by Anglicanism's origins as an <!--del_lnk--> established church, bound up by its structure in the life and interests of civil society.<p>Repeatedly, throughout Anglican history, this principle has reasserted itself in movements of social justice. For instance, in the eighteenth century the influential Evangelical Anglican <a href="../../wp/w/William_Wilberforce.htm" title="William Wilberforce">William Wilberforce</a>, along with others, campaigned against the slave trade. In the nineteenth century, the dominant issues concerned the adverse effects of industrialisation. Frederick Denison Maurice was a leading figure advocating reform in this respect, founding so-called "producer's co-operatives" and the <!--del_lnk--> Working Men's College. His work, instrumental in the establishment of the <!--del_lnk--> Christian socialist movement, influenced later Anglo-Catholics such as Charles Gore, who wrote that "the principle of the incarnation is denied unless the Christian spirit can be allowed to concern itself with everything that interests and touches human life."<p>Anglican focus on labour issues culminated in the work of William Temple in the 1930s and 40s. The effects of the two world wars led to a growing interest in issues of peace among some Anglicans, such as <!--del_lnk--> Vera Brittain and <!--del_lnk--> Evelyn Underhill. While never actively endorsed by the Anglican Church, many Anglicans unofficially have adopted the Augustinian "<!--del_lnk--> Just War" doctrine, reinforced by Article XXXVII of the Thirty-Nine Articles, which states that "it is lawful for Christian men, at the commandment of the Magistrate, to wear weapons, and serve in the wars." Lambeth Conference resolutions, along with those of various provinces, have in recent years sought to provide a clearer position by repudiating modern war and have developed statements asserting a preference for non-violent resistance.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/206/20685.jpg.htm" title="Desmond Tutu (born 1931), former Primate of the Anglican Church of the Province of South Africa, and a leading figure in the successful fight against apartheid"><img alt="Desmond Tutu (born 1931), former Primate of the Anglican Church of the Province of South Africa, and a leading figure in the successful fight against apartheid" height="270" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Archbishop-Tutu-medium.jpg" src="../../images/2/263.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/206/20685.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/d/Desmond_Tutu.htm" title="Desmond Tutu">Desmond Tutu</a> (born 1931), former Primate of the Anglican <!--del_lnk--> Church of the Province of South Africa, and a leading figure in the successful fight against apartheid</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>After World War II, the focus on social issues became increasingly diffuse. On the one hand, the growing independence and strength of Anglican churches in the global south brought new emphasis to issues of global poverty, the inequitable distribution of resources, and the lingering effects of colonialism. In this regard, figures such as <a href="../../wp/d/Desmond_Tutu.htm" title="Desmond Tutu">Desmond Tutu</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Ted Scott were instrumental in mobilising Anglicans worldwide against the <!--del_lnk--> apartheid policies of <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. On the other hand, rapid social change in the industrialised world during the twentieth century compelled the church to examine issues of gender, sexuality, and marriage.<p>This led to Lambeth resolutions countenancing <!--del_lnk--> contraception and the remarriage of divorced persons. It also led to most provinces approving the ordination of women. More recently, it has led some jurisdictions to permit the ordination of individuals in same-sex relationships and to authorise rites for the blessing of same-sex unions. More conservative elements within Anglicanism (primarily African churches and factions within North American Anglicanism) are opposed to these changes. Some liberal and moderate Anglicans see this opposition as representing a new <!--del_lnk--> fundamentalism within Anglicanism. The lack of social consensus among and within provinces of diverse cultural traditions has resulted in considerable conflict and even schism concerning some or all of these developments.<p>These latter trends reflect a countervailing tendency in Anglicanism towards insularity, reinforced perhaps by the "big tent" nature of the movement, which seeks to be comprehensive of various views and tendencies. The insularity and complacency of the early established <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> has tended to influence Anglican self-identity, and inhibit engagement with the broader society in favour of internal debate and dialogue. Nonetheless, there is significantly greater cohesion among Anglicans when they turn their attention outward. Anglicans worldwide are active in many areas of social and environmental concern.<p><a id="Religious_life" name="Religious_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Religious life</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>A small yet influential aspect of Anglicanism is its <!--del_lnk--> religious orders and communities. Shortly after the beginning of the <!--del_lnk--> Catholic Revival in the Church of England, there was a renewal of interest in re-establishing religious and monastic orders and communities. One of Henry VIII's earliest acts was their dissolution and seizure of their assets. In 1841 <!--del_lnk--> Marion Rebecca Hughes became the first woman to take the vows of religion in communion with the <!--del_lnk--> Province of Canterbury since the Reformation. In 1848, <!--del_lnk--> Priscilla Lydia Sellon became the superior of the <!--del_lnk--> Society of the Most Holy Trinity at Devonport, the first organised religious order. Sellon is called "the restorer, after three centuries, of the religious life in the Church of England." For the next one hundred years, religious orders for both men and women proliferated throughout the world, becoming a numerically small but disproportionately influential feature of global Anglicanism.<p>Anglican religious life at one time boasted hundreds of orders and communities, and thousands of <!--del_lnk--> religious. An important aspect of Anglican religious life is that most communities of both men and women lived their lives consecrated to <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">God</a> under the <!--del_lnk--> vows of <a href="../../wp/p/Poverty.htm" title="Poverty">poverty</a>, <!--del_lnk--> chastity and <!--del_lnk--> obedience (or in <!--del_lnk--> Benedictine communities, Stability, Conversion of Life, and Obedience) by practising a mixed life of reciting the full eight services of the <!--del_lnk--> Breviary in choir, along with a daily <!--del_lnk--> Eucharist, plus service to the poor. The mixed life, combining aspects of the contemplative orders and the active orders remains to this day a hallmark of Anglican religious life. Another distinctive feature of Anglican religious life is the existence of some mixed-gender communities.<p>Since the 1960s there has been a sharp decline in the number of professed religious in most parts of the Anglican Communion, especially in North America, Europe, and Australia. Many once large and international communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery comprised of elderly men or women. In the last few decades of the 20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct. There are however, still several thousand Anglican religious working today in approximately 200 communities around the world, and religious life in many parts of the Communion - especially in developing nations - flourishes.<p>The most significant growth has been in the <!--del_lnk--> Melanesian countries of the <a href="../../wp/s/Solomon_Islands.htm" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a>, <a href="../../wp/v/Vanuatu.htm" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Papua_New_Guinea.htm" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> Melanesian Brotherhood, founded at <!--del_lnk--> Tabalia, <!--del_lnk--> Guadalcanal, in <!--del_lnk--> 1925 by Ini Kopuria, is now the largest Anglican Community in the world with over 450 <!--del_lnk--> brothers in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea, the <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> and the United Kingdom. The <!--del_lnk--> Sisters of the Church, started by Mother Emily Ayckbowm in England in 1870, has more <!--del_lnk--> sisters in the Solomons than all their other communities. The <!--del_lnk--> Community of the Sisters of Melanesia, started in 1980 by Sister Nesta Tiboe, is a growing community of women throughout the Solomon Islands. The <!--del_lnk--> Society of Saint Francis, founded as a union of various <!--del_lnk--> Franciscan orders in the 1920s, has experienced great growth in the Solomon Islands. Other communities of religious have been started by Anglicans in Papua New Guinea and in Vanuatu. Most Melanesian Anglican religious are in their early to mid 20s — vows may be temporary and it is generally assumed that brothers, at least, will leave and marry in due course — making the average age 40 to 50 years younger than their brothers and sisters in other countries. Growth of religious orders, especially for women, is also marked in certain parts of Africa.<p><a id="Ecumenism" name="Ecumenism"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ecumenism</span></h2>
<p>Anglican interest in <!--del_lnk--> ecumenical dialogue can be traced to the rise of the Oxford Movement, with its concern on reunion of the churches of "Catholic confession." This desire to work towards full <!--del_lnk--> communion with other denominations led to the development of the <!--del_lnk--> Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral, approved by the Third Lambeth Conference of 1888. The four points (the sufficiency of scripture, the historic creeds, the two dominical sacraments, and the historic episcopate) were proposed as a basis for discussion, although they have frequently been taken as a non-negotiable bottom-line for reunion.<p><a id="World_Council_of_Churches" name="World_Council_of_Churches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">World Council of Churches</span></h3>
<p>Ecumenical dialogue has been particularly fruitful in three realms. The first is the <!--del_lnk--> World Council of Churches and its predecessors, in which Anglicans have been involved from the first. Anglican representatives were particularly engaged in the development of the seminal Faith and Order paper, <i>Baptism, Eucharist, and Ministry</i>, which sought to develop common ground concerning these issues.<p><a id="Roman_Catholic_Church" name="Roman_Catholic_Church"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Roman Catholic Church</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/89/8987.jpg.htm" title="Michael Ramsey, 100th Archbishop of Canterbury, meets with Pope Paul VI in Rome, March, 1966."><img alt="Michael Ramsey, 100th Archbishop of Canterbury, meets with Pope Paul VI in Rome, March, 1966." height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:P6anglican.jpg" src="../../images/2/265.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/89/8987.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/m/Michael_Ramsey.htm" title="Michael Ramsey">Michael Ramsey</a>, 100th <a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a>, meets with <!--del_lnk--> Pope Paul VI in Rome, March, 1966.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The second concerns dialogue with the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>. Long-term hostility between the two Communions was engendered by resistance among some English to the declaration of <!--del_lnk--> royal supremacy, and attempts to coerce conformity to Anglican worship. This culminated in the brief restoration of papal supremacy during the reign of Mary I. Subsequently, <!--del_lnk--> Pope Pius V's excommunication of Elizabeth I in 1570 and authorisation of rebellion against her contributed to official suspicion of the allegiances of English Catholics. This, combined with a desire to assert the claims of the established church, led to the promulgation of restrictive laws against their civil and religious rights. These restrictions were only relieved through legislation in the 19th century, cumulatively known as <!--del_lnk--> Catholic Emancipation.<p>At the end of the nineteenth century, the Catholic Church rejected the Anglican claims of apostolic succession, and in response to such claims made at the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral published <i><!--del_lnk--> Apostolicae Curae</i>, an 1896 <!--del_lnk--> papal bull, which declared Anglican ordinations "absolutely null and utterly void." Despite the agreement reached by the <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) on the doctrine of the ministry in their <!--del_lnk--> <i>Elucidation</i> of 1979, this judgement was reaffirmed by Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, now Pope Benedict XVI, when he asserted <i>Apostolicae Curae</i> as an example of the infallible teaching office of the Catholic Church.<p>Some attempts at dialogue began in 1915, when Pope <!--del_lnk--> Benedict XV approved a British Legation to the Vatican, led by an Anglican with a Catholic deputy. However, discussion of potential reunion in the '<!--del_lnk--> Malines Conversations' eventually collapsed in 1925. Continued efforts resulted in the spread of the <!--del_lnk--> Week of Prayer for Christian Unity in both churches (and others), and the visit of <!--del_lnk--> George Bell, <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of Chichester, to Cardinal Montini of Milan, later Pope <!--del_lnk--> Paul VI <!--del_lnk--> .<p>Real rapprochement was not achieved until the warming of Catholic attitudes to ecumenism under the leadership of Pope <!--del_lnk--> John XXIII, whose foundation of the "<!--del_lnk--> Secretariat for the Promotion of Christian Unity" encouraged Archbishop <!--del_lnk--> Geoffrey Fisher to make a historic, though not entirely official, visit to the Vatican in 1960. Subsequently the <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of Ripon, <!--del_lnk--> John Moorman, led a delegation of Anglican observers to the <!--del_lnk--> Second Vatican Council. In 1966, Archbishop <a href="../../wp/m/Michael_Ramsey.htm" title="Michael Ramsey">Michael Ramsey</a> made an official visit to <!--del_lnk--> Pope Paul VI, and in the following year, the <!--del_lnk--> Anglican-Roman Catholic International Commission was established. Its first project focused on the authority of Scripture, and the Commission has since produced nine agreed statements. Phase One of ARCIC ended in 1981 with the publication of a final report, <i>Elucidations on Authority in the Church</i>. Phase Two has been ongoing since 1983. The most recent agreed statement dealt with Marian theology, and was published in 2004.<p>Despite the productivity of these discussions, dialogue is strained by the developments in some provinces of the Communion primarily concerning the <a href="../../wp/o/Ordination_of_women.htm" title="Ordination of women">ordination of women</a>, and the ordination of those in public same-sex sexual relationships as priests and, in one case, a bishop (<!--del_lnk--> Gene Robinson). More progress has been made with respect to Anglican churches outside the Communion.<p>Pope <a href="../../wp/p/Pope_John_Paul_II.htm" title="John Paul II">John Paul II</a> made <!--del_lnk--> Pastoral Provision for a small number of <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Use parishes in the United States. These are Roman Catholic parishes which are allowed to retain some features of the Book of Common Prayer in worship. Additionally, one of the <!--del_lnk--> Continuing Anglican Churches is currently attempting to achieve the recognition of Rome without abandoning its independence as the Anglican Use parishes chose to do.<p>Roman Catholic <!--del_lnk--> Canon Law forbids Catholics to receive the Anglican Eucharist (canon 844 §2) and permits Roman Catholic ministers to administer to an Anglican the sacraments of Eucharist, Penance and Anointing of the Sick, only in danger of death or some other grave and pressing need, and provided the Anglican cannot approach an Anglican minister, spontaneously asks for the sacrament, demonstrates the faith of the Roman Catholic Church in respect of the sacrament and is properly disposed (canon 844 §4).<p><a id="Lutheran_and_Old_Catholic_Churches" name="Lutheran_and_Old_Catholic_Churches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lutheran and Old Catholic Churches</span></h3>
<p>In 1994, the <!--del_lnk--> Porvoo Communion was formed, bringing the Anglican churches of England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland and the Episcopal churches of Portugal and Spain into full communion with the Lutheran churches of Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, and Lithuania. In 2001, the <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Church of Canada and the <!--del_lnk--> Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada achieved full communion <!--del_lnk--> , as did the <!--del_lnk--> Episcopal Church in the United States and the <!--del_lnk--> Evangelical Lutheran Church in America <!--del_lnk--> . In addition, full communion agreements have been reached between various <!--del_lnk--> ecclesiastical provinces and smaller, mostly <!--del_lnk--> Catholic denominations, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Old Catholic Church after the <!--del_lnk--> Bonn Agreement of 1931.<p><a id="Other_Protestant_denominations" name="Other_Protestant_denominations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other Protestant denominations</span></h3>
<p>Outside the context of the World Council of Churches, direct consultations with Protestant churches other than Lutherans have, for the most part, been less fruitful. Movements toward full communion between the Anglican Church of Canada and the <!--del_lnk--> United Church of Canada were derailed because of the issue of episcopacy and the mutual recognition of ordained ministry (specifically, <!--del_lnk--> apostolic succession). The same issue blocked the first attempt at a covenant between the Church of England and the <!--del_lnk--> Methodist Church of Great Britain, but such a covenant was eventually signed in 2003 <!--del_lnk--> .<p>The issue of apostolic succession, as well as the willingness of some North American dioceses to offer partnership blessings and priestly ordination to people in same-sex sexual relationships, have hindered dialogue between Anglicans and <!--del_lnk--> evangelical Protestant denominations.<p><a id="Orthodox_Churches" name="Orthodox_Churches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Orthodox Churches</span></h3>
<p>Dialogue has also been less fruitful with churches of the Orthodox Communion. The <!--del_lnk--> International Commission of the Anglican-Orthodox Theological Dialogue was only established in 1999, and the <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Oriental Orthodox International Commission was established three years later. So far, most common ground has been established only concerning matters of the historic creeds. In a move parallel to the parishes of the <!--del_lnk--> pastoral provision in the Roman Catholic Church a small number of United States Anglicans have been received into certain jurisdictions of the Orthodox Church while retaining the use of a revision of the Prayer Book liturgy authorised for use in the Orthodox Church by <!--del_lnk--> Patriarch Tikhon of Moscow in the early twentieth century.<p>Regarding mutual recognition of ministry, the Eastern Orthodox Churches are reluctant to even consider the question of the validity of holy orders in isolation from the rest of the Christian faith, so in practice they treat Anglican ordinations as invalid. Thus the favourable judgement expressed by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople in 1922 and communicated by him to other Eastern Patriarchs (some of whom, including the Russian Patriarch, signed a contrary declaration in 1948) is in practice without effect. The Eastern Orthodox Church classifies Anglican clergymen who join it as laypeople, and, if they are to function as clergy, administers ordination to them.<!--del_lnk--> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglicanism"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Latin', 'England', 'Church of England', 'Anglican Communion', 'Anglican Communion', 'Martin Luther', 'John Calvin', 'Archbishop of Canterbury', 'Anglican Communion', 'Christianity', 'English Reformation', 'Apostolic Succession', 'Roman Catholic Church', 'Episcopal polity', 'Thomas Cranmer', 'Henry VIII of England', 'Elizabeth I of England', 'Archbishop of Canterbury', 'Book of Common Prayer', '6th century', 'Roman Britain', '5th century', '1st century', '4th century', 'Ireland', 'Scotland', 'Columba', 'Henry VIII of England', 'English Reformation', 'Papacy', 'Book of Common Prayer', 'Archbishop of Canterbury', 'Thomas Cranmer', 'John Calvin', 'Edward VI of England', 'Mary I of England', 'Elizabeth I of England', 'Roman Catholic Church', 'Thomas Cranmer', 'Henry VIII of England', 'Archbishop of Canterbury', 'Book of Common Prayer', '16th century', 'James I of England', 'Charles I of England', 'Oliver Cromwell', 'Charles I of England', 'Charles II of England', '17th century', 'Church of Ireland', 'Scottish Episcopal Church', 'Aberdeen', 'Anglican Church of Australia', 'Episcopal polity', 'Rowan Williams', 'Bangladesh', 'Apostolic Succession', 'Book of Common Prayer', 'Ethics', 'United States', 'Rowan Williams', 'Eastern Orthodox Church', 'Jesus', 'William Wilberforce', 'Desmond Tutu', 'Desmond Tutu', 'South Africa', 'Church of England', 'God', 'Poverty', 'Solomon Islands', 'Vanuatu', 'Papua New Guinea', 'Philippines', 'Michael Ramsey', 'Archbishop of Canterbury', 'Roman Catholic Church', 'Michael Ramsey', 'Ordination of women', 'John Paul II'] |
Anglo-Saxon_literature | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Anglo-Saxon literature,Mercian,Martyrology,Blickling homilies,Vercelli Book,Seven Sleepers of Ephesus,Saint Chad,Saint Margaret,Sermo Lupi ad Anglos,Orosius,The History of the World" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Anglo-Saxon literature</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Anglo-Saxon_literature";
var wgTitle = "Anglo-Saxon literature";
var wgArticleId = 22557;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Anglo-Saxon_literature">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Anglo-Saxon literature</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.British_History.British_History_1500_and_before_including_Roman_Britain.htm">British History 1500 and before (including Roman Britain)</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Literature_types.htm">Literature types</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/269/26986.jpg.htm" title="The initial page of the Peterborough Chronicle, likely scribed around 1150, is one of the major sources of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle."><img alt="The initial page of the Peterborough Chronicle, likely scribed around 1150, is one of the major sources of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle." height="270" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Peterborough.jpg" src="../../images/165/16556.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/269/26986.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The initial page of the <i><a href="../../wp/p/Peterborough_Chronicle.htm" title="Peterborough Chronicle">Peterborough Chronicle</a></i>, likely scribed around <!--del_lnk--> 1150, is one of the major sources of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>Anglo-Saxon literature</b> (or <b>Old English literature</b>) encompasses <a href="../../wp/l/Literature.htm" title="Literature">literature</a> written in <a href="../../wp/o/Old_English_language.htm" title="Old English language">Anglo-Saxon</a> (Old English) during the 600-year <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon period of <!--del_lnk--> Britain, from the mid-<a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th century</a> to the <!--del_lnk--> Norman Conquest of <!--del_lnk--> 1066. These works include genres such as <!--del_lnk--> epic poetry, <!--del_lnk--> hagiography, <!--del_lnk--> sermons, <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a> translations, legal works, <!--del_lnk--> chronicles, riddles, and others. In all there are about 400 surviving <!--del_lnk--> manuscripts from the period, a significant corpus of both popular interest and specialist research.<p>Some of the most important works from this period include the poem <i><!--del_lnk--> Beowulf</i>, which has achieved <!--del_lnk--> national epic status in Britain. The <i><!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i> is a collection of early English history. The poem <i><a href="../../wp/c/C%25C3%25A6dmon.htm" title="Cædmon">Cædmon's Hymn</a></i> from the 7th century is one of the oldest surviving written texts in English.<p>Anglo-Saxon literature has gone through different periods of research—in the 19th and early 20th centuries the focus was on the Germanic roots of English, later the <!--del_lnk--> literary merits were examined, and today the interest is with <!--del_lnk--> paleography questions and the physical manuscripts themselves such as dating, place of origin, authorship, and looking at the connections between Anglo-Saxon culture and the rest of Europe in the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Overview" name="Overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2>
<table class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align: center; font-size: 90%;">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="font-size: larger;"><b><!--del_lnk--> History of England</b><div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/152/15221.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="90" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_England.svg" src="../../images/165/16557.png" width="150" /></a></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> Prehistoric Britain</td>
<td align="left">(before AD <!--del_lnk--> 43)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Britain.htm" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a></td>
<td align="left">(<!--del_lnk--> 43–<!--del_lnk--> 410)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England.htm" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></td>
<td align="left">(<i>ca</i>. <!--del_lnk--> 410–<!--del_lnk--> 1066)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Normans</td>
<td align="left">(<!--del_lnk--> 1066–<!--del_lnk--> 1154)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> Plantagenets</td>
<td align="left">(<!--del_lnk--> 1154–<!--del_lnk--> 1485)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> House of Lancaster</td>
<td align="left">(<!--del_lnk--> 1399–<!--del_lnk--> 1471)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> House of York</td>
<td align="left">(<!--del_lnk--> 1461–<!--del_lnk--> 1485)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> House of Tudor</td>
<td align="left">(<!--del_lnk--> 1485–<!--del_lnk--> 1603)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> House of Stuart</td>
<td align="left">(<!--del_lnk--> 1603–<!--del_lnk--> 1714)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom</td>
<td align="left">(after <!--del_lnk--> 1707)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>A large number of manuscripts remain from the 600 year Anglo-Saxon period, with most written during the last 300 years (<a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a>–<a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th century</a>), in both <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> vernacular. Old English literature is among the oldest vernacular languages to be written down. Old English began, in written form, as a practical necessity in the aftermath of the <!--del_lnk--> Danish invasions—church officials were concerned that because of the drop in Latin <a href="../../wp/l/Literacy.htm" title="Literacy">literacy</a> no one could read their work. Likewise <a href="../../wp/a/Alfred_the_Great.htm" title="Alfred the Great">King Alfred the Great</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 849–<!--del_lnk--> 899), wanting to restore <!--del_lnk--> English culture, lamented the poor state of Latin education:<dl>
<dd><i>"So general was [educational] decay in England that there were very few on this side of the <!--del_lnk--> Humber who could...translate a letter from Latin into English; and I believe there were not many beyond the Humber"</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Pastoral Care, introduction).</dl>
<p>King Alfred noted that while very few could read Latin, many could still read Old English. He thus proposed that students be educated in Old English, and those who excelled would go on to learn Latin. In this way many of the texts that have survived are typical teaching and student-oriented texts.<p>In total there are about 400 surviving manuscripts containing Old English text, 189 of them considered major. These manuscripts have been highly prized by collectors since the <a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th century</a>, both for their historic value and for their aesthetic beauty of uniformly spaced letters and decorative elements.<p>Not all of the texts can be fairly called literature, such as lists of names or aborted pen trials. However those that can present a sizable body of work, listed here in descending order of quantity: sermons and saints' lives (the most numerous), biblical translations; translated Latin works of the early <!--del_lnk--> Church Fathers; Anglo-Saxon chronicles and narrative history works; laws, <!--del_lnk--> wills and other legal works; practical works on <!--del_lnk--> grammar, <!--del_lnk--> medicine, <a href="../../wp/g/Geography.htm" title="Geography">geography</a>; lastly, but not least important, <a href="../../wp/p/Poetry.htm" title="Poetry">poetry</a>.<p>Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, with some exceptions.<p>Research in the 20th century has focused on dating the manuscripts (19th-century scholars tended to date them older than modern scholarship has found); locating where the manuscripts were created—there were seven major <!--del_lnk--> scriptoria from which they originate: <!--del_lnk--> Winchester, <!--del_lnk--> Exeter, <!--del_lnk--> Worcester, <!--del_lnk--> Abingdon, <a href="../../wp/d/Durham.htm" title="Durham">Durham</a>, and two <a href="../../wp/c/Canterbury.htm" title="Canterbury">Canterbury</a> houses Christ Church and St. Augustine; and identifying the regional dialects used: <!--del_lnk--> Northumbrian, <!--del_lnk--> Mercian, <!--del_lnk--> Kentish, <!--del_lnk--> West Saxon (the latter being the main dialect).<p><a id="Old_English_Poetry" name="Old_English_Poetry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Old English Poetry</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16558.jpg.htm" title="In this illustration from page 46 of the Caedmon (or Junius) manuscript, an angel is shown guarding the gates of paradise."><img alt="In this illustration from page 46 of the Caedmon (or Junius) manuscript, an angel is shown guarding the gates of paradise." height="239" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CaedmonManuscriptPage46Illust.jpg" src="../../images/165/16558.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16558.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> In this illustration from page 46 of the Caedmon (or Junius) manuscript, an angel is shown guarding the gates of paradise.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>Old English poetry</b> is of two types, the heroic Germanic pre-Christian and the Christian. It has survived for the most part in four manuscripts. The first manuscript is called the <i><!--del_lnk--> Junius manuscript</i> (also known as the <i>Caedmon manuscript</i>), which is an illustrated poetic <!--del_lnk--> anthology. The second manuscript is called the <i><!--del_lnk--> Exeter Book</i>, also an anthology, located in the <!--del_lnk--> Exeter Cathedral since it was donated there in the 11th century. The third manuscript is called the <i><!--del_lnk--> Vercelli Book</i>, a mix of poetry and prose; how it came to be in <!--del_lnk--> Vercelli, Italy, no one knows, and is a matter of debate. The fourth manuscript is called the <i><!--del_lnk--> Nowell Codex</i>, also a mixture of poetry and prose.<p>Old English poetry had no known rules or system left to us by the Anglo-Saxons, everything we know about it is based on modern analysis. The first widely accepted theory was by <!--del_lnk--> Eduard Sievers (1885) in which he distinguished five distinct <!--del_lnk--> alliterative patterns. The theory of <!--del_lnk--> John C. Pope (1942) uses musical notations which has had some acceptance; every few years a new theory arises and the topic continues to be hotly debated.<p>The most popular and well known understanding of Old English poetry continues to be Sievers' <a href="../../wp/a/Alliterative_verse.htm" title="Alliterative verse">alliterative verse</a>. The system is based upon accent, alliteration, the quantity of vowels, and patterns of syllabic accentuation. It consists of five permutations on a base verse scheme; any one of the five types can be used in any verse. The system was inherited from and exists in one form or another in all of the older <!--del_lnk--> Germanic languages. Two poetic figures commonly found in Old English poetry are the <!--del_lnk--> Kenning, an often formulaic phrase that describes one thing in terms of another, e.g. in <!--del_lnk--> Beowulf, the sea is called the <i>swan's road</i> and <!--del_lnk--> Litotes, a dramatic understatement employed by the author for ironic effect.<p>Old English poetry was an oral craft, and our understanding of it in written form is incomplete; for example, we know that the poet (referred to as the <i><!--del_lnk--> Scop</i>) could be accompanied by a <!--del_lnk--> harp, and there may be other aural traditions we are not aware of.<p>Poetry represents the smallest amount of the surviving Old English text, but Anglo-Saxon culture had a rich tradition of oral story telling, just not much was written down or survived.<p><a id="The_poets" name="The_poets"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The poets</span></h3>
<p>Most Old English poets are anonymous; twelve are known by name from Medieval sources, but only four of those are known by their vernacular works to us today with any certainty: <!--del_lnk--> Caedmon, <a href="../../wp/b/Bede.htm" title="Bede">Bede</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Alfred, and <!--del_lnk--> Cynewulf. Of these, only <!--del_lnk--> Caedmon, <a href="../../wp/b/Bede.htm" title="Bede">Bede</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Alfred have known biographies.<p>Caedmon is the best-known and considered the father of Old English poetry. He lived at the abbey of <!--del_lnk--> Whitby in Northumbria in the 7th century. Only a single nine line poem remains, called <!--del_lnk--> <i>Hymn</i>, which is also the oldest surviving text in English:<div class="notice spoilerbox">
<table border="0">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="toccolours spoilercontents">
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>Now let us praise the Guardian of the Kingdom of Heaven<dd>the might of the Creator and the thought of his mind,<dd>the work of the glorious Father, how He, the eternal Lord<dd>established the beginning of every wonder.<dd>For the sons of men, He, the Holy Creator<dd>first made heaven as a roof, then the<dd>Keeper of mankind, the eternal Lord<dd>God Almighty afterwards made the middle world<dd>the earth, for men. <dl>
<dd>--(Caedmon, <i>Hymn</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Leningrad manuscript)</dl>
</dl>
</dl>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p>Aldhelm, bishop of <!--del_lnk--> Sherborne (d. 709), is known through <!--del_lnk--> William of Malmesbury who said he performed <!--del_lnk--> secular songs while accompanied by a harp. Much of his Latin prose has survived, but none of his Old English remains.<p>Cynewulf has proven to be a difficult figure to identify, but recent research suggests he was from the early part of the 9th century to which a number of poems are attributed including <i>The Fates of the Apostles</i> and <i>Elene</i> (both found in the Vercelli Book), and <i>Christ II</i> and <i>Juliana</i> (both found in the Exeter Book).<p><a id="Heroic_poems" name="Heroic_poems"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Heroic poems</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/270/27046.jpg.htm" title="First page of Beowulf, contained in the damaged Nowell Codex."><img alt="First page of Beowulf, contained in the damaged Nowell Codex." height="397" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg" src="../../images/165/16559.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/270/27046.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> First page of Beowulf, contained in the damaged Nowell Codex.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Old English poetry which has received the most attention deals with the Germanic heroic past. The longest (3,182 lines), and most important, is <i><!--del_lnk--> Beowulf</i>, which appears in the damaged Nowell Codex. It tells the story of the legendary <!--del_lnk--> Geatish <!--del_lnk--> hero <!--del_lnk--> Beowulf who is the title character. The story is set in <!--del_lnk--> Scandinavia, in <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> and <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, and the tale likewise probably is of Scandinavian origin. The story is biographical and sets the tone for much of the rest of Old English poetry. It has achieved <!--del_lnk--> national epic status, on the same level as the <!--del_lnk--> Iliad, and is of interest to historians, anthropologists, literary critics, and students the world over.<p>Beyond <i>Beowulf,</i> other heroic poems exist. Two heroic poems have survived in fragments: <i><!--del_lnk--> The Fight at Finnsburh</i>, a retelling of one of the battle scenes in <i>Beowulf</i> (although this relation to <i>Beowulf</i> is much debated), and <i><!--del_lnk--> Waldere</i>, a version of the events of the life of <!--del_lnk--> Walter of Aquitaine. Two other poems mention heroic figures: <i><!--del_lnk--> Widsith</i> is believed to be very old in parts, dating back to events in the 4th century concerning <!--del_lnk--> Eormanric and the <!--del_lnk--> Goths, and contains a catalogue of names and places associated with valiant deeds. <i><!--del_lnk--> Deor</i> is a lyric, in the style of <i><a href="../../wp/c/Consolation_of_Philosophy.htm" title="Consolation of Philosophy">Consolation of Philosophy</a></i>, applying examples of famous heroes, including <!--del_lnk--> Weland and Eormanric, to the narrator's own case.<p>The <i><!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i> contains various heroic poems inserted throughout. The earliest from 937 is called <i><!--del_lnk--> The Battle of Brunanburh</i>, which celebrates the victory of King <!--del_lnk--> Athelstan over the Scots and Norse. There are five shorter poems: capture of the <!--del_lnk--> Five Boroughs (942); coronation of <!--del_lnk--> King Edgar (973); death of King Edgar (975); death of <a href="../../wp/a/Alfred_the_Great.htm" title="Alfred the Great">Prince Alfred</a> (1036); and death of King <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_the_Confessor.htm" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a> (1065).<p>The 325 line poem <i><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Maldon</i> celebrates <!--del_lnk--> Earl <!--del_lnk--> Byrhtnoth and his men who fell in battle against the <a href="../../wp/v/Viking.htm" title="Viking">Vikings</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 991. It is considered one of the finest, but both the beginning and end are missing and the only manuscript was destroyed in a fire in <!--del_lnk--> 1731. A well known speech is near the end of the poem:<div class="notice spoilerbox">
<table border="0">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="toccolours spoilercontents">
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>Thought shall be the harder, the heart the keener, courage the greater, as our strength lessens.<dd>Here lies our leader all cut down, the valiant man in the dust;<dd>always may he mourn who now things to turn away from this warplay.<dd>I am old, I will not go away, but I plan to lie down by the side of my lord, by the man so dearly loved. <dl>
<dd>--(<i>Battle of Maldon</i>)</dl>
</dl>
</dl>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p>Old English heroic poetry was handed down orally from generation to generation. As Christianity began to appear, retellers often recast the tales of Christianity into the older heroic stories.<p><a id="Wisdom_poetry" name="Wisdom_poetry"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Wisdom poetry</span></h3>
<p>Related to the heroic tales are a number of short poems from the <!--del_lnk--> Exeter Book which have come to be described as "Wisdom poetry". They are lyrical and <!--del_lnk--> Boethian in their description of the up and down <!--del_lnk--> fortunes of life. Gloomy in mood is <i><!--del_lnk--> The Ruin</i>, which tells of the decay of a once glorious city of Roman <!--del_lnk--> Britain (Britain fell into decline after the Romans departed in the early 5th c.), and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Wanderer</i>, in which an older man talks about an attack that happened in his youth, where his close friends and kin were all killed; memories of the slaughter have remained with him all his life. He questions the wisdom of the impetuous decision to engage a possibly superior fighting force: the wise man engages in warfare to <i>preserve</i> civil society, and must not rush into battle but seek out allies when the odds may be against him. This poet finds little glory in bravery for bravery's sake. <i><!--del_lnk--> The Seafarer</i> is the story of a somber exile from home on the sea, from which the only hope of redemption is the joy of heaven. Other wisdom poems include <i><!--del_lnk--> Wulf and Eadwacer</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Wife's Lament</i>, and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Husband's Message</i>. King Alfred the Great wrote a wisdom poem over the course of his reign based loosely on the neoplatonic philosophy of <!--del_lnk--> Boethius called the <i><!--del_lnk--> Lays of Boethius</i>.<p><a id="Classical_and_Latin_poetry" name="Classical_and_Latin_poetry"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Classical and Latin poetry</span></h3>
<p>Several Old English poems are adaptations of <!--del_lnk--> late classical philosophical texts. The longest is a 10th century translation of Boethius' <i><a href="../../wp/c/Consolation_of_Philosophy.htm" title="Consolation of Philosophy">Consolation of Philosophy</a></i> contained in the <!--del_lnk--> Cotton manuscript. Another is <i><!--del_lnk--> The Phoenix</i> in the Exeter Book, an <a href="../../wp/a/Allegory_in_the_Middle_Ages.htm" title="Allegory in the Middle Ages">allegorization</a> of the <i><!--del_lnk--> De ave phoenice</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Lactantius.<p>Other short poems derived from the Latin <!--del_lnk--> bestiary tradition such as <i><!--del_lnk--> The Panther</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Whale</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Partridge</i>.<p><a id="Christian_poetry" name="Christian_poetry"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Christian poetry</span></h3>
<p><a id="Saints.27_Lives" name="Saints.27_Lives"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Saints' Lives</span></h4>
<p>The Vercelli Book and Exeter Book contain four long narrative poems of saints' lives, or <!--del_lnk--> hagiography. In Vercelli are <i><!--del_lnk--> Andreas</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Elene</i> and in Exeter are <i><!--del_lnk--> Guthlac</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Juliana</i>.<p><i>Andreas</i> is 1,722 lines long and is the closest of the surviving Old English poems to <i>Beowulf</i> in style and tone. It is the story of <!--del_lnk--> Saint Andrew and his journey to rescue <!--del_lnk--> Saint Matthew from the <!--del_lnk--> Mermedonians. <i>Elene</i> is the story of <a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Helena.htm" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> (mother of <!--del_lnk--> Constantine) and her discovery of the <!--del_lnk--> True Cross. The cult of the True Cross was popular in Anglo-Saxon England and this poem was instrumental.<p><i>Guthlac</i> is actually two poems about English <!--del_lnk--> Saint Guthlac (7th century). <i>Juliana</i> is the story of the virgin martyr <!--del_lnk--> Juliana of Nicomedia.<p><a id="Biblical_paraphrases" name="Biblical_paraphrases"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Biblical paraphrases</span></h4>
<p>The Junius manuscript contains three paraphrases of Old Testament texts. These were re-wordings of Biblical passages in Old English, not exact translations, but paraphrasing, sometimes into beautiful poetry in its own right. The first and longest is of <i><!--del_lnk--> Genesis</i>. The second is of <i><!--del_lnk--> Exodus</i>. The third is <i><!--del_lnk--> Daniel</i>.<p>The Nowell Codex contains a Biblical poetic paraphrase, which appears right after <i>Beowulf</i>, called <i><!--del_lnk--> Judith</i>, a retelling of the story of <!--del_lnk--> Judith. This is not to be confused with <!--del_lnk--> Aelfric's homily <i><!--del_lnk--> Judith</i>, which retells the same Biblical story in alliterative prose.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Psalter <!--del_lnk--> Psalms 51-150 are preserved, following a prose version of the first 50 Psalms. It is believed there was once a complete psalter based on evidence, but only the first 150 have survived.<p>There are a number of verse translations of the <!--del_lnk--> Gloria in Excelsis, the <!--del_lnk--> Lord's Prayer, and the <!--del_lnk--> Apostles' Creed, as well as a number of <!--del_lnk--> hymns and <!--del_lnk--> proverbs.<p><a id="Christian_poems" name="Christian_poems"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Christian poems</span></h4>
<p>In addition to Biblical paraphrases are a number of original religious poems, mostly lyrical (non-narrative).<p>The Exeter Book contains a series of poems entitled <i><!--del_lnk--> Christ</i>, sectioned into <i>Christ I</i>, <i>Christ II</i> and <i>Christ III</i>.<p>Considered one of the most beautiful of all Old English poems is <i><!--del_lnk--> Dream of the Rood</i>, contained in the Vercelli Book. It is a dream vision of Christ on the cross, with the cross <!--del_lnk--> personified, speaking thus:<div class="notice spoilerbox">
<table border="0">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="toccolours spoilercontents">
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>"I endured much hardship up on that hill. I saw the God of hosts stretched out cruelly. Darkness had covered with clouds the body of the Lord, the bright radiance. A shadow went forth, dark under the heavens. All creation wept, mourned the death of the king. Christ was on the cross." <dl>
<dd>--(<i>Dream of the Rood</i>)</dl>
</dl>
</dl>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p>The dreamer resolves to trust in the cross, and the dream ends with a vision of heaven.<p>There are a number of religious debate poems. The longest is <i><!--del_lnk--> Christ and Satan</i> in the Junius manuscript, it deals with the conflict between Christ and Satan during the forty days in the desert. Another debate poem is <i><!--del_lnk--> Solomon and Saturn</i>, surviving in a number of textual fragments, <!--del_lnk--> Saturn is portrayed as a magician debating with the wise king <!--del_lnk--> Solomon.<p><a id="Other_poems" name="Other_poems"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other poems</span></h3>
<p>Other poetic forms exist in Old English including <!--del_lnk--> riddles, short <!--del_lnk--> verses, <!--del_lnk--> gnomes, and <!--del_lnk--> mnemonic poems for remembering long lists of names.<p>The Exeter Book has a collection of ninety-five riddles. The answers are not supplied, a number of them to this day remain a puzzle, and some of the answers are obscene.<p>There are short verses found in the margins of manuscripts which offer practical advice There are remedies against the loss of cattle, how to deal with a delayed birth, swarms of bees, etc.. the longest is called <i><!--del_lnk--> Nine Herbs Charm</i> and is probably of <!--del_lnk--> pagan origin.<p>There are a group of mnemonic poems designed to help memorise lists and sequences of names and to keep objects in order. These poems are named <i><!--del_lnk--> Menologium</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Fates of the Apostles</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Rune Poem</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Seasons for Fasting</i>, and the <i><!--del_lnk--> Instructions for Christians</i>.<p><a id="Specific_features_of_Anglo-Saxon_poetry" name="Specific_features_of_Anglo-Saxon_poetry"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Specific features of Anglo-Saxon poetry</span></h3>
<p><a id="Simile_and_Metaphor" name="Simile_and_Metaphor"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Simile and Metaphor</span></h4>
<p>Anglo-Saxon poetry is marked by the comparative rarity of similes. This is a particular feature of Anglo-Saxon verse style, and is a consequence of both its structure and the rapidity with which images are deployed, to be unable to effectively support the expanded simile. As an example of this, the epic <!--del_lnk--> Beowulf contains at best five similes, and these are of the short variety. This can be contrasted sharply with the strong and extensive dependence that Anglo-Saxon poetry has upon metaphor, particularly that afforded by the use of <!--del_lnk--> kennings.<p><a id="Elaboration" name="Elaboration"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Elaboration</span></h4>
<p>It is also a feature of the fast-paced dramatic style of Anglo-Saxon poetry that it is not prone, in the way that, say, Celtic literature of the period was, to overly elaborate decoration. Where typically a Celtic poet of the time might use 3 or 4 similes to make a point, typically an Anglo-Saxon poet might reference a kenning, before moving swiftly on.<p><a id="Old_English_prose" name="Old_English_prose"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Old English prose</span></h2>
<p>The amount of surviving Old English prose is much greater than the amount of poetry. Of the surviving prose, sermons and Latin translations of religious works are the majority. Old English prose first appears in the 9th century, and continues to be recorded through the 12th century.<p><a id="Christian_prose" name="Christian_prose"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Christian prose</span></h3>
<p>The most widely known author of Old English was King Alfred, who translated many books from Latin into Old English. These translations include: Gregory the Great's <i><!--del_lnk--> The Pastoral Care</i>, a manual for priests on how to conduct their duties; <i><!--del_lnk--> The Consolation of Philosophy</i> by Boethius; and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Soliloquies</i> of Saint Augustine. Alfred was also resposible for a translation of the fifty Psalms into Old English. Other important Old English translations completed by associates of Alfred include: <i><!--del_lnk--> The History of the World</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Orosius, a companion piece for <a href="../../wp/a/Augustine_of_Hippo.htm" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>'s <i><!--del_lnk--> The City of God</i>; the Dialogues of Gregory the Great; and the <i><!--del_lnk--> Ecclesiastical History of the English People</i> by <a href="../../wp/b/Bede.htm" title="Bede">Bede</a>.<p><!--del_lnk--> Ælfric of Eynsham, wrote in the late 10th and early 11th century. He was the greatest and most prolific writer of Anglo-Saxon sermons, which were copied and adapted for use well into the 13th century. He also wrote a number of saints lives, an Old English work on time-reckoning, pastoral letters, translations of the first six books of the Bible, glosses and translations of other parts of the Bible including Proverbs, Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus.<p>In the same category as Aelfric, and a contemporary, was <!--del_lnk--> Wulfstan II, archbishop of York. His sermons were highly stylistic. His best known work is <i><!--del_lnk--> Sermo Lupi ad Anglos</i> in which he blames the sins of the British for the Viking invasions. He wrote a number of clerical legal texts <i><!--del_lnk--> Institutes of Polity</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Canons of Edgar</i>.<p>One of the earliest Old English texts in prose is the <i><!--del_lnk--> Martyrology</i>, information about saints and martyrs according to their anniversaries and feasts in the church calendar. It has survived in six fragments. It is believed to date from the 9th century by an anonymous <!--del_lnk--> Mercian author.<p>The oldest collection of church sermons are the <i><!--del_lnk--> Blickling homilies</i> in the <!--del_lnk--> Vercelli Book and dates from the 10th century.<p>There are a number of saint's lives prose works. Beyond those written by Aelfric are the prose life of Saint Guthlac (Vercelli Book), the life of <!--del_lnk--> Saint Margaret and the life of <!--del_lnk--> Saint Chad. There are four lives in the Julius manuscript: <!--del_lnk--> Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, <!--del_lnk--> Saint Mary of Egypt, <!--del_lnk--> Saint Eustace and <!--del_lnk--> Saint Euphrosyne.<p>There are many Old English translations of many parts of the Bible. Aelfric translated the first six books of the Bible (the <!--del_lnk--> Hexateuch). There is a translation of the <!--del_lnk--> Gospels. The most popular was the <i><!--del_lnk--> Gospel of Nicodemus</i>, others included "..the <i><!--del_lnk--> Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Vindicta salvatoris</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Vision of Saint Paul</i> and the <i><!--del_lnk--> Apocalypse of Thomas</i>".<p>One of the largest bodies of Old English text is found in the legal texts collected and saved by the religious houses. These include many kinds of texts: records of donations by nobles; wills; documents of emancipation; lists of books and <!--del_lnk--> relics; court cases; <a href="../../wp/g/Guild.htm" title="Guild">guild</a> rules. All of these texts provide valuable insights into the <!--del_lnk--> social history of Anglo-Saxon times, but are also of literary value. For example, some of the court case narratives are interesting for their use of <!--del_lnk--> rhetoric.<p><a id="Secular_prose" name="Secular_prose"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Secular prose</span></h3>
<p>The <i><!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i> was probably started in the time of King Alfred and continued for over 300 years as a historical record of Anglo-Saxon history.<p>A single example of a Classical <!--del_lnk--> romance has survived, it is a fragment of a Latin translation of <i><!--del_lnk--> Apollonius of Tyana</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Philostratus (220 AD), from the 11th century.<p>A monk who was writing in Old English at the same time as Aelfric and Wulfstan was <!--del_lnk--> Byrhtferth of Ramsey, whose books <i><!--del_lnk--> Handboc</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Manual</i> were studies of mathematics and rhetoric.<p>Aelfric wrote two neo-scientific works, <i><!--del_lnk--> Hexameron</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Interrogationes Sigewulfi</i>, dealing with the stories of Creation. He also wrote a grammar and glossary in Old English called <i><!--del_lnk--> Latin</i>, later used by students interested in learning <!--del_lnk--> Old French because it had been glossed in Old French.<p>There are many surviving rules and calculations for finding feast days, and tables on calculating the tides and the season of the moon.<p>In the Nowell Codex is the text of <i><!--del_lnk--> The Wonders of the East</i> which includes a remarkable map of the world, and other illustrations. Also contained in Nowell is <i><!--del_lnk--> Alexander's Letter to Aristotle</i>. Because this is the same manuscript that contains <i>Beowulf</i>, some scholars speculate it may have been a collection of materials on exotic places and creatures.<p>There are a number of interesting medical works. There is a translation of <!--del_lnk--> Apuleius's <i><!--del_lnk--> Herbarium</i> with striking illustrations, found together with <i><!--del_lnk--> Medicina de Quadrupedibus</i>. A second collection of texts is <i><!--del_lnk--> Bald's Leechbook</i>, a 10th century book containing herbal and even some surgical cures. A third collections is known as the <i><!--del_lnk--> Lacnunga</i>, which relies of <!--del_lnk--> charms, <!--del_lnk--> incantations, and <!--del_lnk--> white magic.<p>Anglo-Saxon legal texts are a large and important part of the overall corpus. By the 12th century they had been arranged into two large collections (see <i><!--del_lnk--> Textus Roffensis</i>). They include laws of the kings, beginning with those of <!--del_lnk--> Aethelbert of Kent, and texts dealing with specific cases and places in the country. An interesting example is <i><!--del_lnk--> Gerefa</i> which outlines the duties of a <!--del_lnk--> reeve on a large manor estate. There is also a large volume of legal documents related to religious houses.<p><a id="Historiography" name="Historiography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Historiography</span></h2>
<p>Old English literature did not disappear in 1066 with the Norman Conquest. Many sermons and works continued to be read and used in part or whole up through the 14th century, and were further catalogued and organised. During the <!--del_lnk--> Reformation, when <!--del_lnk--> monastic libraries were dispersed, the manuscripts were collected by <!--del_lnk--> antiquarians and scholars. These included <!--del_lnk--> Laurence Nowell, <!--del_lnk--> Matthew Parker, <!--del_lnk--> Robert Bruce Cotton and <!--del_lnk--> Humfrey Wanley. In the 17th century begun a tradition of Old English literature dictionaries and references. The first was <!--del_lnk--> William Somner's <i>Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum</i> (1659). <!--del_lnk--> Lexicographer <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Bosworth began a dictionary in the 19th century which was completed by <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Northcote Toller in 1898 called <i><!--del_lnk--> An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary</i>, which was updated by <!--del_lnk--> Alistair Campbell in 1972.<p>Because Old English was one of the first vernacular languages to be written down, nineteenth century scholars searching for the roots of European "national culture" (see <!--del_lnk--> Romantic Nationalism) took special interest in studying Anglo-Saxon literature, and Old English became a regular part of university curriculum. Since WWII there has been increasing interest in the manuscripts themselves—<!--del_lnk--> Neil Ker, a <!--del_lnk--> paleographer, published the groundbreaking <i>Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon</i> in 1957, and by 1980 nearly all Anglo-Saxon manuscript texts were in print. <!--del_lnk--> J.R.R. Tolkien is credited with creating a movement to look at Old English as a subject of <!--del_lnk--> literary theory in his seminal lecture <i><!--del_lnk--> Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics</i> (1936).<p>Old English literature has had an influence on modern literature. Some of the best-known translations include <!--del_lnk--> William Morris' translation of <i>Beowulf</i> and <a href="../../wp/e/Ezra_Pound.htm" title="Ezra Pound">Ezra Pound</a>'s translation of <i>The Seafarer</i>. The influence of the poetry can be seen in modern poets <a href="../../wp/t/T._S._Eliot.htm" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a>, Ezra Pound and <!--del_lnk--> W. H. Auden. Much of the subject matter and terminology of the heroic poetry can be seen in <i><a href="../../wp/t/The_Hobbit.htm" title="The Hobbit">The Hobbit</a></i>, <i><a href="../../wp/t/The_Lord_of_the_Rings.htm" title="The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a></i> and many others.<p><a id="Quotes" name="Quotes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Quotes</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/j/Jorge_Luis_Borges.htm" title="Jorge Luis Borges">Jorge Luis Borges</a>, from <i>The Aleph, and Other Stories, 1933-1969</i> (1969):</ul>
<dl>
<dd>"I knew that at home, on a certain top shelf, I had copies of Sweet’s Anglo-Saxon Reader and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. When the students came the next Saturday morning, we began reading these two books. We skipped grammar as much as we could and pronounced the words like German. All at once, we fell in love with a sentence in which Rome (Romeburh) was mentioned. We got drunk on these words and rushed down Peru Street shouting them at the top of our voices. And so we set out on a long adventure. I had always thought of English literature as the richest in the world; the discovery now of a secret chamber at the very threshold of that literature came to me as an additional gift. Personally, I knew that the adventure would be an endless one, and that I could go on studying Old English for the rest of my days."</dl>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_literature"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Peterborough Chronicle', 'Literature', 'Old English language', '5th century', 'Bible', 'Cædmon', 'Middle Ages', 'Roman Britain', 'History of Anglo-Saxon England', '9th century', '11th century', 'Latin', 'Literacy', 'Alfred the Great', '16th century', 'Geography', 'Poetry', 'Durham', 'Canterbury', 'Alliterative verse', 'Bede', 'Bede', 'Sweden', 'Denmark', 'Consolation of Philosophy', 'Alfred the Great', 'Edward the Confessor', 'Viking', 'Consolation of Philosophy', 'Allegory in the Middle Ages', 'Saint Helena', 'Augustine of Hippo', 'Bede', 'Guild', 'Ezra Pound', 'T. S. Eliot', 'The Hobbit', 'The Lord of the Rings', 'Jorge Luis Borges'] |
Angola | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Angola,Latinunion,CPLP,South Atlantic Ocean,Niger-Congo-speaking,Countries of Africa,Member states of the SADC,Member states of the African Union,Countries of Southern Africa,Member states of the African Union,Countries of Southern Africa" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Angola</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Angola";
var wgTitle = "Angola";
var wgArticleId = 701;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Angola">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Angola</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.African_Geography.African_Countries.htm">African Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3><div class="soslink"> SOS Children works in Angola. For more information see <a href="../../wp/a/Angola_A.htm" title="SOS Children in Angola, Africa">SOS Children in Angola, Africa</a></div>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox geography" style="width:23em;">
<tr>
<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><i><b>República de Angola</b></i><br /><b>Republic of Angola</b></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
<table style="margin:0 auto; background:none; text-align:center;" width="100%">
<tr>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1543.png.htm" title="Flag of Angola"><img alt="Flag of Angola" height="83" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Angola.svg" src="../../images/159/15936.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/159/15937.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Angola"><img alt="Coat of arms of Angola" height="104" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Angola_coa.png" src="../../images/159/15937.png" width="85" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: "Virtus Unita Fortior" <small>(<!--del_lnk--> Latin)<br /> "Unity Provides Strength"</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <i><!--del_lnk--> Angola Avante!</i> <small>(<a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>)<br /> "Forward Angola!"</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/159/15938.png.htm" title="Location of Angola"><img alt="Location of Angola" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationAngola.png" src="../../images/159/15938.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Capital</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> (and largest city)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Luanda<br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 8°50′S 13°20′E</span></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Portuguese</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> Multi-party <a href="../../wp/d/Democracy.htm" title="Democracy">democracy</a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> President</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> José E. dos Santos</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Fernando da Piedade<br /> Dias dos Santos</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Independence</th>
<td>from <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Date</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1975 </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1,246,700 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 23rd)<br /> 481,354 sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>negligible</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - 2005 estimate</td>
<td>15,941,000 (<!--del_lnk--> 61st)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - 1970 census</td>
<td>5,646,166</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>13/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 199th)<br /> 34/sq mi</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2005 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td>$43.362 billion (<!--del_lnk--> 82nd)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Per capita</td>
<td>$2,813 (<!--del_lnk--> 126th)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2004)</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1525.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Red_Arrow_Down.svg" src="../../images/15/1525.png" width="10" /></a> 0.439 (<font color="#E0584E">low</font>) (<!--del_lnk--> 161st)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Kwanza (<code><!--del_lnk--> AOA</code>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> WAT (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+1)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</td>
<td><i>not observed</i> (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+1)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .ao</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+244</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Angola</b> is a country in south-central <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> bordering <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>, the <a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>, and <a href="../../wp/z/Zambia.htm" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>, and with a west coast along the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> exclave province <!--del_lnk--> Cabinda has a border with <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a>. A former <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> colony, it has considerable natural resources, among which oil and diamonds are the most significant. The country is nominally a <a href="../../wp/d/Democracy.htm" title="Democracy">democracy</a> and is formally named the <b>Republic of Angola</b> (<a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>: <span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><i>República de Angola</i></span>, <!--del_lnk--> pronounced <!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ʁɛ'publikɐ dɨ ɐ̃'gɔlɐ]</span>).<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15939.png.htm" title="Queen Nzinga in peace negotiations with the Portuguese governor in Luanda, 1657."><img alt="Queen Nzinga in peace negotiations with the Portuguese governor in Luanda, 1657." height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png" src="../../images/159/15939.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15939.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Queen Nzinga in peace negotiations with the Portuguese governor in Luanda, 1657.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The earliest inhabitants of the area were <!--del_lnk--> Khoisan <!--del_lnk--> hunter-gatherers. They were largely replaced by Bantu tribes during <a href="../../wp/b/Bantu.htm" title="Bantu">Bantu</a> <!--del_lnk--> migrations. In present-day Angola, Portugal settled in <!--del_lnk--> 1483 at the <!--del_lnk--> river Congo, where the <!--del_lnk--> Kongo State, <!--del_lnk--> Ndongo and <!--del_lnk--> Lunda existed. The Kongo State stretched from modern <a href="../../wp/g/Gabon.htm" title="Gabon">Gabon</a> in the north to the <!--del_lnk--> Kwanza River in the south. In <!--del_lnk--> 1575 Portugal established a colony at <!--del_lnk--> Luanda based on the slave trade. The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip throughout the 16th century by a series of treaties and wars forming the colony of Angola. The <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> occupied Luanda from <!--del_lnk--> 1641-<!--del_lnk--> 1648, providing a boost for many African states opposed to the Portuguese.<p><a id="Colonial_era" name="Colonial_era"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Colonial era</span></h3>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1648 Portugal retook Luanda and initiated a process of reconquest of lost territories, which restored the preoccupation possessions of Portugal by <!--del_lnk--> 1650. Treaties regulated relations with Kongo in <!--del_lnk--> 1649 and Njinga's Kingdom of Matamba and Ndongo in <!--del_lnk--> 1656. The conquest of Pungo Andongo in <!--del_lnk--> 1671 was the last great Portuguese expansion, as attempts to invade Kongo in <!--del_lnk--> 1670 and Matamba in <!--del_lnk--> 1681 failed.<p>Portugal expanded its territory behind the colony of Benguela in the eighteenth century, and began the attempt to occupy other regions in the mid-nineteenth century. The process resulted in few gains until the 1880s. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior didn't occur until the beginning of the 20th century. In <!--del_lnk--> 1951 the colony was restyled as an overseas province, also called Portuguese West Africa.<p>Portugal had had a colonial presence in Angola for nearly 500 years, and the population's initial reaction to calls for independence was mixed.<p><a id="Independence" name="Independence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Independence</span></h3>
<p>After the overthrow of <!--del_lnk--> fascist Portugal's government by a socialist-inspired military coup, Angola's nationalist parties began to negotiate for independence in January <!--del_lnk--> 1975. An agreement was reached with the Portuguese government, with independence to be declared in November 1975. Almost immediately, a <!--del_lnk--> civil war broke out between <!--del_lnk--> MPLA, <!--del_lnk--> UNITA and <!--del_lnk--> FNLA, exacerbated by foreign intervention. Upon independence from Portugal in 1975, Angola's capital and nominal government came under the one-party rule of the Popular Liberation Movement.<p>In order to defend the 1,376-kilometer Angolan border with its <!--del_lnk--> South West Africa possession against infiltration by South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrillas based in Angola, South African forces cleared a one-kilometer-wide strip in Angola along nearly half the border's length. <!--del_lnk--> Zaire, which had provided support to FNLA guerrillas, soon began to furnish support for UNITA as well. In turn, the Soviet Union began to significantly increase military aid to MPLA, providing armored vehicles, aircraft, and advisors, while large numbers of <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuban</a> troops were airlifted by Soviet transport planes into Angola in an undisguised effort to tip the military balance in favour of the MPLA. By October 1975, MPLA and Cuban forces took control of Luanda, and much of the country's infrastructure, forcing UNITA forces to revert to guerrilla actions. The MPLA declared itself unilaterally to be the de facto government of the country when independence was formally declared in November, with <!--del_lnk--> Agostinho Neto as the first President.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1976, the FNLA was defeated by Cuban troops, leaving the MPLA and UNITA (now backed by the United States and South Africa) to fight for power. Since <!--del_lnk--> 1979, <!--del_lnk--> Jose Eduardo dos Santos has been in control of the country's political leadership. Despite the introduction of a multi-party system in <!--del_lnk--> 1991, the Popular Liberation Movement-Labour Party has remained in power.<p><a id="Civil_war" name="Civil_war"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Civil war</span></h3>
<p>The conflict between MPLA and UNITA raged on in the countryside, fuelled by the geopolitics of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> and by the ability of both parties to access Angola's natural resources. The MPLA drew upon the revenues of off-shore oil resources, while UNITA accessed alluvial <!--del_lnk--> diamonds that were easily smuggled through the region's very porous borders (LeBillon, 1999).<p>In 1991, the factions agreed to the <!--del_lnk--> Bicesse Accords which were intended to convert Angola from a one-party authoritarian government into a multiparty state with democratic elections in 1992. President dos Santos led the first round of the election with more than 49% of the vote to Jonas Savimbi's 40%. After claims of fraud, civil war again broke out, and the final runoff election never took place.<p>A <!--del_lnk--> 1994 peace accord (<a href="../../wp/l/Lusaka.htm" title="Lusaka">Lusaka</a> protocol) between the government and UNITA provided for the integration of former UNITA <!--del_lnk--> insurgents into the government. A national unity government was installed in <!--del_lnk--> 1997, but serious fighting resumed in late <!--del_lnk--> 1998, rendering hundreds of thousands of people homeless. President dos Santos once again suspended moves towards a unity government. Despite the promise of a democratically-elected government and a multi-party system, the Popular Liberation Movement-Labour Party has remained in power.<p><a id="Ceasefire_with_UNITA" name="Ceasefire_with_UNITA"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ceasefire with UNITA</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> February 22, <!--del_lnk--> 2002, <!--del_lnk--> Jonas Savimbi, the leader of UNITA, was killed in combat with government troops, and a cease-fire was reached by the two factions. UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of major opposition party. Although the political situation of the country began to stabilize, President dos Santos has so far refused to institute regular democratic processes. Among Angola's major problems are a serious humanitarian crisis (a result of the prolonged war), the abundance of <!--del_lnk--> minefields, and the actions of guerrilla movements fighting for the independence of the northern exclave of <!--del_lnk--> Cabinda (<!--del_lnk--> Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda).<p>Angola, like many <!--del_lnk--> sub-Saharan nations, is subject to periodic outbreaks of infectious diseases. In April 2005, Angola was in the midst of an <!--del_lnk--> outbreak of the <!--del_lnk--> Marburg virus which was rapidly becoming the worst outbreak of a haemorrhagic fever in recorded history, with over 237 deaths recorded out of 261 reported cases, and having spread to 7 out of the 18 provinces as of <!--del_lnk--> April 19, <!--del_lnk--> 2005.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
<p>Angola's motto is "Virtus Unita Fortior", a <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> phrase meaning "Unity Provides Strength".<p>The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Prime Minister (currently <!--del_lnk--> Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos) and Council of Ministers. Currently, political power is concentrated in the Presidency. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization. Critics have drawn an ironic comparison between Angola's current one-party rule and the authoritarian regime of <!--del_lnk--> António de Oliveira Salazar of Portugal, under whose rule Angolans began their revolt for independence so many years ago.<p>The 27-year long <!--del_lnk--> Angolan Civil War ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million internally displaced persons (IDPs), while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically Luanda (population approximately 4 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work.<p>The current government has announced an intention to hold elections in 2006. These elections would be the first since 1992 and would serve to elect both a new president and a new National Assembly.<p><a id="Administrative_divisions" name="Administrative_divisions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administrative divisions</span></h2>
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/159/15940.png.htm" title="Map of Angola with the provinces numbered"><img alt="Map of Angola with the provinces numbered" height="227" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Angola_Provinces_numbered_300px.png" src="../../images/159/15940.png" width="200" /></a></span></div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Angola is divided into <!--del_lnk--> eighteen provinces (<i>províncias</i>) and 158 municipalities (<i>municípios</i>). The provinces are:<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:transparent">
<tr valign="top">
<td width="120px">
<p>1 <!--del_lnk--> Bengo<br /> 2 <!--del_lnk--> Benguela<br /> 3 <!--del_lnk--> Bié<br /> 4 <!--del_lnk--> Cabinda<br /> 5 <!--del_lnk--> Cuando Cubango<br /> 6 <!--del_lnk--> Cuanza Norte</td>
<td width="15px">
</td>
<td width="120px">
<p> 7 <!--del_lnk--> Cuanza Sul<br /> 8 <!--del_lnk--> Cunene<br /> 9 <!--del_lnk--> Huambo<br /> 10 <!--del_lnk--> Huila<br /> 11 <!--del_lnk--> Luanda<br /> 12 <!--del_lnk--> Lunda Norte</td>
<td width="15px">
</td>
<td width="120px">
<p>13 <!--del_lnk--> Lunda Sul<br /> 14 <!--del_lnk--> Malanje<br /> 15 <!--del_lnk--> Moxico<br /> 16 <!--del_lnk--> Namibe<br /> 17 <!--del_lnk--> Uige<br /> 18 <!--del_lnk--> Zaire</td>
<td width="15px">
<p>
<br />
<p>
<br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15941.png.htm" title="Map of Angola."><img alt="Map of Angola." height="268" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Angola_map.png" src="../../images/159/15941.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15941.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of Angola.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15942.jpg.htm" title="Satellite image of Angola, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library"><img alt="Satellite image of Angola, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library" height="198" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Angola_sat.jpg" src="../../images/159/15942.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15942.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Satellite image of Angola, generated from <!--del_lnk--> raster graphics data supplied by <!--del_lnk--> The Map Library</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>At 481,321 <!--del_lnk--> mi² (1,246,700 <!--del_lnk--> km²<!--del_lnk--> ), Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country (after <a href="../../wp/n/Niger.htm" title="Niger">Niger</a>). It is comparable in size to <a href="../../wp/m/Mali.htm" title="Mali">Mali</a> and is nearly twice the size of the US state of <!--del_lnk--> Texas.<p>Angola is bordered by <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> to the south, <a href="../../wp/z/Zambia.htm" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> to the east, the <a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> to the north-east, and the <!--del_lnk--> South Atlantic Ocean to the west. The <!--del_lnk--> exclave of <!--del_lnk--> Cabinda also borders the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a> to the north. Angola's capital, <!--del_lnk--> Luanda, lies on the Atlantic coast in the north-west of the country. Angola's average temperature on the coast is 60 degrees Fahrenheit (16 °C) in the winter and 70 degrees Fahrenheit (21 °C) in the summer.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Angola's economy has undergone a period of transformation in recent years, moving from the disarray caused by a quarter century of war to being the fastest growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest in the world. In 2004, China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola. The loan is being used to rebuild Angola's infrastructure, though it has also limited the influence of the <!--del_lnk--> International Monetary Fund in the country. <!--del_lnk--> Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed 1.4 million barrels per day in late-2005 and which is expected to grow to 2 million barrels per day by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in <!--del_lnk--> Sonangol Group, a conglomerate which is owned by the Angolan government. The economy grew 18% in 2005; growth is expected to reach 26% in 2006 and stay above 10% for the rest of the decade. The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has led to the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons, thus resulting in large-scale increases in agriculture production. With revenues booming from oil exports, the government has started to implement ambitious development programs in building roads and other basic infrastructure for the nation.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angola"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['SOS Children in Angola, Africa', 'Portuguese language', 'List of countries by system of government', 'Democracy', 'Portugal', 'Currency', 'Time zone', 'Africa', 'Namibia', 'Democratic Republic of the Congo', 'Zambia', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Republic of the Congo', 'Portugal', 'Democracy', 'Portuguese language', 'Bantu', 'Gabon', 'Netherlands', 'Cuba', 'Cold War', 'Lusaka', 'Latin', 'Niger', 'Mali', 'Namibia', 'Zambia', 'Democratic Republic of the Congo', 'Republic of the Congo'] |
Angola_A | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en">
<head>
<title>Angola Charity: Sponsor a Child in Angola</title>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" />
<meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." />
<meta name="robots" content="all" />
<meta name="keywords" content="children charity" />
<meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." />
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" />
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/s/Sos.css" media="screen" />
</head>
<body>
<div id="container">
<div id="header">
<div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div>
<div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div>
<div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div>
</div>
<div id="page">
<div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a> > <a href="../../wp/s/Sponsorship_Directory.htm">Sponsorship Directory</a> > <a href="../../wp/a/Africa_A.htm">Africa</a> > <strong>Angola</strong></div>
<div id="col">
<div id="nav">
<span class="boxtop"></span>
<ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">Charity News</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a>
<ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsorship_Directory.htm" id="selected">Sponsorship Directory</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/About_Child_Sponsorship.htm">About Child Sponsorship</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/f/Faq.htm">Child Sponsorship FAQ</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Pros_And_Cons.htm">Pros & Cons</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/t/Testimonials.htm">Testimonials</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsored_Events.htm">Sponsored Events</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul>
<span class="boxbot"></span>
</div>
<!-- NEWS --><div id="news"><span class="boxtop"></span><dl><dt>SOS Angola News</dt><dd><span>16/04/2007</span> <a href="../../wp/k/Keepy_Uppy_160407.htm">Keepy Uppy Challenge 2007</a></dd></dl><span class="boxbot"></span></div><!-- ENDNEWS -->
</div>
<div id="content">
<h2>SOS Children in Angola</h2>
<img src="../../wp/j/Jwp_map_angola_en.gif" width="405" height="383" alt="SOS Children Sponsorship Sites in Angola" class="left" /><p>The Republic of Angola is on the coast of south-west Africa, bordered to the south by Namibia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the east and north. With its breathtaking scenery and white-washed beaches, it is one of Africa's most beautiful countries and with its vast reserves of diamonds, potentially one of the wealthiest. But most of its 13 million people live in grinding poverty as a result of over 25 years of civil war that finally ended in 2002.</p><p>Over a million people were killed and millions more made homeless, the majority of them children. Hospitals and schools were destroyed and today less than 50 per cent of Angolan children have access to education. The level of malnutrition is “the worst seen in Africa in the past decade” according to Médicins Sans Frontières, and infant mortality rates are among the highest in the world.</p><p>SOS Children began its work in Angola in 1994 with the construction of an SOS Children's community in the capital, Lubango, and a wide-reaching vaccination programme against meningitis from which hundreds of children were dying. This was the first of a number of SOS emergency relief programmes, providing food and medical aid, many of which are still in place today.</p><p>SOS Lubango has twelve family houses which are home to 120 children. The village also has a kindergarten, a primary school, a clinic and a small farm. There is enough water to provide irrigation at a relatively low cost and provide over 50 per cent of the village’s needs. Poultry and rabbit projects have been added subsequently. Like all SOS Children's Villages, the kindergarten, school and clinic are open to local people and over 500 patients are treated by the clinic every month. With many state-run schools and hospitals closed because of the political situation, these projects provide care for the wider community that otherwise is not available.</p><p>In 2001 an SOS Social Centre was established in the town of Benguela on Angola’s west coast and its community aid programmes helped a local orphanage in the desert where 150 refugee children live without electricity or water, and work has begun on digging a borehole. A new SOS Children's Village in Benguela, together with a kindergarten, primary school and medical centre was completed in 2004. There are 12 family homes for 120 orphaned and abandoned children. and is a permanent home for over 100 children, many of them war orphans.</p><p>There is also an SOS Nursery School for 100 children in four classes and an SOS Primary School for nearly 500 children in twelve classes. In addition there is an SOS Medical Centre which treats 500 patients each month, including space for 20 in-patients. </p><p>Since 2005, the emergency relief programmes in Lubango and Benguela were gradually changed into family strengthening programmes with the aim of preventing children from being abandoned and to strengthening their families' ability to care for them.</p><p>See also <a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Angola_Africa.htm">Aids Orphan Projects in Angola, Africa</a></p><h3>Local Contact</h3>
<img src="../../wp/a/Angola_1.jpg" width="400" height="249" alt="SOS Children in Angola" class="left" /><p>Aldeia de Crianças SOS Angola (associated)<br />Caixa Postal 1035<br />Lubango/ Angola<br />Tel: +244/61/23 896<br />Fax: +244/61/23 898<br />e-mail: [email protected]</p><p><strong><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Angola Child Sponsorship</a></strong></p>
<p>Next Country: <a href="../../wp/b/Benin_B.htm">Benin</a></p>
</div>
<table style="margin-left: 50px; clear:both;">
<tr>
<td style="vertical-align:middle">
<a href="../../index.htm"><image src="../../Wikipedia-logo-100-matte-ffcc66.gif" width="100px" height="100px" alt="Schools Wikipedia"></a>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle">
<a href="../../index.htm">Return to Schools Wikipedia Home page</a>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="clearboth"></div>
</div>
<div id="footer">
<span id="botright"></span>
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> | <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> | 01223 365589 | <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p>
<p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p>
<p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.'] |
Anguilla | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Anguilla,Music of Anguilla,.ai,1982,1 E7 m²,2005,Akrotiri and Dhekelia,Amerindian,Anguilla (genus),Anguilla House of Assembly,Anguillita" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Anguilla</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Anguilla";
var wgTitle = "Anguilla";
var wgArticleId = 1217;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Anguilla">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Anguilla</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Central_and_South_American_Geography.Central_and_South_American_Countries.htm">Central & South American Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox" width="300">
<caption><big><b>Anguilla</b></big></caption>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2" style="background:#efefef;">
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td align="center" width="140px"><a class="image" href="../../images/81/8168.png.htm" title="Flag of Anguilla"><img alt="Flag of Anguilla" height="63" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Anguilla.svg" src="../../images/232/23232.png" width="125" /></a></td>
<td align="center" width="140px"><a class="image" href="../../images/232/23233.png.htm" title="Coat of Arms of Anguilla"><img alt="Coat of Arms of Anguilla" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Coat_of_Arms_of_Anguilla.svg" src="../../images/232/23233.png" width="90" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="140px">(<!--del_lnk--> Full Size)</td>
<td align="center" width="140px">(<!--del_lnk--> In Detail)</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom:3px solid gray;"><font size="-1"><i>National <!--del_lnk--> motto:<br /> Strength and Endurance</i></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom:3px solid gray;"><font size="-1"><i>National anthems:<br /><!--del_lnk--> God Bless Anguilla (unofficial); <!--del_lnk--> God Save the Queen (official)</i></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/232/23234.png.htm" title="Image:LocationAnguilla.png"><img alt="Image:LocationAnguilla.png" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationAnguilla.png" src="../../images/232/23234.png" width="250" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="115px"><!--del_lnk--> Official language</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Political status</td>
<td>Non-<!--del_lnk--> sovereign, <!--del_lnk--> Overseas territory of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">U.K.</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">Capital</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> The Valley</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Governor</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Andrew George</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chief Minister</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Osbourne Fleming</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Area<br /> - Total<br />
<br /> - % water</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ranked 220th<br /><!--del_lnk--> 102 km²<br /> 39.4 mi²<br /> Negligible</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Population<br />
<p> - Total<br /> - <!--del_lnk--> Density<br />
</td>
<td>Ranked 221st<br />
<p>13,477 (2006 est.)<br /> 132/km²<br /> 342/mi²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> East Caribbean dollar</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> UTC -4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> National Song</td>
<td>God Bless Anguilla </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .ai</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Calling Code</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1-264</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Anguilla</b> (English pronunciation: <i>ang-GWILL-a</i>) is a <!--del_lnk--> British overseas territory in the <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean, the most northerly of the <!--del_lnk--> Leeward Islands in the <!--del_lnk--> Lesser Antilles. It consists of the main island of Anguilla itself, approximately 16 miles long by 3 miles wide at its widest point, together with a number of much smaller islands and <!--del_lnk--> cays with no permanent population. The island's capital is <!--del_lnk--> The Valley. The total land area of the territory is 102 square kilometres (39.4 <!--del_lnk--> square miles), with a population of approximately 13,500 (2006 estimate).<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Anguilla was first settled in pre-history by <!--del_lnk--> Amerindian tribes who migrated from <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>. The date of European discovery is uncertain: some sources claim that <a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Columbus.htm" title="Christopher Columbus">Columbus</a> sighted the island in 1493, while others state that the island was first discovered by the French in 1564 or 1565. The name Anguilla derives from the word for "eel" in any of various European languages (modern Spanish: <i>anguila</i>; French: <i>anguille</i>; Italian: <i>Anguilla</i>), probably chosen because of the island's eel-like shape.<p>Anguilla was first colonised by <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> settlers from <!--del_lnk--> Saint Kitts, beginning in 1650. The island was administered by <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> until the early 19th century, when – against the wishes of the inhabitants – it was incorporated into a single British dependency along with <!--del_lnk--> Saint Kitts and <!--del_lnk--> Nevis. After a 1967 rebellion and brief period as a self-declared independent republic, it became a separate British dependency (now termed a <!--del_lnk--> British overseas territory) in 1980.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
<p>Anguilla is an internally self-governing <!--del_lnk--> overseas territory of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. Its politics takes place in a framework of a <a href="../../wp/p/Parliamentary_system.htm" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary</a> <!--del_lnk--> representative democratic <!--del_lnk--> dependency, whereby the <!--del_lnk--> Chief Minister is the <!--del_lnk--> head of government, and of a <!--del_lnk--> pluriform multi-party system.<p>The <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> Committee on Decolonisation includes Anguilla on the <!--del_lnk--> United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories. The territory's constitution is Anguilla Constitutional Order <!--del_lnk--> 1 April <!--del_lnk--> 1982 (amended 1990). <!--del_lnk--> Executive power is exercised by the government. <!--del_lnk--> Legislative power is vested in both the <a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">government</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> House of Assembly. The <!--del_lnk--> Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Military defence is the responsibility of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:330px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23235.png.htm" title="Map of Anguilla"><img alt="Map of Anguilla" height="352" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Anguilla_map.png" src="../../images/232/23235.png" width="328" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23235.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of Anguilla</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:377px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23236.jpg.htm" title="Overlooking Sandy Ground, Anguilla"><img alt="Overlooking Sandy Ground, Anguilla" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sandy_Ground_Anguilla.jpg" src="../../images/232/23236.jpg" width="375" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23236.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Overlooking <!--del_lnk--> Sandy Ground, Anguilla</div>
</div>
</div>
<table>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Anguilla is a flat, low-lying island of coral and limestone in the Caribbean Sea, east of <a href="../../wp/p/Puerto_Rico.htm" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>. It is approximately 16 miles long by 3 miles wide. The soil is generally thin and poor, supporting only scrub vegetation.<p>Anguilla is noted for its spectacular and ecologically important coral reefs. Apart from the main island of Anguilla itself, the territory includes a number of other smaller islands and cays, mostly tiny and uninhabited. Some of these are:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Anguillita<li><!--del_lnk--> Dog Island<li><!--del_lnk--> Prickly Pear Cays<li><!--del_lnk--> Scrub Island<li><!--del_lnk--> Seal Island<li><!--del_lnk--> Sombrero, also known as Hat Island</ul>
<p>For a longer list see <!--del_lnk--> Geography of Anguilla.<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h2>
<p>Anguilla has a tropical though rather dry climate, moderated by northeast trade winds. Temperatures vary little throughout the year. Average daily maxima range from about 27°C (80°F) in December to 30°C (86°F) in July. Rainfall is erratic, averaging about 90 cm (35 in) per year, the wettest months being September and October, and the driest February and March. Anguilla is vulnerable to hurricanes from June to November.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Anguilla's thin arid soil is largely unsuitable for agriculture, and the island has few land-based <!--del_lnk--> natural resources. Its main industries are tourism and fishing, with the formation of <!--del_lnk--> offshore companies playing an increasingly important role in the economy.<p>Anguilla's currency is the <!--del_lnk--> East Caribbean dollar, though the <!--del_lnk--> US dollar is also widely accepted.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The majority of residents (90.08%) are predominantly black, the descendants of slaves transported from Africa. Growing minorities include whites at 3.74% and persons of mixed race at 4.65% (figures from 2001 census).<p>72% of the population is Anguillian while 28% is non-Anguillian (2001 census). Of the non-Anguillian population, many are citizens of the United States, United Kingdom, St Kitts & Nevis or <a href="../../wp/j/Jamaica.htm" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Anguilla National Trust, or <!--del_lnk--> ANT was established in 1993 to preserve the heritage of the island, including its cultural heritage. The Trust has programs encouraging Anguillan writers and the preservation of the island's history.<p>The island's cultural history begins with the <!--del_lnk--> Arawak Indians. Artifacts have been found around the island, telling of life before Europeans settlers arrived.<p>As throughout the <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean, holidays are a cultural fixture. Anguilla's most important holidays are of historic as much as cultural importance – particularly the anniversary of the emancipation (previously August Monday in the Park), celebrated as the Summer Festival. <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> holidays such as the Queen's birthday are also celebrated.<p><a id="Rastafarianism" name="Rastafarianism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Rastafarianism</span></h3>
<p>Anguilla is the birthplace of <!--del_lnk--> Robert Athlyi Rogers, author of <!--del_lnk--> The Holy Piby. The Holy Piby has a large influence on <!--del_lnk--> Rastafarian beliefs, and to this day many Rastafarian activists such as <!--del_lnk--> Ijahnya Christian of Anguilla have praised Rogers as a key shaker and mover of the faith. Today, there are many "rastas" living on the island, and the influence of the religion spreads even to those who are not a member of it.<p><a id="Music" name="Music"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Music</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>hjghjg<p><a id="Other_topics" name="Other_topics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Other topics</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Communications in Anguilla<li><!--del_lnk--> Transportation in Anguilla</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anguilla"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['English language', 'United Kingdom', 'Capital', 'Currency', 'Time zone', 'South America', 'Christopher Columbus', 'England', 'Great Britain', 'United Kingdom', 'Parliamentary system', 'United Nations', 'Government', 'United Kingdom', 'Puerto Rico', 'Jamaica', 'United Kingdom'] |
Animal | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Animal,1758,Acanthocephala,Acoelomorpha,Alga,Amphibia,Amphibian,Animal (disambiguation),Animal locomotion,Animal shell,Annelida" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Animal</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Animal";
var wgTitle = "Animal";
var wgArticleId = 721;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Animal">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Animal</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.General_Biology.htm">General Biology</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Animal</b><br />
<center><small>Fossil range: Late <!--del_lnk--> Neoproterozoic - Recent</small></center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and others." height="333" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Animal_Kingdom.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="250" /><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammals</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">Birds</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Reptile.htm" title="Reptile">Reptiles</a> and others.</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Domain:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Eukaryote.htm" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><b>Animalia</b><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1758</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center>Phyla</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Placozoa (trichoplax)<li><!--del_lnk--> Orthonectida (orthonectids)<li><!--del_lnk--> Rhombozoa (dicyemids)</ul>
<p><i><b>Subregnum <!--del_lnk--> Parazoa</b></i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Porifera (sponges)</ul>
<p><i><b>Subregnum <!--del_lnk--> Eumetazoa</b></i><ul>
<li><i><b><!--del_lnk--> Radiata (unranked)</b></i> (<!--del_lnk--> radial symmetry) <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Ctenophora (comb jellies)<li><!--del_lnk--> Cnidaria (coral, jellyfish, anemones)</ul>
<li><i><b><!--del_lnk--> Bilateria (unranked)</b></i> (<!--del_lnk--> bilateral symmetry) <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Acoelomorpha (basal)<li><!--del_lnk--> Myxozoa (slime animals)<li><!--del_lnk--> Chaetognatha (arrow worms)<li><b>Superphylum <!--del_lnk--> Deuterostomia</b> (blastopore becomes anus) <ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a> (vertebrates, etc.)<li><!--del_lnk--> Hemichordata (acorn worms)<li><!--del_lnk--> Echinodermata (starfish, urchins)</ul>
<li><b>Superphylum <!--del_lnk--> Ecdysozoa</b> (shed exoskeleton) <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Kinorhyncha (mud dragons)<li><!--del_lnk--> Loricifera<li><!--del_lnk--> Priapulida (priapulid worms)<li><!--del_lnk--> Nematoda (roundworms)<li><!--del_lnk--> Nematomorpha (horsehair worms)<li><!--del_lnk--> Onychophora (velvet worms)<li><!--del_lnk--> Tardigrada (water bears)<li><!--del_lnk--> Arthropoda (insects, etc.)</ul>
<li><b>Superphylum <!--del_lnk--> Platyzoa</b><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Platyhelminthes (flatworms)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gastrotricha (gastrotrichs)<li><!--del_lnk--> Rotifera (rotifers)<li><!--del_lnk--> Acanthocephala (acanthocephalans)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gnathostomulida (jaw worms)<li><!--del_lnk--> Micrognathozoa (limnognathia)<li><!--del_lnk--> Cycliophora (pandora)</ul>
<li><b>Superphylum <!--del_lnk--> Lophotrochozoa</b> (trochophore larvae / lophophores) <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Sipuncula (peanut worms)<li><!--del_lnk--> Nemertea (ribbon worms)<li><!--del_lnk--> Phoronida (horseshoe worms)<li><!--del_lnk--> Bryozoa (moss animals)<li><!--del_lnk--> Entoprocta (goblet worms)<li><!--del_lnk--> Brachiopoda (brachipods)<li><!--del_lnk--> Mollusca (molluscs)<li><!--del_lnk--> Annelida (segmented worms)</ul>
</ul>
</ul>
<p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Animals</b> are a major group of <a href="../../wp/o/Organism.htm" title="Organism">organisms</a>, classified as the <!--del_lnk--> kingdom <b>Animalia</b> or <b>Meta­zoa</b>. In general they are <!--del_lnk--> multi­cellular, capable of <!--del_lnk--> locomotion, responsive to their environment, and feed by consuming other organisms. Their <!--del_lnk--> body plan becomes fixed as they develop, usually early on in their <!--del_lnk--> development as <!--del_lnk--> embryos, although some undergo a process of <!--del_lnk--> metamorphosis later on. More specifically, animals can be defined as <!--del_lnk--> heterotrophic <a href="../../wp/e/Eukaryote.htm" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> without cell walls, which move through a <!--del_lnk--> blastula stage in early development.<p>The word "animal" comes from the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> word <i>animal</i>, of which <i>animalia</i> is the plural, and is derived from <i>anima</i>, meaning "vital breath" or "<!--del_lnk--> soul". A common usage of the term may be limited to so-called lower animals (as in "brutes" or "beasts") and refer to <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Humans">humans</a> only in a contemptuous or humourous context .<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Characteristics" name="Characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics</span></h2>
<p>Animals have several characteristics that set them apart from other living things. Animals are <a href="../../wp/e/Eukaryote.htm" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> and usually <!--del_lnk--> multicellular (although see <!--del_lnk--> Myxozoa), which separates them from <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and most <!--del_lnk--> protists. They are <!--del_lnk--> heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which distinguishes them from <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plants</a> and <!--del_lnk--> algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and <a href="../../wp/f/Fungus.htm" title="Fungus">fungi</a> because their cells lack <!--del_lnk--> cell walls.<p><a id="Structure" name="Structure"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Structure</span></h2>
<p>With a few exceptions, most notably the <!--del_lnk--> sponges (Phylum Porifera), animals have bodies differen­tiated into separate <!--del_lnk--> tissues. These include <!--del_lnk--> muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and a <!--del_lnk--> nervous system, which sends and processes signals. There is also typically an internal <!--del_lnk--> digestive chamber, with one or two openings. Animals with this sort of organization are called metazoans, or <!--del_lnk--> eumetazoans when the former is used for animals in general.<p>All animals have <!--del_lnk--> eukaryotic cells, surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of <!--del_lnk--> collagen and elastic <!--del_lnk--> glycoproteins. This may be calcified to form structures like <!--del_lnk--> shells, <!--del_lnk--> bones, and <!--del_lnk--> spicules. During development it forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized, making complex structures possible. In contrast, other multicellular organisms like plants and fungi have cells held in place by cell walls, and so develop by progressive growth. Also, unique to animal cells are the following intercellular junctions: <!--del_lnk--> tight junctions, <!--del_lnk--> gap junctions, and <!--del_lnk--> desmosomes.<p><a id="Reproduction_and_development" name="Reproduction_and_development"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reproduction and development</span></h2>
<p>Nearly all animals undergo some form of <!--del_lnk--> sexual reproduction. Adults are <!--del_lnk--> diploid or <!--del_lnk--> polyploid. They have a few specialized reproductive cells, which undergo <!--del_lnk--> meiosis to produce smaller motile <!--del_lnk--> spermatozoa or larger non-motile <!--del_lnk--> ova. These fuse to form <!--del_lnk--> zygotes, which develop into new individuals.<p>Many animals are also capable of <!--del_lnk--> asexual reproduction. This may take place through <!--del_lnk--> parthenogenesis, where fertile eggs are produced without mating, or in some cases through fragmentation.<p>A <!--del_lnk--> zygote initially develops into a hollow sphere, called a <!--del_lnk--> blastula, which undergoes rearrangement and differentiation. In sponges, blastula larvae swim to a new location and develop into a new sponge. In most other groups, the blastula undergoes more complicated rearrangement. It first <!--del_lnk--> invaginates to form a <!--del_lnk--> gastrula with a digestive chamber, and two separate <!--del_lnk--> germ layers - an external <!--del_lnk--> ectoderm and an internal <!--del_lnk--> endoderm. In most cases, a <!--del_lnk--> mesoderm also develops between them. These germ layers then differentiate to form <!--del_lnk--> tissues and <!--del_lnk--> organs.<p><a id="Nutrition" name="Nutrition"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Nutrition</span></h2>
<p>Animals are <!--del_lnk--> consumers that derive their energy from <!--del_lnk--> producers, who in turn derive their energy from a number of sources.<p>Most animals grow by indirectly using the energy of <a href="../../wp/s/Sunlight.htm" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a>. Plants use this <a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">energy</a> to convert <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub>2</sub>) into simple <!--del_lnk--> sugars using a process known as <a href="../../wp/p/Photosynthesis.htm" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. Starting with the (CO<sub>2</sub>) molecules and <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a> (H<sub>2</sub>O), photosynthesis converts the energy of sunlight into chemical energy stored in the bonds of <!--del_lnk--> glucose (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>) and releases <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> (O<sub>2</sub>). These sugars are then used as the building blocks which allow the plant to grow. When animals eat these plants (or eat other creatures which have eaten plants), the sugars produced by the plant are used by the animal. They are either used directly to help the animal grow, or broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the animal the energy required for motion. This process is known as <!--del_lnk--> glycolysis.<p>Many animals who live close to <!--del_lnk--> hydrothermal vents and <!--del_lnk--> cold seeps on the ocean floor are not dependent on the energy of sunlight for their nourishment. Instead, <!--del_lnk--> chemosynthetic <!--del_lnk--> archaea and <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Eubacteria">eubacteria</a> form the base of the food chain. These creatures use the energy from compounds seeping from the vents to power the manufacture of sugars and other molecules, and animals live by either eating those <!--del_lnk--> microbes or harboring them within their tissues.<p><a id="Origin_and_fossil_record" name="Origin_and_fossil_record"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origin and fossil record</span></h2>
<p>Animals are generally considered to have evolved from <!--del_lnk--> flagellate protozoa. Their closest living relatives are the <!--del_lnk--> choanoflagellates, collared flagellates that have the same structure as certain sponge cells do. Molecular studies place them in a supergroup called the <!--del_lnk--> opisthokonts, which also include the <a href="../../wp/f/Fungus.htm" title="Fungus">fungi</a> and a few small parasitic <!--del_lnk--> protists. The name comes from the posterior location of the <!--del_lnk--> flagellum in motile cells, such as most animal spermatozoa, whereas other <!--del_lnk--> eukaryotes tend to have anterior flagella.<p>The first fossils that might represent animals appear towards the end of the <a href="../../wp/p/Precambrian.htm" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a>, around 575 million years ago, and are known as the <!--del_lnk--> Ediacaran or Vendian biota. These are difficult to relate to later fossils, however. Some may represent precursors of modern phyla, but they may be separate groups, and it is possible they are not really animals at all. Aside from them, most known animal phyla make a more or less simultaneous appearance during the <a href="../../wp/c/Cambrian.htm" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> period, about 542 million years ago. It is still disputed whether this event, called the <a href="../../wp/c/Cambrian_explosion.htm" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a>, represents a rapid divergence between different groups or a change in conditions that made fossilization possible.<p><a id="Groups_of_animals" name="Groups_of_animals"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Groups of animals</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23238.jpg.htm" title="Orange elephant ear sponge, Agelas clathrodes, in foreground. Two corals in the background: a sea fan, Iciligorgia schrammi, and a sea rod, Plexaurella nutans."><img alt="Orange elephant ear sponge, Agelas clathrodes, in foreground. Two corals in the background: a sea fan, Iciligorgia schrammi, and a sea rod, Plexaurella nutans." height="262" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Elephant-ear-sponge.jpg" src="../../images/232/23238.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23238.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Orange elephant ear sponge, <i>Agelas clathrodes</i>, in foreground. Two corals in the background: a <!--del_lnk--> sea fan, <i>Iciligorgia schrammi</i>, and a sea rod, <i>Plexaurella nutans</i>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/103/10364.jpg.htm" title="Magellanic Penguin, Spheniscus magellanicus"><img alt="Magellanic Penguin, Spheniscus magellanicus" height="272" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Magellanic-penguin02.jpg" src="../../images/232/23239.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/103/10364.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/m/Magellanic_Penguin.htm" title="Magellanic Penguin">Magellanic Penguin</a>, <i>Spheniscus magellanicus</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The sponges (<!--del_lnk--> Porifera) diverged from other animals early. As mentioned, they lack the complex organization found in most other phyla. Their cells are differentiated, but not organized into distinct tissues. Sponges are sessile and typically feed by drawing in water through <!--del_lnk--> pores. The extinct <!--del_lnk--> archaeocyathids, which have fused skeletons, may represent sponges or a separate phylum.<p>Among the remaining phyla, known collectively as <!--del_lnk--> eumetazoans, two are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening, which serves as both the mouth and the anus. These are the <!--del_lnk--> Cnidaria, which include <!--del_lnk--> sea anemones, <!--del_lnk--> corals, and <!--del_lnk--> jellyfish, and the <!--del_lnk--> Ctenophora or comb jellies. Both have distinct tissues, but they are not organized into <!--del_lnk--> organs. There are only two main germ layers, the ectoderm and endoderm, with only scattered cells between them. As such, these animals are sometimes called <!--del_lnk--> diploblastic. The tiny phylum <!--del_lnk--> Placozoa is similar, but individuals do not have a permanent digestive chamber.<p>The remaining animals form a monophyletic group called the <!--del_lnk--> Bilateria. For the most part, they are bilaterally symmetric, and often have a specialized head with feeding and sensory organs. The body is <!--del_lnk--> triploblastic, i.e. all three germ layers are well-developed, and tissues form distinct organs. The digestive chamber has two openings, a mouth and an anus, and there is also an internal body cavity called a coelom or pseudocoelom. There are exceptions to each of these characteristics, however. For instance adult <!--del_lnk--> echinoderms are radially symmetric, although this radial symmetry is superimposed upon the bilaterial symmetry of the embryo. Another exception is that certain parasitic worms have extremely simplified body structures.<p>Genetic studies have considerably changed our understanding of the relationships within the Bilateria. Most appear to belong to four major lineages:<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Deuterostomes<li><!--del_lnk--> Ecdysozoa<li><!--del_lnk--> Platyzoa<li><!--del_lnk--> Lophotrochozoa</ol>
<p>In addition to these, there are a few small groups of bilaterians with relatively similar structure that appear to have diverged before these major groups. These include the <!--del_lnk--> Acoelomorpha, <!--del_lnk--> Rhombozoa, and <!--del_lnk--> Orthonectida. The <!--del_lnk--> Myxozoa, single-celled parasites that were originally considered Protozoa, are now believed to have developed from the Bilateria as well.<p><a id="Deuterostomes" name="Deuterostomes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Deuterostomes</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Deuterostomes differ from the other Bilateria, called <!--del_lnk--> protostomes, in several ways. In both cases there is a complete digestive tract. However, in protostomes, the initial opening to the <!--del_lnk--> archenteron (the blastopore) develops into the mouth, and an anus forms separately. In deuterostomes this is reversed. In most protostomes cells simply fill in the interior of the gastrula to form the mesoderm, called schizocoelous development, but in deuterostomes it forms through <!--del_lnk--> invagination of the endoderm, called enterocoelic pouching. Deuterostomes also have a dorsal, rather than a ventral, nerve chord and their embryos undergo different cleavage.<p>All this suggests the deuterostomes and protostomes are separate, monophyletic lineages. The main phyla of deuterostomes are the <!--del_lnk--> Echinodermata and <a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a>. Echinoderms radially symmetric and exclusively marine, such as <!--del_lnk--> sea stars, <!--del_lnk--> sea urchins, and <!--del_lnk--> sea cucumbers. The most prevalent chordates are <a href="../../wp/v/Vertebrate.htm" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, animals with backbones, which include <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a>, <!--del_lnk--> amphibians, <a href="../../wp/r/Reptile.htm" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">birds</a>, and <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammals</a>.<p>In addition to these, the deuterostomes also include the <!--del_lnk--> Hemichordata or acorn worms. The important fossil <!--del_lnk--> graptolites, although they are extinct today, may belong to this group.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Chaetognatha or arrow worms share some embryonic features with deuterostomes, but may actually be closer to the protostomes.<p>The remaining three bilaterian groups are protostomes.<p><a id="Ecdysozoa" name="Ecdysozoa"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ecdysozoa</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23240.jpg.htm" title="Yellow-winged Darter, Sympetrum flaveolum"><img alt="Yellow-winged Darter, Sympetrum flaveolum" height="110" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sympetrum_flaveolum_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg" src="../../images/232/23240.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23240.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Yellow-winged Darter, <i>Sympetrum flaveolum</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Ecdysozoa are protostomes, named after the common trait of growth by moulting or <!--del_lnk--> ecdysis. The largest animal phylum belongs here, the <!--del_lnk--> Arthropoda, including <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insects</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Spider.htm" title="Spider">spiders</a>, <!--del_lnk--> crabs, and their kin. All these organisms have a body divided into repeating segments, typically with paired appendages. Two smaller phyla, the <!--del_lnk--> Onychophora and <!--del_lnk--> Tardigrada, are close relatives of the arthropods and share these traits.<p>The ecdysozoans also include the <!--del_lnk--> Nematoda or roundworms, the second largest animal phylum. Roundworms are typically microscopic, and occur in nearly every environment where there is water. A number are important parasites. Smaller phyla related to them are the <!--del_lnk--> Nematomorpha or horsehair worms, which are invisible to the unaided eye, and the <!--del_lnk--> Kinorhyncha, <!--del_lnk--> Priapulida, and <!--del_lnk--> Loricifera. These groups have a reduced coelom, called a pseudocoelom.<p>The remaining two groups of protostomes are sometimes grouped together as the Spiralia, since in both embryos develop with spiral cleavage.<p><a id="Platyzoa" name="Platyzoa"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Platyzoa</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23241.jpg.htm" title="Bedford's Flatworm, Pseudobiceros bedfordi"><img alt="Bedford's Flatworm, Pseudobiceros bedfordi" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bedford%27s_Flatworm.jpg" src="../../images/232/23241.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23241.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bedford's Flatworm, <i>Pseudobiceros bedfordi</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Platyzoa include the phylum <!--del_lnk--> Platyhelminthes, the flatworms. These were originally considered some of the most primitive Bilateria, but it now appears they developed from more complex ancestors.<p>A number of parasites are included in this group, such as the <!--del_lnk--> flukes and <!--del_lnk--> tapeworms. Flatworms lack a coelom, as do their closest relatives, the microscopic <!--del_lnk--> Gastrotricha.<p>The other platyzoan phyla are microscopic and pseudocoelomate. The most prominent are the <!--del_lnk--> Rotifera or rotifers, which are common in aqueous environments. They also include the <!--del_lnk--> Acanthocephala or spiny-headed worms, the <!--del_lnk--> Gnathostomulida, <!--del_lnk--> Micrognathozoa, and possibly the <!--del_lnk--> Cycliophora. These groups share the presence of complex jaws, from which they are called the <!--del_lnk--> Gnathifera.<p><a id="Lophotrochozoa" name="Lophotrochozoa"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lophotrochozoa</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23242.jpg.htm" title="Big blue octopus, Octopus cyanea"><img alt="Big blue octopus, Octopus cyanea" height="144" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Reef2063.jpg" src="../../images/232/23242.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23242.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Big blue octopus, <i>Octopus cyanea</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Lophotrochozoa include two of the most successful animal phyla, the <!--del_lnk--> Mollusca and <!--del_lnk--> Annelida. The former includes animals such as <!--del_lnk--> snails, <!--del_lnk--> clams, and <!--del_lnk--> squids, and the latter comprises the segmented worms, such as <!--del_lnk--> earthworms and <!--del_lnk--> leeches. These two groups have long been considered close relatives because of the common presence of <!--del_lnk--> trochophore larvae, but the annelids were considered closer to the arthropods, because they are both segmented. Now this is generally considered convergent evolution, owing to many morphological and genetic differences between the two phyla.<p>The Lophotrochozoa also include the <!--del_lnk--> Nemertea or ribbon worms, the <!--del_lnk--> Sipuncula, and several phyla that have a fan of cilia around the mouth, called a <!--del_lnk--> lophophore. These were traditionally grouped together as the lophophorates, but it now appears they are <!--del_lnk--> paraphyletic, some closer to the Nemertea and some to the Mollusca and Annelida. They include the <!--del_lnk--> Brachiopoda or lamp shells, which are prominent in the fossil record, the <!--del_lnk--> Entoprocta, the <!--del_lnk--> Phoronida, and possibly the <!--del_lnk--> Bryozoa or moss animals.<p><a id="History_of_classification" name="History_of_classification"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History of classification</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/250/25069.jpg.htm" title="White's Tree Frog, Litoria caerulea."><img alt="White's Tree Frog, Litoria caerulea." height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Caerulea3_crop.jpg" src="../../images/232/23243.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/250/25069.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/a/Australian_Green_Tree_Frog.htm" title="White's Tree Frog">White's Tree Frog</a>, <i>Litoria caerulea</i>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a href="../../wp/a/Aristotle.htm" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> divided the living world between animals and <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plants</a>, and this was followed by <a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Carolus Linnaeus</a> in the first hierarchical classification. Since then biologists have begun emphasizing evolutionary relationships, and so these groups have been restricted somewhat. For instance, microscopic <!--del_lnk--> protozoa were originally considered animals because they move, but are now treated separately.<p>In <a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus'</a> original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of <!--del_lnk--> Vermes, <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">Insecta</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">Pisces</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Amphibia, <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">Aves</a>, and <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a>. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the <a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a>, whereas the various other forms have been separated out. The above lists represent our current understanding of the group, though there is some variation from source to source.<div style="clear: both">
</div>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Mammal', 'Bird', 'Reptile', 'Scientific classification', 'Eukaryote', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Chordate', 'Organism', 'Eukaryote', 'Latin', 'Humans', 'Eukaryote', 'Bacteria', 'Plant', 'Fungus', 'Sunlight', 'Energy', 'Carbon dioxide', 'Photosynthesis', 'Water', 'Oxygen', 'Eubacteria', 'Fungus', 'Precambrian', 'Cambrian', 'Cambrian explosion', 'Magellanic Penguin', 'Chordate', 'Vertebrate', 'Fish', 'Reptile', 'Bird', 'Mammal', 'Insect', 'Spider', "White's Tree Frog", 'Aristotle', 'Plant', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Insect', 'Fish', 'Bird', 'Mammal', 'Chordate'] |
Animal_law | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" />
<meta content="Animal law,Animal liberation,Animal liberation,Andrew Tyler,Animal Aid,Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act,Animal Legal Defense Fund,Animal Liberation Front,Animal Rights Militia,Animal Welfare Act,Animal liberation movement" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Animal law</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">/*<![CDATA[*/
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false;
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Animal_law";
var wgTitle = "Animal law";
var wgAction = "view";
var wgArticleId = "4626750";
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserGroups = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
var wgBreakFrames = false;
var wgCurRevisionId = "127640352";
/*]]>*/</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Animal_law">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Animal law</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Citizenship.Animal_and_Human_Rights.htm">Animal & Human Rights</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="infobox" style="clear:right; float:right; margin:0px 0px 15px 15px;">
<tr>
<td style="padding:0px;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; margin:0.5em; margin-bottom:0em; font-size:11px;">
<tr>
<td><small><font size="4"><b><a href="../../wp/a/Animal_rights.htm" title="Animal rights">Animal rights</a></b></font></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-bottom:5px;">
<center><a class="image" href="../../images/41/4145.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="110" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Olive_baboon1.jpg" src="../../images/41/4145.jpg" width="140" /></a></center>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;">
<p><b>Activists</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Greg Avery · <!--del_lnk--> David Barbarash<br /><!--del_lnk--> Rod Coronado · <!--del_lnk--> Barry Horne<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ronnie Lee · <!--del_lnk--> Keith Mann<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ingrid Newkirk · <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Tyler<br /><!--del_lnk--> Jerry Vlasak · <!--del_lnk--> Robin Webb</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;">
<p><b>Groups/campaigns</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal Aid<br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal Liberation Front<br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal liberation movement<br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal Rights Militia<br /><!--del_lnk--> BUAV · <!--del_lnk--> Great Ape Project<br /><!--del_lnk--> Justice Department<br /><!--del_lnk--> PETA<br /><!--del_lnk--> PCRM · <!--del_lnk--> SPEAK<br /><!--del_lnk--> Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty<br /><!--del_lnk--> Viva!<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;">
<p><b>Issues</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act<br /><a href="../../wp/a/Animal_rights.htm" title="Animal rights">Animal rights</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986<br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal testing · <!--del_lnk--> Bile bear<br /><!--del_lnk--> Factory farming<br /><!--del_lnk--> Great Ape research ban<br /><!--del_lnk--> International trade in primates<br /><!--del_lnk--> Nafovanny<br /><!--del_lnk--> Non-human primate experiments<br /><!--del_lnk--> Operation Backfire<br /><!--del_lnk--> Speciesism<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;">
<p><b>Cases</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Britches<br /><!--del_lnk--> Cambridge University primates<br /><!--del_lnk--> Covance · <!--del_lnk--> Huntingdon Life Sciences<br /><!--del_lnk--> Pit of despair · <!--del_lnk--> Silver Spring monkeys<br /><!--del_lnk--> Unnecessary Fuss<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;">
<p><b>Writers/advocates</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Steven Best · <!--del_lnk--> Stephen R.L. Clark<br /><!--del_lnk--> Gary Francione · <!--del_lnk--> Gill Langley<br /><!--del_lnk--> Tom Regan · <!--del_lnk--> Richard D. Ryder<br /><!--del_lnk--> Peter Singer · <!--del_lnk--> Steven M. Wise<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;">
<p><b>Categories</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal experimentation<br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal Liberation Front<br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal rights movement<br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal rights<br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Animal law</b> is a combination of statutory and case law in which the nature – legal, social or biological – of nonhuman animals is an important factor. Animal law encompasses companion animals, wildlife, animals used in entertainment and animals raised for food and research. The emerging field of animal law is often analogized to the environmental law movement 30 years ago. The <!--del_lnk--> Animal Legal Defense Fund was founded by attorney Joyce Tischler in 1979 as the first organization dedicated to promoting the field of animal law and using the law to protect the lives and defend the interests of animals. <!--del_lnk--> <p>Currently, animal law is being taught at 69 law schools in the U.S., including Harvard, Stanford, UCLA, Northwestern, University of Michigan and Duke. <!--del_lnk--> A growing number of state and local bar associations now have animal law committees. <!--del_lnk--> <p>Animal law issues encompass a broad spectrum of approaches—from philosophical explorations of the rights of animals to pragmatic discussions about the rights of those who use animals, who has standing to sue when an animal is harmed in a way that violates the law, and what constitutes legal cruelty. <!--del_lnk--> Animal law permeates and affects most traditional areas of the law – including tort, contract, criminal and constitutional law. Examples of this intersection include:<ul>
<li>Animal custody disputes in divorce or separations.<li>Veterinary malpractice cases.<li>Housing disputes involving “no pets” policies and discrimination laws.<li>Damages cases involving the wrongful death or injury to a companion animal.<li>Enforceable trusts for companion being adopted by states across the country.<li>Criminal law encompassing domestic violence and anti-cruelty laws.</ul>
<p>The comprehensive animal law casebook is <!--del_lnk--> Animal Law: Cases and Materials, Third Edition, co-authored by Sonia S. Waisman, Bruce A. Wagman, and Pamela D. Frasch. Because animal law is not a traditional legal field, most of the book’s chapters are framed in terms of familiar subsets of law such as tort, contract, criminal and constitutional law. Each chapter sets out cases and commentary where animal law affects those broader areas.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_law"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Animal rights', 'Animal rights'] |
Animal_rights | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" />
<meta content="Animal rights,Protection policy,Citing sources,Rights,Animal liberation,Animal liberation,Rights,2006,2007,Abolitionist,Abortion" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Animal rights</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">/*<![CDATA[*/
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false;
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Animal_rights";
var wgTitle = "Animal rights";
var wgAction = "view";
var wgArticleId = "7116046";
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserGroups = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
var wgBreakFrames = false;
var wgCurRevisionId = "126621320";
/*]]>*/</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Animal_rights">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Animal rights</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Citizenship.Animal_and_Human_Rights.htm">Animal & Human Rights</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div style="position:absolute; z-index:100; right:25px; top:8px; height:10px; width:300px;">
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:292px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/41/4147.jpg.htm" title="A civet, or sea fox, photographed in the Zigong People's Zoo, Sichuan, 2001, by the Asian Animal Protection Network. The animal was kept hungry so that visitors could feed him live eels from a ladle. "><img alt="A civet, or sea fox, photographed in the Zigong People's Zoo, Sichuan, 2001, by the Asian Animal Protection Network. The animal was kept hungry so that visitors could feed him live eels from a ladle. " class="thumbimage" height="208" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zigong_People%27s_Park_Zoo.jpg" src="../../images/41/4147.jpg" width="290" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/41/4147.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> civet, or sea fox, photographed in the Zigong People's Zoo, <!--del_lnk--> Sichuan, 2001, by the Asian Animal Protection Network. The animal was kept hungry so that visitors could feed him live eels from a ladle. </div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>Animal rights</b>, also known as <b>animal liberation</b>, is the movement to protect non-human animals from being used or regarded as property by humans. It is a radical <!--del_lnk--> social movement insofar as it aims not only to attain more <!--del_lnk--> humane treatment for animals, but also to include species other than human beings within the moral community by giving their basic interests — for example, the interest in avoiding suffering — the same consideration as those of human beings. The claim is that animals should no longer be regarded legally or morally as property, or treated as resources for human purposes, but should instead be regarded as <!--del_lnk--> legal persons. <p><a href="../../wp/a/Animal_law.htm" title="Animal law">Animal law</a> courses are now taught in 79 out of 180 United States law schools, and the idea of extending personhood to animals has the support of some senior legal scholars, including <!--del_lnk--> Alan Dershowitz and <!--del_lnk--> Laurence Tribe of <!--del_lnk--> Harvard Law School. The Seattle-based <!--del_lnk--> Great Ape Project is campaigning for the United Nations to adopt a <!--del_lnk--> Declaration on Great Apes, which would see <a href="../../wp/g/Gorilla.htm" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a>, <!--del_lnk--> orangutans, <a href="../../wp/c/Chimpanzee.htm" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Bonobo.htm" title="Bonobo">bonobos</a> included in a "community of equals" with human beings, extending to them the protection of three basic interests: the <!--del_lnk--> right to life, the protection of individual liberty, and the prohibition of torture. This is seen by an increasing number of animal rights lawyers as a first step toward granting rights to other animals.<p>Critics of the concept of animal rights argue that animals do not have the capacity to enter into a <!--del_lnk--> social contract or make moral choices, and therefore cannot be regarded as possessors of moral rights. The philosopher <!--del_lnk--> Roger Scruton argues that only human beings have duties and that "[t]he corollary is inescapable: we alone have rights." Critics holding this position argue that there is nothing inherently wrong with using animals for food, as entertainment, and in research, though human beings may nevertheless have an obligation to ensure they do not suffer unnecessarily. This position is generally called the animal welfare position, and it is held by some of the oldest of the animal protection agencies.<table align="right" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border: 1px solid #8888aa; background: #f7f8ff;">
<tr>
<th align="center" style="padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background:#ccccff">Theories of <!--del_lnk--> rights</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><strong class="selflink">Animal rights</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><a href="../../wp/c/Children%2527s_rights_movement.htm" title="Children's rights movement">Children's rights</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><a href="../../wp/c/Civil_rights.htm" title="Civil rights">Civil rights</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Collective rights</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Group rights</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><a href="../../wp/h/Human_rights.htm" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Inalienable rights</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Individual rights</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Legal rights</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Men's rights</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Natural rights</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Negative & positive</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Social rights</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> "Three generations"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><a href="../../wp/w/Women%2527s_rights.htm" title="Women's rights">Women's rights</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Workers' rights</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Youth rights</td>
</tr>
</table>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script>
<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="infobox" style="clear:right; float:right; margin:0px 0px 15px 15px;">
<tr>
<td style="padding:0px;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; margin:0.5em; margin-bottom:0em; font-size:11px;">
<tr>
<td><small><font size="4"><b><strong class="selflink">Animal rights</strong></b></font></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-bottom:5px;">
<center><a class="image" href="../../images/41/4145.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="110" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Olive_baboon1.jpg" src="../../images/41/4145.jpg" width="140" /></a></center>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;">
<p><b>Activists</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Greg Avery · <!--del_lnk--> David Barbarash<br /><!--del_lnk--> Rod Coronado · <!--del_lnk--> Barry Horne<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ronnie Lee · <!--del_lnk--> Keith Mann<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ingrid Newkirk · <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Tyler<br /><!--del_lnk--> Jerry Vlasak · <!--del_lnk--> Robin Webb</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;">
<p><b>Groups/campaigns</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal Aid<br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal Liberation Front<br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal liberation movement<br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal Rights Militia<br /><!--del_lnk--> BUAV · <!--del_lnk--> Great Ape Project<br /><!--del_lnk--> Justice Department<br /><!--del_lnk--> PETA<br /><!--del_lnk--> PCRM · <!--del_lnk--> SPEAK<br /><!--del_lnk--> Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty<br /><!--del_lnk--> Viva!<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;">
<p><b>Issues</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act<br /><strong class="selflink">Animal rights</strong><br /><!--del_lnk--> Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986<br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal testing · <!--del_lnk--> Bile bear<br /><!--del_lnk--> Factory farming<br /><!--del_lnk--> Great Ape research ban<br /><!--del_lnk--> International trade in primates<br /><!--del_lnk--> Nafovanny<br /><!--del_lnk--> Non-human primate experiments<br /><!--del_lnk--> Operation Backfire<br /><!--del_lnk--> Speciesism<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;">
<p><b>Cases</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Britches<br /><!--del_lnk--> Cambridge University primates<br /><!--del_lnk--> Covance · <!--del_lnk--> Huntingdon Life Sciences<br /><!--del_lnk--> Pit of despair · <!--del_lnk--> Silver Spring monkeys<br /><!--del_lnk--> Unnecessary Fuss<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;">
<p><b>Writers/advocates</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Steven Best · <!--del_lnk--> Stephen R.L. Clark<br /><!--del_lnk--> Gary Francione · <!--del_lnk--> Gill Langley<br /><!--del_lnk--> Tom Regan · <!--del_lnk--> Richard D. Ryder<br /><!--del_lnk--> Peter Singer · <!--del_lnk--> Steven M. Wise<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;">
<p><b>Categories</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal experimentation<br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal Liberation Front<br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal rights movement<br /><!--del_lnk--> Animal rights<br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="History_of_the_concept" name="History_of_the_concept"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">History of the concept</span></h3>
<p>The 20th-century debate about animal rights can be traced back to the earliest philosophers. In the 6th century BC, <a href="../../wp/p/Pythagoras.htm" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a>, the Greek philosopher and mathematician — who has been called the first animal rights philosopher — urged respect for animals because he believed in the <!--del_lnk--> transmigration of souls between human and non-human animals: in killing an animal, we might be killing an ancestor. He advocated vegetarianism, rejecting the use of animals as food or religious sacrifices. <p><!--del_lnk--> Peter Singer, in the <i>Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i>, writes that the first chapter of <!--del_lnk--> Genesis describes how God gave human beings <!--del_lnk--> dominion over animals, tempered in the <!--del_lnk--> Torah by injunctions to be kind; for example, by being required to rest one's oxen on the <!--del_lnk--> sabbath. The <!--del_lnk--> New Testament is, he writes, devoid of such injunctions, with <a href="../../wp/p/Paul_of_Tarsus.htm" title="Paul of Tarsus">Paul</a> interpreting the sabbath requirement as intended to benefit the human owners, not the animals themselves. <a href="../../wp/a/Augustine_of_Hippo.htm" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a> argued that <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> allowed the <!--del_lnk--> Gadarene swine to drown in order to demonstrate that man has no duty of care toward animals, a position adopted by <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Aquinas.htm" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, who argued that we should be charitable to animals only to make sure that cruel habits do not carry over into our treatment of human beings. <p><a href="../../wp/a/Aristotle.htm" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, writing in the 4th century BCE, argued that non-human animals ranked far below humans in the <!--del_lnk--> Great Chain of Being, or <i>scala naturae</i>, because of their alleged irrationality, and that they had no interests of their own. One of his pupils, <!--del_lnk--> Theophrastus, disagreed, arguing against eating meat on the grounds that it robbed animals of life and was therefore unjust. Non-human animals, he said, can reason, sense, and feel just as human beings do. This view did not prevail, and it was Aristotle's position — that human and non-human animals exist in different moral realms because one is rational and the other not — that largely persisted until challenged by philosophers in the 1970s.<p>In the 17th century, the French philosopher <a href="../../wp/r/Ren%25C3%25A9_Descartes.htm" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> argued that animals have no souls or minds, and are nothing but complex <!--del_lnk--> automata. They therefore cannot think or even feel pain. They do have sensory equipment so they can see, hear and touch, and may even feel anger and fear, but they are not, in any sense, conscious. Against this, <a href="../../wp/j/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau.htm" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, in the preface of his <!--del_lnk--> Discourse on Inequality (1754), argued that man starts as an animal, though not one "devoid of intellect and freedom." However, as animals are sensitive beings, "they too ought to participate in natural right, and ... man is subject to some sort of duties toward them," specifically "one [has] the right not to be uselessly mistreated by the other." <p>Contemporaneous with Rousseau was the Scottish writer <!--del_lnk--> John Oswald, who died in 1793. In <i>The Cry of Nature or an Appeal to Mercy and Justice on Behalf of the Persecuted Animals</i>, Oswald argued that man is naturally equipped with feelings of mercy and compassion. If each man had to witness the death of the animals he ate, he argued, a vegetarian diet would be far more common. The division of labor, however, allows modern man to eat flesh without experiencing what Oswald called the prompting of man's natural sensitivities, while the brutalization of modern man made him inured to these sensitivities.<p>Later in the 18th century, one of the founders of modern <a href="../../wp/u/Utilitarianism.htm" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>, the English philosopher <!--del_lnk--> Jeremy Bentham, argued that animal pain is as real and as morally relevant as human pain, and that "[t]he day may come when the rest of the animal creation may acquire those rights which never could have been witholden from them but by the hand of tyranny." Bentham argued that the ability to suffer, not the ability to <!--del_lnk--> reason, must be the benchmark of how we treat other beings. If the ability to reason were the criterion, many human beings, including babies and disabled people, would also have to be treated as though they were things, famously writing that:<blockquote>
<p>It may one day come to be recognized that the number of the legs, the villosity of the skin, or the termination of the <i><!--del_lnk--> os sacrum</i> are reasons equally insufficient for abandoning a sensitive being to the same fate. What else is it that should trace the insuperable line? Is it the faculty of reason or perhaps the faculty of <!--del_lnk--> discourse? But a full-grown <a href="../../wp/h/Horse.htm" title="Horse">horse</a> or <a href="../../wp/d/Dog.htm" title="Dog">dog</a> is beyond comparison a more rational, as well as more conversable animal, than an infant of a day or a week or even a month old. But suppose they were otherwise, what would it avail? The question is not, Can they reason?, nor Can they talk? but, Can they suffer? Why should the law refuse its protection to any sensitive being? The time will come when humanity will extend its mantle over everything which breathes ... </blockquote>
<p>In the 19th century, <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Schopenhauer argued that non-human animals have the same essence as humans, despite lacking the faculty of reason. Although he considered vegetarianism to be only <!--del_lnk--> supererogatory, he argued for consideration to be given to animals in morality, and he opposed <!--del_lnk--> vivisection. His critique of <!--del_lnk--> Kantian ethics contains a lengthy and often furious polemic against the exclusion of animals in his moral system.<p>The world's first animal welfare organization, the <!--del_lnk--> Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, was founded in Britain in 1824, and similar groups soon sprang up elsewhere in Europe and then in North America. The first such group in the United States, the <!--del_lnk--> American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, was chartered in the state of <!--del_lnk--> New York in 1866. The concept of animal rights became the subject of an influential book in 1892, <i>Animals' Rights: Considered in Relation to Social Progress</i>, by English social reformer <!--del_lnk--> Henry Salt, who had formed the Humanitarian League a year earlier, with the objective of banning hunting as a sport.<p>In <a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, one of the first acts of the new regime was to enact an animal protection law. The implemented law on animal protection was stringent and restricted research.<p>By the late 20th century, animal welfare societies and laws against cruelty to animals existed in almost every country in the world. Specialized animal advocacy groups also proliferated, including those dedicated to the preservation of endangered species, and others, such as <!--del_lnk--> People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), that protested against painful or brutal methods of hunting animals, the mistreatment of animals raised for food in <!--del_lnk--> factory farms, and the use of animals in experiments and as entertainment.<p><a id="History_of_the_modern_movement" name="History_of_the_modern_movement"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">History of the modern movement</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The modern animal rights movement can be traced to the 1970s, and is one of the few examples of social movements that were created by philosophers, and in which they remain in the forefront. <p>In the early 1970s, a group of <!--del_lnk--> Oxford philosophers began to question whether the moral status of non-human animals was necessarily inferior to that of human beings. The group included the psychologist <!--del_lnk--> Richard D. Ryder, who coined the phrase "<!--del_lnk--> speciesism" in 1970, first using it in a privately printed pamphlet to describe the assignment of value to the interests of beings on the basis of their membership of a particular species. <p>Ryder became a contributor to the influential book <i>Animals, Men and Morals: An Inquiry into the Maltreatment of Non-humans</i>. It was in a review of this book for the <i><!--del_lnk--> New York Review of Books</i> that <!--del_lnk--> Peter Singer put forward the basic arguments, based on <a href="../../wp/u/Utilitarianism.htm" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a> and drawing an explicit comparison between <!--del_lnk--> women's liberation and animal liberation, that in 1975 became <i><!--del_lnk--> Animal Liberation</i>, the book often referred to as the "bible" of the animal rights movement.<p>In the 1980s and 1990s, the movement was joined by a wide variety of academic and professional groups, including theologians, lawyers, physicians, psychologists, psychiatrists, veterinarians, pathologists and former vivisectionists.<p>Other books regarded as ground-breaking include <!--del_lnk--> Tom Regan's <i>The Case for Animal Rights</i> (1983); James Rachels's <i>Created from Animals: The Moral Implications of Darwinism</i> (1990); Steven M. Wise's <i>Rattling the Cage: Toward Legal Rights for Animals</i> (2000); and Julian H. Franklin's <i>Animal Rights and Moral Philosophy</i> (2005).<p><a id="Philosophy" name="Philosophy"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Philosophy</span></h2>
<p>Animal rights is the concept that all or some animals are entitled to possess their own lives; that they are deserving of, or already possess, certain moral rights; and that some basic rights for animals ought to be enshrined in law. The animal-rights view rejects the concept that animals are merely capital goods or property intended for the benefit of humans. The concept is often confused with <!--del_lnk--> animal welfare, which is the philosophy that takes cruelty towards animals and animal suffering into account, but that does not assign specific moral rights to them.<p>The animal-rights philosophy does not necessarily maintain that human and non-human animals are equal. For example, animal-rights advocates do not call for voting rights for chickens. Some activists also make a distinction between <!--del_lnk--> sentient or self-aware animals and other life forms, with the belief that only sentient animals, or perhaps only animals who have a significant degree of self-awareness, should be afforded the right to possess their own lives and bodies, without regard to how they are valued by humans. Activists maintain that any human being or institution that commodifies animals for food, entertainment, cosmetics, clothing, <!--del_lnk--> animal testing, or for any other reason, infringes upon the animals' right to possess themselves and to pursue their own ends.<p>Few people would deny that non-human <!--del_lnk--> great apes, such as chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas, are intelligent, are aware of their own condition, have goals, and may become frustrated when their freedoms are curtailed.<p>In the late 1960s and early '70s, <!--del_lnk--> Martin E. P. Seligman demonstrated that dogs repeatedly exposed to inescapable electroshocks are very similar to severely depressed humans. He wrote:<blockquote>
<p>So there are considerable parallels between the behaviors which define learned helplessness and major symptoms of depression. Helpless animals become passive in the face of later trauma; they do not initiate responses to control trauma and the amplitude of responding is lowered. Depressed patients are characterized by diminished response initiation; their behavioural repertoire is impoverished and in severe cases, almost stuporous. Helpless animals do not benefit from exposure to experiences in which responding now produces relief; rather they often revert to passively accepting shock. Depressed patients have strong negative expectations about the effectiveness of their own responding. They construe even actions that succeed as having failed and underestimate and devalue their own performance. In addition, evidence exists which suggests that both learned helplessness and depression dissipate in time, are associated with weight loss and anorexia, or loss of libido, and norepinephrine depletion.<br />
<br /> Finally, it is not an accident that we have used the word “helplessness” to describe the behaviour of dogs in our laboratory. Animals that lie down in traumatic shock that could be removed simply by jumping to the other side, and who fail even to make escape movements are readily seen as helpless. Moreover we should not forget that depressed patients commonly describe themselves helpless, hopeless, and powerless.</blockquote>
<p>In contrast, animals like <!--del_lnk--> jellyfish have simple nervous systems, and may be little more than automata, capable of basic reflexes but incapable of formulating any ends to their actions or plans to pursue them, and equally unable to notice whether they are in captivity. But the biology of <a href="../../wp/m/Mind.htm" title="Mind">mind</a> is largely a black box and claims regarding the existence or absence of mind in other animals, based on their physiology, are speculative. Neuroscientist <!--del_lnk--> Sam Harris argues:<blockquote>
<p>Inevitably, scientists treat consciousness as a mere <i>attribute</i> of certain large-brained animals. The problem, however, is that nothing about a brain, when surveyed as a physical system, delares it to be a bearer of that peculiar, inner dimension that each of us experiences as consciousness in his own case.... The operational definition of consciousness ... is <i>reportability</i>. But consciousness and reportabiltiy are not the same thing. Is a starfish conscious? No science that conflates consciousness with reportabilty will deliver an answer to this question. To look for consciousness in the world on the basis of its outward signs is the only thing we can do.<br />
<br /> And so, while we know many things about ourselves [and other animals] in anatomical, physiological, and evolutionary terms, we currently have no idea why it is "like something" to be what we are. The fact that the universe is illuminated where you stand, the fact that your thoughts and moods and sensations have a qualitative character, is an absolute mystery.</blockquote>
<p>The animal-rights debate, much like the <!--del_lnk--> abortion debate, is complicated by the difficulty of establishing clear-cut distinctions on which to base moral and political judgements. The default human/non-human animal relationship is deeply rooted in prehistory and tradition but arguments for animal rights are questionable due to the basic human inability to understand the subjective state of animals in question. <p>Opponents of animal rights have attempted to identify morally relevant differences between humans and animals that might justify the attribution of rights and interests to the former but not to the latter. Various distinguishing features of humans have been proposed, including the possession of a <!--del_lnk--> soul, the ability to use <a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" title="Language">language</a>, <!--del_lnk--> self-consciousness, a high level of <a href="../../wp/i/Intelligence.htm" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>, and the ability to recognize the rights and interests of others. However, such criteria face the difficulty that they do not seem to apply to all and only humans: each may apply either to some but not to all humans, or to all humans but also to some animals.<p>Peter Singer and Tom Regan are the best-known proponents of animal liberation, though they differ in their philosophical approaches. Another influential thinker is <!--del_lnk--> Gary L. Francione, who presents an <!--del_lnk--> abolitionist view that non-human animals should have the basic right not to be treated as the property of humans.<p><a id="Utilitarian_approach" name="Utilitarian_approach"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Utilitarian approach</span></h3>
<p>Although Singer is said to be the ideological founder of today's animal-liberation movement, his approach to an animal's moral status is not based on the concept of rights, but on the <a href="../../wp/u/Utilitarianism.htm" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarian</a> principle of <!--del_lnk--> equal consideration of interests. His 1975 book <i><!--del_lnk--> Animal Liberation</i> argues that humans grant moral consideration to other humans not on the basis of intelligence (in the instance of children, or the mentally disabled), on the ability to moralize (criminals and the insane), or on any other attribute that is inherently human, but rather on their ability to experience <i>suffering</i>. As animals also experience suffering, he argues, excluding animals from such consideration is a form of discrimination known as "<!--del_lnk--> speciesism."<p>Singer uses a particularly compelling argument called the <!--del_lnk--> Argument from Marginal Cases. If we give rights to humans based on some quality they possess, then we cannot argue that humans that lack that quality should have rights. Such a quality may be <i>sentience</i> or <i>ability to enter a social contract</i> or <i>rationality</i>. But an infant born with a defect so that it will never have those qualities can not be granted rights without invoking <!--del_lnk--> speciesism. Singer argues that the way in which humans use animals is not justified, because the benefits to humans are negligible compared to the amount of animal suffering they necessarily entail, and because he feels the same benefits can be obtained in ways that do not involve the same degree of suffering.<p>A substantial multiple part debate between Singer and senior US Judge <!--del_lnk--> Richard Posner on <i>Animal Liberation</i> is listed online. In it, Posner first argues that instead of starting his philosophy on the idea that consideration of pain for all animals is equal, his moral intuition tells him that humans prefer their own. If a dog threatened an infant, and it required causing more pain to the dog to get it to stop than the dog would have caused to the infant, then we, as humans, spare the infant. It would be "monstrous to spare the dog." Singer challenged Posner's <i>moral intuition</i> with ethical arguments that formerly unequal rights for homosexuals, women, and those of different races also were justified using moral intuition. Posner replies that equality in civil rights did not occur because of ethical arguments, but because facts mounted that there were not significant differences between humans based on race, sex, or sexual orientation that would support that inequality. If and when similar facts mount on the differences between humans and animals, those differences in rights too will erode. But facts will drive equality, and not ethical arguments that run contrary to moral instinct. Posner calls his approach <i>soft utilitarian</i> in contrast to Singer's <i>hard utilitarian</i>, in which the terms <i>hard</i> and <i>soft</i> refer to the power of the logic of the ethical arguments to overpower moral intuition. Posner concludes his philosophical arguments<blockquote>
<p>The "soft" utilitarian position on animal rights is a moral intuition of many, probably most, Americans. We realize that animals feel pain, and we think that to inflict pain without a reason is bad. Nothing of practical value is added by dressing up this intuition in the language of philosophy; much is lost when the intuition is made a stage in a logical argument. When kindness toward animals is levered into a duty of weighting the pains of animals and of people equally, bizarre vistas of social engineering are opened up.</blockquote>
<p><a id="Rights-based_approach" name="Rights-based_approach"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Rights-based approach</span></h3>
<p>Tom Regan (<i>The Case for Animal Rights</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Empty Cages</i>) argues that non-human animals, as "subjects-of-a-life," are bearers of rights like humans. He argues that, because the moral rights of humans are based on their possession of certain <!--del_lnk--> cognitive abilities, and because these abilities are also possessed by at least some non-human animals, such animals must have the same moral rights as humans. Although only humans act as moral agents, both marginal case humans and at least some non-humans must have the status of moral patients.<p>Animals in this class have "inherent value" as individuals, and cannot be regarded as means to an end. This is also called the "direct duty" view. According to Regan, we should abolish the breeding of animals for food, animal experimentation, and commercial hunting. Regan's theory does not extend to all sentient animals but only to those that can be regarded as "subjects-of-a-life." He argues that all normal mammals of at least one year of age would qualify in this regard.<p>The predation reductio argument is often applied to Regan's rights-based approach. If we are to protect animals with rights from moral patient humans, must we also protect them from other animals? This raises the issue of whether giving animals 'moral patient' status condemns to extermination certain classes of predation. <p>While Singer is primarily concerned with improving the treatment of animals and accepts that, at least in some hypothetical scenarios, animals could be legitimately used for further (human or non-human) ends, Regan believes we ought to treat animals as we would persons, and he applies the strict <a href="../../wp/i/Immanuel_Kant.htm" title="Immanuel Kant">Kantian</a> idea that they ought never to be sacrificed as mere means to ends, and must be treated as ends unto themselves. Notably, Kant himself did not believe animals were subject to what he called the moral law; he believed we ought to show compassion, but primarily because not to do so brutalizes human beings, and not for the sake of animals themselves.<p>Despite these theoretical differences, both Singer and Regan largely agree about what to do in practise. For example, they agree that the adoption of a <!--del_lnk--> vegan diet and the abolition of nearly all forms of <!--del_lnk--> animal testing are ethically mandatory.<p><a id="Rights_require_obligations" name="Rights_require_obligations"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Rights require obligations</span></h4>
<p>Critics such as <!--del_lnk--> Carl Cohen, professor of philosophy at the University of Michigan and the University of Michigan Medical School, oppose the granting of personhood to animals. Cohen wrote in the <i><!--del_lnk--> New England Journal of Medicine</i> in October 1986: that "[t]he holders of rights must have the capacity to comprehend rules of duty governing all, including themselves. In applying such rules, the holders of rights must recognize possible conflicts between what is in their own interest and what is just. Only in a community of beings capable of self-restricting moral judgments can the concept of a right be correctly invoked."<p>Cohen rejects <!--del_lnk--> Peter Singer's argument that since a brain-damaged human could not exhibit the ability to make moral judgments, that moral judgments cannot be used as the distinguishing characteristic for determining who is awarded rights. Cohen states that the test for moral judgment "is not a test to be administered to humans one by one." This is also known as the Argument from Species Normality. <p>The British philosopher <!--del_lnk--> Roger Scruton has argued that rights can only be assigned to beings who are able to understand them and to reciprocate by observing their own obligations to other beings. Scruton also argues against animal rights on practical grounds. For example, in <i>Animal Rights and Wrongs</i>, he supports foxhunting because it encourages humans to protect the habitat in which foxes live. However, he condemns <!--del_lnk--> factory farming because, he says, the animals are not provided with even a minimally acceptable life.<p>The Foundation for Animal Use and Education states that "[o]ur recognition of the rights of others stems from our unique human character as moral agents — that is, beings capable of making moral judgments and comprehending moral duty. Only human beings are capable of exercising moral judgment and recognizing the rights of one another. Animals do not exercise responsibility as moral agents. They do not recognize the rights of other animals. They kill and eat one another instinctively, as a matter of survival. They act from a combination of conditioning, fear, instinct and intelligence, but they do not exercise moral judgment in the process."<p>In <i>The Animals Issue: Moral Theory in Practice</i>, the British philosopher Peter Carruthers argues that humans have obligations only to other beings who can take part in a hypothetical <!--del_lnk--> social contract. thus animals are excluded from the group of beings to whom humans have moral obligations.<p>Social contract arguments do not address the problem of animals acting <i>as if</i> they they have entered into such contracts with others of their species. Cooperation and relatively peaceful coexistence in group situations are characterisics of many species. Jules Masserman (1905-1989), past president of the American Psychiatric Association, concluded in 1964 that: "A majority of rhesus monkeys will consistently suffer hunger rather than secure food at the expense of electroshock to a conspecific." In the Masserman study, it appears that rhesus monkeys might act in accordance with the <!--del_lnk--> Golden Rule.<p>These arguments fail to address the human rights model. <!--del_lnk--> The Universal Declaration of Human Rights makes no similar demands.<p>These arguments also fail to address the Argument from Marginal Cases, or Singer's example of a mentally retarded orphan.<p><a id="Abolitionist_view" name="Abolitionist_view"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Abolitionist view</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Gary Francione's work (<i>Introduction to Animal Rights</i>, et.al.) is based on the premise that if non-human animals are considered to be property then any rights that they may be granted would be directly undermined by that property status. He points out that a call to equally consider the interests of your property against your own interests is absurd. Without the basic right not to be treated as the property of humans, non-human animals have no rights whatsoever, he says. Francione posits that sentience is the only valid determinant for moral standing, unlike Regan who sees qualitative degrees in the subjective experiences of his "subjects-of-a-life" based upon a loose determination of who falls within that category. Francione claims that there is no actual animal-rights movement in the United States, but only an <!--del_lnk--> animal-welfarist movement. In line with his philosophical position and his work in animal-rights law for the Animal Rights Law Project at <!--del_lnk--> Rutgers University, he points out that any effort that does not advocate the abolition of the property status of animals is misguided, in that it inevitably results in the institutionalization of animal exploitation. It is logically inconsistent and doomed never to achieve its stated goal of improving the condition of animals, he argues. Francione holds that a society which regards dogs and cats as family members yet kills cows, chickens, and pigs for food exhibits what he calls "moral schizophrenia".<p><a id="Analogies_to_human_rights" name="Analogies_to_human_rights"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Analogies to human rights</span></h3>
<p>Writer <!--del_lnk--> Robert Bidinotto said in a 1992 speech to the Northeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies: "Strict observance of animal rights forbids even direct protection of people and their values against nature's many predators. Losses to people are acceptable ... losses to animals are not. Logically then, beavers may change the flow of streams, but Man must not. Locusts may denude hundreds of miles of plant life ... but Man must not. Cougars may eat sheep and chickens, but Man must not."<p>However, many other animal rights activists believe that human rights and animal rights are closely connected. <!--del_lnk--> Ronnie Lee, the founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Animal Liberation Front, talked of <!--del_lnk--> Gandhi and <!--del_lnk--> Martin Luther King as inspiration. <!--del_lnk--> Robin Webb, the press officer for the A.L.F. in Britain, has referred to animal rights as "the ultimate liberation movement", and an extension of the human rights struggle. <!--del_lnk--> Steven Best, who was a human rights activist before becoming involved in animal rights, has written several essays on the links between the two movements.<p><a id="Animal_rights_and_the_Holocaust" name="Animal_rights_and_the_Holocaust"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Animal rights and the Holocaust</span></h4>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Some writers and animal rights groups have drawn a comparison between the treatment of animals and the <a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a>. <p>Charles Patterson in <i>Eternal Treblinka</i> argues that "Nazi genocide and modern society's enslavement and slaughter of non-human animals" share "common roots." In a campaign largely based on Patterson's book, <!--del_lnk--> PETA organized a touring exhibition in 2003 entitled "<!--del_lnk--> Holocaust on your Plate," which mixed imagery of Jews in concentration camps with animals being killed and abused.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> National Primate Research Exhibition Hall, a project of animal rights activists in <!--del_lnk--> Wisconsin, compares itself to the Holocaust Memorial at <!--del_lnk--> Auschwitz and plans extensive use of such imagery in its exhibits.<p>The comparison between the modern treatment of animals by human beings and the treatment of Jews by the Nazis is regarded as controversial, and has been criticized by the <!--del_lnk--> Anti-Defamation League (ADL) and the <!--del_lnk--> United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. <!--del_lnk--> Roberta Kalechofsky of <!--del_lnk--> Jews for Animal Rights argues that, although there is "connective tissue" between animal suffering and the Holocaust, they "fall into different historical frameworks, and comparison between them aborts the ... force of <!--del_lnk--> anti-Semitism. <p><a id="Animal_rights_in_law" name="Animal_rights_in_law"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Animal rights in law</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/41/4149.jpg.htm" title="A monkey in a restraint tube filmed by PETA in a Covance branch, Vienna, Virginia, 2004-5 "><img alt="A monkey in a restraint tube filmed by PETA in a Covance branch, Vienna, Virginia, 2004-5 " class="thumbimage" height="233" longdesc="/wiki/Image:600-restraint-tube4.jpg" src="../../images/41/4149.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/41/4149.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A monkey in a restraint tube filmed by <!--del_lnk--> PETA in a <!--del_lnk--> Covance branch, <!--del_lnk--> Vienna, Virginia, 2004-5 </div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> cites the Roman jurist <!--del_lnk--> Hermogenianus writing in the 3rd or 4th century <!--del_lnk--> CE that: <i>"Hominum causa omne jus constitum"</i> — "All law was established for men's sake" — a position repeated in P.A. Fitzgerald's <i>Salmond on Jurisprudence</i> (1966), in which he wrote: "The law is made for men and allows no fellowship or bonds of obligation between them and the lower animals."<p>This view categorizes animals as property; not as legal persons with rights, but as things that other legal persons exercise their rights in relation to. Current animal law therefore addresses the rights of the people who own animals, not the rights of the animals themselves. There are <!--del_lnk--> criminal laws against cruelty to animals; laws that regulate the keeping of animals in cities and on farms; laws regulating the transit of animals internationally, and governing quarantine and inspection provisions. These are designed to offer animals some protection from unnecessary physical harm and to regulate the use of animals as food, but they offer no civil rights to animals, who have a status similar to that of human slaves before abolition. American legal scholar <!--del_lnk--> Steven Wise writes in the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> that the failure to recognize individual rights makes animals "invisible to civil law."<p>There is increasing interest in the concept of animal rights in law. The idea of extending personhood to animals is gaining the support of mainstream legal scholars such as <!--del_lnk--> Alan Dershowitz and <!--del_lnk--> Laurence Tribe. Animal law courses are taught in 69 out of 180 U.S. law schools, and 47 U.S. law schools have student <!--del_lnk--> animal legal defense funds, with more being set up in Australia and Europe. Three specialist legal journals have been established — <i>Animal Law</i>, the <i>Journal of Animal Law</i>, and the <i>Journal of Animal Law and Ethics</i>. <p>In 2006, <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazilians</a> founded the <i><!--del_lnk--> Brazilian Animal Rights Review</i>, the first legal journal about animal law in a <!--del_lnk--> developing countries. Brazil has advanced legislation: since 1988, their Constitution recognizes the protection of animals against cruelty.<p>Switzerland passed legislation in 1992 to recognize animals as beings, rather than things, and the protection of animals was enshrined in the German constitution in 2002, when its upper house of parliament voted to add the words "and animals" to the clause in the constitution obliging the state to protect the "natural foundations of life ... in the interests of future generations."<p>Steven Wise writes that the legal arguments in favour of animal rights are "powerfully assisted by increasingly sophisticated scientific investigations into the cognitive, emotional, and social capacities of animals and by advances in genetics, neuroscience, physiology, linguistics, psychology, evolution, and ethology, many of which have demonstrated that humans and animals share a broad range of behaviours, capacities, and genetic material." Wise argues that the first serious judicial challenges to the "legal thinghood of nonhuman animals" may only be a few years away. <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_rights"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Animal law', 'Gorilla', 'Chimpanzee', 'Bonobo', "Children's rights movement", 'Civil rights', 'Human rights', "Women's rights", 'Pythagoras', 'Paul of Tarsus', 'Augustine of Hippo', 'Jesus', 'Thomas Aquinas', 'Aristotle', 'René Descartes', 'Jean-Jacques Rousseau', 'Utilitarianism', 'Horse', 'Dog', 'Nazi Germany', 'Utilitarianism', 'Mind', 'Language', 'Intelligence', 'Utilitarianism', 'Immanuel Kant', 'Holocaust', 'Brazil'] |
Animation | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Animation,A Trip to the Moon,Stop motion,Georges Méliès,History of animation,Émile Cohl,Negative film,Felix the cat,Pat Sullivan,Otto Messmer,The Sinking of the Lusitania" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Animation</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Animation";
var wgTitle = "Animation";
var wgArticleId = 593;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Animation">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Animation</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Computer_and_Video_games.htm">Computer & Video games</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Films.htm">Films</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div style="float: right; width: 270px; margin: 1em">
<p><a class="image" href="../../images/2/266.png.htm" title="Image:Animexample3edit.png"><img alt="Image:Animexample3edit.png" height="236" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Animexample3edit.png" src="../../images/2/266.png" width="260" /></a><br /><small><i>The bouncing ball animation (below) consists of these 6 frames.</i></small><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/2/267.gif.htm" title="Image:Animexample.gif"><img alt="Image:Animexample.gif" height="82" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Animexample.gif" src="../../images/2/267.gif" width="82" /></a><br /><small><i>This animation moves at 10 frames per second.</i></small></div>
<p><b>Animation</b> is the filming a sequence of drawings or positions of models to create an illusion of movement. It is an <!--del_lnk--> optical illusion of <a href="../../wp/m/Motion_%2528physics%2529.htm" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a> due to the phenomenon of <!--del_lnk--> persistence of vision.<p>
<br />
<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Early_animation" name="Early_animation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early animation</span></h2>
<p>There is no such being as the creator of animation, as there were several people doing several projects which could be considered various types of animation all around the same time. The following is a brief on those who are often acknowledged as significant to the development of animation. Note that this list is by no means a comprehensive list of contributors to early animation.<p><!--del_lnk--> Georges Méliès was a creator of special effect films, such as <!--del_lnk--> A Trip to the Moon. He used many techniques – one of which was to stop the camera rolling, change something in the scene, and then continue rolling the film. This is a very similar idea to that of <!--del_lnk--> stop motion animation. Meleises accidentally happened upon the technique when his camera broke down while shooting a bus driving by. When the camera was fixed, a horse happened to be passing by just as Méliès continued to film. The result was that the bus appeared to change into a horse.<p><!--del_lnk--> Émile Cohl began drawing cartoon strips and created a film in 1908 called Fantasmagorie. The film was largely comprised of a stick figure moving about and encountering all manner of morphing objects, such as a wine bottle that transforms into a flower. There were also sections of live action where the animator’s hands would enter the scene. The film was created by drawing each frame on paper and then shooting each frame onto <!--del_lnk--> negative film, which gave the picture a blackboard look.<p><!--del_lnk--> Winsor McCay created detailed animations that required a team of artists and painstaking attention for detail. Each frame was drawn on paper, requiring backgrounds to be redrawn, as well characters to be animated. His films such as <!--del_lnk--> Gertie the Dinosaur (1914) and <!--del_lnk--> The Sinking of the Lusitania (1918) were of an impressive scale, althought The Sinking of the Lusitania used cels.<p>In 1919 <!--del_lnk--> Otto Messmer created the character of <!--del_lnk--> Felix the cat for <!--del_lnk--> Pat Sullivan's animation studios. The importance of Felix lies in the character's strong personality, created largely through gesture and actions.<p><a id="Animation_techniques" name="Animation_techniques"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Animation techniques</span></h2>
<p>Animation techniques are incredibly varied and difficult to categorize. Techniques are often related or combined. The following is a brief on common types of animation. Again, this list is by no means comprehensive.<p><a id="Traditional_animation" name="Traditional_animation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Traditional animation</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/269.gif.htm" title="An example of traditional animation, a horse animated by rotoscoping from Edweard Muybridge's 19th century photos."><img alt="An example of traditional animation, a horse animated by rotoscoping from Edweard Muybridge's 19th century photos." height="112" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Animhorse.gif" src="../../images/2/269.gif" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/269.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An example of traditional animation, a horse animated by <!--del_lnk--> rotoscoping from <!--del_lnk--> Edweard Muybridge's 19th century photos.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Also called <b>cel animation</b>, the frames of a traditionally animated movie are hand-drawn. The drawings are traced or copied onto transparent plastic sheets called <!--del_lnk--> cels, which are then placed over a painted background and photographed one by one on a <!--del_lnk--> rostrum camera. Nowadays, the use of cels (and cameras) is mostly obsolete, since the drawings are scanned into computers, and digitally transferred directly to <!--del_lnk--> 35 mm film. The "look" of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the <!--del_lnk--> character animator's work has remained essentially the same over the past 70 years. Because of the digital influence over modern cel animation, it is also known as tradigital animation.<br /> Examples: <i><a href="../../wp/t/The_Lion_King.htm" title="The Lion King">The Lion King</a></i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Spirited Away</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Les Triplettes de Belleville</i><dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Full animation</b><dd>The most common style in animation, known for its realistic and often very detailed art.<dd>Examples: All Disney feature length animated films, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Secret of NIMH</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Iron Giant</i></dl>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Limited animation</b><dd>A cheaper process of making <!--del_lnk--> animated cartoons that does not follow a "realistic" approach.<dd>Examples: <i><!--del_lnk--> The Flintstones</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Yellow Submarine</i></dl>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Rubber hose</b><dd>The characters are usually cartoony, and the animators have a lot of artistic freedom as rubber hose animation dont have to follow the laws of physics and anatomy in the same degree as the other main styles in animation.<dd>Examples: Early <!--del_lnk--> Mickey Mouse cartoons, <i><!--del_lnk--> Ren and Stimpy</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Popeye</i></dl>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Rotoscoping</b><dd>A technique where <!--del_lnk--> animators trace live action movement, <!--del_lnk--> frame by frame, for use in <!--del_lnk--> animated films.<dd>Examples: <i><!--del_lnk--> Gulliver's Travels</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> A Scanner Darkly</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> American Pop</i></dl>
<p><a id="Stop_motion" name="Stop_motion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Stop motion</span></h3>
<p>This is any type of animation which requires the animator to alter the scene, shoot frame, alter the scene and shoot a frame and so on, to create the animation.<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Cutout animation</b><dd>This is a type of stop motion animation. Here the figures are comprised of several 2-dimensional pieces which are moved individually, frame by frame, to create movement.<br />
<dd>Examples: the animated sequences of <i><!--del_lnk--> Monty Python's Flying Circus</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Tale of Tales</i></dl>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Silhouette animation</b><dd>A type of cutout animation where the viewer only sees black silhouettes. The world's oldest surviving animated feature film (<i><!--del_lnk--> The Adventures of Prince Achmed</i>, <!--del_lnk--> 1926) used this method.</dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Graphic animation</b></dl>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Puppet animation</b><dd>Again a type of stop motion animation. Here figures are puppets, generally with an <!--del_lnk--> armature inside of them to keep them still and steady as well as allow them to move at particular joints. The puppets are moved frame by frame, much like in cutout animation.<br />
<dd>Examples: <i><!--del_lnk--> The Nightmare Before Christmas</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Robot Chicken</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Tale of the Fox</i></dl>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Brickfilm</b></dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Model animation</b></dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Go motion</b></dl>
</dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Clay animation</b></dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/270.jpg.htm" title="A clay animation scene from a TV commercial."><img alt="A clay animation scene from a TV commercial." height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Claychick.jpg" src="../../images/2/270.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/270.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A clay animation scene from a TV commercial.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>Often abbreviated to claymation, this is also a type of stop-motion animation. The difference of course being that the figures are made of clay or a similar malleable material. The figures often have an <!--del_lnk--> armature inside of them, effectively making it a type of puppet animation. However, this is not always the case, notably in the films of <!--del_lnk--> Bruce Bickford where clay creatures continuosly morph into a variety of different shapes.<dd>Examples: <i><!--del_lnk--> Creature Comforts</i>, <i>Dimensions of Dialogue</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Jan Švankmajer, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Amazing Mr. Bickford</i></dl>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Object animation</b></dl>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Pixilation</b></dl>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Puppetoon</b></dl>
<p><a id="Computer_animation" name="Computer_animation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Computer animation</span></h3>
<p>Like stop motion, this encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying idea being that the animation is created digitally on a computer.<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> 3D animation</b></dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/271.png.htm" title="A completely synthetic, computer-generated scene."><img alt="A completely synthetic, computer-generated scene." height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Glasses_800_edit.png" src="../../images/2/271.png" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/271.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A completely synthetic, <!--del_lnk--> computer-generated scene.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>Figures are created in the computer using <!--del_lnk--> polygons. To allow these meshes to move they are given a digital <!--del_lnk--> armature. This process is called rigging. Various other techniques can be applied, such a simulated fur or hair, effects such as fire and water and the use of <!--del_lnk--> motion capture to name but a few.<br />
<dd>Examples: <i><!--del_lnk--> The Incredibles</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Shrek</i></dl>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Cel-shaded animation</b></dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Morph target animation</b></dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Motion capture</b></dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Analog computer animation</b></dl>
<dl>
<dd><b><!--del_lnk--> Flash animation</b></dl>
<p><a id="Less_common_techniques" name="Less_common_techniques"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Less common techniques</span></h3>
<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Drawn on film animation</b><br /> A technique where footage is produced by creating the images directly on <!--del_lnk--> film stock.<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Paint-on-glass animation</b><br /> A technique for making animated films by manipulating slow-drying <!--del_lnk--> oil paints on sheets of <a href="../../wp/g/Glass.htm" title="Glass">glass</a>.<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Pinscreen animation</b><br /> Makes use of a screen filled with movable pins, which can be moved in or out by pressing an object onto the screen. The screen is lit from the side so that the pins cast shadows. The technique has been used to create animated films with a range of textural effects difficult to achieve with traditional cel animation.<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Sand animation</b><br /> Sand is moved around on a backlighted piece of glass to create each frame for an animated film.<p><a id="Combining_techniques" name="Combining_techniques"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Combining techniques</span></h3>
<p>As mentioned, techniques are often combined for either creative or economic reasons. <i><!--del_lnk--> The Mysterious Geographic Explorations of Jasper Morello</i> is a cutout animated film, but is created on a computer. <i><!--del_lnk--> South Park</i> has gone from being composed of paper cutouts, to being created of cutouts created in the computer. <i><!--del_lnk--> The Iron Giant</i>, meanwhile, was completely cel animated with the exception of its title character, who was created in 3D and <!--del_lnk--> cel shaded.<p><a id="Other_techniques_and_approaches" name="Other_techniques_and_approaches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other techniques and approaches</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Character animation<li><!--del_lnk--> Chuckimation<li><!--del_lnk--> Multi-sketching<li><!--del_lnk--> Onion skinning<li><!--del_lnk--> PowerPoint animation<li><!--del_lnk--> Skeletal animation<li><!--del_lnk--> Special effects animation<li><!--del_lnk--> Windows Movie Maker Animation</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animation"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Motion (physics)', 'The Lion King', 'Glass'] |
Ankylosaurus | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Ankylosaurus,1964 New York World's Fair,1980s,1990s,Alberta,American Museum of Natural History,Ancient Greek,Angiosperm,Anguirus,Animal,Ankylosauria" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Ankylosaurus</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Ankylosaurus";
var wgTitle = "Ankylosaurus";
var wgArticleId = 983374;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Ankylosaurus">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Ankylosaurus</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Dinosaurs.htm">Dinosaurs</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><i><b>Ankylosaurus</b></i><br />
<center><small>Fossil range: <!--del_lnk--> Late Cretaceous</small></center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/2/272.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="106" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ankylosaurus_dinosaur.png" src="../../images/2/272.png" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center">
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chordata<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Reptile.htm" title="Sauropsida">Sauropsida</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Superorder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dinosauria<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/o/Ornithischia.htm" title="Ornithischia">Ornithischia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Suborder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thyreophora<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Infraorder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ankylosauria<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ankylosauridae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Ankylosaurus</b></i><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>A. magniventris</b></i></span><br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><i><b>Ankylosaurus magniventris</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Brown, 1908</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><i><b>Ankylosaurus</b></i> (<!--del_lnk--> pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/æŋˈkɪloʊˌsɔɹəs/</span> or <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/æŋˈkaɪloʊˌsɔɹəs/</span>, meaning 'stiffened lizard') is a <!--del_lnk--> genus of <!--del_lnk--> ankylosaurid <a href="../../wp/d/Dinosaur.htm" title="Dinosaur">dinosaur</a>, containing one <!--del_lnk--> species, <i>A. magniventris</i>. <a href="../../wp/f/Fossil.htm" title="Fossil">Fossils</a> of <i>Ankylosaurus</i> are found in <!--del_lnk--> geologic formations dating to the very end of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cretaceous.htm" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> <!--del_lnk--> Period in western <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>.<p>Although a complete skeleton has not been discovered and several other species are represented by more extensive fossil material, <i>Ankylosaurus</i> is often considered the <!--del_lnk--> archetypal <!--del_lnk--> armored dinosaur. Other ankylosaurids shared its well-known features, like the heavily-armored body and massive bony tail club, but <i>Ankylosaurus</i> was the largest member of its family, approximately the size of a large <!--del_lnk--> rhinoceros.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Paleobiology" name="Paleobiology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Paleobiology</span></h2>
<p>A full-grown <i>Ankylosaurus</i> was a very large animal, compared to the majority of modern land animals. Some scientists have estimated a length of 9 meters (30 ft.). Another reconstruction suggests a significantly smaller size, at 6.25 m (20.5 ft) long, up to 1.5 m (5 ft) wide and about 1.7 m (67 in) high at the hip. The body shape was low-slung and very wide. <i>Ankylosaurus</i> was <!--del_lnk--> quadrupedal, with the hindlimbs longer than the forelimbs. Although its feet are still unknown to science, comparisons with other ankylosaurs suggest <i>Ankylosaurus</i> probably had five toes on each foot. The <!--del_lnk--> skull was low and triangular in shape, wider than it was long. The largest known skull measures 64.5 centimeters (25 in) long and 74.5 cm (29 in) wide. Like other ankylosaurs, <i>Ankylosaurus</i> was <a href="../../wp/h/Herbivore.htm" title="Herbivore">herbivorous</a>, with very small, leaf-shaped teeth suitable for cropping vegetation. <i>Ankylosaurus</i> did not share the grinding tooth batteries of the contemporaneous <!--del_lnk--> ceratopsid and <!--del_lnk--> hadrosaurid dinosaurs, indicating that very little chewing occurred. Bones in the skull and other parts of the body were fused to increase their strength.<p><a id="Armor" name="Armor"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Armor</span></h3>
<p>The most obvious feature of <i>Ankylosaurus</i> is its armor, consisting of massive knobs and plates of bone, known as <!--del_lnk--> osteoderms, embedded in the skin. Osteoderms are also found in the skin of <a href="../../wp/c/Crocodile.htm" title="Crocodile">crocodiles</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Armadillo.htm" title="Armadillo">armadillos</a> and some <!--del_lnk--> lizards. The bone was probably overlain by a tough, horny layer of <!--del_lnk--> keratin. These osteoderms ranged greatly in size, from wide, flat plates to small, round nodules. The plates were aligned in regular horizontal rows down the animal's neck, back, and hips, with the many smaller nodules protecting the areas between the large plates. Smaller plates may have been arranged on the limbs and tail. Compared to the slightly more ancient ankylosaurid <i><!--del_lnk--> Euoplocephalus</i>, the plates of <i>Ankylosaurus</i> were very smooth in texture, without the high keels found on the armor of the contemporaneous <!--del_lnk--> nodosaurid <i><!--del_lnk--> Edmontonia</i>. A row of flat, triangular spikes may have protruded laterally along each side of the tail. Tough, rounded scales protected the top of the skull, while four large <a href="../../wp/p/Pyramid.htm" title="Pyramid">pyramidal</a> horns projected outwards from its rear corners.<p><a id="Tail_club" name="Tail_club"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tail club</span></h3>
<p>The famous tail club of <i>Ankylosaurus</i> was also composed of several large osteoderms, which were fused to the last few tail <!--del_lnk--> vertebrae. It was very heavy and supported by the last seven tail vertebrae, which interlocked to form a stiff rod at the base of the club. Thick <!--del_lnk--> tendons have been preserved, which attached to these vertebrae. These tendons were partially ossified (or bony) and were not very elastic, allowing great force to be transmitted to the end of the tail when it was swung. It seems to have been an active defensive weapon, capable of producing enough of a devastating impact to break the bones of an assailant. It has also been proposed that the tail club acted as a decoy for the head, although this idea is now largely discredited.<p><a id="Environment" name="Environment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Environment</span></h3>
<p><i>Ankylosaurus magniventris</i> existed between 68 to 65 <!--del_lnk--> million years ago, in the latest <!--del_lnk--> Maastrichtian stage of the <!--del_lnk--> Late Cretaceous Period, and was one of the last dinosaurs to exist just prior to the <a href="../../wp/c/Cretaceous-Tertiary_extinction_event.htm" title="Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event">Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> type specimen is from the <!--del_lnk--> Hell Creek Formation of Montana, while other specimens have been found in the <!--del_lnk--> Lance Formation of <!--del_lnk--> Wyoming and the <!--del_lnk--> Scollard Formation in <!--del_lnk--> Alberta, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, all of which date to the very end of the Cretaceous.<p>The Lance, Hell Creek and Scollard Formations represent different sections of the western shore of the <!--del_lnk--> shallow sea that divided western and eastern North America during the Cretaceous. They represent a broad coastal plain, extending eastwards from the seaway to the newly-formed <a href="../../wp/r/Rocky_Mountains.htm" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a>. These formations are composed largely of <!--del_lnk--> sandstone and <!--del_lnk--> mudstone, which have been attributed to <!--del_lnk--> floodplain environments. The Hell Creek is the best studied of these ancient environments. At the time, this region was <!--del_lnk--> subtropical, with a warm and humid climate. Many plant species were supported, primarily <!--del_lnk--> angiosperms, with less common <!--del_lnk--> conifers, <a href="../../wp/f/Fern.htm" title="Fern">ferns</a> and <!--del_lnk--> cycads. An abundance of fossil leaves found at dozens of different sites indicates that the area was largely forested by small trees.<p>Fossils of <i>Ankylosaurus</i> are very rare in these sediments, compared to <i><!--del_lnk--> Edmontosaurus</i> and the super-abundant <i><a href="../../wp/t/Triceratops.htm" title="Triceratops">Triceratops</a></i>, which make up most of the large herbivore fauna. Another ankylosaur, <i>Edmontonia</i>, is also found in the same formations. However, <i>Ankylosaurus</i> and <i>Edmontonia</i> seem to have been separated both geographically and ecologically. <i>Ankylosaurus</i> had a wide muzzle, perhaps used for non-selective <!--del_lnk--> grazing and may have been limited to the upland regions, away from the coast, while <i>Edmontonia</i> had a narrower muzzle, indicating a more selective diet and seems to have lived at lower elevations, closer to the coast.<p><a id="Classification" name="Classification"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Classification</span></h2>
<p><i>Ankylosaurus</i> was named as the <!--del_lnk--> type genus of the family Ankylosauridae. Ankylosaurids are members of the larger taxon Ankylosauria, which also contains the <!--del_lnk--> nodosaurids. Ankylosaur phylogeny is a contentious topic, with several mutually exclusive analyses presented in recent years, so the exact position of <i>Ankylosaurus</i> within Ankylosauridae is unknown. <i>Ankylosaurus</i> and <i>Euoplocephalus</i> are often thought to be <!--del_lnk--> sister taxa. However, other analyses have found these genera in different positions. Further discoveries or research may clarify the situation.<p><a id="Discovery" name="Discovery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discovery</span></h2>
<p><i>Ankylosaurus</i> was named by <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <!--del_lnk--> paleontologist <!--del_lnk--> Barnum Brown, in 1908. The generic name is derived from the <!--del_lnk--> Greek words <i><b>αγκυλος</b></i>/<i><b>ankulos</b></i> ('curved') and <i><b>σαυρος</b></i>/<i><b>sauros</b></i> ('lizard'). Brown intended this name in the same sense as the medical term <!--del_lnk--> ankylosis, to refer to the stiffness produced by the fusion of many bones in the skull and body, so the name is often translated as 'stiffened lizard.' The <!--del_lnk--> type species is <i>A. magniventris</i>, from the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>magnus</i> ('great') and <i>venter</i> ('belly'), referring to the great width of the animal's body.<p>A team led by Brown discovered the type specimen of <i>A. magniventris</i> (<b>AMNH 5895</b>) in the Hell Creek Formation of Montana, in 1906. This consisted of the top of the skull, as well as vertebrae, ribs, part of the shoulder girdle and armor. Six years earlier, Brown found the skeleton of a large <!--del_lnk--> theropod dinosaur (<b>AMNH 5866</b>) in the Lance Formation of Wyoming. This specimen was named <i>Dynamosaurus imperiosus</i> in 1905 but is now thought to belong to <i><a href="../../wp/t/Tyrannosaurus.htm" title="Tyrannosaurus rex">Tyrannosaurus rex</a></i>. Associated with AMNH 5866 were more than 75 osteoderms of various sizes, which were attributed to <i>Dynamosaurus</i>. However, these osteoderms are nearly identical in form to those of <i>A. magniventris</i> and most probably belong to this species. In 1910, while on an expedition to Alberta, Barnum Brown recovered his third specimen of <i>A. magniventris</i> (<b>AMNH 5214</b>), from the Scollard Formation. AMNH 5214 includes a complete skull and the first known tail club, as well as ribs, limb bones and armor. All three of the above specimens are now housed at the <!--del_lnk--> American Museum of Natural History in <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a>. The largest known skull of this animal (<b>NMC 8880</b>) was collected in Alberta by <!--del_lnk--> Charles M. Sternberg, in 1947 and is now housed at the <!--del_lnk--> Canadian Museum of Nature. Many other isolated bones, armor plates and teeth have been found over the years.<p><a id="In_popular_culture" name="In_popular_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">In popular culture</span></h2>
<p>Since its description in 1908, <i>Ankylosaurus</i> has been publicized as the archetypal armored dinosaur, and due to its easily recognizable appearance and the intense public interest in dinosaurs, <i>Ankylosaurus</i> has been a feature of worldwide <a href="../../wp/p/Popular_culture.htm" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a> for many years. A life-sized reconstruction of <i>Ankylosaurus</i> featured at the <!--del_lnk--> 1964 World's Fair in New York City greatly contributed to its popularity.<p>Several <!--del_lnk--> motion picture series have featured ankylosaurs. Starting with <i><!--del_lnk--> Godzilla Raids Again</i> in 1955, several films in the <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> <!--del_lnk--> <i>Godzilla</i> series featured <!--del_lnk--> Anguirus, a gigantic creature similar in both name and appearance to <i>Ankylosaurus</i>. Anguirus begins as an enemy but later becomes a loyal ally to <!--del_lnk--> Godzilla. <i>Ankylosaurus</i> also has brief cameos in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Land Before Time</i> series throughout the late <!--del_lnk--> 1980s and <!--del_lnk--> 1990s, though never a large part. <i>Ankylosaurus</i> is one of several types of dinosaur shown grazing together in the 2001 film <i><!--del_lnk--> Jurassic Park III</i>. <i>Ankylosaurus</i> has also been featured on the <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">television</a> documentary miniseries <i><!--del_lnk--> Walking With Dinosaurs</i> (1999) and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Truth About Killer Dinosaurs</i> (2005), both produced by the <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a>.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankylosaurus"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Sauropsida', 'Ornithischia', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Dinosaur', 'Fossil', 'Cretaceous', 'North America', 'Herbivore', 'Crocodile', 'Armadillo', 'Pyramid', 'Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event', 'Canada', 'Rocky Mountains', 'Fern', 'Triceratops', 'United States', 'Latin', 'Tyrannosaurus rex', 'New York City', 'Popular culture', 'Japan', 'Television', 'BBC'] |
Ann_Arbor,_Michigan | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Ann Arbor, Michigan,Michigan,Michigan,1934,1965,1967,1969,1983,1986,1994,1997" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Ann Arbor, Michigan</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Ann_Arbor,_Michigan";
var wgTitle = "Ann Arbor, Michigan";
var wgArticleId = 2067;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Ann_Arbor_Michigan">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Ann Arbor, Michigan</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.North_American_Geography.htm">North American Geography</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="metadata topicon" id="featured-star" style="right:10px; display:none;">
<div style="position: relative; width: 14px; height: 14px; overflow: hidden">
<div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; font-size: 100px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 100px; z-index: 3"><!--del_lnk--> <span title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."> </span></div>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; z-index: 2"><a class="image" href="../../images/0/24.png.htm" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a featured article. Click here for more information." height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LinkFA-star.png" src="../../images/0/24.png" width="14" /></a></div>
</div>
</div>
<table class="infobox geography" style="width: 23em;">
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2" style="width:100%; font-size: 1.25em;"><b>Ann Arbor, Michigan</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 0.7em 0.8em 0.7em 0.8em;;">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/232/23244.jpg.htm" title="Skyline of Ann Arbor, Michigan"><img alt="Skyline of Ann Arbor, Michigan" height="95" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Annarborskyline.JPG" src="../../images/232/23244.jpg" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding: 0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
<table style="width: 100%; background: none; text-align: center;">
<tr>
<td style="vertical-align: middle;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Official seal of Ann Arbor, Michigan" height="99" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ann-Arbor-City-Seal.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="100" /></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Seal</b></small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td align="center" colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Nickname: "<i>A-squared, Ace Deuce, A-2</i>"</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 0.7em 0.8em 0.7em 0.8em;">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/232/23246.png.htm" title="Location of Ann Arbor within Washtenaw County, Michigan."><img alt="Location of Ann Arbor within Washtenaw County, Michigan." height="171" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AnnArbor_Washtenaw_clean.png" src="../../images/232/23246.png" width="250" /></a></span></div><small>Location of Ann Arbor within <!--del_lnk--> Washtenaw County, Michigan.</small></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: smaller; padding-bottom: 0.7em;">Coordinates: <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">42°16′31.26″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">83°43′51.02″W</span></span></th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Country</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> State</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Michigan</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> County</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Washtenaw</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Mayor</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> John Hieftje</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
<th> </th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - City</th>
<td>71.7 <!--del_lnk--> km² (27.7 <!--del_lnk--> sq mi)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - Land</th>
<td>70.0 km² (27.0 sq mi)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - Water</th>
<td>1.7 km² (0.7 sq mi)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Elevation</th>
<td>256 <!--del_lnk--> m (840 <!--del_lnk--> ft)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th>Population</th>
<th> </th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - City (2000)</th>
<td>114,024 (city proper)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</th>
<td>1,629.9/km² (4,221.1/sq mi)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> EST (<!--del_lnk--> UTC-5)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</span></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> EDT (<!--del_lnk--> UTC-4)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><b>Website:</b> <!--del_lnk--> www.ci.ann-arbor.mi.us</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Ann Arbor</b> is a city in the <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">U.S. state</a> of <!--del_lnk--> Michigan and the <!--del_lnk--> county seat of <!--del_lnk--> Washtenaw County. As of the <!--del_lnk--> 2000 census, the city had a total population of 114,024, of which 36,892 (32%) are college or graduate students. Supposedly named for the spouses of the city's founders and for the stands of trees in the area, Ann Arbor is best known as the location of the main campus of the <!--del_lnk--> University of Michigan, which moved there from <a href="../../wp/d/Detroit%252C_Michigan.htm" title="Detroit, Michigan">Detroit</a> in 1837.<p>The city's economy, which was once noted for production of agricultural implements, carriages, furniture, pianos and organs, pottery, and flour, is now dominated by <a href="../../wp/e/Education.htm" title="Education">education</a>, <!--del_lnk--> high-tech, and <a href="../../wp/b/Biotechnology.htm" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>. Average home prices and property taxes are well above the state and national medians. The city is also well known locally as a destination for dining out and entertainment, as it contains a wide and eclectic variety of restaurants and performance venues.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<table align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="margin: 0px 0px 1em 1em; clear:right;">
<tr>
<th align="center" bgcolor="#CCCCFF" colspan="3">Historical populations</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><b>Census</b></td>
<td align="center"><b>Pop.</b></td>
<td align="center">%±</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3">
<hr />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1860</td>
<td align="right">5,097</td>
<td align="right">
<center>—</center>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1870</td>
<td align="right">7,363</td>
<td align="right">44.5%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1880</td>
<td align="right">8,061</td>
<td align="right">9.5%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1890</td>
<td align="right">9,431</td>
<td align="right">7.0%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1900</td>
<td align="right">14,509</td>
<td align="right">53.8%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1910</td>
<td align="right">14,817</td>
<td align="right">2.1%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1920</td>
<td align="right">19,516</td>
<td align="right">31.7%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1930</td>
<td align="right">26,944</td>
<td align="right">38.1%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1940</td>
<td align="right">29,815</td>
<td align="right">10.7%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1950</td>
<td align="right">48,251</td>
<td align="right">61.8%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1960</td>
<td align="right">67,340</td>
<td align="right">39.6%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1970</td>
<td align="right">100,035</td>
<td align="right">48.6%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
<td align="right">107,969</td>
<td align="right">7.9%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 1990</td>
<td align="right">109,592</td>
<td align="right">1.5%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> 2000</td>
<td align="right">114,024</td>
<td align="right">4.0%</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Ann Arbor was founded in January 1824 by <!--del_lnk--> John Allen and <!--del_lnk--> Elisha Rumsey, both of whom were land speculators. There are various accounts concerning the origin of the settlement's name, but one states that Allen and Rumsey decided to name it "Ann'sarbour" for their spouses, both named Ann, and for the stands of <!--del_lnk--> burr oak in the 640 <!--del_lnk--> acres (260 <!--del_lnk--> ha) of land they had purchased for <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">$</a>800 from the federal government. The <!--del_lnk--> Native Americans of the region knew the settlement as <i>Kaw-goosh-kaw-nick</i>, after the sound of Allen's grist mill.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23247.jpg.htm" title="A view of Ann Arbor toward Liberty and State Streets, showing the Michigan Theater, the Borders bookstore #1, and several buildings of the University of Michigan"><img alt="A view of Ann Arbor toward Liberty and State Streets, showing the Michigan Theater, the Borders bookstore #1, and several buildings of the University of Michigan" height="158" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ann_Arbor_at_Liberty_Street.jpg" src="../../images/232/23247.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23247.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A view of Ann Arbor toward Liberty and State Streets, showing the <!--del_lnk--> Michigan Theatre, the <!--del_lnk--> Borders bookstore #1, and several buildings of the University of Michigan</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Ann Arbor later became the seat of Washtenaw County in 1827, and was incorporated as a village in 1833. The town set aside 40 acres (16 hectares) of undeveloped land and offered it to the State of Michigan as the site of the state capitol, but it lost the bid to <!--del_lnk--> Lansing in 1836. In 1837 the unused land was given to the <!--del_lnk--> University of Michigan, forever linking Ann Arbor and its history with the university. The town became a regional transportation hub in 1839 with the arrival of the <!--del_lnk--> Michigan Central Railroad. Ann Arbor was chartered as a city in 1851.<p>During <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Ford Motor Company's nearby <!--del_lnk--> Willow Run plant turned out <!--del_lnk--> B-24 Liberator bombers. The population of Ann Arbor exploded with an influx of military personnel, war workers, and their families.<p>The city gained a reputation as an important centre for liberal politics over the course of the 1960s and 1970s. Presidential candidate <a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy.htm" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> unveiled his <!--del_lnk--> Peace Corps proposal in 1960 at the University of Michigan, and there in 1964 President <a href="../../wp/l/Lyndon_B._Johnson.htm" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> first called for a "<!--del_lnk--> Great Society." The city also became a locus for <!--del_lnk--> left-wing activism, serving as a hub for the <!--del_lnk--> civil-rights movement and <!--del_lnk--> anti-Vietnam War movement, as well as the student movement. The first major meetings of the national left-wing campus group <!--del_lnk--> Students for a Democratic Society took place in Ann Arbor in 1960, and in 1965 the city was home to the first U.S. <!--del_lnk--> teach-in against the <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_War.htm" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>. Over the course of the ensuing fifteen years, a plethora of <!--del_lnk--> countercultural and <!--del_lnk--> New Left enterprises sprang up and developed strong constituencies within the city.<p>These influences washed into municipal politics during the early and mid-1970s when three members of the local, progressive <!--del_lnk--> Human Rights Party (HRP) won city-council seats on the strength of the student vote. During their time on the council, HRP representatives successfully fought for measures ranging from pioneering <a href="../../wp/c/Civil_rights.htm" title="Civil rights">antidiscrimination</a> ordinances to <!--del_lnk--> measures decriminalizing marijuana possession to a <!--del_lnk--> rent-control ordinance – many of which remain in effect in modified form today.<p>Alongside these liberal and left-wing efforts, a small handful of conservative institutions were also born in Ann Arbor. These include <!--del_lnk--> Word of God (established in 1967), a charismatic inter-denominational movement of national scope; and the <!--del_lnk--> Thomas More Law Centre (established in 1999), a leading religious-conservative advocacy group.<p>The economy of Ann Arbor underwent a gradual shift from a manufacturing base to a service and technology base over the course of the 20th century, a shift which accelerated in the 1970s and 1980s. At the same time, the downtown has transformed from one dominated primarily by retail establishments dealing in staple goods to one comprised mainly of eateries, cafés, bars and clubs, and specialty shops.<p>Over the past several decades, the city has increasingly found itself grappling with the effects of sharply rising land values and <!--del_lnk--> gentrification, as well as <!--del_lnk--> urban sprawl stretching far into the outlying countryside. On <!--del_lnk--> November 2, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, voters approved a <!--del_lnk--> greenbelt plan under which the city government would buy development rights to pieces of land adjacent to Ann Arbor to preserve them from sprawling development. Since then, a vociferous local debate has hinged on whether, and how, to accommodate and guide development within city limits.<p><a id="Geography_and_climate" name="Geography_and_climate"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography and climate</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23248.jpg.htm" title="Ann Arbor's many trees are the result of a reforestation campaign in the early 20th century."><img alt="Ann Arbor's many trees are the result of a reforestation campaign in the early 20th century." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:NicholsArb.JPG" src="../../images/232/23248.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23248.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ann Arbor's many trees are the result of a reforestation campaign in the early 20th century.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>According to the <!--del_lnk--> United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 27.7 <!--del_lnk--> square miles (71.7 <!--del_lnk--> km²); 27.0 square miles (70.0 km²) of it is land and 0.7 square miles (1.7 km²) or 2.42% of it is water, much of which is part of the <!--del_lnk--> Huron River. Ann Arbor is approximately 40 <!--del_lnk--> miles (64 <!--del_lnk--> km) west of <!--del_lnk--> Detroit, a 45-minute car ride on <!--del_lnk--> I-94. <!--del_lnk--> Ann Arbor Charter Township is adjacent, on the city's north and east sides.<p>Ann Arbor is situated on the <!--del_lnk--> Huron River, in a productive agricultural and fruit-growing region. The landscape of Ann Arbor consists of rolling hills and <!--del_lnk--> valleys, with the terrain becoming steeper near the Huron River. The elevation ranges from about 750 <!--del_lnk--> feet (230 <!--del_lnk--> m) along the Huron River to about 900 feet (275 m) above sea level in southern and northeastern Ann Arbor. The elevation is about 839 feet (256 m) at Ann Arbor Municipal Airport, which is located at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 42°13.38′N 83°44.74′W</span>.<p><a id="Cityscape" name="Cityscape"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cityscape</span></h3>
<p>Ann Arbor's "Tree Town" moniker stems from the dense forestation of its parks and residential areas. The city holds almost as many trees as residents, with more than 50,000 trees sited along city streets and an equal number in city parks. In recent years, the <!--del_lnk--> emerald ash borer has destroyed many of the city's approximately 10,500 <!--del_lnk--> ash trees.<p>The city contains 147 municipal parks, ranging from neighbourhood vest-pocket parks to large recreation areas, with several large city parks and a university park bordering sections of the Huron River. The largest are Argo Park, Riverside Park, County Farm Park, and Gallup Park (near the Huron Parkway), while Fuller Recreation Area, near the <!--del_lnk--> University Hospital complex, contains sports fields, pedestrian and <!--del_lnk--> bike paths, and swimming pools. <!--del_lnk--> Nichols Arboretum, which is jointly owned by the City of Ann Arbor and the <!--del_lnk--> University of Michigan (and known locally as "The Arboretum" or just "The Arb"), is a 123-acre (50 hectare) preserve containing hundreds of plant and tree species on the east side of the city near downtown.<p>The Kerrytown Shops, Main Street Business District, the State Street Business District, and the South University Business District are commercial areas in downtown. Three commercial areas south of downtown include the areas near <!--del_lnk--> I-94 and Ann Arbor-Saline Road, Briarwood Mall, and the South Industrial area. Other commercial areas include the Arborland/Washtenaw Avenue and Packard Road merchants on the east side, the Plymouth Road area in the northeast, and the Westgate/West Stadium areas on the west side. The downtown contains a mix of 19th and early 20th-century structures and modern-style buildings, as well as a <!--del_lnk--> farmers' market in the Kerrytown district. The city's commercial districts are mostly comprised of two to four-story structures, although the downtown and the area near Briarwood Mall contain a small number of high-rise buildings.<p>Ann Arbor's residential neighborhoods contain a range of architectural styles, from classic 19th and early 20th-century designs to <!--del_lnk--> ranch-style houses. More contemporary-style houses are located farther from the downtown district. Surrounding the University of Michigan campus are houses and apartment complexes occupied primarily by student renters. The 19th-century buildings and streetscape of the Old West Side neighbourhood have been preserved virtually intact; in 1972, the district was listed on the <!--del_lnk--> National Register of Historic Places, and it is further protected via city ordinances and a nonprofit preservation group.<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h3>
<p>Ann Arbor has a typically <!--del_lnk--> Midwestern <a href="../../wp/t/Temperate.htm" title="Temperate">temperate</a> seasonal climate, which is influenced by the <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Lakes.htm" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a>. There are four seasons, with winters being cold with moderate <!--del_lnk--> snowfall while summers can be warm and humid. The area does experience <!--del_lnk--> lake effect, primarily in the form of increased cloudiness during late fall and early winter. The highest average temperature is in July at 83 °<!--del_lnk--> F (28 °<!--del_lnk--> C) while the lowest average temperature is in January at 16 °F (−9 °C). However, summer temperatures can top 90 °F (32 °C), and winter temperatures can drop below 0 °F (−17 °C). Average monthly precipitation ranges from 2 to 4 <!--del_lnk--> inches (44 to 92 <!--del_lnk--> mm), with the heaviest occurring during the summer months. Snowfall, which normally occurs from November to April, ranges from 1 to 10 inches (3 to 25 <!--del_lnk--> cm) per month. The highest recorded temperature was 105 °F (40.6 °C) on <!--del_lnk--> July 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1934, while the lowest recorded temperature was −22.0 °F (−30 °C) on <!--del_lnk--> January 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1994.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23249.jpg.htm" title="South University Avenue caters to young people."><img alt="South University Avenue caters to young people." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SouthU.jpg" src="../../images/232/23249.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23249.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> South University Avenue caters to young people.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>As of the <!--del_lnk--> census<!--del_lnk--> ² of 2000, there were 114,024 people, 45,693 households, and 21,704 families residing in the city. The <!--del_lnk--> population density was 4,221.1 people per square mile (1,629.9/km²). There were 47,218 housing units at an average density of 1,748.0 per square mile (675.0/km²), making it less dense than inner-ring <a href="../../wp/d/Detroit%252C_Michigan.htm" title="Detroit, Michigan">Detroit</a> suburbs (and <!--del_lnk--> Detroit proper itself) like <!--del_lnk--> Oak Park and <!--del_lnk--> Ferndale, but denser than outer-ring suburbs like <!--del_lnk--> Livonia. The racial makeup of the city was 74.68% <!--del_lnk--> White, 8.83% <!--del_lnk--> Black or <!--del_lnk--> African American, 0.29% <!--del_lnk--> Native American, 11.90% <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asian</a>, 0.04% <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Islander, 1.21% from <!--del_lnk--> other races, and 3.05% from two or more races. 3.34% of the population were <!--del_lnk--> Hispanic American or <!--del_lnk--> Latino of any race. Because of the pull of the university, the city has one of the highest foreign-born population percentages in the state sitting at 16.6%.<p>There were 45,693 households out of which 23.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.8% were <!--del_lnk--> married couples living together, 7.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 52.5% are nonfamilies. 35.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.90.<p>In the city the population was spread out with 16.8% under the age of 18, 26.8% from 18 to 24, 31.2% from 25 to 44, 17.3% from 45 to 64, and 7.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females there were 97.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.4 males.<p>The median income for a household in the city was $46,299, and the median income for a family was $71,293. Males had a median income of $48,880 versus $36,561 for females. The <!--del_lnk--> per capita income for the city was $26,419. About 4.6% of families and 16.6% of the population were below the <!--del_lnk--> poverty line, including 7.3% of those under age 18 and 5.1% of those age 65 or over.<p>Ann Arbor's crime rate is below the national average. Compared with that average, the violent crime rate is much lower than the property crime rate: 50% and 26% less than the national average, respectively.<table class="infobox" style="width:100%; font-size:95%; text-align:left;">
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background-color: #e0e0e0; text-align:center;">Violent and property crime statistics</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><a class="image" href="../../images/232/23250.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="213" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ann_Arbor_Violent_Crime_%28by_type%29%2C_2004.svg" src="../../images/232/23250.png" width="200" /></a> <a class="image" href="../../images/232/23251.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="207" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ann_Arbor_Property_Crime_%28by_type%29%2C_2004.svg" src="../../images/232/23251.png" width="200" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background-color: #e0e0e0; text-align:center;">Comparison with national averages</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><a class="image" href="../../images/232/23252.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="134" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ann_Arbor_Crime_Statistics%2C_2004.svg" src="../../images/232/23252.png" width="200" /></a> <a class="image" href="../../images/232/23253.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ann_Arbor_Violent_Crime_Statistics%2C_2004.svg" src="../../images/232/23253.png" width="200" /></a> <a class="image" href="../../images/232/23254.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="134" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ann_Arbor_Property_Crime_Statistics%2C_2004.svg" src="../../images/232/23254.png" width="200" /></a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Law_and_government" name="Law_and_government"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Law and government</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23255.jpg.htm" title="The Guy C. Larcom, Jr. Municipal Building houses the city hall and police station"><img alt="The Guy C. Larcom, Jr. Municipal Building houses the city hall and police station" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AACityHall.JPG" src="../../images/232/23255.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23255.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Guy C. Larcom, Jr. Municipal Building houses the city hall and police station</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Ann Arbor has a <!--del_lnk--> mayor-<!--del_lnk--> council form of government. The mayor, who is elected every even-numbered year, is the presiding officer of the City Council and has the power to appoint all Council committee members as well as board and commission members, with the approval of the City Council. The City Council has ten members, two from each of the city's five wards, with the mayor wielding the tie-breaking vote. Council members serve two-year terms, with half the council elected in annual elections.<p>Ann Arbor is located in the 15th Congressional district, and is represented by Representative <!--del_lnk--> John Dingell (<!--del_lnk--> D), the longest-serving member of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_House_of_Representatives.htm" title="United States House of Representatives">U.S. House</a>. On the state level, the city is in the 18th district in the <!--del_lnk--> Michigan Senate. In the <!--del_lnk--> Michigan State House of Representatives, the city of Ann Arbor is in the 53rd district, while northeastern Ann Arbor and Ann Arbor Township are in the 52nd district. As the seat of <!--del_lnk--> Washtenaw County, the city is the location of the county's trial, civil, and criminal courts. Ann Arbor is also the site of a <!--del_lnk--> United States district court, whose downtown building also houses a <!--del_lnk--> post office.<p><!--del_lnk--> Left-wing politics have been particularly strong in municipal government since the 1960s – an orientation evident in the passage of <!--del_lnk--> rent-control and strong <a href="../../wp/c/Civil_rights.htm" title="Civil rights">antidiscrimination</a> ordinances, as well as voter-approved charter amendments that have <!--del_lnk--> lessened the penalties for possession of marijuana (1974) and that aim to protect access to <!--del_lnk--> abortion in the city should it ever become illegal in the State of Michigan (1990). In 1974, <!--del_lnk--> Kathy Kozachenko's victory in an Ann Arbor city-council race made her the country's first openly <!--del_lnk--> gay or <!--del_lnk--> lesbian candidate to win public office. In 1975, Ann Arbor became the first U.S. city to use <!--del_lnk--> instant-runoff voting for a mayoral race. Adopted through a ballot initiative sponsored by the local <!--del_lnk--> Human Rights Party, which feared a splintering of the left/liberal vote, the process was repealed in 1976 after use in only one election. As of February 2006, <!--del_lnk--> Democrats hold the mayorship and all ten council seats. The city is often considered to be the most liberal area of Michigan.<p><a id="Sister_cities" name="Sister_cities"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sister cities</span></h3>
<p>Ann Arbor has seven sister cities around the world:<ul>
<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> - <!--del_lnk--> Tübingen, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, since <!--del_lnk--> 1965<li><a class="image" href="../../images/81/8171.png.htm" title="Belize"><img alt="Belize" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Belize.svg" src="../../images/81/8171.png" width="22" /></a> - <!--del_lnk--> Belize City, <a href="../../wp/b/Belize.htm" title="Belize">Belize</a>, since <!--del_lnk--> 1967<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/586.png.htm" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Japan_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/586.png" width="22" /></a> - <!--del_lnk--> Hikone, <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, since <!--del_lnk--> 1969<li><a class="image" href="../../images/187/18768.png.htm" title="Canada"><img alt="Canada" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Canada.svg" src="../../images/7/738.png" width="22" /></a> - <!--del_lnk--> Peterborough, <!--del_lnk--> Ontario since <!--del_lnk--> 1983<li><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2209.png.htm" title="Nicaragua"><img alt="Nicaragua" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg" src="../../images/22/2209.png" width="22" /></a> - <!--del_lnk--> Juigalpa, <a href="../../wp/n/Nicaragua.htm" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>, since <!--del_lnk--> 1986<li><a class="image" href="../../images/10/1045.png.htm" title="Senegal"><img alt="Senegal" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Senegal.svg" src="../../images/10/1045.png" width="22" /></a> - <a href="../../wp/d/Dakar.htm" title="Dakar">Dakar</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Senegal.htm" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, since <!--del_lnk--> 1997<li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/748.png.htm" title="Cuba"><img alt="Cuba" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Cuba.svg" src="../../images/7/748.png" width="22" /></a> - <!--del_lnk--> Remedios, <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, since <!--del_lnk--> 2003</ul>
<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<p>The University of Michigan shapes Ann Arbor's economy, both directly and indirectly. It employs about 30,000 workers, including about 7,500 in the medical centre. Other employers are drawn to the area by the university's research and development money, and by its graduates. <!--del_lnk--> High tech, health services and <a href="../../wp/b/Biotechnology.htm" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a> are other major components of the city's economy, with numerous medical offices, laboratories, and associated companies located within the city. Companies associated with the <!--del_lnk--> automobile industry, such as <!--del_lnk--> General Motors and <!--del_lnk--> Ford, also employ a large number of residents. Other major employers include <!--del_lnk--> Pfizer, <a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" title="Google">Google</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Borders Group, and <!--del_lnk--> Dominos.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23256.jpg.htm" title="Nickels Arcade interior, looking towards the east"><img alt="Nickels Arcade interior, looking towards the east" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:NicholsArcadeAnnArbor.jpg" src="../../images/232/23256.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23256.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Nickels Arcade interior, looking towards the east</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>A number of high-tech companies are located in the city. Ann Arbor Terminals was, during the 1980s, the manufacturer of a video-display terminal called the Ann Arbor Ambassador. Other high-tech companies in the area include Arbor Networks (provider of Internet traffic engineering and security systems), Arbortext (provider of XML-based publishing software), MediaSpan Media Software (provider of newspaper publishing software and ASP services), and <!--del_lnk--> ProQuest, which includes <!--del_lnk--> UMI.<p>Websites and online media companies located in the city include <!--del_lnk--> All Media Guide, <!--del_lnk--> Everything2, and the <!--del_lnk--> Weather Underground. Ann Arbor is also the site of the Michigan Information Technology Centre (MITC), whose offices also house <!--del_lnk--> Internet2 and the <!--del_lnk--> Merit Network, a nonprofit research and education computer network. On <!--del_lnk--> July 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, <a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" title="Google">Google</a> announced plans to open a 1000-employee Ann Arbor office for its <!--del_lnk--> AdWords program later in the year.<p><!--del_lnk--> Pfizer, the city's second largest employer, operates a large pharmaceutical research facility on the northeast side of town. The facility was previously operated by Warner-Lambert and, before that, Parke-Davis. The city is the home of other research and engineering centers, including those of <!--del_lnk--> General Dynamics and the <!--del_lnk--> National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Other research centers sited in the city are the <!--del_lnk--> Environmental Protection Agency's National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory and the <!--del_lnk--> Toyota Technical Centre.<p>Ann Arbor serves as the headquarters to several major companies. The original <!--del_lnk--> Borders Books was opened on Ann Arbor's State Street in 1971 by brothers Tom and Louis Borders, and began operating other outlets around the region beginning in 1985. The Borders chain is still based in the city, as is its flagship store (although not in its original location). Dogs are allowed inside the flagship store, and the cashiers have a stock of treats for such visitors. <!--del_lnk--> Domino's Pizza's headquarters are in Ann Arbor on Domino's Farms, a 271-acre (109 hectare) <a href="../../wp/f/Frank_Lloyd_Wright.htm" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a>-inspired complex in the northeastern portion of the city. Flint Ink Corp., another Ann Arbor-based company, was until recently the world's largest privately held ink manufacturer (in October 2005 it was acquired by Stuttgart-based XSYS Print Solutions). Another Ann Arbor-based company is <!--del_lnk--> Zingerman's Delicatessen, which serves sandwiches and Jewish foods, and has derived and developed a variety of businesses under different brand names.<p>Many <a href="../../wp/c/Cooperative.htm" title="Cooperatives">cooperative</a> enterprises were founded in the city during the 1960s and 1970s; among those that survive today are the <!--del_lnk--> People's Food Co-op and the <!--del_lnk--> Inter-Cooperative Council at the University of Michigan, a student-housing cooperative. The <!--del_lnk--> North American Students of Cooperation (NASCO) is an association of cooperatives, headquartered in Ann Arbor. There are also three <!--del_lnk--> cohousing communities (<!--del_lnk--> Sunward, <!--del_lnk--> Great Oak, <!--del_lnk--> Touchstone) located just outside the city limits to the west.<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23257.jpg.htm" title="Rackham School of Graduate Studies, University of Michigan"><img alt="Rackham School of Graduate Studies, University of Michigan" height="158" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Annarbor_um_law_library.jpg" src="../../images/232/23257.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23257.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Rackham School of Graduate Studies, University of Michigan</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> University of Michigan is the dominant institution of higher learning in Ann Arbor, providing the city with a distinctly <!--del_lnk--> college-town atmosphere. Much of the campus is adjacent to and intermixed with the city's downtown district. Because the campus and the city expanded side-by-side, there is often no firm divide between the two, with university buildings scattered through much of the city centre.<p>Other colleges and universities located in the city are <!--del_lnk--> Cleary University, a private business school; <!--del_lnk--> Concordia University, a Lutheran liberal-arts institution; and <!--del_lnk--> Washtenaw Community College. <!--del_lnk--> Ave Maria School of Law, a Catholic institution established by <!--del_lnk--> Domino's Pizza cofounder <!--del_lnk--> Tom Monaghan, opened in northeastern Ann Arbor in 2000. There were plans to establish <!--del_lnk--> Ave Maria University on land occupied by Domino's Farms. However, due to conflicts with local zoning authorities, the new campus is under construction near <!--del_lnk--> Naples, Florida.<p>The Ann Arbor Public School District – which enrolls a total of 16,885 students (2004/2005 September head count) – consists of twenty-one <!--del_lnk--> elementary schools, five <!--del_lnk--> middle schools, and five <!--del_lnk--> high schools (two traditional, <!--del_lnk--> Pioneer and <!--del_lnk--> Huron, as well as three alternative schools: <!--del_lnk--> Community High, Stone School, and Roberto Clemente). The district operates a K-8 open school program, Ann Arbor Open, out of the former Mack School. This program is open to all families who live anywhere in the district. Ann Arbor Public Schools also operates a preschool and family centre with programs starting as early as birth for at-risk infants and other programs for at-risk children before <!--del_lnk--> kindergarten. The district has constructed a new preschool centre to open in September 2006, with both free and tuition-based programs for all preschoolers in the district.<p>Due to overcrowding problems at the two traditional high schools, a third traditional high school is under construction. Originally slated to open for the fall of 2007, the school is now slated to open in September 2008.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23258.jpg.htm" title="Mural outside a restaurant on Liberty Street. Further down the street (right of image) is the Borders bookstore."><img alt="Mural outside a restaurant on Liberty Street. Further down the street (right of image) is the Borders bookstore." height="299" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AnnArborMural.jpg" src="../../images/232/23258.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23258.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Mural outside a restaurant on Liberty Street. Further down the street (right of image) is the Borders bookstore.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Ann Arbor has a number of cultural attractions and events, many sponsored by the University of Michigan. Numerous performing arts groups and facilities are located on the university's campus, as are museums dedicated to <a href="../../wp/a/Art.htm" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Archaeology.htm" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, and natural history and sciences (<i>see <!--del_lnk--> Museums at the University of Michigan</i>). The <!--del_lnk--> Matthaei Botanical Gardens, located on the northeastern edge of Ann Arbor, is operated by the university. Performing arts groups not associated with the university include the Ann Arbor Civic Theatre; the Arbor Opera Theatre; the <!--del_lnk--> Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra; the Ann Arbor Ballet Theatre; the Ann Arbor Civic Ballet (established in 1954), which was Michigan's first chartered ballet company; and Performance Network, which operates a downtown theatre frequently offering new or nontraditional plays.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Ann Arbor Hands-On Museum, located in a renovated and expanded historic downtown fire station, contains more than 250 interactive exhibits featuring science and technology. <!--del_lnk--> Artrain, located on North Main Street, is a traveling art museum located on a train. A number of other art galleries exist in the city, notably in the downtown area and around the University of Michigan campus.<p>Near the State Street area are three major <!--del_lnk--> theaters: the State Theatre, the University of Michigan's <!--del_lnk--> Hill Auditorium, and the <!--del_lnk--> Michigan Theatre, a renovated 1920s movie palace that hosts live performances, independent films, and classic movies. It also serves as the home for the Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra In the Main Street area, the <!--del_lnk--> Ark hosts folk and acoustic music, while a number of smaller venues and <!--del_lnk--> nightclubs serve up jazz and other live music. The Main Street area, as well as South State Street and South University Avenue, is also the centre of a large restaurant scene in the city.<p>Among U.S. cities, Ann Arbor ranks first in the number of booksellers and books sold per capita. The Ann Arbor District Library has four branch outlets in addition to its main downtown building, and a fifth branch is set to open in 2008. The city is also home to the <!--del_lnk--> Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library.<p>Ann Arbor is known for college sports, notably at the University of Michigan, a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Big Ten Conference. Several well-known college sports facilities exist in the city, including <!--del_lnk--> Michigan Stadium(The Big House). Theoretically on college football game days, Ann Arbor can become Michigan's second most populous city (114,000 Ann Arbor residents plus the 110,000 seating capacity at Michigan Stadium). <!--del_lnk--> Crisler Arena and <!--del_lnk--> Yost Ice Arena play host to the school's basketball and ice hockey teams, respectively. <!--del_lnk--> Concordia University, a member of the <!--del_lnk--> NAIA, also fields sports teams.<p>A person from Ann Arbor is called an "Ann Arborite," and many long-time residents call themselves "townies." The city itself is often called <i>A²</i> ("A-squared") or <i>A2</i> ("A two"), and less commonly <i>Tree Town</i> (or, usually <!--del_lnk--> tongue-in-cheek, <i>The People's Republic of Ann Arbor</i>). Recently, some youth have taken to calling Ann Arbor <i>Ace Deuce</i> or simply <i>The Deuce</i>. Ann Arbor is also referred to as "28 square miles surrounded by reality" a phrase originally coined by Wisconsin Governor Lee Dreyfus to describe Madison, Wisconsin.<p><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h3>
<p>A number of annual events – many of them centered on performing and visual arts – draw visitors to Ann Arbor from around the state and the region. The Ann Arbor Folk Festival, an annual <!--del_lnk--> benefit concert held in late January for the <!--del_lnk--> Ark, features many folk musicians. The <!--del_lnk--> Ann Arbor Film Festival is held for six days in March at the <!--del_lnk--> Michigan Theatre. EdgeFest is a multi-venue festival of avant-garde and progressive jazz, held each autumn since 1997.<p>One unorthodox annual event is <!--del_lnk--> Hash Bash. Held on the first Saturday of April since 1971, the Hash Bash is an event in support of the reform of <!--del_lnk--> marijuana laws. It includes speeches, live music, street vending, and occasional <!--del_lnk--> civil disobedience. Another unorthodox event is the <!--del_lnk--> Naked Mile. Since 1986, it has featured students <!--del_lnk--> running naked through the streets in late April to celebrate the end of the winter semester. Originally police blocked off the streets to allow the run, but beginning in 2000, a crackdown by university and city police citing safety concerns has forced participants to adapt, with the event appearing in various reduced forms since.<p>Many large-scale events occur during the summer months. These include the Taste of Ann Arbor, a one-day event held during the first week of June in the downtown area; and the Ann Arbor Summer Festival, a three-and-a-half-week series of concerts, plays, and films typically held from mid-June through early July at the Power Centre and atop the adjacent parking structure, which is host to the free "Top of the Park" events. In <!--del_lnk--> 2006 the "Top of the Park" events were moved from the top of the Power Centre parking structure to a nearby courtyard near Rackham building due to construction.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Ann Arbor Art Fairs, a set of four concurrent juried fairs held on downtown streets, began in 1960. Scheduled on Wednesday through Saturday in the third week of July, the fairs draw upward of half a million visitors from across the nation. The oldest and most competitive of the four fairs is the Ann Arbor Street Art Fair.<p>Other summertime events include the Blues and Jazz Festival (established in 1969), which is usually held in mid-September at Gallup Park and also at various venues around town. The Dexter-Ann Arbor Run is a running race from <!--del_lnk--> Dexter to downtown Ann Arbor along the <!--del_lnk--> Huron River. In late August the Shopping Cart Race, an unofficial and somewhat underground competition, has been held since 1998 as part of the annual <!--del_lnk--> Seize the Week series of events, known through 2004 as "Punk Week".<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Infrastructure</span></h2>
<p><a id="Health_and_medicine" name="Health_and_medicine"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Health and medicine</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> University of Michigan Medical Centre, the preeminent health facility in the city, is considered one of the nation's best hospitals, taking the #11 slot in the 2005 <i><!--del_lnk--> U.S. News and World Report</i>. The University of Michigan Health System (UMHS) includes University Hospital, C.S. Mott Children's Hospital and Women's Hospital in its core complex. UMHS also operates out-patient clinics and facilities throughout the city. The area's other major medical centers include a large facility operated by the <!--del_lnk--> Department of Veterans Affairs in Ann Arbor and Saint Joseph Mercy Hospital in nearby <!--del_lnk--> Ypsilanti.<p><a id="Transportation" name="Transportation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Transportation</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23259.jpg.htm" title="An AATA bus, with the blue-roofed Blake Transit Center in the background."><img alt="An AATA bus, with the blue-roofed Blake Transit Center in the background." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AATA_Bus.JPG" src="../../images/232/23259.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23259.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An AATA bus, with the blue-roofed Blake Transit Centre in the background.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The city is belted by three <!--del_lnk--> highway-grade roadways: <!--del_lnk--> I-94 (which runs along the southern portion of the city), <!--del_lnk--> US 23 (which primarily runs along the eastern edge of Ann Arbor), and <!--del_lnk--> M-14 (which runs along the northern edge of the city).<p>The streets in downtown Ann Arbor conform to a grid pattern, though this pattern is less apparent in the surrounding areas. Several major roads branch out from the downtown district like spokes on a wheel to the highways surrounding the city. Some of the major surface arteries lead to the I-94/M-14 juncture in the west, US 23 in the east, and the city's southern areas. Also, a large network of <!--del_lnk--> bike paths crisscrosses the city.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Ann Arbor Transportation Authority (AATA), which brands itself as "The Ride," operates public <!--del_lnk--> bus services throughout Ann Arbor and nearby <!--del_lnk--> Ypsilanti. A separate free bus service operates within the University of Michigan campuses. Plans have been floated several times to operate a trolley service between downtown and Briarwood Mall along disused rail tracks, although these have not come to fruition as of 2005. A downtown bus depot served by <!--del_lnk--> Greyhound Lines provides out-of-town bus service, and is the city's only remaining example of the <!--del_lnk--> Streamline Moderne architectural style.<p><!--del_lnk--> Ann Arbor Municipal Airport is a small aircraft general aviation facility located south of <!--del_lnk--> I-94. <!--del_lnk--> Detroit Metropolitan Airport, the area's large international airport, is located about 28 miles (45 km) east of the city, in <!--del_lnk--> Romulus. Additionally, <!--del_lnk--> Willow Run Airport in nearby Ypsilanti serves freight, corporate, and general aviation clients.<p>The city was a major rail hub, notably for freight traffic between <!--del_lnk--> Toledo and ports north of <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago, Illinois</a>, from 1878 to 1982, though the <!--del_lnk--> Ann Arbor Railroad also sold 1.1 million passenger tickets in 1913 alone. The city was also served by the <!--del_lnk--> Michigan Central Railroad starting in 1837. Currently, <a href="../../wp/a/Amtrak.htm" title="Amtrak">Amtrak</a> provides service to Ann Arbor, operating its <!--del_lnk--> Wolverine three times daily in each direction between Chicago and <!--del_lnk--> Pontiac, via <a href="../../wp/d/Detroit%252C_Michigan.htm" title="Detroit, Michigan">Detroit</a>. Rail service is provided at the Ann Arbor Train Station; the present-day station neighbors the city's old Michigan Central Depot, which was renovated as a restaurant in 1969. There have been plans to build a <!--del_lnk--> commuter rail link between Ann Arbor and Detroit, with the U.S. federal government providing <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">$</a>100 million to enable its development.<p><a id="Utilities" name="Utilities"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Utilities</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:122px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23260.jpg.htm" title="One of 39 downtown fire hydrants painted by students. This hydrant's artist was in elementary school; others were in high school or college."><img alt="One of 39 downtown fire hydrants painted by students. This hydrant's artist was in elementary school; others were in high school or college." height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AnnArborHydrant.JPG" src="../../images/232/23260.jpg" width="120" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23260.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> One of 39 downtown <!--del_lnk--> fire hydrants painted by students. This hydrant's artist was in elementary school; others were in high school or college.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The city provides sewage disposal and water supply services, with water coming from the Huron River and groundwater sources. There are two <a href="../../wp/w/Water_purification.htm" title="Water purification">water-treatment</a> plants, one main and three outlying <a href="../../wp/d/Dam.htm" title="Dam">reservoirs</a>, four pump stations, and two <!--del_lnk--> elevated tanks. These facilities serve the city, which is divided into five water districts. Along with these facilities, the city's water department also operates four dams along the Huron River, two of which provide <!--del_lnk--> hydroelectric power. The city also offers waste management services, with recycling being handled by Recycle Ann Arbor. Other utilities are primarily provided by private entities. <!--del_lnk--> Electrical power and gas are provided by <!--del_lnk--> DTE Energy, <!--del_lnk--> Consumers Energy, and <!--del_lnk--> MichCon. <a href="../../wp/a/AT%2526T.htm" title="AT&T">AT&T</a>, the successor to Michigan Bell, <!--del_lnk--> Ameritech, and SBC Communications, is the primary wired telephone service provider for the area. Phone service is also available from various <!--del_lnk--> national wireless companies. Cable service is primarily provided by <!--del_lnk--> Comcast.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Arbor%2C_Michigan"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['United States', 'Time zone', 'U.S. state', 'Detroit, Michigan', 'Education', 'Biotechnology', 'United States dollar', 'World War II', 'John F. Kennedy', 'Lyndon B. Johnson', 'Vietnam War', 'Civil rights', 'Temperate', 'Great Lakes', 'Detroit, Michigan', 'Asia', 'United States House of Representatives', 'Civil rights', 'Germany', 'Belize', 'Japan', 'Nicaragua', 'Dakar', 'Senegal', 'Cuba', 'Biotechnology', 'Google', 'Google', 'Frank Lloyd Wright', 'Cooperatives', 'Art', 'Archaeology', 'Chicago', 'Amtrak', 'Detroit, Michigan', 'United States dollar', 'Water purification', 'Dam', 'AT&T'] |
Anna_Karenina | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" />
<meta content="Anna Karenina,1873,1877,1877 in literature,2004,2006,2007,Alexander Pushkin,Alla Tarasova,Ancient Greek,Anna Karenina (1935 film)" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Anna Karenina</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">/*<![CDATA[*/
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false;
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Anna_Karenina";
var wgTitle = "Anna Karenina";
var wgAction = "view";
var wgArticleId = "159941";
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserGroups = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
var wgBreakFrames = false;
var wgCurRevisionId = "130805801";
/*]]>*/</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Anna_Karenina">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Anna Karenina</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Novels.htm">Novels</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox" style="width: 20em; text-align: left">
<caption style="font-size: larger;"><span style="display:none;"><b>Title</b></span> <i><b>Anna Karenina</b></i></caption>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Classic UK Penguin edition cover" height="314" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LeoTolstoy_AnnaKarenina.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Author</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/Leo_Tolstoy.htm" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Original title</th>
<td>Анна Каренина</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Translator</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Constance Garnett initial</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/c/Country.htm" title="Country">Country</a></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" title="Language">Language</a></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><span style="white-space:nowrap">Genre(s)</span></th>
<td>Romance</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Publisher</th>
<td>Ruskii Vestnik</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Released</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1877</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Media type</th>
<td>Print (<!--del_lnk--> Serial)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> ISBN</th>
<td>NA</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><i><b>Anna Karenina</b></i> (<i>Анна Каренина</i>) is a <a href="../../wp/n/Novel.htm" title="Novel">novel</a> by the Russian writer <a href="../../wp/l/Leo_Tolstoy.htm" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>, published in serial installments from <!--del_lnk--> 1873 to <!--del_lnk--> 1877 in the periodical <i>Ruskii Vestnik</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Russian: <i>Русский Вестник</i>, "<i>Russian Messenger</i>"). Tolstoy clashed with its editor <!--del_lnk--> Mikhail Katkov over issues that arose in the final installment. Therefore, the novel's first complete appearance was in book form.<p>Widely regarded as a pinnacle in <!--del_lnk--> realist fiction, Tolstoy considered this book his first true novel. The character of Anna was likely inspired, in part, by Maria Hartung (1832–1919), the elder daughter of the Russian poet <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Pushkin. Soon after meeting her at dinner, Tolstoy started reading Pushkin's prose and once had a fleeting daydream of "a bare exquisite aristocratic elbow", which proved to be the first intimation of Anna's character.<p>Although most Russian critics panned the novel on its publication as a "trifling romance of high life", <a href="../../wp/f/Fyodor_Dostoevsky.htm" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a> declared it to be "flawless as a work of art". His opinion is seconded by <!--del_lnk--> Vladimir Nabokov, who especially admired "the flawless magic of Tolstoy's style" and the motif of the moving train, which is subtly introduced in the first chapters (the children playing with a toy train) and inexorably developed in subsequent chapters (Anna's nightmare), thus heralding the novel's majestic finale.<p>Anna Karenina is #1 in the Top Ten List of 125 authors' Top Ten books.<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script>
<p><a id="Plot_summary" name="Plot_summary"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Plot summary</span></h2>
<div class="notice spoiler" id="spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div>
<p>The novel is divided into eight parts. The novel begins with one of its most quoted lines, "Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way."<p>Part 1 introduces the character Prince Stepan Arkadyevitch Oblonsky, known as "Stiva", a civil servant who has been unfaithful to his wife Darya Alexandrovna, known as "Dolly". Stiva's affair shows an amorous personality which he cannot seem to suppress. Stiva summons his married sister, Anna Karenina, from <a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Petersburg.htm" title="St. Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a> to persuade Dolly not to leave him.<p>Upon arriving at <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, a railway worker accidentally falls in front of a train and is killed, which Anna declares to be an "evil omen". Meanwhile, Stiva's childhood friend Konstantin Dmitrievich Levin arrives in <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> to offer his hand in marriage to Dolly's younger sister Ekaterina Alexandrovna Shcherbatsky, known as "Kitty". The passionate, restless but shy aristocratic landowner lives on an estate which he manages. Kitty turns him down, expecting a marriage offer from army officer Count Alexei Kirillovich Vronsky. Despite his fondness for Kitty, Vronsky has no intention of marrying her. He soon falls in love with Anna after he meets her at the <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> train station and later dances the <!--del_lnk--> mazurka with her at a ball.<p>Anna, shaken by her response and animation to Vronsky, returns at once to St. Petersburg. Vronsky follows her on the same train. Levin returns to his estate farm, abandoning any hope of marriage, and Anna returns to her husband Alexei Alexandrovich Karenin, a senior government official, and their son Sergei ("Seriozha") in Petersburg.<div class="thumb tright">
</div>
<p>In part 2, Karenin scolds Anna for talking too much with Vronsky, but after a while she returns Vronsky's affections, and becomes pregnant with his child. Anna shows anguish when Vronsky falls from a racehorse, making her feelings obvious in society and prompting her to confess to her husband. This attraction appears repeatedly in the book through the form of a "What if" question. When Kitty learns that Vronsky prefers Anna over her, she turns ill. Two doctors examine her, and together they decide she should travel abroad to recover. She goes to a resort at a <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> <!--del_lnk--> spring to recover from the shock. There she briefly becomes extremely pious, but decides that she can't retain that level of piety without deceiving herself.<p>Part 3 examines Levin's life on his rural farming estate, a setting closely tied to Levin's spiritual thoughts and struggles. Throughout this part, Levin wrestles with the idea of falseness, wondering how he should go about ridding himself of it, and criticizing what he feels is falseness in others. Dolly also meets Levin, and attempts to revive his feelings for Kitty. Dolly seems to have failed, but a chance sighting of Kitty makes Levin realize he still loves her. Back in Petersburg, Karenin exasperates Anna by refusing to separate with her, and threatens not to let her see their son Seriozha ever again if she leaves or misbehaves, exactly what Vronsky asks her to do.<p>By part 4 however, Karenin finds the situation intolerable and begins seeking <!--del_lnk--> divorce. Anna's brother Stiva argues against it and persuades Karenin to speak with Dolly first. Again, Dolly seems to be unsuccessful, but Karenin changes his plans after hearing that Anna is dying in childbirth. At her bedside, Karenin forgives Vronsky, who in remorse attempts suicide. However, Anna recovers, having given birth to a daughter she names Anna ("Annie"). Stiva finds himself pleading on her behalf <i>for</i> Karenin to divorce. Vronsky at first plans to flee to <a href="../../wp/t/Tashkent.htm" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a>, but changes his mind after seeing Anna, and they leave for <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> without obtaining a divorce after all. Much more straightforward is Stiva's matchmaking with Levin: a meeting he arranges between Levin and Kitty results in their reconciliation and betrothal.<p>In part 5, Levin and Kitty marry. A few months later, Levin learns that his brother Nikolai is dying. The couple go to him, and Kitty nurses him until he dies, while also discovering she is pregnant. In Europe, Vronsky and Anna struggle to find friends who will accept them and pursue activities that will amuse them, but they eventually return to Russia. Karenin is comforted – and influenced – by the strong-willed Countess Lidia Ivanovna, an enthusiast of religious and mystic ideas fashionable with the upper classes, who counsels him to keep Seriozha away from Anna. However, Anna manages to visit Seriozha unannounced on his birthday, but is discovered by the furious Karenin, who had told their son that his mother was dead. Shortly afterward, she and Vronsky leave for the country.<p>In part 6, Dolly visits Anna. At Vronsky's request, she asks Anna to resume seeking a divorce from Karenin. Yet again, Dolly seems unsuccessful; but when Vronsky leaves for several days of provincial elections, a combination of boredom and suspicion convinces Anna she must marry Vronsky. So she writes to Karenin, and leaves with Vronsky for Moscow.<p>In part 7, the Levins are in Moscow for Kitty's benefit as she gives birth to a son. Stiva, while seeking Karenin's commendation for a new job, again asks him to grant Anna a divorce; but Karenin's decisions are now governed by a "clairvoyant" – recommended by Lidia Ivanovna – who apparently counsels him to decline. Anna and Vronsky become increasingly bitter towards each other. They plan to return to the country, but in a jealous rage Anna leaves early, and in a parallel to part 1, commits suicide by throwing herself in the path of a train. (Tolstoy reportedly was inspired to write <i>Anna Karenina</i> by reading a newspaper report of such a death.)<p>Part 8 continues the story after Anna's death. Stiva gets the job he wanted, and Karenin takes custody of Annie. Some Russian volunteers, including Vronsky, who does not plan to come back, leave to help in the <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbian</a> revolt that has just broken out against the <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turks</a> (<i>see also</i> <!--del_lnk--> History of Serbia, 1876). And in the joys and fears of fatherhood, Levin at last develops faith in the Christian God.<p><a id="Characters_in_.22Anna_Karenina.22" name="Characters_in_.22Anna_Karenina.22"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Characters in "Anna Karenina"</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Prince Stepan Arkadyevitch Oblonsky ("Stiva") – a civil servant<li>Darya Alexandrovna Oblonskaya ("Dolly") – Stepan's wife<li>Anna Arkadyevna Karenina – The eponymous "heroine", sister to Stepan and lover of Vronsky<li>Alexei Alexandrovich Karenin – Anna's husband<li>Konstantin Dmitrievitch Levin – Kitty's suitor and the novel's other protagonist<li>Nikolai Levin – Konstantin's brother<li>Ekaterina Alexandrovna Scherbatskaya ("Kitty") – Darya's younger sister<li>Count Alexei Kirillovich Vronsky – Lover of Anna<li>Countess Lidia Ivanovna – Interested in all things mystical</ul>
<p><a id="Style" name="Style"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Style</span></h2>
<p>Tolstoy's style in <i>Anna Karenina</i> is considered by many critics to be transitional, forming a bridge between the <!--del_lnk--> realist and <!--del_lnk--> modernist novel. The novel is narrated from a third-person-omniscient perspective, shifting between the perspectives of several major characters, though most frequently focusing on its dual protagonists (Anna and Levin). As such, each of the novel's eight sections contains internal variations in tone: it assumes a relaxed voice when following Stepan Oblonsky's thoughts and actions and a much more tense voice when describing Levin's social encounters. Much of the novel's seventh section depicts Anna's thoughts fluidly, following each one of her ruminations and associations with its immediate successor. This section, and, to a lesser degree, the rest of the novel, is one of the earliest examples of <!--del_lnk--> stream-of-consciousness literature. The <!--del_lnk--> stream-of-consciousness form would be utilized by such later authors as <a href="../../wp/j/James_Joyce.htm" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Virginia Woolf, and <!--del_lnk--> William Faulkner.<p>Also of significance is Tolstoy's interweaving of real and fictional events throughout his narrative. Characters in <i>Anna Karenina</i> debate significant sociopolitical issues affecting Russia in the latter half of the nineteenth century, such as the proper role of the serfs in society, education reform, and women's rights. Tolstoy's depiction of the characters in these debates, and of their arguments, allows him to anonymously communicate his own political beliefs to his audience. Characters often attend social functions that Tolstoy attended, and he includes in these passages his own observations of the ideologies, behaviors, and ideas running through contemporary Russia through the thoughts of Konstantin Levin. The broad array of situations and ideas depicted in <i>Anna Karenina</i> allows Tolstoy to present a treatise on his era's Russia, and, by virtue of its very breadth and depth, all of human society. This stylistic technique, as well as the novel's use of perspective, greatly contributes to the thematic structure of <i>Anna Karenina</i>.<p><a id="Major_themes" name="Major_themes"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Major themes</span></h2>
<div class="notice spoiler" id="spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div>
<p>The novel, set among the highest circles of Russian society, is generally thought by the casual reader to be nothing more than the story of a tragic romance. However, Tolstoy was both a moralist and severe critic of the excesses of his aristocratic peers, and <i>Anna Karenina</i> is often interpreted overall as a parable on the difficulty of being honest to oneself when the rest of society accepts falseness.<p>Anna is the jewel of <a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Petersburg.htm" title="Saint Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a> society until she leaves her husband for the handsome and charming military officer, Count Vronsky. By falling in love, they go beyond society's external conditions of trivial adulterous dalliances. But when Vronsky's love cools, Anna cannot bring herself to return to the husband she detests, even though he will not permit her to see their son until she does. Unable to return to a life she hates, she kills herself.<div class="thumb tright">
</div>
<p>A common way to interpret Anna's tragedy, then, is that she could neither be completely honest nor completely false, showing a <!--del_lnk--> Hamlet-like inner conflict that eventually drives her to suicide.<p>The novel also contains the parallel and contrasting love story of Konstantin Levin. Levin is a wealthy landowner from the provinces who could move in aristocratic circles, but who prefers to work on his estate in the country. Levin tries unsuccessfully to fit into high society when wooing the young Kitty Shcherbatsky in Moscow; he wins her only when he allows himself to be himself.<p>The joyous, honest and solid relationship of Levin and Kitty is continually contrasted in the novel with that of Anna and Vronsky, which is tainted by its uncertain status (marriage) resulting in constant upheaval, backbiting, and suspicion. So by the time Anna throws herself under a train at the end of the story, Tolstoy supposedly did not want readers to sympathize with her supposed mistreatment, but rather to recognize that it was her inability to truly commit to her own happiness or self-truth which led to her ignominious end.<p><i>Other Themes:</i><p><i>Anna Karenina</i> is filled with themes and imagery that illustrate Tolstoy's disdain of his aristocratic peers, and of a litany of human weaknesses.<p>Tolstoy skewers religious hypocrisy and insincerity in several characters, especially Karenin, Anna's husband, and the moralizing Countess Lydia Ivanovna. He also draws contrasts between the peace and wholesomeness of the country and the decadence of urban society. But one of the most prominent themes Tolstoy expounds upon in the novel is the relationship between love and honesty, both the different varieties of them as well as the different degrees to which they coexist, and the happiness that does or doesn't result.<p>In many ways, <i>Anna Karenina</i> was the most personal novel Tolstoy wrote up to that point. The character Levin is recognized as a stand-in for Tolstoy himself, whose first name in Russian is "Lev." He incorporated other details of his life into the character, such as Levin's insistence that Kitty read his journals before they marry, something Tolstoy made his own wife do. Thus scholars usually assume that Levin's thoughts reflect Tolstoy's own.<p>Embedded in the last section of the novel is an account of the skeptical Levin's conversion, amounting to a profound defense of orthodox Christianity, which is necessarily anti-intellectual because it explicitly rejects the ability of any rational analysis to adequately answer life's most important questions. Throughout the story, Levin has been searching for answers to these questions, and the marriage and birth of his infant son has accelerated this quest. A chance exchange with a peasant supplies an answer, centered on the human goodness and truth which he himself already possesses, and which is obvious to any observer yet impossible to define, measure, or even defend to his intellectual friends. It is this insight, Tolstoy writes, roughly paraphrased as "living for one's soul rather than living for one's self" that overturns his former disbelief and allows him to proceed to live in full faith of the Christian religion.<p><a id="Anna_Karenina_and_Tolstoy.27s_Confession" name="Anna_Karenina_and_Tolstoy.27s_Confession"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline"><i>Anna Karenina</i> and Tolstoy's <i>Confession</i></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/187/18708.jpg.htm" title="Alla Tarasova as Anna Karenina."><img alt="Alla Tarasova as Anna Karenina." class="thumbimage" height="335" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Allatarasova.jpg" src="../../images/187/18708.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/187/18708.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Alla Tarasova as Anna Karenina.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Many of the novel's themes can be found in Tolstoy's <i>Confession</i>, his first-person rumination about the nature of life and faith, written just two years after the publication of <i>Anna Karenina</i>.<p>He describes his real-life dissatisfaction with the hypocrisy of his class:<blockquote>
<p><i>Every time I tried to display my innermost desires – a wish to be morally good – I met with contempt and scorn, and as soon as I gave in to base desires I was praised and encouraged.</i></blockquote>
<p>Tolstoy also details the acceptability of adulterous "liaisons" in aristocratic Russian society:<blockquote>
<p><i>A dear old aunt of mine, the purest of creatures, with whom I lived, was always saying that she wished for nothing as much as that I would have a relationship with a married woman.</i> 'Rien ne forme un jeune homme comme une liaison avec une femme comme il faut.' <i>("Nothing forms a young man properly like an affair with a married woman.")</i></blockquote>
<p>Another theme in <i>Anna Karenina</i> is that the aristocratic habit of speaking in French instead of Russian is another form of society's falseness. There is even one passage that could possibly be interpreted as a sign of Anna's eventual redemption in Tolstoy's eyes:<blockquote>
<p><i>For in the end what are we, who are convinced that suicide is obligatory and yet cannot resolve to commit it, other than the weakest, the most inconsistent and, speaking frankly, the most stupid of people, making such a song and dance with our banalities?</i></blockquote>
<p>The <i>Confession</i> contains many other autobiographical insights into the themes of <i>Anna Karenina</i>. A <!--del_lnk--> public domain version of it is <!--del_lnk--> here.<div class="notice spoiler endspoiler" style="border-top: 2px solid #dddddd; border-bottom:2px solid #dddddd; text-align: justify; margin: 1em; padding: 0.2em;"><i><b>Spoilers end here.</b></i></div>
<p><a id="Film.2C_TV.2C_radio.2C_or_theatrical_adaptations" name="Film.2C_TV.2C_radio.2C_or_theatrical_adaptations"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Film, TV, radio, or theatrical adaptations</span></h2>
<p>Adaptations include:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> 1914: A Russian adaptation directed by <!--del_lnk--> Vladimir Gardin.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1915: An American version starring Danish actress <!--del_lnk--> Betty Nansen.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1927: An American version titled <i>Love</i>, starring <!--del_lnk--> Greta Garbo and directed by <!--del_lnk--> Edmund Goulding. This version featured significant changes from the novel and had two different endings, with a happy one for American audiences.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1935: The most famous and critically acclaimed version, starring <!--del_lnk--> Greta Garbo and <!--del_lnk--> Fredric March and directed by <!--del_lnk--> Clarence Brown.<li>1944: A radio adaptation on <!--del_lnk--> The Screen Guild Theatre starring <!--del_lnk--> Ingrid Bergman and <!--del_lnk--> Gregory Peck. Ingrid Bergman also did a <!--del_lnk--> Theatre Guild on the Air adaptation in 1948.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1948: Starring <a href="../../wp/v/Vivien_Leigh.htm" title="Vivien Leigh">Vivien Leigh</a> and directed by <!--del_lnk--> Julien Duvivier.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1953: A Russian version directed by <!--del_lnk--> Tatyana Lukashevich.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1961: A <!--del_lnk--> BBC Television adaptation directed by <!--del_lnk--> Rudolph Cartier, starring <a href="../../wp/s/Sean_Connery.htm" title="Sean Connery">Sean Connery</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Claire Bloom.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1967: A Russian version directed by <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Zarkhi.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1971: Ballet by <!--del_lnk--> Rodion Konstantinovich Shchedrin.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1977: A 10 part British TV miniseries directed by <!--del_lnk--> Basil Coleman.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1985: TV Movie starring <!--del_lnk--> Jacqueline Bisset and <!--del_lnk--> Christopher Reeve, directed by <!--del_lnk--> Simon Langton.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1992: An ill-fated Broadway musical adaptation.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1997: The first US version to be filmed on location in Russia, directed by <!--del_lnk--> Bernard Rose and starring <!--del_lnk--> Sophie Marceau and <!--del_lnk--> Sean Bean.<li>1997 A 4 part BBC radio production starring <!--del_lnk--> Toby Stephens<li><!--del_lnk--> 2000: A 4 part British TV adaptation directed by <!--del_lnk--> David Blair.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2005: A Russian <!--del_lnk--> mini-series by <!--del_lnk--> Sergei Solovyov .<li><!--del_lnk--> 2005: A Russian <!--del_lnk--> ballet in 2 acts choreoraphed by <!--del_lnk--> Boris Eifman.<li><!--del_lnk--> 2007: An American opera by David Carlson premiering April 2007 at <!--del_lnk--> Florida Grand Opera starring <!--del_lnk--> Kelly Kaduce as Anna.</ul>
<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Karenin's name is derived from the <!--del_lnk--> Ancient Greek word for "head", thus illustrating his pervasive rationality.<li>The novel became a best-seller in the United States in <!--del_lnk--> 2004 after a recommendation by TV personality <!--del_lnk--> Oprah Winfrey. (<!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-14-303500-2)<li>Anna Karenina also mentioned in <!--del_lnk--> R.L. Stine's <!--del_lnk--> Goosebumps series The Cuckoo Clock of Doom<li>In an <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesian</a> <!--del_lnk--> 2006 <!--del_lnk--> Horror film Hantu Jeruk Purut, there was a character named Anna Karenina<li>Milan Kundera makes multiple references to Anna Karenina in his novel <!--del_lnk--> The Unbearable Lightness of Being<li>"Anna Karenina" was used as a title for a <!--del_lnk--> Philippine TV show aired around 1996 until 2002, but its story is quite far off from <a href="../../wp/l/Leo_Tolstoy.htm" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>'s original novel.<li>Anna Karenina is mentioned by Klaus from the book "A Series of Unfortunate Events, <i>The Slippery Slope''</i>". He uses the main theme from Anna Karenina (Tragedy)as a password to open a locked door.<li>Anna Karenina is mentioned in the film adaptation of "The English Patient," as the plot also involves an adulterous wife.<li>In the short-story "Sleep" by <!--del_lnk--> Haruki Murakami, the main character, an insomniac housewife, spends much time reading through and considering "Anna Karenina".</ul>
<p><a id="Further_reading" name="Further_reading"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Karenina"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Leo Tolstoy', 'Country', 'Russia', 'Language', 'Russian language', 'Novel', 'Leo Tolstoy', 'Fyodor Dostoevsky', 'St. Petersburg', 'Moscow', 'Moscow', 'Moscow', 'Germany', 'Tashkent', 'Europe', 'Serbia', 'Turkey', 'James Joyce', 'Saint Petersburg', 'Vivien Leigh', 'Sean Connery', 'Indonesia', 'Leo Tolstoy'] |
Anne_Frank | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Anne Frank,1889,1900,1926,1929,1933,1942,1944,1945,1946,1955" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Anne Frank</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Anne_Frank";
var wgTitle = "Anne Frank";
var wgArticleId = 804581;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Anne_Frank">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Anne Frank</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Writers_and_critics.htm">Writers and critics</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="metadata topicon" id="featured-star" style="right:10px; display:none;">
<div style="position: relative; width: 14px; height: 14px; overflow: hidden">
<div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; font-size: 100px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 100px; z-index: 3"><!--del_lnk--> <span title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."> </span></div>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; z-index: 2"><a class="image" href="../../images/0/24.png.htm" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a featured article. Click here for more information." height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LinkFA-star.png" src="../../images/0/24.png" width="14" /></a></div>
</div>
</div>
<table class="infobox" style="width: 23em; font-size: 90%;">
<caption style="font-size: larger;"><b>Anne Frank</b></caption>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt=" " height="254" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Anne_Frank.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /><br /> Anne Frank</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Born:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> June 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1929<br /><a href="../../wp/f/Frankfurt.htm" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt am Main</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Died:</th>
<td>February or March, 1945<br /><!--del_lnk--> Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, <!--del_lnk--> Lower Saxony, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;"><a href="../../wp/e/Employment.htm" title="Employment">Occupation(s)</a>:</th>
<td>Posthumously published writer</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;"><a href="../../wp/n/Nationality.htm" title="Nationality">Nationality</a>:</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Annelies Marie "Anne" Frank</b> (<!--del_lnk--> June 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1929 – February/March, 1945) was a <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a>-born <!--del_lnk--> stateless <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jewish</a> girl who wrote a <!--del_lnk--> diary while in hiding with her family and four friends in <a href="../../wp/a/Amsterdam.htm" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> during the <!--del_lnk--> German occupation of the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> in <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Her family had moved to Amsterdam in 1933, after the <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazism">Nazis</a> gained power in Germany but were trapped when the Nazi occupation extended into The Netherlands. As persecutions against the Jewish population increased, the family went into hiding in July 1942 in <!--del_lnk--> hidden rooms in her father <!--del_lnk--> Otto Frank's office building. After two years in hiding the group was betrayed and transported to <!--del_lnk--> concentration camps. Seven months after her arrest, Anne died of <!--del_lnk--> typhus in <!--del_lnk--> Bergen-Belsen within days of her sister, <!--del_lnk--> Margot Frank. Her father, Otto, the only survivor of the group, returned to Amsterdam after the war ended, to find that her diary had been saved. Convinced that it was a unique record, he took action to have it <a href="../../wp/p/Publishing.htm" title="Publishing">published</a>. It was published originally in Dutch under the name <i><!--del_lnk--> Het Achterhuis: Dagboekbrieven van 12 Juni 1942 – 1 Augustus 1944 (The Backhouse: diary notes from 12 June 1942 – 1 August 1944)</i>.<p>The diary, which was given to Anne Frank on her thirteenth birthday, chronicles her life from <!--del_lnk--> June 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1942 until <!--del_lnk--> August 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1944. It was eventually translated from its original <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> into many languages and became one of the world's most widely read books. There have also been several <a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Film">film</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">television</a>, and <a href="../../wp/t/Theatre.htm" title="Theatre">theatrical</a> productions, and even an <a href="../../wp/o/Opera.htm" title="Opera">opera</a>, based on the diary. Described as the work of a mature and insightful mind, it provides an intimate examination of daily life under Nazi occupation; through her writing, Anne Frank has become one of the most renowned and discussed of <a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a> victims.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23263.jpg.htm" title="The apartment block on the Merwedeplein where the Frank family lived from 1934 until 1942"><img alt="The apartment block on the Merwedeplein where the Frank family lived from 1934 until 1942" height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AnneFrankMerwedeplein.jpg" src="../../images/232/23263.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23263.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The apartment block on the Merwedeplein where the Frank family lived from 1934 until 1942</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Anne Frank was born on <!--del_lnk--> June 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1929 in <a href="../../wp/f/Frankfurt.htm" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt am Main</a>, Germany, the second daughter of <!--del_lnk--> Otto Heinrich Frank (<!--del_lnk--> May 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1889–<!--del_lnk--> August 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1980) and <!--del_lnk--> Edith Holländer (<!--del_lnk--> January 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1900–<!--del_lnk--> January 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1945). <!--del_lnk--> Margot Frank (<!--del_lnk--> February 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1926–February/March, 1945) was her sister. Her given name was Annelies Marie, but to her family and friends, she was simply "Anne". Her father sometimes called her "Annelein" ("little Anne").<p>The family lived in an <!--del_lnk--> assimilated community of Jewish and non-Jewish citizens, and the children grew up with <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Catholic</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Protestant, and Jewish friends. The Franks were <!--del_lnk--> Reform Jews, observing many of the traditions of the <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Jewish faith</a> without observing many of its customs. Edith Frank was the more devout parent, while Otto Frank, a decorated German officer from World War I, was interested in scholarly pursuits and had an extensive library; both parents encouraged the children to read.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> March 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1933, elections were held in Frankfurt for the municipal council, and <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Nazi Party won. <!--del_lnk--> Anti-Semitic demonstrations occurred almost immediately, and the Franks began to fear what would happen to them if they remained in Germany. Later in the year, Edith and the children went to <a href="../../wp/a/Aachen.htm" title="Aachen">Aachen</a>, where they stayed with Edith's mother, Rosa Holländer. Otto Frank remained in Frankfurt, but after receiving an offer to start a company in Amsterdam, he moved there to organise the business and to arrange accommodation for his family.<p>Otto Frank began working at the <!--del_lnk--> Opekta Works, a company which sold the fruit extract <!--del_lnk--> pectin, and found an apartment on the Merwedeplein (Merwede Square) in an Amsterdam suburb. By February 1934, Edith and the children had arrived in Amsterdam, and the two girls were enrolled in school--Margot in public school and Anne in a <!--del_lnk--> Montessori school. Margot demonstrated ability in <a href="../../wp/a/Arithmetic.htm" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a>, and Anne showed aptitude for reading and writing. Her friend Hannah Goslar later recalled that from early childhood, Anne Frank frequently wrote, shielding her work with her hand, and refusing to discuss the content of her writing. These early writings have not survived. Anne and Margot were also recognized as highly distinct personalities, Margot being well mannered, reserved, and studious, while Anne was outspoken, energetic, and extroverted.<p>In 1938, Otto Frank started a second company in partnership with <!--del_lnk--> Hermann van Pels, a <!--del_lnk--> butcher, who had fled <!--del_lnk--> Osnabrück in Germany with his family. In 1939, Edith's mother came to live with the Franks, and remained with them until her death in January 1942. In May 1940, Germany invaded the Netherlands, and the occupation government began to persecute Jews by the implementation of restrictive and discriminatory laws, and the mandatory registration and segregation of Jews soon followed. Margot and Anne were excelling in their studies and had a large number of friends, but with the introduction of a decree that Jewish children could only attend Jewish schools, they were enrolled at the Jewish <!--del_lnk--> Lyceum.<p><a id="The_period_chronicled_in_the_diary" name="The_period_chronicled_in_the_diary"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The period chronicled in the diary</span></h2>
<p><a id="Before_going_into_hiding" name="Before_going_into_hiding"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Before going into hiding</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23264.jpg.htm" title="Yellow stars of the type that all Jews were required to wear during the Nazi occupation."><img alt="Yellow stars of the type that all Jews were required to wear during the Nazi occupation." height="85" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yellowstars.jpg" src="../../images/232/23264.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23264.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Yellow stars of the type that all Jews were required to wear during the Nazi occupation.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>For her thirteenth birthday on <!--del_lnk--> June 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1942, Anne received a small notebook which she had pointed out to her father in a shop window a few days earlier. Although it was an <!--del_lnk--> autograph book, bound with red-and-white plaid cloth and with a small lock on the front, Anne had already decided she would use it as a diary. She began writing in it almost immediately, describing herself, her family and friends, her school life, boys she flirted with and the places she liked to visit in her neighbourhood. While these early entries demonstrate that, in many ways, her life was that of a typical schoolgirl, she also refers to changes that had taken place since the German occupation. Some references are seemingly casual and not emphasized. However, in some entries Anne provides more detail of the oppression that was steadily increasing. For instance, she wrote about the <!--del_lnk--> yellow star which all Jews were forced to wear in public, and she listed some of the restrictions and <!--del_lnk--> persecutions that had encroached into the lives of Amsterdam's Jewish population.<p>In July 1942, Margot Frank received a call-up notice from the <!--del_lnk--> Zentralstelle für jüdische Auswanderung (Central Office for Jewish Immigration) ordering her to report for relocation to a work camp. Anne was then told of a plan that Otto had formulated with his most trusted employees, and which Edith and Margot had been aware of for a short time. The family was to go into hiding in rooms above and behind the company's premises on the <i><!--del_lnk--> Prinsengracht</i>, a street along one of Amsterdam's canals.<p><a id="Life_in_the_Achterhuis" name="Life_in_the_Achterhuis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Life in the <i>Achterhuis</i></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23265.jpg.htm" title="The main façade of the Opekta building on the Prinsengracht in 2002. Otto Frank's offices were in the front of the building, with the Achterhuis in the rear."><img alt="The main façade of the Opekta building on the Prinsengracht in 2002. Otto Frank's offices were in the front of the building, with the Achterhuis in the rear." height="536" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AnneFrankHouseAmsterdam.jpg" src="../../images/232/23265.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23265.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The main <!--del_lnk--> façade of the Opekta building on the <i>Prinsengracht</i> in 2002. Otto Frank's offices were in the front of the building, with the <i>Achterhuis</i> in the rear.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>On the morning of Monday, <!--del_lnk--> July 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1942, the family moved into the hiding place. Their apartment was left in a state of disarray to create the impression that they had left suddenly, and Otto Frank left a note that hinted they were going to <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>. The need for secrecy forced them to leave behind Anne's cat, <!--del_lnk--> Moortje. As Jews were not allowed to use <!--del_lnk--> public transport, they walked several kilometres from their home, with each of them wearing several layers of clothing as they did not dare to be seen carrying luggage. The <i><!--del_lnk--> Achterhuis</i> (a Dutch word denoting the rear part of a house, translated as the "Secret Annexe" in English editions of the diary) was a three-story space at the rear of the building that was entered from a landing above the Opekta offices. Two small rooms, with an adjoining <!--del_lnk--> bathroom and <!--del_lnk--> toilet, were on the first level, and above that a large open room, with a small room beside it. From this smaller room, a ladder led to the <!--del_lnk--> attic. The door to the <i>Achterhuis</i> was later covered by a bookcase to ensure it remained undiscovered. The main building, situated a block from the <!--del_lnk--> Westerkerk, was nondescript, old and typical of buildings in the western quarters of Amsterdam.<p><!--del_lnk--> Victor Kugler, <!--del_lnk--> Johannes Kleiman, <!--del_lnk--> Miep Gies, and <!--del_lnk--> Bep Voskuijl were the only employees who knew of the people in hiding, and with Gies' husband <!--del_lnk--> Jan Gies and Voskuijl's father Johannes Hendrik Voskuijl, were their "helpers" for the duration of their confinement. They provided the only contact between the outside world and the occupants of the house, and they kept them informed of war news and political developments. They catered for all of their needs, ensured their safety and supplied them with food, a task that grew more difficult with the passage of time. Anne wrote of their dedication and of their efforts to boost morale within the household during the most dangerous of times. All were aware that if caught they could face the <!--del_lnk--> death penalty for sheltering Jews.<p>In late July, the Franks were joined by the van Pels family: <!--del_lnk--> Hermann, <!--del_lnk--> Auguste, and 16-year-old <!--del_lnk--> Peter, and then in November by <!--del_lnk--> Fritz Pfeffer, a <!--del_lnk--> dentist and friend of the family. Anne wrote of her pleasure at having new people to talk to, but tensions quickly developed within the group forced to live in such confined conditions. After sharing her room with Pfeffer, she found him to be insufferable, and she clashed with Auguste van Pels, whom she regarded as foolish. Her relationship with her mother was strained, and Anne wrote that they had little in common as her mother was too remote. Although she sometimes argued with Margot, she wrote of an unexpected bond that had developed between them, but she remained closest emotionally to her father. Some time later, after first dismissing the shy and awkward Peter van Pels, she recognised a kinship with him and the two entered a <!--del_lnk--> romance.<p>Anne spent most of her time reading and studying, while continuing to write and edit her diary. In addition to providing a narrative of events as they occurred, she also wrote about her feelings, beliefs and ambitions, subjects she felt she could not discuss with anyone. As her confidence in her writing grew, and as she began to mature, she wrote of more abstract subjects such as her belief in <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">God</a>, and how she defined <!--del_lnk--> human nature. She continued writing regularly until her final entry of <!--del_lnk--> August 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1944.<p><a id="Arrest_and_concentration_camps" name="Arrest_and_concentration_camps"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Arrest and concentration camps</span></h2>
<p>On the morning of <!--del_lnk--> August 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1944, the <i>Achterhuis</i> was stormed by the German Security Police (<i>Grüne Polizei</i>) following a tip-off from an informer who was never identified. Led by <!--del_lnk--> Schutzstaffel <!--del_lnk--> Oberscharführer <!--del_lnk--> Karl Silberbauer of the <!--del_lnk--> Sicherheitsdienst, the group included at least three members of the Security Police. The occupants were loaded into trucks and taken for interrogation. Victor Kugler and Johannes Kleiman were taken away and subsequently jailed, but Miep Gies and Bep Voskuijl were allowed to go. They later returned to the <i>Achterhuis</i>, where they found Anne's papers strewn on the floor. They collected them, as well as several family photograph albums, and Gies resolved to return them to Anne after the war.<p>The members of the household were taken to the Gestapo headquarters where they were interrogated and held overnight. On August 5, they were transferred to the Huis van Bewaring (House of Detention), an overcrowded prison on the Weteringschans. Two days later the eight Jewish prisoners were transported to <!--del_lnk--> Westerbork, The Netherlands. Ostensibly a transit camp, by this time more than 100,000 Jews had passed through it. Having been arrested in hiding, they were considered criminals and were sent to the Punishment Barracks for hard labour.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> September 3, the group was deported on what would be the last transport from Westerbork to the <!--del_lnk--> Auschwitz concentration camp. They arrived after a three days' journey, and were separated by gender, with the men and women never to see each other again. Of the 1019 passengers, 549 people-–including all children under the age of fifteen years-–were selected and sent directly to the <!--del_lnk--> gas chambers where they were killed. Anne had turned fifteen three months earlier and was spared, and although everyone from the <i>Achterhuis</i> survived this selection, Anne believed her father had been killed.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23267.jpg.htm" title="Memorial for Anne and Margot Frank at the former Bergen-Belsen site, along with floral and pictorial tributes."><img alt="Memorial for Anne and Margot Frank at the former Bergen-Belsen site, along with floral and pictorial tributes." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Anne-frank-grab.jpg" src="../../images/232/23267.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23267.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Memorial for Anne and Margot Frank at the former Bergen-Belsen site, along with floral and pictorial tributes.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>With the other females not selected for immediate death, Anne was forced to strip naked to be disinfected, had her head shaved and was <!--del_lnk--> tattooed with an identifying number on her arm. By day, the women were used as <a href="../../wp/s/Slavery.htm" title="Slavery">slave labour</a>; by night, they were crowded into freezing barracks. Disease was rampant and before long Anne's skin became badly infected by <!--del_lnk--> scabies.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> October 28, selections began for women to be relocated to <!--del_lnk--> Bergen-Belsen. More than 8,000 women, including Anne and Margot Frank and Auguste van Pels, were transported, but Edith Frank was left behind. Tents were erected to accommodate the influx of prisoners, Anne and Margot among them, and as the population rose, the death toll due to disease increased rapidly. Anne was briefly reunited with two friends, Hanneli Goslar (nicknamed "Lies" in the diary) and Nanette Blitz, who both survived the war. Blitz described her as bald, emaciated and shivering. Goslar said that although Anne was ill herself, she told her that she was more concerned about Margot, whose illness seemed to be more severe and who remained in her bunk, too weak to walk. Anne told both her friends that she believed her parents were dead.<p>In March 1945, a <!--del_lnk--> typhus <!--del_lnk--> epidemic spread through the camp killing an estimated 17,000 prisoners. Witnesses later testified that Margot fell from her bunk in her weakened state and was killed by the shock, and that a few days later Anne was dead too. They estimated that this occurred a few weeks before the camp was liberated by <!--del_lnk--> British troops on <!--del_lnk--> April 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1945, and although the exact dates were not recorded, it is generally accepted to have been between the end of February and the middle of March.<p>After the war, it was estimated that of the 110,000 <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jews</a> deported from the Netherlands during the Nazi occupation, only 5,000 of them survived.<p>The individual fates of the other occupants of the <i>Achterhuis</i>, their helpers, and other people associated with Anne Frank, are discussed further. <i>See article: <!--del_lnk--> People associated with Anne Frank</i>.<p><a id="The_Diary_of_A_Young_Girl" name="The_Diary_of_A_Young_Girl"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline"><i>The Diary of A Young Girl</i></span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><a id="Publication_of_the_diary" name="Publication_of_the_diary"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Publication of the diary</span></h3>
<p>Otto Frank survived and returned to Amsterdam. He was informed that his wife had died and his daughters had been transferred to Bergen-Belsen. Although he remained hopeful that they had survived, the <!--del_lnk--> Red Cross in July 1945 confirmed the deaths of Anne and Margot. It was only then that Miep Gies gave him the diary. Otto read it and later commented that he had not realized Anne had kept such an accurate and well-written record of their time together. Moved by her repeated wish to be an author, he began to consider having it published. When asked many years later to recall his first reaction he said simply, "I never knew my little Anne was so deep".<p>Anne's diary began as a private expression of her thoughts and she wrote several times that she would never allow anyone to read it. She candidly described her life, her family and companions, and their situation, while beginning to recognize her ambition to write fiction for publication. In the spring of 1944, she heard a radio broadcast by <!--del_lnk--> Gerrit Bolkestein—a member of the Dutch <!--del_lnk--> government in exile—who said that when the war ended, he would create a public record of the Dutch people's oppression under German occupation. He mentioned the publication of letters and diaries, and Anne decided to submit her work when the time came. She began editing her writing, removing sections and rewriting others, with the view to publication. Her original notebook was supplemented by additional notebooks and loose-leaf sheets of paper. She created <!--del_lnk--> pseudonyms for the members of the household and the helpers. The van Pels family became Hermann, Petronella, and Peter van Daan, and Fritz Pfeffer became Albert Düssell. Otto Frank used her original diary, known as "version A", and her edited version, known as "version B", to produce the first version for publication. He removed certain passages, most notably those which referred to his wife in unflattering terms, and sections that discussed Anne's growing <!--del_lnk--> sexuality. Although he restored the true identities of his own family, he retained all of the other pseudonyms.<p>He gave the diary to the historian Anne Romein, who tried unsuccessfully to have it published. She then gave it to her husband <!--del_lnk--> Jan Romein, who wrote an article about it, titled "Kinderstem" ("A Child's Voice"), published in the newspaper <i><!--del_lnk--> Het Parool</i> on <!--del_lnk--> April 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1946. He wrote that the diary "stammered out in a child's voice, embodies all the hideousness of <a href="../../wp/f/Fascism.htm" title="Fascism">fascism</a>, more so than all the evidence at <!--del_lnk--> Nuremberg put together" His article attracted attention from publishers, and the diary was published in 1947, followed by a second run in 1950. The first <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> edition was published in 1952 under the title <i><!--del_lnk--> Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl</i>. A play based upon the diary, by <!--del_lnk--> Frances Goodrich and Albert Hackett, premiered in <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> on <!--del_lnk--> October 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1955, and later won a <!--del_lnk--> Pulitzer Prize for Drama. It was followed by the <!--del_lnk--> 1959 movie <i><!--del_lnk--> The Diary of Anne Frank</i>, which was a critical and commercial success. Over the years the popularity of the diary grew, and in many schools, particularly in the United States, it was included as part of the <!--del_lnk--> curriculum, introducing Anne Frank to new generations of readers.<p>In 1986, the Netherlands State Institute for War Documentation published the so-called "critical edition" of the diary. It includes comparisons from all known versions, both edited and unedited. It also includes discussion asserting its authentication, as well as additional historical information relating to the family and the diary itself.<p>In 1999, Cornelis Suijk-—a former director of the Anne Frank Foundation and president of the U.S. <!--del_lnk--> Centre for Holocaust Education Foundation-—announced that he was in the possession of five pages that had been removed by Otto Frank from the diary prior to publication; Suijk claimed that Otto Frank gave these pages to him shortly before his death in 1980. The missing diary entries contain critical remarks by Anne Frank about her parents' strained marriage, and shows Anne's lack of affection for her mother<p>Some controversy ensued when Suijk claimed publishing rights over the five pages and intended to sell them to raise money for his U.S. Foundation. The Netherlands Institute for War Documentation, the formal owner of the manuscript, demanded the pages to be handed over. In 2000, the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science agreed to donate <!--del_lnk--> US$300,000 to Suijk's Foundation, and the pages were returned in 2001. Since then, they have been included in new editions of the diary.<p><a id="Praise_for_Anne_Frank_and_the_Diary" name="Praise_for_Anne_Frank_and_the_Diary"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Praise for Anne Frank and the Diary</span></h3>
<p>In her introduction to the diary's first American edition, <!--del_lnk--> Eleanor Roosevelt described it as "one of the wisest and most moving commentaries on war and its impact on human beings that I have ever read". The <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> writer <!--del_lnk--> Ilya Ehrenburg later said: "one voice speaks for six million—the voice not of a sage or a poet but of an ordinary little girl." As Anne Frank's stature as both a writer and <a href="../../wp/h/Humanism.htm" title="Humanism">humanist</a> has grown, she has been discussed specifically as a symbol of the Holocaust and more broadly as a representative of persecution. <!--del_lnk--> Hillary Rodham Clinton, in her acceptance speech for an <!--del_lnk--> Elie Wiesel Humanitarian Award in 1994, read from Anne Frank's diary and spoke of her "awakening us to the folly of indifference and the terrible toll it takes on our young," which Clinton related to contemporary events in <a href="../../wp/s/Sarajevo.htm" title="Sarajevo">Sarajevo</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Rwanda.htm" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a>.<p>After receiving a humanitarian award from the Anne Frank Foundation in 1994, <a href="../../wp/n/Nelson_Mandela.htm" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> addressed a crowd in <a href="../../wp/j/Johannesburg.htm" title="Johannesburg">Johannesburg</a>, saying he had read Anne Frank's diary while in prison and "derived much encouragement from it." He likened her struggle against Nazism to his struggle against <!--del_lnk--> apartheid, drawing a parallel between the two philosophies with the comment "because these beliefs are patently false, and because they were, and will always be, challenged by the likes of Anne Frank, they are bound to fail."<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23269.jpg.htm" title="Reconstruction of the bookcase that covered the entrance to the hiding place, in the Anne Frank House in Amsterdam."><img alt="Reconstruction of the bookcase that covered the entrance to the hiding place, in the Anne Frank House in Amsterdam." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Anne-frank-haus.jpg" src="../../images/232/23269.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23269.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Reconstruction of the bookcase that covered the entrance to the hiding place, in the <!--del_lnk--> Anne Frank House in <a href="../../wp/a/Amsterdam.htm" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In her closing message in Melissa Müller's biography of Anne Frank, Miep Gies attempted to dispel what she felt was a growing misconception that "Anne symbolizes the six million victims of the Holocaust", writing: "Anne's life and death were her own individual fate, an individual fate that happened six million times over. Anne cannot, and should not, stand for the many individuals whom the Nazis robbed of their lives... But her fate helps us grasp the immense loss the world suffered because of the Holocaust."<p>The diary has also been praised for its literary merits. Commenting on Anne Frank's writing style, the <a href="../../wp/d/Drama.htm" title="Drama">dramatist</a> <!--del_lnk--> Meyer Levin – who worked with Otto Frank on a dramatisation of the diary shortly after its publication – praised it for "sustaining the tension of a well-constructed novel" , while the <!--del_lnk--> poet <!--del_lnk--> John Berryman wrote that it was a unique depiction, not merely of adolescence but of "the mysterious, fundamental process of a child becoming an adult as it is actually happening" . Her biographer Melissa Müller said that she wrote "in a precise, confident, economical style stunning in its honesty". Her writing is largely a study of characters, and she examines every person in her circle with a shrewd, uncompromising eye. She is occasionally cruel and often biased, particularly in her depictions of Fritz Pfeffer and of her own mother, and Müller explains that she channelled the "normal mood swings of adolescence" into her writing. Her examination of herself and her surroundings is sustained over a lengthy period of time in an introspective, analytical and highly self critical manner, and in moments of frustration she relates the battle being fought within herself between the "good Anne" she wants to be, and the "bad Anne" she believes herself to be. Otto Frank recalled his publisher explaining why he thought the diary has been so widely read, with the comment "he said that the diary encompasses so many areas of life that each reader can find something that moves him personally".<p>In June 1999, <!--del_lnk--> Time Magazine published a special edition titled <!--del_lnk--> TIME 100: Heroes & Icons of the 20th century. This is a list of the 20th century's hundred most influential politicians, artists, innovators, scientists and icons. Anne Frank was selected as one of the 'Heroes & Icons'. The writer <!--del_lnk--> Roger Rosenblatt, author of <!--del_lnk--> Children of War, wrote Anne Frank's entry. In the article he describes her legacy:<blockquote>
<p>The passions the book ignites suggest that everyone owns Anne Frank, that she has risen above the Holocaust, Judaism, girlhood and even goodness and become a totemic figure of the modern world — the moral individual mind beset by the machinery of destruction, insisting on the right to live and question and hope for the future of human beings.</blockquote>
<p><a id="Denials_and_legal_action" name="Denials_and_legal_action"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Denials and legal action</span></h3>
<p>Efforts have been made to discredit the diary since its publication, and since the mid 1970s <!--del_lnk--> Holocaust denier <!--del_lnk--> David Irving has been consistent in his assertion that the diary is not genuine. Continued public statements made by such Holocaust deniers prompted Teresien da Silva to comment on behalf of <!--del_lnk--> Anne Frank House in 1999, "for many <!--del_lnk--> right-wing <!--del_lnk--> extremists (Anne) proves to be an obstacle. Her personal testimony of the persecution of the Jews and her death in a concentration camp are blocking the way to a rehabilitation of <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazism">national socialism</a>".<p>Since the 1950s, Holocaust denial has been a criminal offence in several European countries, including Germany, and the law has been used to prevent a rise in <!--del_lnk--> neo-Nazi activity. In 1959, Otto Frank took legal action in <!--del_lnk--> Lübeck against <!--del_lnk--> Lothar Stielau, a school teacher and former <!--del_lnk--> Hitler Youth member who published a school paper that described the diary as a forgery. The court examined the diary, and, in 1960, found it to be genuine. Stielau recanted his earlier statement, and Otto Frank did not pursue the case any further.<p>In 1958, <!--del_lnk--> Simon Wiesenthal was challenged by a group of protesters at a performance of <i>The Diary of Anne Frank</i> in <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> who asserted that Anne Frank had never existed, and who told Wiesenthal to prove her existence by finding the man who had arrested her. He began searching for <!--del_lnk--> Karl Silberbauer and found him in 1963. When interviewed, Silberbauer readily admitted his role, and identifed Anne Frank from a photograph as one of the people arrested. He provided a full account of events and recalled emptying a briefcase full of papers onto the floor. His statement corroborated the version of events that had previously been presented by witnesses such as Otto Frank.<p>In 1976, Otto Frank took action against Heinz Roth of Frankfurt, who published pamphlets stating the diary was a forgery. The judge ruled that if he published further statements he would be subjected to a 500,000 <!--del_lnk--> Deutschmark fine and a six months' jail sentence. Two cases were dismissed by German courts in 1978 and 1979 on the grounds of <!--del_lnk--> freedom of speech, as the complaint was not filed by an "injured party". The court ruled in each case that if a further complaint was made by an injured party, such as Otto Frank, a charge of <!--del_lnk--> slander could follow.<p>The controversy reached its peak with the arrest and trial of two neo-Nazis, Ernst Römer and Edgar Geiss, who were tried and found guilty of producing and distributing literature denouncing the diary as a forgery, following a complaint by Otto Frank. During their appeal, a team of historians examined the documents in consultation with Otto Frank, and determined them to be genuine. In 1978, as part of an appeal of the cases won against Römer and Geiss, the German Criminal Court Laboratory, the Bundeskriminalamt (BKA) was asked to examine the kind of paper and the types of ink used in the manuscript of the diary. Although its findings indicated that ink with which the diary was written had been in use during the war, the BKA also concluded that "the later corrections made on the loose-leaf pages were written in part in black, green and blue <!--del_lnk--> ballpoint pen," though the BKA did not give any specific details about these alleged ballpoint corrections. Deniers of the authenticity of the diary focused in particular on this statement, as ballpoint pens did not become widely available until after the end of the World War II.<p>In 1986, the Dutch "Gerechtelijk Laboratorium" (State Forensic Science Laboratory) in <!--del_lnk--> Rijswijk conducted another extensive technical examination of the manuscript. Though the BKA was invited by the "Gerechtelijk Laboratorium" to indicate where on the loose-leaf pages it had found the "ballpoint corrections", the BKA was unable to point out a single example. The "Gerechtelijk Laboratorium" itself found only two slips of paper in ballpoint ink which had been inserted in Anne Frank's loose leaf manuscript. The Revised Critical Edition of the Diary of Anne Frank (published 2003) reproduces images (pages 167-171) of the two slips of paper, and in the chapter summarising the findings of the State Forensic Science Laboratory which analysed the materials, ink and handwriting in the manuscripts of Anne Frank, H.J.J. Hardy writes on the matter:<blockquote>
<p>The only ballpoint writing was found on two loose scraps of paper included among the loose sheets. Figures VI-I-I and 3 show the way in which these scraps of paper had been inserted into the relevant plastic folders. As far as the factual contents of the diary are concerned the ballpoint writings have no significance whatsoever. Morever, the handwriting on the scraps of paper and in the diary differs strikingly.(page 167)</blockquote>
<p>A footnote on this page adds:<blockquote>
<p>The Hamburg psychologist and court-appointed handwriting expert Hans Ockleman stated in a letter to the Anne Frank Fonds dated September 27 1987 that his mother, Mrs Dorothea Ockleman wrote the ballpoint texts in question when she collaborated with Mrs Minna Becker in investigating the diaries.</blockquote>
<p>With Otto Frank's death in 1980, the original diary, including letters and loose sheets, had been willed to the <!--del_lnk--> Netherlands Institute for War Documentation, who commissioned a <!--del_lnk--> forensic study of the diary through the Netherlands Ministry of Justice in 1986. They examined the <!--del_lnk--> handwriting against known exemplars and found that they matched, and determined that the paper, glue and ink were readily available during the time the diary was said to have been written. Their final determination was that the diary is authentic. On <!--del_lnk--> March 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1990, the <a href="../../wp/h/Hamburg.htm" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> Regional Court confirmed its authenticity.<p>Nevertheless, Holocaust deniers have been persistent in their claims that the diaries were forged. In 1991, <!--del_lnk--> Robert Faurisson and <!--del_lnk--> Siegfried Verbeke produced a booklet titled: <i>The Diary of Anne Frank: A Critical Approach</i>. It claimed that Otto Frank wrote the diary, based on assertions that the diary contained several contradictions, that hiding in the <i>Achterhuis</i> would have been impossible, and that the style and handwriting of Anne Frank were not those of a teenager.<p>In December 1993, the Anne Frank House in Amsterdam and the Anne Frank Funds in Basle instigated a civil law suit in order to prohibit the further distribution of <i>The Diary of Anne Frank: A Critical Approach</i> in the Netherlands. On December 9, 1998, the Amsterdam District Court ruled in favour of the claimants, forbade any further denial of the authenticity of the diary and unsolicited distribution of publications to that effect, and imposed a penalty of 25,000-guilders per infringement.<p><a id="Legacy" name="Legacy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legacy</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:122px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23270.jpg.htm" title="Statue of Anne Frank, by Mari Andriessen, outside the Westerkerk in Amsterdam."><img alt="Statue of Anne Frank, by Mari Andriessen, outside the Westerkerk in Amsterdam." height="420" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AnneFrankstatue.jpg" src="../../images/232/23270.jpg" width="120" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23270.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Statue of Anne Frank, by <!--del_lnk--> Mari Andriessen, outside the <!--del_lnk--> Westerkerk in Amsterdam.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1957, a group of citizens including Otto Frank established the Anne Frank Foundation in an effort to rescue the Prinsengracht building from demolition and to make it accessible to the public. Otto Frank insisted that the aim of the foundation would be to foster contact and communication between young people of different cultures, religions or racial backgrounds, and to oppose intolerance and <!--del_lnk--> racial discrimination.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Anne Frank House opened on <!--del_lnk--> May 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1960. It consists of the Opekta warehouse and offices and the <i>Achterhuis</i>, all unfurnished so that visitors can walk freely through the rooms. Some personal relics of the former occupants remain, such as <!--del_lnk--> movie star photographs glued by Anne to a wall, a section of wallpaper on which Otto Frank marked the height of his growing daughters, and a map on the wall where he recorded the advance of the <!--del_lnk--> Allied Forces, all now protected behind Perspex sheets. From the small room which was once home to Peter van Pels, a walkway connects the building to its neighbours, also purchased by the Foundation. These other buildings are used to house the diary, as well as changing exhibits that chronicle different aspects of the Holocaust and more contemporary examinations of racial intolerance in various parts of the world. It has become one of Amsterdam's main <!--del_lnk--> tourist attractions, and is visited by more than half a million people each year.<p>In 1963, Otto Frank and his second wife <i>Elfriede Geiringer-Markovits</i> set up the Anne Frank Fonds as a <!--del_lnk--> charitable foundation, based in <a href="../../wp/b/Basel.htm" title="Basel">Basel</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>. The Fonds raises money to donate to causes "as it sees fit". Upon his death, Otto willed the diary's <!--del_lnk--> copyright to the Fonds, on the provison that the first 80,000 <!--del_lnk--> Swiss francs in income each year was to be distributed to his heirs, and any income above this figure was to be retained by the Fonds to use for whatever projects its administrators considered worthy. It provides funding for the medical treatment of the <!--del_lnk--> Righteous Among the Nations on a yearly basis. It has aimed to educate young people against racism and has loaned some of Anne Frank's papers to the <!--del_lnk--> United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> for an exhibition in 2003. Its annual report of the same year gave some indication of its effort to contribute on a global level, with its support of projects in <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a><p>Elementary schools in both <a href="../../wp/d/Dallas%252C_Texas.htm" title="Dallas">Dallas</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Texas (<!--del_lnk--> Dallas ISD) and in <a href="../../wp/p/Philadelphia.htm" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania (<!--del_lnk--> School District of Philadelphia) have been named "Anne Frank Elementary School" for her.<p>The life and writings of Anne Frank has inspired a diverse group of artists and social commentators to make reference to her in literature, popular music, television, and other forms of media. For a partial list of such references, see <i><!--del_lnk--> List of references to Anne Frank in popular culture</i>.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Frank"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Frankfurt', 'Germany', 'Germany', 'Employment', 'Nationality', 'Netherlands', 'Germany', 'Jew', 'Amsterdam', 'Netherlands', 'World War II', 'Nazism', 'Publishing', 'Dutch language', 'Film', 'Television', 'Theatre', 'Opera', 'The Holocaust', 'Frankfurt', 'Roman Catholic Church', 'Judaism', 'Adolf Hitler', 'Aachen', 'Arithmetic', 'Switzerland', 'God', 'Slavery', 'Jew', 'Fascism', 'United States', 'New York City', 'Soviet Union', 'Humanism', 'Sarajevo', 'Somalia', 'Rwanda', 'Nelson Mandela', 'Johannesburg', 'Amsterdam', 'Drama', 'Nazism', 'Vienna', 'Hamburg', 'Basel', 'Switzerland', 'Washington, D.C.', 'Germany', 'Israel', 'India', 'Switzerland', 'United Kingdom', 'United States', 'Dallas', 'Philadelphia'] |
Anne_of_Great_Britain | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Anne of Great Britain,British Monarchs,English Monarchs,Scottish Monarchs,Featured articles,Media help,Spoken articles,Anne of Great Britain.ogg,British Monarchs,Scottish Monarchs,English Monarchs" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Anne of Great Britain</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">/*<![CDATA[*/
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false;
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Anne_of_Great_Britain";
var wgTitle = "Anne of Great Britain";
var wgArticleId = "46684";
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserGroups = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
var wgBreakFrames = false;
var wgCurRevisionId = "122802058";
/*]]>*/</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Anne_of_Great_Britain">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Anne of Great Britain</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.British_History.British_History_15001750.htm">British History 1500-1750</a>; <a href="../index/subject.People.Monarchs_of_Great_Britain.htm">Monarchs of Great Britain</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox" style="font-size: 90%; width: 25em; text-align: left;">
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background: #BBAADD; color: #000066; font-size: 120%; text-align: center;">Anne</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><i>Queen of Great Britain and Ireland;<br /> prev. Queen of England and Scotland</i> <small><i><!--del_lnk--> (more...)</i></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="355" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Queen-anne-i-1-sized.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="262" /></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="vertical-align: top;">Reign</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 8 March <!--del_lnk--> 1702 – <!--del_lnk--> 1 August <!--del_lnk--> 1714</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="vertical-align: top;">Predecessor</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/w/William_III_of_England.htm" title="William III of England">William II</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="vertical-align: top;">Successor</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/George_I_of_Great_Britain.htm" title="George I of Great Britain">George I</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="vertical-align: top;">Consort</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> George of Denmark</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2">Issue</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> William, Duke of Gloucester</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2">
<div style="float: right"><small><i><a href="#Titles" title="">Detail</a></i></small></div> Titles</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><i>HM</i> The Queen<br /><i>HRH</i> Princess Anne of Denmark<br /><i>HRH</i> Princess Anne of York</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="vertical-align: top;"><!--del_lnk--> Royal house</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> House of Stuart</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="vertical-align: top;">Father</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/j/James_II_of_England.htm" title="James II of England">James II</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="vertical-align: top;">Mother</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Anne Hyde</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="vertical-align: top;">Born</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 6 February <!--del_lnk--> 1665<br /><!--del_lnk--> St. James's Palace, <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="vertical-align: top;">Died</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1 August <!--del_lnk--> 1714 (aged 49)<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="vertical-align: top;">Burial</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/w/Westminster_Abbey.htm" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Anne</b> (<!--del_lnk--> 6 February <!--del_lnk--> 1665 – <!--del_lnk--> 1 August <!--del_lnk--> 1714) became Queen of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Scotland and <!--del_lnk--> Ireland on <!--del_lnk--> 8 March <!--del_lnk--> 1702. On <!--del_lnk--> 1 May <!--del_lnk--> 1707, when England and Scotland <a href="../../wp/a/Acts_of_Union_1707.htm" title="Acts of Union 1707">combined</a> into a single <!--del_lnk--> state, Anne became the first sovereign of the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Great Britain. She continued to reign until her death. Anne was the last monarch of the <!--del_lnk--> House of Stuart; she was succeeded by a second cousin, <a href="../../wp/g/George_I_of_Great_Britain.htm" title="George I of Great Britain">George I</a>, of the <!--del_lnk--> House of Hanover.<p>Anne's life was marked by many crises relating to succession to the Crown. Her <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic father, <a href="../../wp/j/James_II_of_England.htm" title="James II of England">James II</a>, had been forcibly deposed in 1688; her brother-in-law and her sister then became joint monarchs as <a href="../../wp/w/William_III_of_England.htm" title="William III of England">William III</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Mary_II_of_England.htm" title="Mary II of England">Mary II</a>. Anne suffered from <!--del_lnk--> Hughes syndrome or 'sticky blood' which resulted in <!--del_lnk--> miscarriages. The failure of both Anne and her sister to produce a child who could survive into adulthood precipitated a succession crisis, for, in the absence of a <!--del_lnk--> Protestant heir, the Roman Catholic <!--del_lnk--> James Francis Edward Stuart (the "Old Pretender"), son of James II, could attempt to claim the throne. It was for this reason that the <!--del_lnk--> Parliament of England passed legislation allowing the Crown to pass to the <!--del_lnk--> House of Hanover. When the <!--del_lnk--> Parliament of Scotland refused to accept the choice of the English Parliament, various coercive tactics (such as crippling the <!--del_lnk--> Scottish economy by restricting trade, see <!--del_lnk--> Alien Act) were used to ensure that Scotland would co-operate. The <!--del_lnk--> Act of Union 1707 (which united England and Scotland into Great Britain) was a product of subsequent <!--del_lnk--> treaty negotiations.<p>Anne's reign was marked by the development of a two-party system. Anne personally preferred the <!--del_lnk--> Tory Party, but endured the <!--del_lnk--> Whigs. Her closest friend, and perhaps her most influential advisor, was <!--del_lnk--> Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, though there was a falling out later when the Duchess of Marlborough was banned from court during the <a href="../../wp/w/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession.htm" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a>. The Duchess of Marlborough's husband was <!--del_lnk--> John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, who led the English—and after the Union, the British—armies in the <a href="../../wp/w/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession.htm" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a>.<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script>
<p><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/520/52081.jpg.htm" title="The royal arms of Queen Anne"><img alt="The royal arms of Queen Anne" class="thumbimage" height="158" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Queen_annes_arms.jpg" src="../../images/520/52081.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/520/52081.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The royal arms of Queen Anne</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Anne was born in <!--del_lnk--> St. James's Palace of <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, the second daughter of James, Duke of York, (afterwards James II) and his first wife, the <!--del_lnk--> Lady Anne Hyde. Her paternal uncle was King <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_II_of_England.htm" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a> and her older sister was the future Mary II. Anne and Mary were the only children of the Duke and Duchess of York to survive into adulthood. Anne suffered as a child from an eye infection; for medical treatment, she was sent to <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>. She lived with her grandmother, <!--del_lnk--> Henrietta Maria of France, and on the latter's death with her aunt, <!--del_lnk--> Henrietta Anne, Duchesse d'Orléans. Anne returned from France in 1670. In about 1673, Anne made the acquaintance of Sarah Jennings, who would become her close friend and one of her most influential advisors. Jennings later married John Churchill (the future Duke of Marlborough), who would later become Anne's most important general.<p>In 1673 Anne's father's conversion to Roman Catholicism became public. On the instructions of <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_II_of_England.htm" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a>, however, Anne and her sister Mary were raised as strict Protestants. In 1678 Anne accompanied <!--del_lnk--> Mary of Modena to <!--del_lnk--> Holland, and in 1679 joined her parents abroad and afterwards in <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>. On <!--del_lnk--> 28 July <!--del_lnk--> 1683, Anne married the Protestant <!--del_lnk--> Prince George of Denmark, brother of the Danish King <!--del_lnk--> Christian V (and her third cousin through <!--del_lnk--> Frederick II), an unpopular union but one of great domestic happiness, the prince and princess being comfortable in temper and both preferring retirement and quiet to life in the great world. <!--del_lnk--> Sarah Churchill became Anne's <!--del_lnk--> Lady of the Bedchamber, and, by Anne's desire to mark their mutual intimacy and affection, all deference due to her rank was abandoned and the two ladies called each other Mrs. Morley and Mrs. Freeman.<p>When Charles II died in 1685 (converting to Roman Catholicism on his deathbed), Anne's father ascended the Throne as James II. But James was not well-received by the English people. Public alarm increased when James's second wife, <!--del_lnk--> Mary of Modena, gave birth to a son (<!--del_lnk--> James Francis Edward) on <!--del_lnk--> 10 June <!--del_lnk--> 1688, for a Roman Catholic dynasty became apparent. Anne was not present on the occasion, having gone to Bath, and this gave rise to a belief that the child was spurious; but it is most probable that James's desire to exclude all Protestants from affairs of state was the real cause. "I shall never now be satisfied," Anne wrote to Mary, "whether the child be true or false. It may be it is our brother, but God only knows ... one cannot help having a thousand fears and melancholy thoughts, but whatever changes may happen you shall ever find me firm to my religion and faithfully yours."<p>Princess Anne's sister and brother-in-law, Mary and William, subsequently invaded England to dethrone the unpopular and perceived <a href="../../wp/d/Despotism.htm" title="Despotism">despot</a> James II. James attempted to flee the realm on <!--del_lnk--> 11 December <!--del_lnk--> 1688, succeeding twelve days later.<p>During the events immediately preceding the <a href="../../wp/g/Glorious_Revolution.htm" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> Anne was kept in seclusion. Her ultimate conduct was probably influenced by the Churchills; and though forbidden by James to pay Mary a projected visit in the spring of 1688, she corresponded with her, and was no doubt aware of William's plans. Her position was now a very critical and painful one. She refused to show any sympathy with the king after William had landed in November, and wrote, with the advice of the Churchills, to the prince, declaring her approval of his action. Churchill abandoned the king on the 24th, Prince George on the 25th, and when James returned to London on the 26th he found that Anne and her lady-in-waiting had during the previous night followed their husbands' examples. Escaping from Whitehall by a back staircase they put themselves under the care of the bishop of London, spent one night in his house, and subsequently arrived on the 1st of December at Nottingham, where the princess first made herself known and appointed a council. Thence she travelled to Oxford, where she met Prince George, in triumph, escorted by a large company. Like Mary, she was reproached for showing no concern at the news of the king's flight, but her justification was that "she never loved to do anything that looked like an affected constraint." She returned to London on <!--del_lnk--> December 19, when she was at once visited by William.<p>In 1689, a <!--del_lnk--> Convention Parliament assembled and declared that James had abdicated the realm when he attempted to flee, and that the Throne was therefore vacant. The Crown was offered to, and accepted by, William and Mary, who ruled as joint monarchs. The <!--del_lnk--> Bill of Rights 1689 settled succession to the Throne; Princess Anne and her descendants were to be in the line of succession after William and Mary. They were to be followed by any descendants of William by a future marriage.<p><a id="William_and_Mary" name="William_and_Mary"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">William and Mary</span></h2>
<p>Soon after their accession, William and Mary exalted Lord Churchill by granting him the Earldom of Marlborough. The subsequent treatment of the Marlboroughs, however, was not as favourable. In 1692, suspecting that <!--del_lnk--> Lord Marlborough was a <!--del_lnk--> Jacobite (that is, one who believed that James II was the legitimate monarch), Mary II dismissed him from all his offices. Lady Marlborough was subsequently removed from the Royal Household, leading Princess Anne to angrily leave her royal residence for <!--del_lnk--> Syon House, the Duke of Northumberland's home. Princess Anne was then stripped of her guard of honour, and the guards at the royal palaces were forbidden to salute her husband.<p>When Mary II died of <a href="../../wp/s/Smallpox.htm" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> in 1694, William III continued to reign alone. Seeking to improve his own popularity (which had always been much lower than that of his wife), he restored Princess Anne to her previous honours, allowing her to reside in <!--del_lnk--> St. James's Palace. At the same time William kept her in the background and refrained from appointing her regent during his absence. In 1695, William sought to win Princess Anne's favour by restoring Marlborough to all of his offices. In return Anne gave her support to William's government, though about this time, in 1696—according to James, in consequence of the near prospect of the throne—she wrote to her father asking for his leave to wear the crown at William's death, and promising its restoration at a convenient opportunity. The unfounded rumour that William contemplated settling the succession after his death on James's son, provided he were educated a Protestant in England, may possibly have alarmed her.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:184px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/520/52083.jpg.htm" title="Princess Anne with her son William, Duke of Gloucester"><img alt="Princess Anne with her son William, Duke of Gloucester" class="thumbimage" height="224" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Anne_and_William.jpg" src="../../images/520/52083.jpg" width="182" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Princess Anne with her son <!--del_lnk--> William, Duke of Gloucester</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In the meantime, Prince George and Princess Anne suffered from a series of personal misadventures. By 1700, the future Queen had been pregnant at least eighteen times; thirteen times, she miscarried or gave birth to stillborn children. Of the remaining five children, four died before reaching the age of two years. Her only son to survive infancy, <!--del_lnk--> William, Duke of Gloucester, died at the age of eleven on <!--del_lnk--> 29 July <!--del_lnk--> 1700, precipitating a succession crisis. William and Mary did not have any children; thus, Princess Anne, the <!--del_lnk--> heir apparent to the Throne, was the only individual remaining in the line of succession established by the <!--del_lnk--> Bill of Rights. If the line of succession were totally extinguished, then it would have become simple for the deposed King James to reclaim the Throne. To preclude a Roman Catholic from obtaining the Crown, Parliament enacted the <!--del_lnk--> Act of Settlement 1701, which provided that, failing the issue of Princess Anne and of William III by any future marriage, the Crown would go to <!--del_lnk--> Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and her descendants, who descended from <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James I of England</a> through <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth of Bohemia. Several genealogically senior claimants were disregarded due to their Catholicism. Anne acquiesced to the new line of succession created by the Act of Settlement.<p><a id="Early_reign" name="Early_reign"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early reign</span></h2>
<p>William III died <!--del_lnk--> 8 March <!--del_lnk--> 1702, leaving the Crown to Anne (<!--del_lnk--> 23 April). At about the same time, the <a href="../../wp/w/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession.htm" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> began; at controversy was the right of <!--del_lnk--> Philip, grandson of the French King <a href="../../wp/l/Louis_XIV_of_France.htm" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a>, to succeed to the Spanish Throne. Although Philip was named in the will of the previous King of Spain, <!--del_lnk--> Charles II, much of Europe opposed him, fearing that the French royal dynasty would become too powerful. The will included a condition that Philip should give up his right to the throne of France, but Louis XIV had this condition overturned in case many of his heirs died. This was not an unrealistic worry: most of Louis XIV's family was killed by <a href="../../wp/s/Smallpox.htm" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> shortly before his death, leaving his five-year-old great-grandson <!--del_lnk--> Louis XV on the throne. England had also been angered by Louis XIV's proclamation of James Stuart, the Old Pretender, as "<!--del_lnk--> James III of England" following the death of James II. Therefore, England supported the rival claims of <!--del_lnk--> Archduke Charles, the Austrian cousin of the previous Spanish King.<p>The War of the Spanish Succession (known in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> as <!--del_lnk--> Queen Anne's War, the second of the <!--del_lnk--> French and Indian Wars) would continue until the last years of Anne's reign, and would dominate both foreign and domestic policy. Soon after her accession, Anne appointed her husband <!--del_lnk--> Lord High Admiral, giving him control of the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>. Anne gave control of the army to Lord Marlborough, whom she appointed <!--del_lnk--> Captain-General. Marlborough also received numerous honours from the Queen; he was created a <a href="../../wp/o/Order_of_the_Garter.htm" title="Order of the Garter">Knight of the Garter</a> and was elevated to the ducal rank. The Duchess of Marlborough was appointed to the post of <!--del_lnk--> Mistress of the Robes, the highest office a lady could attain.<p>Anne's first ministry was primarily Tory; at its head was <!--del_lnk--> Sidney Godolphin, 1st Baron Godolphin. The Whigs—who were, unlike the Tories, vigorous supporters of the War of the Spanish Succession—became much more influential after the Duke of Marlborough won a great victory at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Blenheim in 1704. The Whigs quickly rose to power; soon, due to Marlborough's influence, almost all the Tories were removed from the ministry. Lord Godolphin, although a Tory, allied himself with Marlborough to ensure his continuance in office. Although Lord Godolphin was the nominal head of the ministry, actual power was held by the Duke of Marlborough and by the two <!--del_lnk--> Secretaries of State (<!--del_lnk--> Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland and <!--del_lnk--> Robert Harley). One may observe that Lord Godolphin's son married the Duke of Marlborough's daughter, and that Lord Sunderland was the Duke of Marlborough's son-in-law. Several others benefited from Marlborough's <!--del_lnk--> nepotism.<p><a id="Reign_in_Great_Britain" name="Reign_in_Great_Britain"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reign in Great Britain</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:274px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/520/52084.jpg.htm" title="Half-crown coin of Anne, 1708. The inscription reads ANNA DEI GRATIA (Anne by the Grace of God)"><img alt="Half-crown coin of Anne, 1708. The inscription reads ANNA DEI GRATIA (Anne by the Grace of God)" class="thumbimage" height="276" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Annecoin.jpg" src="../../images/520/52084.jpg" width="272" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"><!--del_lnk--> Half-crown coin of Anne, <!--del_lnk--> 1708. The inscription reads <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ANNA DEI GRATIA</span> (Anne <!--del_lnk--> by the Grace of God)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The next years of Anne's reign were marked by attempts to merge England and Scotland into one realm. When it had passed the Act of Settlement 1701, the English Parliament had neglected to consult with the <!--del_lnk--> Parliament of Scotland or <!--del_lnk--> Estates of Scotland, who, furthermore, sought to preserve the Stuart dynasty. The <!--del_lnk--> Act of Security was passed by Scotland; failing the issue of the Queen, it granted the Estates the power to choose the next Scottish monarch from amongst the Protestant descendants of the royal line of Scotland. The individual chosen by the Estates could not be the same person who came to the English Throne, unless various religious, economic and political conditions were met. Though it was originally not forthcoming, the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Assent was granted when the Scottish Parliament threatened to withdraw Scottish troops from the Duke of Marlborough's army in Europe and refused to impose taxes. The English Parliament — fearing that an independent Scotland would restore the <!--del_lnk--> Auld Alliance (with France) — responded with the <!--del_lnk--> Alien Act 1705, which provided that economic sanctions would be imposed and Scottish subjects would be declared <!--del_lnk--> aliens (putting their right to own property in England into jeopardy), unless Scotland either repealed the Act of Security or moved to unite with England. The Estates chose the latter option, and Commissioners were appointed to negotiate the terms of a union. Articles of Union were approved by the Commissioners on <!--del_lnk--> 22 July <!--del_lnk--> 1706, and were agreed to by the Scottish Parliament on <!--del_lnk--> 16 January <!--del_lnk--> 1707. Under the Act, England and Scotland became one realm called Great Britain on <!--del_lnk--> 1 May <!--del_lnk--> 1707.<p>The Duchess of Marlborough's relationship with Anne deteriorated during 1707. The Duchess had proved a <!--del_lnk--> termagant, and had been undermined by another of the Queen's friends <!--del_lnk--> Abigail Masham. Mrs Masham, a cousin of the Duchess of Marlborough, was also related to one of Anne's Whig ministers, Robert Harley. Through Masham, Harley exerted influence over the Queen. Learning of Harley's new-found power, Lord Godolphin and the Duke of Marlborough grew jealous, seeking his dismissal. Anne was compelled to accept Harley's resignation in 1708. A group of five Whigs — Lord Sunderland, <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Wharton, 1st Earl of Wharton, <!--del_lnk--> John Somers, 1st Baron Somers, <!--del_lnk--> Charles Montagu, 1st Baron Halifax and <!--del_lnk--> Robert Walpole — dominated politics, becoming known as the "<!--del_lnk--> Junto". Also, Harley continued to retain influence with the Queen as a private advisor.<p>Anne's husband, Prince George of Denmark, died in October 1708. His leadership of the <!--del_lnk--> Admiralty was unpopular amongst the Whig leaders; as he lay on his deathbed, some Whigs were preparing to make a motion requesting his removal from the office of Lord High Admiral. Anne was forced to appeal to the Duke of Marlborough to ensure that the motion was not made. After her husband's death, however, Anne grew more distant from the overbearing Duchess of Marlborough, preferring the companionship of the much more respectful Abigail Masham. The Queen terminated their friendship in 1709.<p><a id="Later_years" name="Later_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Later years</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:146px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/520/52071.jpg.htm" title="Queen Anne, by an unknown artist, studio of John Closterman (c. 1702)"><img alt="Queen Anne, by an unknown artist, studio of John Closterman (c. 1702)" class="thumbimage" height="215" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Queen_anne_england.jpg" src="../../images/234/23403.jpg" width="144" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/520/52071.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Queen Anne, by an unknown artist, studio of John Closterman (c. 1702)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The fall of the Whigs came about quickly as the expensive War of the Spanish Succession grew unpopular in England; Robert Harley was particularly skilful in using the issue to motivate the electorate. A public furor was aroused after <!--del_lnk--> Dr Henry Sacheverell, a Tory clergyman who attacked the Whig government for offering toleration to religious dissenters, was prosecuted for <!--del_lnk--> seditious libel. Even more humiliating was the failure of the Whigs to obtain the desired sentence; Dr Sacheverell was merely suspended from preaching for three years, and did not face imprisonment, as some Whigs had hoped. In the general election of 1710, a discontented populace returned a large Tory majority.<p>Marlborough's relatives soon began to lose their offices. Lord Godolphin was removed on <!--del_lnk--> 7 August <!--del_lnk--> 1710; the new ministry was headed by Robert Harley and included <!--del_lnk--> Henry St John. Marlborough was dismissed on charges of misuse of public money. The new Tory government began to seek peace in the War of the Spanish Succession, for (as later events proved) an unmitigated victory for Austria (Great Britain's primary ally) would be just as damaging to British interests as a loss to France. The Tories were ready to compromise by giving Spain to the grandson of the French King, but the Whigs could not bear to see a <!--del_lnk--> Bourbon on the Spanish Throne.<p>The dispute was resolved by outside events: the elder brother of Archduke Charles (whom the Whigs supported) conveniently died in 1711 and Archduke Charles then inherited Austria, Hungary and the throne of the <a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. To also give him the Spanish throne to which he had aspired was no longer in Great Britain's interests, as he would become too powerful. But the proposed <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Utrecht submitted to Parliament for ratification did not go as far as the Whigs wanted to curb Bourbon ambitions. In the House of Commons, the Tory majority was unassailable, but the same was not true in the <a href="../../wp/h/House_of_Lords.htm" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a>. To block the peace plan, the Whigs made an alliance with <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Finch, 2nd Earl of Nottingham and his Tory associates in the Lords. Seeing a need for decisive action, the Queen and her ministry dismissed the Duke of Marlborough, granting the command of British troops to <!--del_lnk--> James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde. To erase the Whig majority in the House of Lords, Anne created twelve new peers, namely Lords <!--del_lnk--> Compton, <!--del_lnk--> Bruce (both by <!--del_lnk--> writ of acceleration), <!--del_lnk--> Hay, <!--del_lnk--> Mountjoy, <!--del_lnk--> Burton, <!--del_lnk--> Mansell, <!--del_lnk--> Middleton, <!--del_lnk--> Trevor, <!--del_lnk--> Lansdowne, <!--del_lnk--> Masham, <!--del_lnk--> Foley and <!--del_lnk--> Bathurst, all on <!--del_lnk--> 1 January <!--del_lnk--> 1712. Such a mass creation of peers was unprecedented; indeed, <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I</a> had granted fewer peerage dignities in almost fifty years than did Anne in a single day.<p>Under the terms of the ratified treaty, Philip, grandson of the French King Louis XIV, was allowed to remain on the Throne of Spain, and was permitted to retain Spain's New World colonies. The rest of the Spanish inheritance, however, was divided amongst various European princes; Great Britain obtained the Spanish territories of <a href="../../wp/g/Gibraltar.htm" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Minorca. Various French colonies in North America were also ceded to Great Britain. Thus ended Great Britain's involvement in the War of the Spanish Succession (as well as Queen Anne's War).<p><a id="Death" name="Death"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Death</span></h2>
<p>Anne died of suppressed <!--del_lnk--> gout, ending in <!--del_lnk--> erysipelas, which then produced an abscess and fever, at approximately 7 o'clock on <!--del_lnk--> 1 August <!--del_lnk--> 1714. Her body was so swollen that it had to be buried in <a href="../../wp/w/Westminster_Abbey.htm" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a> in a vast almost-square coffin.<p>She died shortly after the Electress Sophia (<!--del_lnk--> 8 June of the same year); the Electress's son, <a href="../../wp/g/George_I_of_Great_Britain.htm" title="George I of Great Britain">George I, Elector of Hanover</a>, inherited the British Crown. Pursuant to the <!--del_lnk--> Act of Settlement 1701, the crown was settled on George as Electress Sophia's heir, with the possible Catholic claimants, including James Francis Edward Stuart, ignored. However, the Elector of Hanover's accession was relatively stable: <a href="../../wp/j/Jacobite_rising.htm" title="Jacobite rising">Jacobite risings</a> in 1715 and 1719 both failed.<p><a id="Legacy" name="Legacy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legacy</span></h2>
<p>The reign of Anne was marked by an increase in the influence of ministers and a decrease in the influence of the Crown. In 1708, Anne became the last British Sovereign to withhold the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Assent from a bill (in this case, a <!--del_lnk--> Scots militia bill). Preoccupied with her health (she suffered from <!--del_lnk--> porphyria), Anne allowed her ministers, most notably <!--del_lnk--> Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer, as well as her favourite companions (<!--del_lnk--> Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough and <!--del_lnk--> Abigail Masham) to dominate politics. The shift of power from the Crown to the ministry became even more apparent during the reign of George I, whose chief adviser, Sir <!--del_lnk--> Robert Walpole, is often described as the "first <a href="../../wp/p/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister</a>."<p>In 1709 Anne issued a proclamation to the people of the German <!--del_lnk--> Palatinate of the Rhine known as the <i>Golden Book</i>. In it she urged the population to make their way down the Rhine river to Rotterdam where they would embark on Royal Navy ships and be taken to <!--del_lnk--> British colonies of the Americas. However, the Palatinate had been so devastated by the <a href="../../wp/w/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession.htm" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> that thousands made their way to the <!--del_lnk--> Dutch Republic. As a result, the British government was forced to settle over 3,000 <!--del_lnk--> Germans (800 families in total) in <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, mainly in <!--del_lnk--> County Limerick and <!--del_lnk--> County Wexford, their cause being publicised by the writer <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Defoe. As all of these people were Protestant, they were each given a standard British Army musket affectionately labelled a "Queen Anne Musket". Their descendants live there to this day though their numbers are greatly diminished, with the unique dialect of German virtually extinct.<p>The age of Anne was also one of artistic, literary, and scientific advancement. In architecture, <a href="../../wp/j/John_Vanbrugh.htm" title="John Vanbrugh">Sir John Vanbrugh</a> constructed elegant edifices such as <!--del_lnk--> Blenheim Palace (the home of the Marlboroughs) and <!--del_lnk--> Castle Howard. Writers such as <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Defoe, <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Pope and <!--del_lnk--> Jonathan Swift flourished during Anne's reign. <a href="../../wp/i/Isaac_Newton.htm" title="Isaac Newton">Sir Isaac Newton</a> lived during Anne's reign, although he had reached his most important discoveries under William and Mary. Her name remains associated with the world's first substantial <!--del_lnk--> copyright law, known as the <!--del_lnk--> Statute of Anne (1709), which granted exclusive rights to authors rather than printers.<p>Anne had a fondness for <!--del_lnk--> brandy, which sometimes led to her being known as "Brandy Nan."<p><!--del_lnk--> Queen Anne's County in the state of <!--del_lnk--> Maryland is named for Queen Anne. She was Queen when the county was established in 1706.<p><a id="Titles.2C_Styles.2C_and_Arms" name="Titles.2C_Styles.2C_and_Arms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Titles, Styles, and Arms</span></h2>
<p><a id="Titles" name="Titles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Titles</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> 6 February <!--del_lnk--> 1665-<!--del_lnk--> 28 July <!--del_lnk--> 1683</b>: <i>Her Royal Highness</i> Princess Anne of York<li><b><!--del_lnk--> 28 July <!--del_lnk--> 1683-<!--del_lnk--> 8 March <!--del_lnk--> 1702</b>: <i>Her Royal Highness</i> Princess Anne of Denmark and Norway<li><b><!--del_lnk--> 8 March <!--del_lnk--> 1702-<!--del_lnk--> 1 May <!--del_lnk--> 1707</b>: <i>Her Majesty</i> The Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland<li><b><!--del_lnk--> 1 May <!--del_lnk--> 1707-<!--del_lnk--> 1 August <!--del_lnk--> 1714</b>: <i>Her Majesty</i> The Queen of Great Britain and Ireland</ul>
<p><a id="Styles_and_Arms" name="Styles_and_Arms"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Styles and Arms</span></h3>
<p>The official style of Anne before 1707 was "Anne, by the Grace of God, <!--del_lnk--> Queen of England, <!--del_lnk--> Scotland, <!--del_lnk--> France and <!--del_lnk--> Ireland, <!--del_lnk--> Defender of the Faith, etc." (The claim to <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> was only nominal, and had been asserted by every English King since <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_III_of_England.htm" title="Edward III of England">Edward III</a>, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled.) After the Union, her style was "Anne, by the Grace of God, <!--del_lnk--> Queen of Great Britain, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc."<p>Anne's <a href="../../wp/h/Heraldry.htm" title="Heraldry">arms</a> before the Union were: <i>Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>)</i>. After the Union, the arms of England and Scotland, which had previously been in different quarters, were "impaled," or placed side-by-side, in the same quarter to emphasise that the two countries had become one Kingdom. The new arms were: <i>Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England) impaling Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); II Azure three fleurs-de-lys Or (for France); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland)</i>.<p><a id="Ancestry_and_descent" name="Ancestry_and_descent"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ancestry and descent</span></h2>
<p><a id="Ancestors" name="Ancestors"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ancestors</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable">
<caption><b>Anne's ancestors in three generations</b></caption>
<tr>
<td align="center" rowspan="8"><b>Anne of Great Britain</b></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="4"><b>Father:</b><br /><a href="../../wp/j/James_II_of_England.htm" title="James II of England">James II of England</a></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="2"><b>Paternal Grandfather:</b><br /><a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" title="Charles I of England">Charles I of England</a></td>
<td align="center"><b>Paternal Great-Grandfather:</b><br /><a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James I of England</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><b>Paternal Great-grandmother:</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Anne of Denmark</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" rowspan="2"><b>Paternal Grandmother:</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Henrietta Maria of France</td>
<td align="center"><b>Paternal Great-Grandfather:</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Henry IV of France</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><b>Paternal Great-Grandmother:</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Marie de' Medici</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" rowspan="4"><b>Mother:</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Anne Hyde</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="2"><b>Maternal Grandfather:</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon</td>
<td align="center"><b>Maternal Great-Grandfather:</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Henry Hyde</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><b>Maternal Great-Grandmother:</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Mary Langford</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" rowspan="2"><b>Maternal Grandmother:</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Frances Aylesbury</td>
<td align="center"><b>Maternal Great-grandfather:</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Sir Thomas Aylesbury</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><b>Maternal Great-Grandmother:</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Anne Denman</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Issue" name="Issue"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Issue</span></h3>
<table border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse;">
<tr bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<th>Name</th>
<th>Birth</th>
<th>Death</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="4"><b>By <!--del_lnk--> George of Denmark</b> (<!--del_lnk--> April 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1653–<!--del_lnk--> October 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1708; married in <!--del_lnk--> July 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1683)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Stillborn Daughter</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 12 May <!--del_lnk--> 1684</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 12 May <!--del_lnk--> 1684</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Mary</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2 June <!--del_lnk--> 1685</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 8 February <!--del_lnk--> 1687</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Anne Sophia</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 12 May <!--del_lnk--> 1686</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2 February <!--del_lnk--> 1687</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Stillborn Child</td>
<td>January 1687</td>
<td>January 1687</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Stillborn Son</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 22 October <!--del_lnk--> 1687</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 22 October <!--del_lnk--> 1687</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Stillborn Child</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 16 April <!--del_lnk--> 1688</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 16 April <!--del_lnk--> 1688</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> William, Duke of Gloucester</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 24 July <!--del_lnk--> 1689</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 29 July <!--del_lnk--> 1700</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Mary</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 14 October <!--del_lnk--> 1690</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 14 October <!--del_lnk--> 1690</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>George</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 17 April <!--del_lnk--> 1692</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 17 April <!--del_lnk--> 1692</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Stillborn Daughter</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 23 April <!--del_lnk--> 1693</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 23 April <!--del_lnk--> 1693</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Stillborn Child</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 21 January <!--del_lnk--> 1694</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 21 January <!--del_lnk--> 1694</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Stillborn Daughter</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 18 February <!--del_lnk--> 1696</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 18 February <!--del_lnk--> 1696</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Stillborn Child</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 20 September <!--del_lnk--> 1696</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 20 September <!--del_lnk--> 1696</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Stillborn Child</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 21 September <!--del_lnk--> 1696</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 21 September <!--del_lnk--> 1696</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Stillborn Daughter</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 25 March <!--del_lnk--> 1697</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 25 March <!--del_lnk--> 1697</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Stillborn Child</td>
<td>December 1697</td>
<td>December 1697</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Charles</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 15 September <!--del_lnk--> 1698</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 15 September <!--del_lnk--> 1698</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Stillborn Daughter</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 25 January <!--del_lnk--> 1700</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 25 January <!--del_lnk--> 1700</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_of_Great_Britain"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['William III of England', 'George I of Great Britain', 'James II of England', 'London', 'Westminster Abbey', 'London', 'England', 'Acts of Union 1707', 'George I of Great Britain', 'James II of England', 'William III of England', 'Mary II of England', 'War of the Spanish Succession', 'War of the Spanish Succession', 'London', 'Charles II of England', 'France', 'Charles II of England', 'Scotland', 'Despotism', 'Glorious Revolution', 'Smallpox', 'James I of England', 'War of the Spanish Succession', 'Louis XIV of France', 'Smallpox', 'North America', 'Royal Navy', 'Order of the Garter', 'Holy Roman Empire', 'House of Lords', 'Elizabeth I of England', 'Gibraltar', 'Westminster Abbey', 'George I of Great Britain', 'Jacobite rising', 'Prime Minister of the United Kingdom', 'War of the Spanish Succession', 'Ireland', 'John Vanbrugh', 'Isaac Newton', 'France', 'Edward III of England', 'Heraldry', 'France', 'England', 'Scotland', 'Ireland', 'James II of England', 'Charles I of England', 'James I of England'] |
Annibale_Bugnini | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Annibale Bugnini,1912,1936,1948,1959,1960,1964,1976,1982,2006,Anti-clericalism" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Annibale Bugnini</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Annibale_Bugnini";
var wgTitle = "Annibale Bugnini";
var wgArticleId = 5566070;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Annibale_Bugnini">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Annibale Bugnini</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Religious_figures_and_leaders.htm">Religious figures and leaders</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<p><b>Archbishop Annibale Bugnini</b>, <!--del_lnk--> C.M. (<!--del_lnk--> 14 June <!--del_lnk--> 1912–<!--del_lnk--> 3 July <!--del_lnk--> 1982) was a main architect of the <!--del_lnk--> liturgical reforms in the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> in the second half of the Twentieth century. He was a controversial figure due to what were seen as two sudden departures from high office. It was rumoured that he was a Freemason, and that this influenced both the departures from office and the "modernising" directions of the liturgical reforms.<p>He also became the Papal ambassador to <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> and wrote a history of <!--del_lnk--> Christianity in Iran.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
<p>Annibale Bugnini was born in <!--del_lnk--> Civitella del Lago in <!--del_lnk--> Umbria. In 1928 he began his theological studies with the <!--del_lnk--> Congregation of the Mission,. He was ordained <!--del_lnk--> priest on <!--del_lnk--> 26 July <!--del_lnk--> 1936 and spent ten years in parish work in a <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Roman</a> suburb. From 1947 became involved in the production of the missionary publications of his order and at the same time became the first editor of <i><!--del_lnk--> Ephemerides Liturgicæ</i>.From 1949 he taught Liturgical Studies at the <!--del_lnk--> Pontifical Urban College (now the Pontifical Urban University), later becoming a professor at the <!--del_lnk--> Pontifical Lateran University.<p><a id="Serving_Pius_XII" name="Serving_Pius_XII"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Serving Pius XII</span></h2>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1948, <a href="../../wp/p/Pope_Pius_XII.htm" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a> appointed him Secretary to the <!--del_lnk--> Commission for Liturgical Reform. This body was responsible for the reform of the rites for the <!--del_lnk--> Easter Vigil (1951) and then for the whole of <!--del_lnk--> Holy Week (1955). It went on to reform the <!--del_lnk--> Code of Rubrics (1960) which affected both the <!--del_lnk--> Mass and the <!--del_lnk--> Divine Office before producing new editions of the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Breviary and <!--del_lnk--> Roman Missal in 1962.<p><a id="Vatican_II_and_the_Consilium" name="Vatican_II_and_the_Consilium"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Vatican II and the Consilium</span></h2>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> January 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1959, <!--del_lnk--> Pope John XXIII announced the Second Vatican Council and on <!--del_lnk--> June 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1960, Fr. Bugnini was appointed the Secretary of the Pontifical Preparatory Commission on the Liturgy. This body drafted the document that would become <i><!--del_lnk--> Sacrosanctum Concilium</i>, the Council's Constitution on the Liturgy. There was considerable shock when John XXIII did not in 1962 appoint Fr Bugnini as Secretary to the Conciliar Commission on the Liturgy - which would guide the document through the debates of the Council - for the Secretaries of all the other Preparatory Commissions had been so appointed. At the same time Fr Bugnini was discharged from his teaching post at the Lateran University. He complained of this (his "first exile") in his memoirs:<dl>
<dd><i>The basis for the dismissals was the charge of being a "progressivist", "pushy", and an "iconoclast" (innuendos whispered half-aloud), accusations then echoed in turn by the Congregation of Rites, the Congregation of Seminaries, and the Holy Office. But no proof was offered, no clear justification for such serious measures.</i></dl>
<p>Fr Alfons Stickler <!--del_lnk--> S.D.B. (later Cardinal) was appointed as a <i><!--del_lnk--> peritus</i> to the Conciliar Commission. In an article first published in 1997 he gave an alternative version of events.<dl>
<dd><i>Now, Fr. Bugnini had been secretary of the Council's Preparatory Commission for the Liturgy. Because his work had not been satisfactory-it had taken place under the direction of Cardinal Gaetano Cicognani-he was not promoted to secretary of the Conciliar Commission...An organized group of liturgists represented this neglect to Paul VI as an injustice against Fr. Bugnini, and they managed to see that the new Pope, who was very sensitive to such procedures, righted that "injustice" by naming Fr. Bugnini as secretary of the new Consilium responsible for the implementation of the reform.</i></dl>
<p>For all his laments, the Council - for which Fr Bugnini was appointed as a <i>peritus</i> (albeit not directly to the Liturgical Commission) - did vote <i>Sacrosanctum Concilium</i> through and in pretty much the form it had been drafted by the Preparatory Commission. On <!--del_lnk--> January 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1964, the new Pope Paul VI appointed him as Secretary of the Consilium for the Implementation of the Constitution on the Liturgy ("the Consilium" for short). This was the body which completely transformed the shape of the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Rite. It drafted the decrees that had the effect of making the use of vernacular languages in the liturgy nearly universal, displacing the near universality of <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a>.<p><a id="After_Consilium" name="After_Consilium"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">After Consilium</span></h2>
<p>Rumours started to appear in the Italian press that Bugnini was a <!--del_lnk--> Freemason — a serious accusation when made against a senior Catholic churchman. Some Catholics — <!--del_lnk--> Traditionalists in particular — have seen in Bugnini's alleged Masonic connections an explanation for what they regard as the excessively liberal or <!--del_lnk--> Modernistic course of the liturgical reform. Bugnini, however, was certainly not the only member of Consilium (or the only Catholic liturgist) with liberal ideas. Bugnini acknowledged the existence of the accusations in his memoirs and denied them vehemently.<p>The Sacred Congregation of Divine Worship, Bugnini's Curial department, was abruptlymerged with the <!--del_lnk--> Congregation for the Sacraments, and his position ceased to exist. The Vatican made no denial of the rumours concerning the grounds for his dismissal.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> English Traditionalist Catholic writer, <!--del_lnk--> Michael Davies, investigated the subject for his series of books on Catholic liturgical reform. In an article published in the Australian Catholic monthly <i>AD2000</i>, Davies claimed that Paul VI dismissed Bugnini because of evidence purporting to prove that Bugnini was a Freemason. Davies also claims that after contacting the priest who had the evidence given to the Pope that the Vatican kept the denunciation secret but that the dismissal from his post was evidence enough. In a later issue the Australian seminary professor <!--del_lnk--> Father Brian Harrison claimed that Bugnini left a briefcase in a conference room with the evidence.<p>Bugnini himself while acknowledging the accusations in his memoir, strongly denied them. In October 1976, following the circulation of a separate list of alleged Freemasons in curial posts which included Bugnini, the Vatican issued a general denial that senior churchmen were involved in Freemasonry.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 4 January <!--del_lnk--> 1976, Bugnini's transfer to Iran was announced. He was obliged to leave his memoirs of the reform temporarily incomplete although he later finished them. Not only did he deal with the ordinary business of any papal delegation, but he also studied and acquired knowledge of the country, its history, and its cultural, religious, and social traditions. The result was his book <i>La Chiesa in Iran</i> ("The Church in Iran").<p><a id="Death" name="Death"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Death</span></h2>
<p>Archbishop Annibale Bugnini died in Rome at the Pius XI Clinic on <!--del_lnk--> July 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1982, the <!--del_lnk--> Feast of St Irenaeus (formerly that of <!--del_lnk--> St Leo II) in the calendar he helped to abolish and the <!--del_lnk--> Feast of St. Thomas the Apostle in the calendar he introduced. He was 70 years old.<p><a id="Controversy" name="Controversy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Controversy</span></h2>
<p>The reforms following the <!--del_lnk--> Second Vatican Council provoked a storm of protest, and although <!--del_lnk--> Pope Paul VI was responsible for approving them, Bugnini endured the brunt of the attacks. In 1975, he was removed from his post as a senior Vatican liturgist, by the simple expedient of abolishing the <!--del_lnk--> Curial Congregation to which he belonged. It was reported that Paul VI had been presented with evidence that he was a <!--del_lnk--> Freemason. Bugnini acknowledged the existence of this allegation, but always denied that he had Masonic connections, and the alleged evidence was never made public. In 1976 he was sent as <!--del_lnk--> Apostolic Pro-Nuncio to <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a>, a post for which none of his previous career had apparently prepared him.<p>Since the course of Bugnini's career was determined by the shifting arrangements of the Roman Curia, it is important to lay out the progress of changes. In 1969 the Sacred Congregation of Rites (SCR) was dissolved and its liturgical functions were assigned to the new Sacred Congregation for Divine Worship (SCDW). Fr Bugnini was appointed Secretary. However six years later in 1975 the SCDW was itself dissolved at the same time as the Sacred Congregation for the Discipline of the Sacraments (SCDS) in order to form the Sacred Congregation for the Sacraments and Divine Worship (SCSDW).<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annibale_Bugnini"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Roman Catholic Church', 'Iran', 'Rome', 'Pope Pius XII', 'Latin', 'Iran'] |
Anno_Domini | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Anno Domini,Anno Domini,1806,1943,2005,2006,525,9,AD (disambiguation),Ab urbe condita,Afghanistan" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Anno Domini</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Anno_Domini";
var wgTitle = "Anno Domini";
var wgArticleId = 1400;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Anno_Domini">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Anno Domini</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/274.jpg.htm" title="Dionysius Exiguus invented Anno Domini years to date Easter."><img alt="Dionysius Exiguus invented Anno Domini years to date Easter." height="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Scriptorium.jpg" src="../../images/2/274.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"><!--del_lnk--> Dionysius Exiguus invented <i>Anno Domini</i> years to <!--del_lnk--> date Easter.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><i><b>Anno Domini</b></i> (<a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a>: "In the year of (Our) Lord"), abbreviated as <b>AD</b>, defines an <!--del_lnk--> epoch based on the traditionally-reckoned year of the conception or birth of <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus of Nazareth</a>. Similarly, <b>Before Christ</b> (from the <!--del_lnk--> Ancient Greek "<!--del_lnk--> Christos" or "<a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Anointed One</a>", referring to Jesus), abbreviated as <b>BC</b>, is used in the <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English language</a> to denote years before the start of this epoch. Some non-Christians use the abbreviations AD and BC without intending to acknowledge the <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christian</a> connotation. Some people prefer the alternatives '<!--del_lnk--> CE' and 'BCE', arguing that they are more neutral terms (see <a href="#Common_Era" title="">below</a>).<p>The designation is used to number years in the <b>Christian Era</b>, conventionally used with the <!--del_lnk--> Julian and <!--del_lnk--> Gregorian calendars. More fully, years may be also specified as <i>Anno Domini Nostri Iesu Christi</i> ("In the Year of Our Lord Jesus Christ"). 'Anno Domini' dating was first calculated in <!--del_lnk--> 525 and began to be adopted in <!--del_lnk--> Western Europe during the <!--del_lnk--> eighth century.<p>The numbering of years per the Christian era is currently dominant in many places around the world, in both commercial and scientific use. For decades, it has been the global standard, recognized by international institutions such as the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Universal Postal Union. This is due to the prevalence of <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> Western world, the great influence of the Western world on science, technology and commerce, as well as the fact that the solar <!--del_lnk--> Gregorian calendar has, for a long time, been considered to be astronomically correct.<p><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> copies Latin usage by placing the abbreviation <i>before</i> the year number for AD, but <i>after</i> the year number for BC; for example: 64 BC, but AD 2006.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="History_of_Anno_Domini" name="History_of_Anno_Domini"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History of <i>Anno Domini</i></span></h2>
<p>Early Christians designated the year via a combination of <!--del_lnk--> consular dating, imperial regnal year dating, and <!--del_lnk--> Creation dating. Use of consular dating ended when the emperor <!--del_lnk--> Justinian I discontinued appointing consuls in the mid sixth century, requiring the use of imperial regnal dating shortly thereafter. The last consul nominated was <!--del_lnk--> Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius in 541. The <a href="../../wp/p/Pope.htm" title="Papacy">papacy</a> was in regular contact throughout the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> with envoys of the <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> world, and had a clear idea — sudden deaths and deposals notwithstanding — of who was the <!--del_lnk--> Byzantine emperor at any one time.<p>The <i>Anno Domini</i> system was developed by a monk named <!--del_lnk--> Dionysius Exiguus (born in <!--del_lnk--> Scythia Minor) in Rome in 525, as an outcome of his work on calculating the <!--del_lnk--> date of Easter. Dionysius, in his Easter table, equates the year AD 532 with the <!--del_lnk--> regnal year 248 of Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Diocletian; in his cover letter he equates the year AD 525 with the consulate of Probus Junior. "However, nowhere in his exposition of his table does Dionysius relate <b>his epoch</b> to any other dating system, whether consulate, Olympiad, year of the world, or regnal year of Augustus; much less does he explain or justify the underlying date" [emphasis added] (Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, 778). Blackburn & Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended for the Nativity or Incarnation.<p>Among the sources of confusion mentioned by Blackburn & Holford-Strevens (2003, 778–779) are:<ul>
<li>In modern times Incarnation is synonymous with conception, but some ancient writers, such as Bede, considered Incarnation to be synonymous with the Nativity<li>The civil, or consular year began on <!--del_lnk--> 1 January but the Diocletian year began on <!--del_lnk--> 29 August<li>There were inaccuracies in the list of consuls<li>There were confused summations of emperors' regnal years</ul>
<p>Another calculation had been developed by the <!--del_lnk--> Alexandrian monk <!--del_lnk--> Annianus around the year AD 400, placing the Annunciation on <!--del_lnk--> March 25, AD <!--del_lnk--> 9 (Julian) — eight to ten years after the date that Dionysius later calculated. This <i>Era of Incarnation</i> was dominant in the East during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire, and is still used today in <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, accounting for the 8 or 7-year discrepancy between the Gregorian and the <!--del_lnk--> Ethiopian calendar.<p>Byzantine chroniclers like <!--del_lnk--> Theophanes continued to date each year in their world chronicles on a different Judaeo-Christian basis — from the notional <!--del_lnk--> creation of the World as calculated by Christian scholars in the first five centuries of the Christian era. These eras, sometimes called <i><!--del_lnk--> Anno Mundi</i>, "year of the world" (abbreviated AM), by modern scholars, had their own disagreements. No single <i>Anno Mundi</i> epoch was dominant. One popular formulation was that established by <!--del_lnk--> Eusebius of Caesarea, a historian at the time of <!--del_lnk--> Constantine I. The <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> translator <!--del_lnk--> Jerome helped popularize Eusebius's AM count in the West.<p><a id="Accuracy" name="Accuracy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Accuracy</span></h3>
<p>"Although scholars generally believe that Christ was born some years before A.D. 1, the historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating" (Doggett 1992, 579). According to the <!--del_lnk--> Gospel of Matthew (2:1,16) <!--del_lnk--> Herod the Great was alive when <!--del_lnk--> Jesus was born, and ordered the <!--del_lnk--> Massacre of the Innocents in response to his birth. Blackburn & Holford-Strevens fix Herod's death shortly before Passover in 4 BC (2003, 770), and say that those who accept the story of the Massacre of the Innocents sometimes associate the star that led the <!--del_lnk--> Biblical Magi with the <!--del_lnk--> planetary conjunction of 15 September 7 BC or <a href="../../wp/c/Comet_Halley.htm" title="Comet Halley">Halley's comet</a> of 12 BC; even historians who do not accept the Massacre accept birth under Herod as a tradition older than the written gospels (p. 776).<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Gospel of Luke (1:5) states that <!--del_lnk--> John the Baptist was at least conceived, if not born, under Herod, and that Christ was conceived while John's mother was in the sixth month of her pregnancy (1:26). Luke's Gospel also states that Christ was born during the reign of <a href="../../wp/a/Augustus.htm" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> and while <!--del_lnk--> Quirinius was the governor of <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a> (2:1-2), . Blackburn and Holford-Strevens (2003, 770) indicate Quirinius' governorship of Syria began in AD 6, which is incompatible with conception in 4 BC, and say that "St. Luke raises greater difficulty....Most critics therefore discard Luke" (p. 776). Some scholars rely on <!--del_lnk--> John's Gospel to place Christ's birth in c.18 BC (Blackburn and Holford-Strevens 2003, 776).<p><a id="Popularization" name="Popularization"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Popularization</span></h3>
<p>The first historian or chronicler to use Anno Domini as his primary dating mechanism was <!--del_lnk--> Victor of Tonnenna, an African chronicler of the seventh century. A few generations later, the <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon historian <a href="../../wp/b/Bede.htm" title="Bede">Bede</a>, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius, also used Anno Domini dating in his <i>Ecclesiastical History of the English People,</i> finished in 731. In this same history, he was the first to use the Latin equivalent of <i>before Christ</i> and established the standard for historians of no <!--del_lnk--> year zero, even though he used zero in his <!--del_lnk--> computus. Both Dionysius and Bede regarded Anno Domini as beginning at the incarnation of Jesus, but "the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was not drawn until the late ninth century, when in some places the Incarnation epoch was identified with Christ's conception, i.e. the <!--del_lnk--> Annunciation on 25 March" (<i>Annunciation style</i>) (Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 881).<p>On the continent of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the <!--del_lnk--> Carolingian Renaissance by <!--del_lnk--> Alcuin. This endorsement by <a href="../../wp/c/Charlemagne.htm" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> and <!--del_lnk--> his successors popularizing the usage of the epoch and spreading it throughout the <!--del_lnk--> Carolingian Empire ultimately lies at the core of the system's prevalence until present times.<p>Outside the Carolingian Empire, Spain continued to date by the <!--del_lnk--> Era of the Caesars, or <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Era, well into the Middle Ages, which counted beginning with 38 BC. The <!--del_lnk--> Era of Martyrs, which numbered years from the accession of <!--del_lnk--> Diocletian in 284, who launched the last yet most severe persecution of Christians, prevailed in the East and is still used officially by the <!--del_lnk--> Coptic and used to be used by the <!--del_lnk--> Ethiopian church. Another system was to date from the <!--del_lnk--> crucifixion of Jesus Christ, which as early as <!--del_lnk--> Hippolytus and <!--del_lnk--> Tertullian was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini (AD 29), which appears in the occasional medieval manuscript.<p>Most Syriac manuscripts written at the end of the 19th century still gave the date in the end-note using the "year of the Greeks" (Anno Graecorum = <!--del_lnk--> Seleucid era).<p>Even though Anno Domini was in widespread use by the ninth century, Before Christ (or its equivalent) did not become widespread until the late fifteenth century.<p><a id="Other_eras_in_official_use" name="Other_eras_in_official_use"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Other eras in official use</span></h2>
<p>Some other eras were in official use in <!--del_lnk--> modern times or are still in use in several countries alongside the current international Anno Domini era.<p><a id="Asian_national_eras" name="Asian_national_eras"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Asian national eras</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>The official <!--del_lnk--> Japanese system numbers years from the accession of the current <!--del_lnk--> emperor, regarding the calendar year during which the accession occurred as the first year. The current emperor is <!--del_lnk--> Heisei <!--del_lnk--> Akihito, whose reign began in 1989. Thus that year corresponds to Heisei 1 <span style="font-weight: normal">(<span class="t_nihongo_kanji" lang="ja" xml:lang="ja">平成元年</span><span class="t_nihongo_comma" style="display:none">,</span> <i><span class="t_nihongo_romaji">Heisei gannen</span></i><span class="t_nihongo_help"><sup><!--del_lnk--> <span class="t_nihongo_icon" style="color:#00e;font:bold 80% sans-serif;text-decoration:none;padding:0 .1em;">?</span></sup></span>, or "first year")</span>.<li>It is still very common in <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> to date events via the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_China.htm" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a> era, whose first year is 1912. (<!--del_lnk--> Microsoft 2006 confirms 1912 date.)<li><a href="../../wp/n/North_Korea.htm" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> uses a system that starts in 1912 (= <!--del_lnk--> Juche 1), the year of the birth of its founder <!--del_lnk--> Kim Il-Sung. The year 2004 was "Juche 93". <i>Juche</i> means <i>"<!--del_lnk--> autarchy, self-reliance"</i>.<li>In <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> in 1888 King <!--del_lnk--> Chulalongkorn decreed a National Thai Era since founding of <a href="../../wp/b/Bangkok.htm" title="Bangkok">Bangkok</a> on April 6,1782. In 1912 the New Year's Day was shifted to April 1. In 1941, the Prime Minister <!--del_lnk--> Phibunsongkhram decided to count the years since 543 BC. This is the so-called <!--del_lnk--> Thai solar calendar or Thailand Buddhist Era clearly relied on the western solar calendar. This is one of the versions of the <!--del_lnk--> Buddhist calendar.<li>In <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, the traditional <!--del_lnk--> Saka era, using an epoch of AD 78 is the official calendar. However, the Gregorian calendar is the <i><!--del_lnk--> de facto</i> calendar and is commonly used. Government documents usually display a dual date.</ul>
<p><a id="Religious_eras" name="Religious_eras"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Religious eras</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>In <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a>, the traditional <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_calendar.htm" title="Hebrew calendar">Hebrew calendar</a>, using an era <!--del_lnk--> dating from Creation, is the official calendar. However, the Gregorian calendar is the <i>de facto</i> calendar and is commonly used. Government documents usually display a dual date.<li>In the <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islamic</a> world, traditional <!--del_lnk--> Islamic dating according to the <i>Anno Hegiræ</i> (in the year of the <i><!--del_lnk--> hijra</i>) or <i>AH</i> era remains in use to a varying extent, especially for religious purposes. The official <!--del_lnk--> Iranian calendar (used in <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> as well as <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a>) also dates from the <i>hijra</i>, but as it is a <!--del_lnk--> solar calendar its year numbering does not coincide with the religious calendar.<li>In <a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, the traditional <!--del_lnk--> Hindu calendar, using an epoch of 23rd January 3102 BC is the official calendar. it is also referred to as kali era.</ul>
<p><a id="European_attempts" name="European_attempts"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">European attempts</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>The <a href="../../wp/f/French_Revolution.htm" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> attempted to displace the Anno Domini system by instead dating from 22 September 1792 = 1 <i>vendémiaire an I</i> of the <!--del_lnk--> First French Republic. (<i>see</i> <!--del_lnk--> French Republican Calendar). Napoléon finally abolished the calendar effective <!--del_lnk--> 1 January <!--del_lnk--> 1806, the day after 10 <i>nivôse an XIV</i>.<li>Similarly, <!--del_lnk--> Czechoslovakia attempted to use a revolutionary calendar, but kept only the months in the end, accepting the use of the AD years.<li>The <a href="../../wp/f/Fascism.htm" title="Fascism">Italian Fascists</a> used the standard system along with <!--del_lnk--> Roman numerals to denote the number of years since the establishment of the Fascist government in 1922. Therefore, 1934, for example, was Year XII. This era was abolished with the fall of fascism in Italy on <!--del_lnk--> July 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1943.</ul>
<p><a id="Synonyms" name="Synonyms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Synonyms</span></h2>
<p><a id="Common_Era" name="Common_Era"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Common Era</span></h3>
<p>Anno Domini is sometimes referred to as the <!--del_lnk--> Common Era (<i>C.E.</i> or <i>CE</i>). This term is often preferred by those who desire a term unrelated to religious conceptions of time. For example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that "B.C.E./C.E. ... do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B.C./A.D." The <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>, founded in 1949, adopted Western years, calling that era <i>gōngyuán</i>, 公元, which literally means Common Era.<p><a id="Anno_Salutis" name="Anno_Salutis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Anno Salutis</span></h3>
<p>Anno Salutis (often translated from <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> as <i>in the year of salvation</i>) is a <!--del_lnk--> dating style used up until the eighteenth century, which like Anno Domini dates years from the birth of Jesus. It can be explained in the context of Christian belief, where the birth of Jesus saved mankind from <!--del_lnk--> eternal damnation. It is often used in a more elaborate form such as Anno Nostrae Salutis (<i>in the year of our salvation</i>), Anno Salutis Humanae (<i>in the year of the salvation of men</i>), Anno Reparatae Salutis (<i>in the year of accomplished salvation</i>).<p><a id="Numbering_of_years" name="Numbering_of_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Numbering of years</span></h2>
<p>Historians do not use a <!--del_lnk--> year zero — AD 1 is the first year or epoch of the Anno Domini era, and 1 BC immediately precedes it as the first year before the epoch. This is a problem with some calculations; so in <!--del_lnk--> astronomical year numbering a zero is added, and the 'AD' and 'BC' are dropped. In keeping with 'standard decimal numbering', a negative sign '−' is added for earlier years, so counting down from year 2 would give 2, 1, 0, −1, −2, and so on. This results in a one-year shift between the two systems (eg −1 equals 2 BC). However, civil usage still omits the idea of a year zero.<p><a id="Earlier_calendar_epochs" name="Earlier_calendar_epochs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Earlier calendar epochs</span></h2>
<p><i>Anno Domini</i> dating was not adopted in Western Europe until the eighth century. Like the other inhabitants of the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, early Christians used one of several methods to indicate a specific year — and it was not uncommon for more than one to be used in the same document. This redundancy allows historians to construct parallel regnal lists for many kingdoms and polities by comparing chronicles from different regions, which include the same rulers.<p><a id="Consular_dating" name="Consular_dating"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Consular dating</span></h3>
<p>The earliest and most common practice was Roman and Greek '<!--del_lnk--> consular' dating. This involved naming both <i>consules ordinarii</i> who had been appointed to this office on <!--del_lnk--> January 2 of the civil year. Sometimes one or both consuls might not be appointed until November or December of the previous year, and news of the appointment may not have reached parts of the Roman empire for several months into the current year; thus we find the occasional inscription where the year is defined as "after the consulate" of a pair of consuls.<p><a id="Dating_from_the_founding_of_Rome" name="Dating_from_the_founding_of_Rome"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Dating from the founding of Rome</span></h3>
<p>Another method of dating, rarely used, was to indicate the year <i><!--del_lnk--> anno urbis conditae</i>, or "in the year of the founded city" (abbreviated AUC), where "the City" meant <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a>. (It is often incorrectly given that AUC stands for <i><!--del_lnk--> ab urbe condita</i>, which is the title of T. Livy's history of Rome.) Several epochs were in use by Roman historians. Modern historians usually adopt the epoch of <!--del_lnk--> Varro, which we place in 753 BC.<p>About AD 400, the Iberian historian <!--del_lnk--> Orosius used the <i>ab urbe condita</i> era. Pope <!--del_lnk--> Boniface IV (about AD 600) may have been the first to use both the <i>ab urbe condita</i> era and the <i>Anno Domini</i> era (he put AD 607 = AUC 1360).<p><a id="Regnal_years_of_Roman_emperors" name="Regnal_years_of_Roman_emperors"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Regnal years of Roman emperors</span></h3>
<p>Another system that is less commonly found than thought was to use the <!--del_lnk--> regnal year of the <!--del_lnk--> Roman emperor. At first, <!--del_lnk--> Augustus would indicate the year of his rule by counting how many times he had held the office of consul, and how many times the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Senate had granted him <!--del_lnk--> Tribunican powers, carefully observing the fiction that his powers came from these offices granted to him, rather than from his own person or the many <!--del_lnk--> legions under his control. His successors followed his practice until the memory of the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Republic faded (late in the second century or early in the third century), when they openly began to use their regnal year.<p><a id="Indiction_cycles" name="Indiction_cycles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Indiction cycles</span></h3>
<p>Another common system was to use the <!--del_lnk--> indiction cycle (15 indictions made up an agricultural tax cycle, an indiction being a year in duration). Documents and events began to be dated by the year of the cycle (e.g., "fifth indiction", "tenth indiction") in the fourth century, and was used long after the tax was no longer collected. This system was used in <!--del_lnk--> Gaul, in <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, and in most parts of <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a> until the <!--del_lnk--> Islamic conquest, and in the <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> until its conquest in 1453.<p><a id="Other_dating_systems" name="Other_dating_systems"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other dating systems</span></h3>
<p>A great many local systems or <!--del_lnk--> eras were also important, for example the year from the foundation of one particular city, the regnal year of the neighboring <!--del_lnk--> Persian emperor, and eventually even the year of the reigning <!--del_lnk--> Caliph. The beginning of the numbered year also varied from place to place, and was not largely standardized in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> (except <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>) as <!--del_lnk--> January 1 until the sixteenth century. The most important of these include the <!--del_lnk--> Seleucid era (in use until the eighth century), and the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish era (in use in official documents in <!--del_lnk--> Aragon, <!--del_lnk--> Valencia, and in <!--del_lnk--> Castile, into the fourteenth century. In 1422, <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> became the last <!--del_lnk--> Western European country to adopt the <i>Anno Domini</i> era).<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Note</span></h2>
<div class="references-small">
<ol class="references">
<li id="_note-0"><b>^</b> Blackburn & Lolford-Strevens p. 782<li id="_note-gregorian"><b>^</b> The mean year of the Gregorian calendar is 365.2425 days. This approximated the mean tropical year, more than five millennia ago. The real (mean) <!--del_lnk--> tropical year is now very close to 365.2421875 days i.e. 27s/year shorter. However, relative to the <!--del_lnk--> vernal equinox year, important for the determination of the date of Christian <!--del_lnk--> Easter, the older <!--del_lnk--> Lilius definition of the year is and will be a very good value. The <i>vernal equinox year</i> and the <i>mean tropical year</i> have falsely been seen as identical, even by many erudite persons of the 20th century.</ol>
<ul>
<li>The approximation of the year in the old <!--del_lnk--> Persian calendar attributed to <!--del_lnk--> Omar Khayyám is 365.24<font style="text-decoration: overline">24</font> days, which is very close to the vernal equinox year, but requires a 33-year cycle.<li>The definition of <!--del_lnk--> Milutin Milanković, used in the "<!--del_lnk--> revised Julian calendar", is 365.24<font style="text-decoration: overline">22</font> days, which is very close to the mean tropical year, but uses unequal long-period cycles.<li>Despite common belief, AD does <i>not</i> represent After Death.</ul>
</div>
<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Latin', 'Jesus', 'Jesus', 'English language', 'Christianity', 'United Nations', 'Christianity', 'English language', 'Papacy', 'Middle Ages', 'Byzantine Empire', 'Ethiopia', 'Latin', 'Comet Halley', 'Augustus', 'Syria', 'Bede', 'Europe', 'Charlemagne', 'Taiwan', 'Republic of China', 'North Korea', 'Thailand', 'Bangkok', 'India', 'Israel', 'Hebrew calendar', 'Islam', 'Afghanistan', 'Iran', 'Hinduism', 'French Revolution', 'Fascism', "People's Republic of China", 'Latin', 'Roman Empire', 'Rome', 'Egypt', 'Greece', 'Eastern Roman Empire', 'Europe', 'England', 'Portugal'] |
Annual_Review_2005 | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en">
<head>
<title>SOS Children Charity Annual review 2005</title>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" />
<meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." />
<meta name="robots" content="all" />
<meta name="keywords" content="children charity" />
<meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." />
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" />
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/s/Sos.css" media="screen" />
</head>
<body>
<div id="container">
<div id="header">
<div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div>
<div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div>
<div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div>
</div>
<div id="page">
<div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a> > <a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm">Every Penny Counts</a> > <strong>Annual review 2005</strong></div>
<div id="col">
<div id="nav">
<span class="boxtop"></span>
<ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">Charity News</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a>
<ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/f/Facts_Figures.htm">Facts & Figures</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Friends.htm">Our Friends</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Partners.htm">Our Partners</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm" id="selected">Every Penny Counts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Projects.htm">Projects</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul>
<span class="boxbot"></span>
</div>
<!-- NEWS --><!-- ENDNEWS -->
</div>
<div id="content">
<h2>Annual Review 2005</h2>
<img src="../../wp/s/SOS_Childrens1.jpg" width="357" height="343" alt="SOS Children Annual Review" class="left" /><p>Dear Friends, </p><p><strong>We are pleased to bring you the 2005 Annual Report for SOS Children’s Villages.</strong> </p><p>Ongoing work to restore lives after the tsunami on Boxing Day 2004; the G8 summit and renewed commitments for Africa; and the devastating Kashmir earthquake meant that 2005 brought more challenges for SOS Children. It goes without saying, that along with these priorities, we continued to care for the 60,000 children living in our children’s villages and were able also to support almost a million in the community.</p><p>Our post-tsunami work was awarded top marks by UN-Habitat during a post-event evaluation of work carried out in the centre of the tsunami region at Banda Aceh, Indonesia, (only a third of agencies studied achieved this). In our review we look at our post-tsunami work and see how lives have been rebuilt. </p><p>As a result of your kind donations, we have raised enough money to construct the first SOS Children’s Village funded entirely by UK supporters. The SOS Children’s Village Basse, in The Gambia will create a new home for orphaned, abandoned and destitute children. We are also constructing a new SOS Primary School in Basse which will help educate 420 children aged 6-12 in an area where schooling is almost non-existent.</p><img src="../../wp/u/Untitled7.jpg" width="650" height="388" alt="2005 saw reduced costs for SOS Children and doubling of our UK Income" class="right" /><p>Following the Kashmir earthquake on 8 October 2005, SOS Children has provided support to thousands of affected people and will continue to do so for the long-term through our unique children’s villages. Pervez Musharraf, President of Pakistan, commented in an interview that <strong>“SOS Children’s Villages is the best custodian of our Kashmiri children”</strong>. SOS Children has had villages in Pakistan for thirty years and supported families since the earthquake by providing essential supplies and shelter.</p><p>From a fundraising perspective, our decision to shift emphasis to the internet has been very successful, with more than a thousand new sponsors and many donations coming in during 2005 and into 2006. The cost of finding new donors via the internet is less than 1p per pound received and we continue to grow very inexpensively. As a result we achieved the unusual feat of doubling our income in 2005 from 2004! We would particularly like to thank those other supporters who have helped this by linking to our website and generating traffic to <strong>www.soschildren.org</strong> </p><p>With best wishes </p><p><strong>Andrew Cates</strong><br />Chief Executive<br />SOS Children’s Villages UK</p><p><a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_2.htm">next page of annual review</a>.</p>
</div>
<table style="margin-left: 50px; clear:both;">
<tr>
<td style="vertical-align:middle">
<a href="../../index.htm"><image src="../../Wikipedia-logo-100-matte-ffcc66.gif" width="100px" height="100px" alt="Schools Wikipedia"></a>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle">
<a href="../../index.htm">Return to Schools Wikipedia Home page</a>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="clearboth"></div>
</div>
<div id="footer">
<span id="botright"></span>
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> | <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> | 01223 365589 | <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p>
<p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p>
<p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.'] |
Annual_Review_2005_Page_10 | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en">
<head>
<title>SOS Children Charity Annual review 2005</title>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" />
<meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." />
<meta name="robots" content="all" />
<meta name="keywords" content="children charity" />
<meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." />
<style type="text/css" media="all">@import "../../wp/s/Sos.css";</style>
<style type="text/css" media="all">@import "../../wp/v/Video.css";</style>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" />
</head>
<body>
<div id="container">
<div id="header">
<div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div>
<div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div>
<div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div>
</div>
<div id="page">
<div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a> > <a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm">Every Penny Counts</a> > <strong>Annual Review 2005 Page 10</strong></div>
<div id="col">
<div id="nav">
<span class="boxtop"></span>
<ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">Charity News</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a>
<ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/f/Facts_Figures.htm">Facts & Figures</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Friends.htm">Our Friends</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Partners.htm">Our Partners</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm" id="selected">Every Penny Counts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Projects.htm">Projects</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul>
<span class="boxbot"></span>
</div>
<!-- NEWS --><!-- ENDNEWS -->
</div>
<div id="content">
<h2>Annual Review 2005</h2>
<h3>OUR THANKS</h3>
<p>Our unique work, caring for orphaned and abandoned children, would not be possible without our supporters. SOS Children has been fortunate enough to work with a number of different companies, trusts, organisations, schools, groups and individuals, to whom we extend our warmest thanks for your assistance, encouragement and commitment. These partnerships allow us to continue helping some of the world’s most vulnerable children.</p><h3>Schools</h3>
<p><em>“We became involved with SOS Children because we feel it is a charity that our pupils can take to their hearts, learn from and develop a commitment to. This is a really positive way to get them thinking about who they are, where they fit into the ‘bigger picture’ and how they can make a difference.”</em></p><p>Sarah Humphreys - Head Teacher, Kettlefields Primary School, Cambridgeshire</p><h3>EVENTS</h3>
<h3>Classic Response</h3>
<p>Event organiser Ed O'Driscoll said of Classic Response: <em>"There has been a tremendous response to this concert throughout the classical music industry; everybody wants to help by offering their services. Our sole objective is to raise as much money as possible for the orphans of the tsunami and SOS Children."</em></p><p>Amici Forever, performers at Classic Response and child sponsors added: <em>"We are delighted to be involved and really want to do anything we can to help raise funds for the appeal. We just hope that everyone continues to give over the next months and years!"</em> David Elliott, Chief Executive of The Royal Albert Hall added his support to the event: <em>"The concert will raise vital funds for the work of the SOS Children charity which in turn will help the tens of thousands of children whose lives have been devastated by the Asian Tsunami."</em></p><p>With the agreement of the Trustees of the Royal Albert Hall, the venue and its services were provided free of charge.</p><h3>World Orphan Week</h3>
<p>This unique event was launched in October to support our general work caring for orphaned and abandoned children. With the support of schools, companies, trusts and groups, World Orphan Week has become a key part of our fundraising year.</p><h3>PARTNERSHIPS</h3>
<h3>'6 villages for 2006' - the FIFA World CupTM charity campaign</h3>
<p>SOS Children’s Villages deepened its partnership with FIFA to create the World Cup campaign 6 villages for 2006, which will provide hundreds of orphaned and abandoned children around the world with a new family home.</p><p>Support for the campaign has been impressive, with Wayne Rooney, Gordon Strachan, The FA and Celtic Football Club all joining the team and supporting the construction of the new village being built in Rustenburg, South Africa as part of 6 villages for 2006. </p><p>Celtic Manager Strachan commented: <em>“I am very honoured and proud to be asked to be the FIFA/SOS Ambassador for Scotland. I will be delighted to offer whatever help I can either as a figurehead or in a practical way.”</em> Peter Lawwell, Celtic Chief Executive added, <em>“Celtic is proud to work with FIFA and SOS Children on this campaign and believes that this work is fully in line with the rich charitable history of Celtic FC.”</em></p><p>England and Manchester United striker Wayne Rooney became an official FIFA/SOS Ambassador in October 2005, pledging his support for 6 villages for 2006, saying: <em>“I was made up when SOS Children asked me if I would get involved. I know how much it means to have a family that supports you, so I am delighted I can give my support to these kids.”</em></p><h3>Individuals and Groups</h3>
<p>Supporters across the UK have been growing in their support for SOS Children’s Villages. We have had an increase in the number of schools and groups supporting our work and linking to our work, as well as individuals raising awareness through our growing network of Volunteer Regional Co-ordinators.</p><p>If you would like more details about working in partnership with SOS Children, please contact us on <strong>01223 365589</strong> or via email at <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a></p><p><a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_9.htm">previous page of annual review</a> - <a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_11.htm ">next page of annual review</a></p>
</div>
<div class="clearboth"></div>
</div>
<div id="footer">
<span id="botright"></span>
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> | <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> | 01223 365589 | <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p>
<p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p>
<p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p>
</div>
</div>
<script src="http://www.google-analytics.com/urchin.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
_uacct = "UA-425486-1";
urchinTracker();
</script>
</body>
</html>
| ["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.'] |
Annual_Review_2005_Page_11 | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en">
<head>
<title>SOS Children Charity Annual review 2005</title>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" />
<meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." />
<meta name="robots" content="all" />
<meta name="keywords" content="children charity" />
<meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." />
<style type="text/css" media="all">@import "../../wp/s/Sos.css";</style>
<style type="text/css" media="all">@import "../../wp/v/Video.css";</style>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" />
</head>
<body>
<div id="container">
<div id="header">
<div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div>
<div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div>
<div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div>
</div>
<div id="page">
<div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a> > <a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm">Every Penny Counts</a> > <strong>Annual Review 2005 Page 11</strong></div>
<div id="col">
<div id="nav">
<span class="boxtop"></span>
<ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">Charity News</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a>
<ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/f/Facts_Figures.htm">Facts & Figures</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Friends.htm">Our Friends</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Partners.htm">Our Partners</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm" id="selected">Every Penny Counts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Projects.htm">Projects</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul>
<span class="boxbot"></span>
</div>
<!-- NEWS --><!-- ENDNEWS -->
</div>
<div id="content">
<h2>Annual Review 2005</h2>
<img src="../../wp/u/Untitled1.jpg" width="500" height="259" alt="SOS Children's Villages refers to SOS Children's Villages UK and international affilliate charities" class="centre" /><p><strong>Contact:</strong></p><p>SOS Children’s Villages UK<br />St Andrew’s House<br />59 St Andrew’s Street<br />Cambridge CB2 3BZ</p><p>Tel: +44 (0)1223 365589<br />Fax: +44 (0)1223 365589<br />Email: [email protected]<br />Web: www.soschildren.org </p><p>SOS Children’s Villages refers to SOS Children’s Villages UK and its international affiliate charities Registered Charity Number 1069204</p><p><a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_10.htm">previous page of annual review</a></p>
</div>
<div class="clearboth"></div>
</div>
<div id="footer">
<span id="botright"></span>
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> | <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> | 01223 365589 | <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p>
<p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p>
<p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p>
</div>
</div>
<script src="http://www.google-analytics.com/urchin.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
_uacct = "UA-425486-1";
urchinTracker();
</script>
</body>
</html>
| ["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.'] |
Annual_Review_2005_Page_2 | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en">
<head>
<title>SOS Children Charity Annual review 2005</title>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" />
<meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." />
<meta name="robots" content="all" />
<meta name="keywords" content="children charity" />
<meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." />
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" />
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/s/Sos.css" media="screen" />
</head>
<body>
<div id="container">
<div id="header">
<div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div>
<div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div>
<div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div>
</div>
<div id="page">
<div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a> > <a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm">Every Penny Counts</a> > <strong>Annual review 2005 page 2</strong></div>
<div id="col">
<div id="nav">
<span class="boxtop"></span>
<ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">Charity News</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a>
<ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/f/Facts_Figures.htm">Facts & Figures</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Friends.htm">Our Friends</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Partners.htm">Our Partners</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm" id="selected">Every Penny Counts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Projects.htm">Projects</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul>
<span class="boxbot"></span>
</div>
<!-- NEWS --><!-- ENDNEWS -->
</div>
<div id="content">
<h2>Annual Review 2005</h2>
<img src="../../wp/s/SOS_Childrens_Villages_img_5.jpg" width="200" height="108" alt="Strong and caring relationships" class="left" /><p>SOS Children’s work is centred around four basic principles:<br /><ul><li><p><strong>Strong and caring relationships.</strong> Children are cared for by SOS Mothers, trained to deal with all situations, giving love to children who have lost their parents</p></li><li><p><strong>The right to grow up together.</strong> After ups and downs children need the stability or a loving environment, growing up together with brothers and sisters</p></li></ul><img src="../../wp/s/SOS_Childrens_Villages_img_4.jpg" width="200" height="140" alt="Being part of the larger community" class="right" /><ul><li><p><strong>A place to call home.</strong> Children can grow up and live according to their own culture and religion, preparing them for the future</p></li><li><p><strong>Being part of the larger community.</strong> Through SOS social support programmes, medical centres and schools preparing youngsters for their future independence.</p></li></ul><p><a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005.htm">previous page of annual review</a> - <a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_3.htm">next page of annual review</a></p>
</div>
<table style="margin-left: 50px; clear:both;">
<tr>
<td style="vertical-align:middle">
<a href="../../index.htm"><image src="../../Wikipedia-logo-100-matte-ffcc66.gif" width="100px" height="100px" alt="Schools Wikipedia"></a>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle">
<a href="../../index.htm">Return to Schools Wikipedia Home page</a>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="clearboth"></div>
</div>
<div id="footer">
<span id="botright"></span>
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> | <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> | 01223 365589 | <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p>
<p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p>
<p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.'] |
Annual_Review_2005_Page_3 | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en">
<head>
<title>SOS Children Charity Annual review 2005</title>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" />
<meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." />
<meta name="robots" content="all" />
<meta name="keywords" content="children charity" />
<meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." />
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" />
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/s/Sos.css" media="screen" />
</head>
<body>
<div id="container">
<div id="header">
<div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div>
<div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div>
<div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div>
</div>
<div id="page">
<div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a> > <a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm">Every Penny Counts</a> > <strong>Annual Review 2005 page 3</strong></div>
<div id="col">
<div id="nav">
<span class="boxtop"></span>
<ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">Charity News</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a>
<ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/f/Facts_Figures.htm">Facts & Figures</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Friends.htm">Our Friends</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Partners.htm">Our Partners</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm" id="selected">Every Penny Counts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Projects.htm">Projects</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul>
<span class="boxbot"></span>
</div>
<!-- NEWS --><!-- ENDNEWS -->
</div>
<div id="content">
<h2>Annual Review 2005</h2>
<img src="../../wp/s/SOS_Childrens_Villages_img_3.jpg" width="163" height="200" alt="a strong and caring relationship" class="right" /><p><strong>Our Vision</strong> </p><p>Our vision is that every child should grow with love, respect and security. </p><p><strong>Our Mission</strong> </p><p><em>We build families for children in need,</em><br />We give orphaned and abandoned children the opportunity to grow up with the love and security of an SOS Mother, together with brothers and sisters. </p><p><em>help them shape their own futures,</em><br />We enable children to live according to their own culture and religion. By helping them to recognise and express their individual abilities, interests and talents, they can become active members of the community. </p><p><em>and share in the development of their communities.</em><br />We work with local communities to establish support programmes and provide healthcare and education, strengthening families and community networks for the future.</p><h3>Who we are</h3>
<img src="../../wp/u/Untitled8.jpg" width="500" height="301" alt="An increase in the number of donations in 2005 means we are nearing our target of supporting 80,000" class="left" /><p>SOS Children pioneered a family-based approach to the long-term care of orphaned and abandoned children who had lost their families and homes as a result of the Second World War. </p><p>Traditionally, we provide our children with a home, a family and a new mother in a purpose-built local children’s village. However, the sheer number of orphans has led us to find new ways of supporting child-headed families.</p><p>We look after children who have lost their parents through war, famine, disease and poverty. In total we care for over 60,000 children directly in children’s villages and we support more than 900,000 in the community through SOS schools, vocational training centres, social support programmes and medical centres. </p><p>We help children who are orphaned, abandoned or whose families are unable to care for them. We give these children an opportunity to build lasting relationships within a family and ensure that they receive the education and skills training that they need to become successful and contributing members of society.</p><p><a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_2.htm">previous page of annual review</a> - <a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_4.htm">next page of annual review</a></p>
</div>
<table style="margin-left: 50px; clear:both;">
<tr>
<td style="vertical-align:middle">
<a href="../../index.htm"><image src="../../Wikipedia-logo-100-matte-ffcc66.gif" width="100px" height="100px" alt="Schools Wikipedia"></a>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle">
<a href="../../index.htm">Return to Schools Wikipedia Home page</a>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="clearboth"></div>
</div>
<div id="footer">
<span id="botright"></span>
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> | <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> | 01223 365589 | <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p>
<p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p>
<p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.'] |
Annual_Review_2005_Page_5 | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en">
<head>
<title>SOS Children Charity Annual review 2005</title>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" />
<meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." />
<meta name="robots" content="all" />
<meta name="keywords" content="children charity" />
<meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." />
<style type="text/css" media="all">@import "../../wp/s/Sos.css";</style>
<style type="text/css" media="all">@import "../../wp/v/Video.css";</style>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" />
</head>
<body>
<div id="container">
<div id="header">
<div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div>
<div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div>
<div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div>
</div>
<div id="page">
<div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a> > <a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm">Every Penny Counts</a> > <strong>Annual Review 2005 page 5</strong></div>
<div id="col">
<div id="nav">
<span class="boxtop"></span>
<ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">Charity News</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a>
<ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/f/Facts_Figures.htm">Facts & Figures</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Friends.htm">Our Friends</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Partners.htm">Our Partners</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm" id="selected">Every Penny Counts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Projects.htm">Projects</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul>
<span class="boxbot"></span>
</div>
<!-- NEWS --><!-- ENDNEWS -->
</div>
<div id="content">
<h2>Annual Review 2005</h2>
<p><strong>Educating for the future</strong><br />In many countries where we work, local educational facilities are poor. SOS Children will often run nursery schools, primary and secondary schools not only for children living in the SOS Children’s Village but also for children from the local community, with priority given to children from the poorest families. Teaching is tailored according to the local community and culture, with the aim of developing children’s skills through play (SOS Nurseries) and through the in-country curriculum (SOS Primary and Secondary Schools).</p><h3>Malawi</h3>
<img src="../../wp/u/Untitled2.jpg" width="500" height="284" alt="SOS Children" class="right" /><p>In 2005, Merrill Lynch Investment Managers Limited (MLIM), the UK fund management arm of Merrill Lynch & Co., Inc. - one of the world’s leading financial services providers - chose SOS Children as their Charity of the Year and committed to fund the construction of a new SOS school at the SOS Children’s Village in Blantyre, Malawi. </p><p>SOS Children’s proposal for a school in Malawi, a country crippled by the HIV/AIDS epidemic and in which over 65% of the population lives below the poverty line, met MLIM’s selection criteria of having an education and child bias and was likely to appeal to MLIM employees based throughout Europe, the Middle East and Asia Pacific.</p><p>Peter Hawkins, our representative at MLIM, was able to visit Malawi in June 2005 to gain a better understanding of SOS operations. During his trip, Peter visited established SOS villages and schools, accompanied SOS medical staff on their rounds to local villages and spent a day in Blantyre at the site of our new village and school.<em> “Having the opportunity to tour SOS operations in Malawi, under the experience and care of local SOS staff, was a once in a lifetime experience. I returned to the UK in awe of the work of these dedicated people and enthused about the fund-raising challenges which lay ahead.”</em></p><p>Following a year of fundraising at MLIM, which included a highly successful auction of senior management promises/forfeits, the sale of flowers from the Merrill Lynch garden at the Chelsea Flower Show, a Last Hour Payroll Giving Appeal and some extraordinary individual contributions, staff raised over £130,000. The MLIM Charitable Trust matched staff donations of £50,000. </p><p>In 2005, in response to the increasingly difficult social situation and the ever-growing numbers of orphans, SOS Children began the construction of the country’s third SOS Children’s Village in Blantyre, in the south of the country. The MLIM-funded school, which will be closely linked to the new village, will provide education to 320 local children between the ages of 6 and 15 and give them the skills and knowledge they need to become successful, contributing members of the community. </p><p>Jeremy Sandbrook, National Director of SOS Children’s Villages Malawi was not short of thanks,<em> “On behalf of SOS Malawi, I would like to thank Merrill Lynch - and in particular Peter Hawkins and the Charity Committee - for the fundraising they have done in supporting the construction of the SOS Primary School Blantyre. Without the sel.ess dedication and support of people such as these, we would not be able to continue the work that we do here on the ground; that is supporting the most innocent and vulnerable group of them all - children.”</em><br /> </p><p>SOS Children currently runs 192 schools around the globe, providing over 93,000 children with an education to which they would otherwise have no access.</p><p><a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_4.htm">previous page of annual review</a> - <a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_6.htm ">next page of annual review</a></p>
</div>
<div class="clearboth"></div>
</div>
<div id="footer">
<span id="botright"></span>
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> | <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> | 01223 365589 | <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p>
<p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p>
<p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p>
</div>
</div>
<script src="http://www.google-analytics.com/urchin.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
_uacct = "UA-425486-1";
urchinTracker();
</script>
</body>
</html>
| ["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.'] |
Annual_Review_2005_Page_6 | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en">
<head>
<title>SOS Children Charity Annual review 2005</title>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" />
<meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." />
<meta name="robots" content="all" />
<meta name="keywords" content="children charity" />
<meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." />
<style type="text/css" media="all">@import "../../wp/s/Sos.css";</style>
<style type="text/css" media="all">@import "../../wp/v/Video.css";</style>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" />
</head>
<body>
<div id="container">
<div id="header">
<div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div>
<div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div>
<div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div>
</div>
<div id="page">
<div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a> > <a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm">Every Penny Counts</a> > <strong>Annual Review 2005 Page 6</strong></div>
<div id="col">
<div id="nav">
<span class="boxtop"></span>
<ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">Charity News</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a>
<ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/f/Facts_Figures.htm">Facts & Figures</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Friends.htm">Our Friends</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Partners.htm">Our Partners</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm" id="selected">Every Penny Counts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Projects.htm">Projects</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul>
<span class="boxbot"></span>
</div>
<!-- NEWS --><!-- ENDNEWS -->
</div>
<div id="content">
<h2>Annual Review 2005</h2>
<p><strong>A healthy future</strong><br />SOS Medical Centres play an important role within the community, offering HIV/AIDS testing and counselling, running information campaigns on the risks of infection and providing free or inexpensive ARV (anti-retroviral) medication. As well as these key elements, SOS Medical Centres provide basic medical care for the local population through vaccination programmes, maternity facilities and guidance on nutrition and hygiene.</p><h3>SOS Mother and Child Clinic, San Ignacio, Paraguay</h3>
<p>Infant and maternal mortality rates are high in Paraguay. Many women and young children, especially those in rural areas, do not have access to health services, midwives, doctors or paediatricians. One quarter of births are not attended by a skilled professional. SOS Children’s Villages built Paraguay’s first Mother and Child Clinic in 1978 and has since opened two more.</p><img src="../../wp/u/Untitled51.jpg" width="650" height="380" alt="Over 25, 000 people supported in the local community through SOS Medical Clinic in San Ignacio" class="right" /><p>Monetary crises and government corruption have hampered Paraguay’s social and economic development. Around 60% of the population officially live in poverty and 14% of children have stunted growth caused by malnutrition. The rural population suffer most: subsistence agriculture does not bring in an income and health services are scarce. This is the case in San Ignacio, a small district in the south of the country. </p><p>The SOS Mother and Child Clinic in San Ignacio supports 25,000 people a year, some of whom come from as far as 60 miles away for treatment. Although the clinic is well-known, local radio is used to inform people about it and its services. Radio is a successful way of communicating in rural areas being easily accessible and able to convey information regardless of literacy. </p><p>There are five examination rooms at the SOS clinic, alongside 62 beds (24 of which are for infants), a laboratory and a pharmacy. There is also a delivery room, an operating theatre for minor<br />surgery, an x-ray and ultrasound laboratory and a ward with three incubators and two heated beds for premature babies. We work in conjunction with the local health authority regarding complex cases. Twice a week, a civil servant from the Civil Registry visits to officially record new births.</p><p>Health education classes are run at the clinic to give local people the knowledge they need to keep themselves healthy and safe. Adults, both young and old, are educated about sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), HIV/AIDS,reproductive health, pregnancy and gender equality. The clinic provides reproductive health services to anyone from the community who needs them.</p><p>Alongside the Mother and Child Clinic in San Ignacio, there are two SOS Children’s Villages in Paraguay, one of which is for children with special needs, in addition to an SOS Youth Home, an SOS Nursery School and an SOS Vocational Training Centre offering nursing courses.</p><p><a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_5.htm">previous page of annual review</a> - <a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_7.htm ">next page of annual review</a></p>
</div>
<div class="clearboth"></div>
</div>
<div id="footer">
<span id="botright"></span>
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> | <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> | 01223 365589 | <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p>
<p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p>
<p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p>
</div>
</div>
<script src="http://www.google-analytics.com/urchin.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
_uacct = "UA-425486-1";
urchinTracker();
</script>
</body>
</html>
| ["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.'] |
Annual_Review_2005_Page_7 | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en">
<head>
<title>SOS Children Charity Annual review 2005</title>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" />
<meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." />
<meta name="robots" content="all" />
<meta name="keywords" content="children charity" />
<meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." />
<style type="text/css" media="all">@import "../../wp/s/Sos.css";</style>
<style type="text/css" media="all">@import "../../wp/v/Video.css";</style>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" />
</head>
<body>
<div id="container">
<div id="header">
<div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div>
<div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div>
<div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div>
</div>
<div id="page">
<div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a> > <a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm">Every Penny Counts</a> > <strong>Annual Review 2005 Page 7</strong></div>
<div id="col">
<div id="nav">
<span class="boxtop"></span>
<ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">Charity News</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a>
<ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/f/Facts_Figures.htm">Facts & Figures</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Friends.htm">Our Friends</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Partners.htm">Our Partners</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm" id="selected">Every Penny Counts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Projects.htm">Projects</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul>
<span class="boxbot"></span>
</div>
<!-- NEWS --><!-- ENDNEWS -->
</div>
<div id="content">
<h2>Annual Review 2005</h2>
<p><strong>A future through family strengthening</strong><br />SOS Children is best known for its villages, which provide orphaned and abandoned children with a new family and home and the love and security that come with them. However, in order to support thousands more children and their families, we also work with communities and vulnerable families to provide them with the skills and support they need to continue caring for their children and prevent family break-up. These community support programmes take many different guises, from vocational training programmes and counselling for addiction, to support for single-parent families.</p><h3>Ukraine</h3>
<img src="../../wp/u/Ukraine.jpg" width="550" height="383" alt="The SOS Family Strengthining Programme in Kiev has been preventing child abandonment since 2004" class="right" /><p>Independence from the USSR has been a mixed bag for Ukraine. Although economic growth has slowly improved in recent years, the social situation during this transition period remains far from ideal. Furthermore, the country still suffers from the tragic nuclear disaster at Chernobyl in April 1986. More than 3.5 million people became ill due to contamination, and new cases of cancer are continually being reported. </p><p>This difficult social and economic situation has resulted in a negative outlook among much of the Ukrainian population. Alcoholism and drug abuse have become widespread, with as many as 123,000 drug-dependent people currently living in Ukraine. Related to drug abuse is the equally high prevalence of HIV/AIDS within the country. An estimated 1.4% of the population is HIV positive, ranking as the highest within both Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Forty percent of those infected with HIV/AIDS are women, and as many as 97% of HIV-positive children were infected through their mothers. People living with the disease in Ukraine continue to suffer from stigmatisation and discrimination because of a lack of information regarding transmission, prevention and treatment. </p><p>As a result, many parents find themselves unable to care for their children, and according to government statistics the number of abandoned children has reached 50,000. Many children therefore end up living on the streets and often become victims of drug and solvent abuse. Some turn to prostitution, putting them at a greater risk of contracting HIV.<br /> </p><p>SOS Children’s work in Ukraine began in the capital Kiev in 2003, targeting poorer households to support families through difficult times and prevent the abandonment of children. In Kiev, many families receive food and household packages. </p><p>The SOS Playbus scheme, which is very popular all over Eastern Europe, provides educational activities to over 3,000 children.<br />In response to the large numbers of children experimenting with drugs and the severe lack of facilities at their disposal, SOS Children also opened an HIV/AIDS counselling centre for this at-risk group and their parents. The main target groups are single parent, particularly female-headed, families; families living below the poverty line; and families where one or both parents suffer from a terminal disease. Almost 2,000 people have benefited from the centre’s support through training sessions on child rights, hygiene, sexual education and prevention of substance, drug and alcohol misuse as well as through personal development support to overcome crisis situations and control emotions. </p><p>Through partnerships with other local NGOs, SOS Children is helping around 400 children in the prevention of abandonment project and an additional 60 children through the HIV/AIDS consultation centre. Four schools are also directly involved in the prevention of HIV/AIDS work. The first SOS Children’s Village in Ukraine is under construction on the outskirts of Kiev.</p><p><a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_6.htm ">previous page of annual review</a> - <a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_8.htm ">next page of annual review</a></p>
</div>
<div class="clearboth"></div>
</div>
<div id="footer">
<span id="botright"></span>
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> | <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> | 01223 365589 | <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p>
<p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p>
<p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p>
</div>
</div>
<script src="http://www.google-analytics.com/urchin.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
_uacct = "UA-425486-1";
urchinTracker();
</script>
</body>
</html>
| ["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.'] |
Annual_Review_2005_Page_8 | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en">
<head>
<title>SOS Children Charity Annual review 2005</title>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" />
<meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." />
<meta name="robots" content="all" />
<meta name="keywords" content="children charity" />
<meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." />
<style type="text/css" media="all">@import "../../wp/s/Sos.css";</style>
<style type="text/css" media="all">@import "../../wp/v/Video.css";</style>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" />
</head>
<body>
<div id="container">
<div id="header">
<div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div>
<div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div>
<div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div>
</div>
<div id="page">
<div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a> > <a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm">Every Penny Counts</a> > <strong>Annual Review 2005 Page 8</strong></div>
<div id="col">
<div id="nav">
<span class="boxtop"></span>
<ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">Charity News</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a>
<ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/f/Facts_Figures.htm">Facts & Figures</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Friends.htm">Our Friends</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Partners.htm">Our Partners</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm" id="selected">Every Penny Counts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Projects.htm">Projects</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul>
<span class="boxbot"></span>
</div>
<!-- NEWS --><!-- ENDNEWS -->
</div>
<div id="content">
<h2>Annual Review 2005</h2>
<img src="../../wp/s/SOS_Childrens_Villages_img_6.jpg" width="200" height="109" alt="sos children" class="right" /><p><strong>At the heart of the SOS Children’s Village</strong><br />An SOS Children’s Village provides a loving family to children in need. To deal with increasing numbers of children orphaned as a result of the Pakistan earthquake or in cases where children have been abandoned, we provide a new home complete with an SOS Mother and brothers and sisters. Children are able to grow con.dently and successfully in their own societies.</p><h3>Africa</h3>
<img src="../../wp/u/Untitled4.jpg" width="500" height="294" alt="The first SOS Children's Village in Chad offers a future to children formerly exposed to drugs" class="right" /><p>The Saharan state of Chad, in northern Africa, is home to over 9.5 million people and is one of the poorest countries in the world. Thirty years of civil war had a devastating impact on the country’s social, economic and medical infrastructure and its children. </p><p>An estimated 10,000 orphaned and abandoned children are reported to live on the capital N’Djamena’s streets where they are exposed to drugs, alcohol and prostitution. </p><p>SOS Children is the first NGO to offer long-term family-based care for children in need in Chad. The new village symbolises the hope of an entire nation. Mr Hassan Terap, the Minister for Social Action and Family, said <em>“SOS Children’s Village N’Djamena is an answer to the government’s concern about the well-being of children in Chad. It is like a precious jewel which has to be preserved very carefully. It means a significant contribution to our efforts in improving the living conditions of the most vulnerable people in general and the children in particular.”</em></p><p>SOS Children’s Village N’Djamena is located in the Diguel district (about 15 minutes away from the city centre) on a plot of land donated by the government. The first families moved into the village in early 2005 and all twelve family houses are now fully occupied with a total of 120 children. Because of its roofs, which are unique to the area, neighbours nicknamed the village the ‘red roof area’. </p><p>Near the village, there are three more SOS Children projects in the area, aimed mainly at supporting children from the local communities around the capital. An SOS Nursery School with a capacity of 60 children and an SOS Primary School for some 180 pupils opened their doors at the start of the new school year on 10 October 2005. An SOS Medical Centre will support thousands in the local community by offering free first aid, general medicines and consultations as well as specific consultations in dermatology, paediatrics and gynaecology to around 600 patients a month.</p><p><a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_7.htm">previous page of annual review</a> - <a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_9.htm ">next page of annual review</a></p>
</div>
<div class="clearboth"></div>
</div>
<div id="footer">
<span id="botright"></span>
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> | <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> | 01223 365589 | <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p>
<p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p>
<p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p>
</div>
</div>
<script src="http://www.google-analytics.com/urchin.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
_uacct = "UA-425486-1";
urchinTracker();
</script>
</body>
</html>
| ["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.'] |
Annual_Review_2005_Page_9 | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en">
<head>
<title>SOS Children Charity Annual review 2005</title>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" />
<meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." />
<meta name="robots" content="all" />
<meta name="keywords" content="children charity" />
<meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." />
<style type="text/css" media="all">@import "../../wp/s/Sos.css";</style>
<style type="text/css" media="all">@import "../../wp/v/Video.css";</style>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" />
</head>
<body>
<div id="container">
<div id="header">
<div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div>
<div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div>
<div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div>
</div>
<div id="page">
<div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a> > <a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm">Every Penny Counts</a> > <strong>Annual Review 2005 Page 9</strong></div>
<div id="col">
<div id="nav">
<span class="boxtop"></span>
<ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">Charity News</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a>
<ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/f/Facts_Figures.htm">Facts & Figures</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Friends.htm">Our Friends</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/o/Our_Partners.htm">Our Partners</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/e/Every_Penny_Counts.htm" id="selected">Every Penny Counts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Projects.htm">Projects</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul>
<span class="boxbot"></span>
</div>
<!-- NEWS --><!-- ENDNEWS -->
</div>
<div id="content">
<h2>Annual Review 2005</h2>
<p><strong>Rebuilding for the future</strong></p><p><strong>Tsunami</strong><br />Speed, in the course of an emergency, is vital. However, those affected by natural disasters including tsunamis, earthquakes and droughts need support over weeks, months and even years. The largest operation of this kind carried out by SOS Children was in response to the South Asian tsunami of 2004, where over 23,000 people have received support and 800 children, orphaned by the tsunami, will find love, security and a new family in six new SOS Children’s Villages in the region.<br /> </p><p>Despite the difficult conditions at the time, Cedric de Silva, National Director of SOS Children Sri Lanka commented: <em>“We never thought that we could reach this many people so quickly.”</em> Reconstruction is progressing step by step. SOS Children has the advantage of having well-established local links and many years of experience working in partnership with local communities. <em>“The people are trying to come to terms with the situation and they find ways and means to begin anew, however humble their attempts may be,”</em> says Shubha Murthi, Regional Director of SOS Children for South Asia.</p><img src="../../wp/u/Untitled3.jpg" width="500" height="290" alt="Speed is vital in an emergency, as are lifelong partnerships. (Children in our care in Indonesia)" class="right" /><p>Fifteen communities in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, India and Thailand were ‘adopted’ by SOS Children and almost 2,200 houses are under construction for 11,500 people. Over 1,120 families benefited from the provision of 343 fishing boats together with all necessary equipment to survive and rebuild their livelihoods.</p><p>Day care centres provided child care support, allowing parents to start rebuilding their lives. Multi-purpose community centres will take over this role by housing nurseries. 18 centres are due for completion by the end of 2006 and, alongside child care, will offer medical services, training and family support. These are being built in such a way that they can serve as safe shelters in the event of another flood. Once completed and operational, the administration of the centres will be handed over to the communities, empowering the local people and ensuring the sustainability of the projects.</p><p>The goal now is to arrive at a tangible outlook for the future, brick by brick. </p><p><strong>Pakistan</strong><br />Over 73,000 people were killed and thousands made homeless on 8 October 2005 as a result of an earthquake that ripped through Kashmir.The SOS Children’s Village Muzzaffarabad in northern Pakistan was badly damaged but fortunately no children were injured.</p><p>SOS Children provided over 1,000 tents for temporary shelter to families during the harsh Kashmir winter and into 2006. Following the disaster, tented hospitals supported immediate efforts in the mountainous region, which did not have a single permanent hospital, assisting 120,000 people and SOS ‘Search and Rescue’ teams looked for unaccompanied children, orphaned or separated from their families. As a result of our work, the Pakistan and Kashmir authorities appointed us the temporary legal custodian of all unaccompanied children after the earthquake. Some children have been reunited with their families while others are cared for at a number of SOS Children’s Villages and shelters in and around Kashmir. </p><p>Of a total of 11,500 schools in and around Muzaffarabad, 10,000 were destroyed. Some SOS tents were used as temporary schools, while future plans are to build permanent schools. Additional plans include new SOS Children’s Villages providing a long term future to children who lost everything on that fateful day.</p><p><a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_8.htm">previous page of annual review</a> - <a href="../../wp/a/Annual_Review_2005_Page_10.htm ">next page of annual review</a></p>
</div>
<div class="clearboth"></div>
</div>
<div id="footer">
<span id="botright"></span>
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> | <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> | 01223 365589 | <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p>
<p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p>
<p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p>
</div>
</div>
<script src="http://www.google-analytics.com/urchin.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
<script type="text/javascript">
_uacct = "UA-425486-1";
urchinTracker();
</script>
</body>
</html>
| ["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.'] |
Anschluss | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Anschluss,1934,1938,1945,1998,2000,2003,2004,2005,Adolf Hitler,Aestheticism" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Anschluss</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Anschluss";
var wgTitle = "Anschluss";
var wgArticleId = 862;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Anschluss">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Anschluss</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Recent_History.htm">Recent History</a>; <a href="../index/subject.History.World_War_II.htm">World War II</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="metadata topicon" id="featured-star" style="right:10px; display:none;">
<div style="position: relative; width: 14px; height: 14px; overflow: hidden">
<div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; font-size: 100px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 100px; z-index: 3"><!--del_lnk--> <span title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."> </span></div>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; z-index: 2"><a class="image" href="../../images/0/24.png.htm" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a featured article. Click here for more information." height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LinkFA-star.png" src="../../images/0/24.png" width="14" /></a></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23271.gif.htm" title="German troops march into Austria on 12 March 1938."><img alt="German troops march into Austria on 12 March 1938." height="173" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1anschluss.gif" src="../../images/232/23271.gif" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23271.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> German troops march into <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a> on <!--del_lnk--> 12 March <!--del_lnk--> 1938.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <b>Anschluss</b> (<a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>: <i>connection</i>, or <i>political union</i>), also known as the <b>Anschluss Österreichs</b>, was the 1938 <!--del_lnk--> annexation of <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a> into <!--del_lnk--> Greater Germany by the <a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi regime</a>.<p>The events of <!--del_lnk--> March 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1938, marked the culmination of historical cross-national pressures to unify the German populations of Austria and Germany under one nation. However, the 1938 Anschluss, regardless of its popularity, was enacted by Germany. Earlier, Hitlerian Germany had provided support for the <!--del_lnk--> Austrian National Socialist Party in its bid to seize power from Austria's <!--del_lnk--> Austrofascist leadership. Fully devoted to remaining independent but amidst growing pressures, the chancellor of Austria, <!--del_lnk--> Kurt Schuschnigg, tried to hold a <!--del_lnk--> plebiscite.<p>Although he expected Austria to vote in favour of maintaining autonomy, a well-planned <!--del_lnk--> internal overthrow by the <!--del_lnk--> Austrian Nazi Party of Austria's state institutions in <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> took place on <!--del_lnk--> March 11, prior to the vote. With power quickly transferred over to Germany, the <!--del_lnk--> Wehrmacht troops entered Austria to enforce the Anschluss. The Nazis held a plebiscite within the following month, where they received 99.73% of the vote. No fighting ever took place and the strongest voices against the annexation, particularly <!--del_lnk--> Fascist Italy, <!--del_lnk--> France and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>: the <!--del_lnk--> Stresa Front, were powerless or, in case of Italy, appeased. The <!--del_lnk--> Allies were, on paper, committed to upholding the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which specifically prohibited the union of Austria and Germany.<p>Nevertheless, the Anschluss was among the first major steps in <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>'s long-desired creation of an empire including German-speaking lands and territories Germany had lost after <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>. Already prior to the 1938, the <!--del_lnk--> Rhineland was retaken and the <!--del_lnk--> Saar region was returned to Germany after fifteen years of occupation (see: <a href="../../wp/t/Treaty_of_Versailles.htm" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>). After the Anschluss, the predominantly German <!--del_lnk--> Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia was taken, with the rest of the country becoming a <!--del_lnk--> protectorate to Germany in 1939. That same year, <!--del_lnk--> Memelland was returned from Lithuania, the final event and antecedent before the <!--del_lnk--> invasion of Poland, prompting <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<p>Austria ceased to exist as a fully independent nation until 1955. A preliminary Austrian government was reinstated on <!--del_lnk--> April 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1945, and was legally recognized by the <!--del_lnk--> Allies in the following months.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Situation_before_the_Anschluss" name="Situation_before_the_Anschluss"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Situation before the Anschluss</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23273.png.htm" title="The dissolution of Austria-Hungary Border of Austria-Hungary in 1914 Borders in 1914 Borders in 1920 ██ Empire of Austria in 1914 ██ Kingdom of Hungary in 1914 ██ Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1914 "><img alt="The dissolution of Austria-Hungary Border of Austria-Hungary in 1914 Borders in 1914 Borders in 1920 ██ Empire of Austria in 1914 ██ Kingdom of Hungary in 1914 ██ Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1914 " height="247" longdesc="/wiki/Image:%C3%96sterreich-Ungarns_Ende.png" src="../../images/232/23273.png" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23273.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The dissolution of <!--del_lnk--> Austria-Hungary<table style="border-collapse:collapse">
<tr>
<td style="padding:0">
<div style="border-width:0; border-top:2px dotted #000; border-top:gray solid 2px; width:1em; position:relative; margin-bottom:-9px; font-size:90%; top:.6em"> </div>
</td>
<td style="padding:0 0 0 .2em">Border of Austria-Hungary in 1914</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table style="border-collapse:collapse">
<tr>
<td style="padding:0">
<div style="border-width:0; border-top:2px dotted #000; border-top:black solid 2px; width:1em; position:relative; margin-bottom:-9px; font-size:90%; top:.6em"> </div>
</td>
<td style="padding:0 0 0 .2em">Borders in 1914</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table style="border-collapse:collapse">
<tr>
<td style="padding:0">
<div style="border-width:0; border-top:2px dotted #000; border-top:red solid 2px; width:1em; position:relative; margin-bottom:-9px; font-size:90%; top:.6em"> </div>
</td>
<td style="padding:0 0 0 .2em">Borders in 1920</td>
</tr>
</table><span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#EB955C; color:#EB955C;">██</span> <!--del_lnk--> Empire of Austria in 1914</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#FAF0EE; color:#FAF0EE;">██</span> <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Hungary in 1914</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#92A2CB; color:#92A2CB;">██</span> <a href="../../wp/b/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.htm" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a> in 1914</span></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The idea of grouping all Germans into one state had been the subject of inconclusive debate since the end of the <a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> in 1806. Prior to 1866, it was generally thought that the unification of the Germans could only succeed under Austrian leadership, but the rise of <!--del_lnk--> Prussia was largely unpredicted. This created a rivarly between the two that made unification through a <i><!--del_lnk--> Großdeutschland</i> solution impossible. Also, due to the multi-ethnic composition of the <!--del_lnk--> Austro-Hungarian Empire centralized in Vienna, many rejected this notion and it was unthinkable that Austria would give up her "non-German" territories, let alone submit to Prussia. Nevertheless, a series of wars, including the <!--del_lnk--> Austro-Prussian War, led to the expulsion of Austria from German affairs, allowed for the creation of the <!--del_lnk--> Norddeutsche Bund (<!--del_lnk--> North German Confederation) and consolidated the German states through Prussia, enabling the creation of a <!--del_lnk--> German Empire in 1871. <a href="../../wp/o/Otto_von_Bismarck.htm" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a> played a fundamental role in this process, with the end result representing a <i><!--del_lnk--> Kleindeutsche</i> solution that did not include the German-speaking parts of <!--del_lnk--> Austria-Hungary . When the latter broke up in 1918, many German-speaking Austrians hoped to join with Germany in the realignment of Europe, but the <a href="../../wp/t/Treaty_of_Versailles.htm" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> (1919) and the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Saint-Germain of 1919 explicitly vetoed the inclusion of Austria within a German state, because <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> and <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a> feared the power of a larger Germany, and had already begun to disempower the current one. Also Austrian particularism, especially among the nobility, played a huge role, as Austria was <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic, while Germany was dominated, especially in government, more by <!--del_lnk--> Protestants.<p>In the early 1930s, popular support for union with Germany remained overwhelming, and the Austrian government looked to a possible <!--del_lnk--> customs union with Germany in 1931. However Hitler's and the <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazism">Nazis'</a> rise to power in Germany left the Austrian government with little enthusiasm for such formal ties. Hitler, born in Austria, had promoted an "all-German Reich" from the early beginnings of his leadership in the <!--del_lnk--> NSDAP and had publicly stated as early as 1924 in <i><!--del_lnk--> Mein Kampf</i> that he would attempt a union, by force if necessary.<p><a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a> shared the economic turbulence of post-1929 Europe with a high unemployment rate and unstable commerce and industry. Similar to its northern and southern neighbours these uncertain conditions made the young democracy very vulnerable. The <!--del_lnk--> First Republic, dominated from the late 1920s by the Catholic nationalist <!--del_lnk--> Christian Social Party (CS), gradually disintegrated from 1933 (dissolution of parliament and ban of the Austrian National Socialists) to 1934 (<!--del_lnk--> Austrian Civil War in February and ban of all remaining parties except the CS) and evolved into a pseudo-<!--del_lnk--> fascist, <!--del_lnk--> corporatist model of one-party government which combined the CS and the paramilitary <!--del_lnk--> Heimwehr with absolute state domination of <!--del_lnk--> labour relations and no <!--del_lnk--> freedom of the press (see <!--del_lnk--> Austrofascism and <!--del_lnk--> Patriotic Front). Power was centralized in the office of the <!--del_lnk--> Chancellor who was empowered to <!--del_lnk--> rule by decree. The predominance of the Christian Social Party (whose economic policies were based on the <a href="../../wp/p/Pope.htm" title="Pope">papal</a> <!--del_lnk--> encyclical <i><!--del_lnk--> Rerum novarum</i>) was an Austrian phenomenon in that Austria's national identity had strong Catholic elements which were incorporated into the movement by way of clerical authoritarian tendencies which are certainly not to be found in Nazism. Both <!--del_lnk--> Engelbert Dollfuss and his successor <!--del_lnk--> Kurt Schuschnigg turned to Austria's other fascist neighbour, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, for inspiration and support. Indeed, the statist corporatism often referred to as Austrofascism bore more resemblance to <a href="../../wp/f/Fascism.htm" title="Fascism">Italian Fascism</a> than German National Socialism. <a href="../../wp/b/Benito_Mussolini.htm" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> was able to support the independent aspirations of the Austrian dictatorship until his need for German support in <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> forced him into a client relationship with Berlin that began with the 1937 <!--del_lnk--> Berlin-Rome Axis.<p>When Chancellor Dollfuss was assassinated by <!--del_lnk--> Austrian Nazis on <!--del_lnk--> 25 July <!--del_lnk--> 1934 in a failed coup, the second civil war within only one year followed, lasting until August 1934. Afterwards, many leading Austrian Nazis fled to <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> and continued to coordinate their actions from there while the remaining Austrian Nazis started to make use of terrorist attacks against the Austrian governmental institutions (causing a death toll of more than 800 between 1934 and 1938). Dollfuss' successor Schuschnigg, who followed the political course of Dollfuss, took drastic actions against the Nazis, for instance the rounding up of Nazis (but also Social Democrats) in <!--del_lnk--> internment camps.<p><a id="The_Anschluss_of_1938" name="The_Anschluss_of_1938"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Anschluss of 1938</span></h2>
<p><a id="Hitler.27s_first_moves" name="Hitler.27s_first_moves"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hitler's first moves</span></h3>
<p>In early 1938, Hitler had consolidated his power in Germany and was ready to reach out to fulfil his long-planned expansion. After a lengthy period of pressure by Germany, Hitler met Schuschnigg on <!--del_lnk--> 12 February <!--del_lnk--> 1938 in <!--del_lnk--> Berchtesgaden (<!--del_lnk--> Bavaria) and instructed him to lift the ban of political parties, reinstate full party freedoms, release all imprisoned members of the <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> party and let them participate in the government. Otherwise, he would take military action. Schuschnigg complied with Hitler's demands and appointed <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Seyss-Inquart, a Nazi lawyer, as <!--del_lnk--> Interior Minister and another Nazi, <!--del_lnk--> Edmund Glaise-Horstenau, as Minister, even without a portfolio.<p>Before the February meeting, Schuschnigg was already under considerable pressure from Germany. This may be seen in the demand to remove the chief of staff of the <!--del_lnk--> Austrian Army, <!--del_lnk--> Alfred Jansa, from his position in January 1938. Jansa and his staff had developed a scenario for Austria's defense against a German attack, a situation Hitler wanted to avoid at all costs. Schuschnigg subsequently complied with the demand.<p>During the following weeks, Schuschnigg realized that his newly appointed ministers were working to take over his authority. Schuschnigg tried to gather support throughout Austria and inflame <!--del_lnk--> patriotism among the people. For the first time since <!--del_lnk--> 12 February <!--del_lnk--> 1934 (the time of the <!--del_lnk--> Austrian Civil War), socialists and communists could legally appear in public again. The <!--del_lnk--> communists announced their unconditional support for the Austrian government, understandable in light of Nazi pressure on Austria. The <!--del_lnk--> socialists demanded further concessions from Schuschnigg before they were willing to side with him.<p><a id="Schuschnigg_announces_a_referendum" name="Schuschnigg_announces_a_referendum"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Schuschnigg announces a referendum</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 9 March, as a last resort to preserve Austria's independence, Schuschnigg scheduled a <!--del_lnk--> plebiscite on the independence of Austria for <!--del_lnk--> 13 March. To secure a large majority in the referendum, Schuschnigg set the minimum voting age at 24 in order to exclude younger voters who largely sympathized with Nazi ideology. Holding a referendum was a highly risky gamble for Schuschnigg, and, on the next day, it became apparent that Hitler would not simply stand by while Austria declared its independence by public vote. Hitler declared that the plebiscite would be subject to major fraud and that Germany would not accept it. In addition, the German Ministry of Propaganda issued press reports that riots had broken out in Austria and that large parts of the Austrian population were calling for German troops to restore order. Schuschnigg immediately publicly replied that the reports of riots were nothing but lies-—as they actually were.<p>Hitler sent an <!--del_lnk--> ultimatum to <!--del_lnk--> Schuschnigg on <!--del_lnk--> 11 March, demanding that he hand over all power to the <!--del_lnk--> Austrian National Socialists or face an invasion. The ultimatum was set to expire at noon, but was extended by two hours. However, without waiting for an answer, Hitler had already signed the order to send troops into Austria at one o'clock, issuing it to <!--del_lnk--> Hermann Göring only hours later.<p>Schuschnigg desperately sought support for Austrian independence in the hours following the ultimatum, but, realizing that neither <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> nor the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> were willing to take steps, he resigned as Chancellor that evening. In the radio broadcast in which he announced his resignation, he argued that he accepted the changes and allowed the Nazis to take over the government in order to avoid bloodshed. Meanwhile, Austrian President <!--del_lnk--> Wilhelm Miklas refused to appoint <!--del_lnk--> Seyss-Inquart Chancellor and asked other Austrian politicians such as Michael Skubl and Sigismund Schilhawsky to assume the office. However, the Nazis were well organised. Within hours they managed to take control of many parts of Vienna, including the Ministry of Internal Affairs (controlling the Police). As Miklas continued to refuse to appoint a Nazi government and Seyss-Inquart still could not send a telegram in the name of the Austrian government demanding German troops to restore order, Hitler became furious. At about 10 PM, well after Hitler had signed and issued the order for the invasion, Göring and Hitler gave up on waiting and published a forged telegram containing a request by the Austrian Government for German troops to enter Austria. Around midnight, after nearly all critical offices and buildings had fallen into Nazi hands in Vienna and the main political party members of the old government had been arrested, Miklas finally conceded to appoint Seyss-Inquart Chancellor.<p><a id="German_troops_march_into_Austria" name="German_troops_march_into_Austria"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">German troops march into Austria</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23275.jpg.htm" title="Propaganda even in the voting booth on 10 April 1938, with a poster instructing voters how to vote "Ja", i.e. "Yes"."><img alt="Propaganda even in the voting booth on 10 April 1938, with a poster instructing voters how to vote "Ja", i.e. "Yes"." height="197" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Voting-booth-Anschluss-10-April-1938.jpg" src="../../images/232/23275.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23275.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Propaganda even in the voting booth on <!--del_lnk--> 10 April <!--del_lnk--> 1938, with a poster instructing voters how to vote "Ja", i.e. "Yes".</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>On the morning of <!--del_lnk--> 12 March, the 8th Army of the German <!--del_lnk--> Wehrmacht crossed the German-Austrian border. They did not face resistance by the <!--del_lnk--> Austrian Army-—on the contrary, the German troops were greeted by cheering Austrians. Although the invading forces were badly organized and coordination between the units was poor, it mattered little because no fighting took place. It did, however, serve as a warning to German commanders in future military operations, such as that against <!--del_lnk--> Czechoslovakia.<p>Hitler's car crossed the border in the afternoon at <!--del_lnk--> Braunau, his birthplace. In the evening, he arrived at <!--del_lnk--> Linz and was given an enthusiastic welcome in the city hall. The atmosphere was so intense that Göring, in a telephone call that evening, stated: "There is unbelievable jubilation in Austria. We ourselves did not think that sympathies would be so intense."<p>Hitler's further travel through Austria changed into a triumphal tour that climaxed in <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, when around 200,000 Austrians gathered on the <!--del_lnk--> Heldenplatz (Square of Heroes) to hear Hitler proclaim the Austrian Anschluss (<!--del_lnk--> Video: Hitler proclaims Austria's inclusion in the Reich (2MB)). Hitler later commented: "Certain foreign newspapers have said that we fell on Austria with brutal methods. I can only say: even in death they cannot stop lying. I have in the course of my political struggle won much love from my people, but when I crossed the former frontier (into Austria) there met me such a stream of love as I have never experienced. Not as tyrants have we come, but as liberators."<p>The Anschluss was given immediate effect by legislative act on <!--del_lnk--> 13 March, subject to ratification by a plebiscite. Austria became the <!--del_lnk--> province of <!--del_lnk--> Ostmark, and Seyss-Inquart was appointed Governor. The plebiscite was held on <!--del_lnk--> 10 April and officially recorded a support of 99.73% of the voters. While historians concur that the result itself was not manipulated, the voting process was neither free nor secret. Officials were present directly beside the voting booths and received the voting ballot by hand (in contrast to a secret vote where the voting ballot is inserted into a closed box). In addition, Hitler's brutal methods to emasculate any opposition had been immediately implemented in the weeks preceding the referendum. Even before the first German soldier crossed the border, <!--del_lnk--> Heinrich Himmler and a few <!--del_lnk--> SS officers landed in Vienna to arrest prominent representatives of the First Republic such as <!--del_lnk--> Richard Schmitz, <!--del_lnk--> Leopold Figl, <!--del_lnk--> Friedrich Hillegeist and <!--del_lnk--> Franz Olah. During the weeks following the Anschluss (and before the plebiscite), Social Democrats, Communists, and other potential political dissenters, as well as Jews, were rounded up and either imprisoned or sent to concentration camps. Within only a few days of <!--del_lnk--> 12 March, 70,000 people had been arrested. The referendum itself was subject to large-scale propaganda and to the abrogation of the voting rights of around 400,000 people (nearly 10% of the eligible voting population), mainly former members of left-wing parties and Jews. Interestingly, in some remote areas of Austria the referendum on the independence of Austria on <!--del_lnk--> 13 March was held despite the <!--del_lnk--> Wehrmacht's presence in Austria (it took up to 3 days to occupy every part of Austria). For instance, in the village of <!--del_lnk--> Innervillgraten a majority of 95% voted for Austria's independence.<p>Austria remained part of the <!--del_lnk--> Third Reich until the end of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> when a preliminary Austrian Government declared the Anschluss <i>"<!--del_lnk--> null und nichtig"</i> (<!--del_lnk--> void and null) on <!--del_lnk--> April 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1945. After the war, then allied-occupied Austria was recognized and treated as a separate country, but was not restored to <!--del_lnk--> sovereignty until the <!--del_lnk--> Austrian State Treaty and Austrian <!--del_lnk--> Declaration of Neutrality, both of 1955, largely due to the rapid development of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> and disputes between the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and its former allies over its foreign policy.<p><a id="Reactions_and_consequences_of_the_Anschluss" name="Reactions_and_consequences_of_the_Anschluss"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reactions and consequences of the Anschluss</span></h2>
<p>The picture of Austria in the first days of its existence in the Third Reich is one of contradictions: at one and the same time, Hitler's terror regime began to tighten its grip in every area of society, beginning with mass arrests and thousands of Austrians attempting to flee in every direction; yet Austrians could be seen cheering and welcoming German troops entering Austrian territory. Many Austrian political figures did not hesitate to announce their support of the Anschluss and their relief that it happened without violence.<p>Cardinal <!--del_lnk--> Theodor Innitzer (a political figure of the CS) declared as early as <!--del_lnk--> 12 March: "The Viennese Catholics should thank the Lord for the bloodless way this great political change has occurred, and they should pray for a great future for Austria. Needless to say, everyone should obey the orders of the new institutions." The other Austrian bishops followed suit some days later. <!--del_lnk--> Vatican Radio, however, immediately broadcast a vehement denunciation of the German action, and Cardinal <!--del_lnk--> Pacelli ordered Innitzer to report to Rome. Before meeting with the pope, Innitzer met with Pacelli, who had been outraged by Innitzer's statement. He made it clear that Innitzer needed to retract; he was made to sign a new statement, issued on behalf of all the Austrian bishops, which provided: <i>“The solemn declaration of the Austrian bishops ... was clearly not intended to be an approval of something that was not and is not compatible with God's law”</i>. The Vatican newspaper also reported that the bishops' earlier statement had been issued without the approval from Rome.<p>Robert Kauer, President of the <!--del_lnk--> Protestants in Austria, greeted Hitler on <!--del_lnk--> 13 March as "saviour of the 350,000 German Protestants in Austria and liberator from a five-year hardship." Even <!--del_lnk--> Karl Renner, the most famous Social Democrat of the First Republic, announced his support for the Anschluss and appealed to all Austrians to vote in favour of it on <!--del_lnk--> 10 April.<p>The international response to the expansion of Germany may be described as <i>moderate</i>. <i><!--del_lnk--> The Times</i> commented that 200 years ago Scotland had joined England as well and that this event would not really differ much. On <!--del_lnk--> 14 March, the <!--del_lnk--> British Prime Minister <!--del_lnk--> Neville Chamberlain noted in the <a href="../../wp/b/British_House_of_Commons.htm" title="British House of Commons">House of Commons</a>:<blockquote>
<p>His Majesty's Government have throughout been in the closest touch with the situation. The Foreign Secretary saw the German Foreign Minister on the 10th of March and addressed to him a grave warning on the Austrian situation and upon what appeared to be the policy of the German Government in regard to it.... Late on the 11th of March our Ambassador in Berlin registered a protest in strong terms with the German Government against such use of coercion, backed by force, against an independent State in order to create a situation incompatible with its national independence.</blockquote>
<p>However the speech concluded:<blockquote>
<p>I imagine that according to the temperament of the individual the events which are in our minds to-day will be the cause of regret, of sorrow, perhaps of indignation. They cannot be regarded by His Majesty's Government with indifference or equanimity. They are bound to have effects which cannot yet be measured. The immediate result must be to intensify the sense of uncertainty and insecurity in Europe. Unfortunately, while the policy of appeasement would lead to a relaxation of the economic pressure under which many countries are suffering to-day, what has just occurred must inevitably retard economic recovery and, indeed, increased care will be required to ensure that marked deterioration does not set in. This is not a moment for hasty decisions or for careless words. We must consider the new situation quickly, but with cool judgement... As regards our defence programmes, we have always made it clear that they were flexible and that they would have to be reviewed from time to time in the light of any development in the international situation. It would be idle to pretend that recent events do not constitute a change of the kind that we had in mind. Accordingly we have decided to make a fresh review, and in due course we shall announce what further steps we may think it necessary to take.</blockquote>
<p>The moderate reaction to the Anschluss was the first major consequence of the strictly followed <!--del_lnk--> appeasement British foreign policy strategy. The international reaction on the events of <!--del_lnk--> March 12 1938 led Hitler to conclude that he could use even more aggressive tactics in his <i>roadmap</i> to expand the <!--del_lnk--> Third Reich, as he would later in annexing the <!--del_lnk--> Sudetenland. The relatively bloodless Anschluss helped pave the way for the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Munich in September 1938 and the annexation of <!--del_lnk--> Czechoslovakia in 1939, because it reinforced appeasement as the right way for Britain to deal with Hitler's <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>.<p><a id="Legacy_of_the_1938_Anschluss" name="Legacy_of_the_1938_Anschluss"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legacy of the 1938 Anschluss</span></h2>
<p><a id="The_Anschluss:_annexation_or_union.3F" name="The_Anschluss:_annexation_or_union.3F"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Anschluss: annexation or union?</span></h3>
<p>Some historical sources, for instance <a href="../../wp/e/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica.htm" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Encarta Encyclopedia describe the Anschluss as an "annexation". Outside this context "Anschluss" is properly translated as "join", "connection", "unification" or "political union". The German word "Annektierung" would mean military annexation unambiguously. However, the word commonly used in German for the process of spring 1938 is <i>Anschluss</i>.<p>The precise character of the Anschluss remains a difficulty essential to Austria's understanding of its history and the obligations it entails.<p><a id="The_appeal_of_Nazism_to_Austrians" name="The_appeal_of_Nazism_to_Austrians"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The appeal of Nazism to Austrians</span></h3>
<p>The Anschluss can be misunderstood as <i>simply</i> a military annexation of an unwilling Austria, but this lends itself to confusion with other German military occupations of European countries. Despite the subversion of Austrian political process by Hitler's sympathisers and associates in Austria, Austrian acceptance of direct government by Hitler's Germany is a very different phenomenon from the administration of other collaborationist countries.<p>With the break-up of the <!--del_lnk--> Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1918, popular opinion was for unification with Germany, in realization of the <!--del_lnk--> Grossdeutschland concept--this however was forbidden by the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of St. Germain, to which the newly formed Austrian republic was obliged. This was in stark contrast to the general concept of <!--del_lnk--> self-determination which governed the <a href="../../wp/t/Treaty_of_Versailles.htm" title="Treaty of Versailles">Versailles talks</a>, as was the inclusion of the <!--del_lnk--> Sudetenland, a German-populated area of the former Austro-Hungarian province of <!--del_lnk--> Bohemia (whose population favoured joining German-speaking Austria), in the newly formed <!--del_lnk--> Czechoslovak republic, giving rise to <!--del_lnk--> revisionist sentiment. This laid the grounds for the general willingness of the populations of both Austria and the Sudetenland for inclusion into the Third Reich, as well as the relative acceptance of the Western Governments, who made little protest until March 1939, when the <!--del_lnk--> irredentist argument lost its value following the annexation of the rest of Czech-speaking Bohemia, as well as Moravia and Czech Silesia.<p>The small Republic of Austria was seen by many of its citizens as economically nonviable, a feeling that was exacerbated by the <!--del_lnk--> Depression of the 1930s. In contrast, the Nazi dictatorship appeared to have found a solution to the economic crisis of the 1930s. Furthermore, the break-up had thrown Austria into a crisis of identity, and many Austrians, of both the left and the right, felt that Austria should be part of a larger German nation.<p>Politically, Austria had not had the time to develop a strongly democratic society to resist the onslaught of <!--del_lnk--> totalitarianism. The final version of the First Republic's constitution had only lasted from 1929 to 1933. The <!--del_lnk--> First Republic was ridden by violent strife between the different political camps; the <!--del_lnk--> Christian Social Party were complicit in the murder of large numbers of adherents of the decidedly left-wing <!--del_lnk--> Social Democratic Party by the police during the <!--del_lnk--> July Revolt of 1927. In fact, with the end of democracy in 1933 and the establishment of <!--del_lnk--> Austrofascism, Austria had already purged its democratic institutions and instituted a dictatorship long before the Anschluss. There is thus little to distinguish radically the <i>institutions</i> of, at least the post-1934 Austrian government, before or after <!--del_lnk--> 12 March <!--del_lnk--> 1938.<p>The members of the leading Christian Social Party were fervent Catholics, but not particularly <!--del_lnk--> anti-Semitic. For instance, <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jews</a> were not prohibited from exercising any profession, in sharp contrast to the <!--del_lnk--> Third Reich. Many prominent Austrian scientists, professors, and lawyers at the time were Jewish; in fact <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, with its Jewish population of about 200,000, was considered a <!--del_lnk--> safe haven from 1933 to 1938 by many Jews who fled Nazi Germany. However, the Nazis' anti-Semitism found fertile soil in Austria. Anti-Semitic elements had emerged as a force in Austrian politics in the late nineteenth century, with the rise in prominence of figures such as <!--del_lnk--> Georg Ritter von Schönerer and <!--del_lnk--> Karl Lueger (who had influenced the young Hitler) and, in the 1930s, anti-Semitism was rampant, as Jews were a convenient scapegoat for economic problems.<p>In addition to the economic appeal of the Anschluss, the popular underpinning of Nazi politics as a total art form (the refinement of film propaganda exemplified by <!--del_lnk--> Riefenstahl's <i><a href="../../wp/t/Triumph_of_the_Will.htm" title="Triumph of the Will">Triumph of the Will</a></i> and mythological <!--del_lnk--> aestheticism of a broadly conceived national destiny of the <!--del_lnk--> German people within a "Thousand-Year Reich") gave the Nazis a massive advantage in advancing their claims to power. Moreover <!--del_lnk--> Austrofascism was less grand in its appeal than the choice between Stalin and Hitler to which many European intellectuals of the time believed themselves reduced by the end of the decade. Austria had effectively no alternative view of its historical mission when the choice was upon it. In spite of Dollfuss' and Schuschnigg's hostility to Nazi political ambitions, the Nazis succeeded in convincing many Austrians to accept what they viewed as the historical destiny of the German people rather than continue as part of a distinct sovereign.<p><a id="The_Second_Republic" name="The_Second_Republic"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Second Republic</span></h3>
<p><a id="The_Moscow_Declaration" name="The_Moscow_Declaration"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The Moscow Declaration</span></h4>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Moscow Declaration of 1943, signed by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> included a "Declaration on Austria," which stated the following:<blockquote>
<p>The governments of the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States of America are agreed that Austria, the first free country to fall a victim to Hitlerite aggression, shall be liberated from German domination.<p>They regard the annexation imposed on Austria by Germany on <!--del_lnk--> 15 March <!--del_lnk--> 1938, as null and void. They consider themselves as in no way bound by any charges affected in Austria since that date. They declare that they wish to see re-established a free and independent Austria and thereby to open the way for the Austrian people themselves, as well as those neighbouring States which will be faced with similar problems, to find that political and economic security which is the only basis for lasting peace.<p>Austria is reminded, however that she has a responsibility, which she cannot evade, for participation in the war at the side of Hitlerite Germany, and that in the final settlement account will inevitably be taken of her own contribution to her liberation.</blockquote>
<p>To judge from the last paragraph and subsequent determinations at the <!--del_lnk--> Nuremberg Trial, the Declaration was intended to serve as <a href="../../wp/p/Propaganda.htm" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> aimed at stirring Austrian resistance (although there are Austrians counted as <!--del_lnk--> Righteous Among the Nations, there never was an effective Austrian armed resistance of the sort found in other countries under German occupation) more than anything else, although the exact text of the declaration is said to have a somewhat complex drafting history. At Nuremberg <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Seyss-Inquart and <!--del_lnk--> Franz von Papen, in particular, were both indicted under count one (conspiracy to commit crimes against peace) specifically for their activities in support of the Austrian Nazi Party and the Anschluss, but neither was convicted of this count. In acquitting von Papen, the court noted that his actions were in its view political immoralities but not crimes under its charter. Seyss-Inquart was convicted of other serious war crimes, most of which took place in <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> and the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, and was sentenced to death.<p><a id="Austrian_identity_and_the_.22victim_theory.22" name="Austrian_identity_and_the_.22victim_theory.22"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Austrian identity and the "victim theory"</span></h4>
<p>After <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, many Austrians sought comfort in the myth of Austria as "the Nazis' first victim". Although the Nazi party was promptly banned, Austria did not have the same thorough process of de-Nazification at the top of government which was imposed on Germany for a time. Lacking outside pressure for political reform, factions of Austrian society tried for a long time to advance the view that the Anschluss was <i>only</i> an annexation at bayonet point.<p>This view of the events of 1938 has deep roots in the ten years of Allied occupation and the struggle to regain Austrian sovereignty: The <i>victim theory</i> played an essential role in the negotiations on the <!--del_lnk--> Austrian State Treaty with the Soviets, and by pointing to the Moscow Declaration Austrian politicians heavily relied on it to achieve a solution for Austria different from the division into East and West in Germany. The State Treaty, alongside with the subsequent Austrian declaration of permanent <!--del_lnk--> neutrality marked important milestones for the solidification of Austria's independent national identity during the following decades.<p>As Austrian politicians of the left and right attempted to reconcile their differences in order to avoid the violent conflict that had dominated the first republic, discussions of both Austrofascism and Austria's role in Nazism were largely avoided. Still, the <!--del_lnk--> Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) has advanced and still sometimes advances the argument that the establishment of the Dollfuss dictatorship was necessary in order to maintain Austrian independence, while the <!--del_lnk--> Austrian Social Democratic Party (SPÖ) argues that the dictatorship stripped the country of the democratic resources necessary to repel Hitler.<p><a id="Political_events" name="Political_events"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Political events</span></h4>
<p>For decades, the victim theory established in the Austrian mind remained largely undisputed. The Austrian public was only rarely forced to confront the legacy of the Third Reich (most notably during the events of 1965 concerning <!--del_lnk--> Taras Borodajkewycz, a professor of economic history notorious for anti-Semitic remarks, when <!--del_lnk--> Ernst Kirchweger, a concentration camp survivor, was killed by a right-wing protester during riots). It was not until the 1980s that Austrians were finally massively confronted with their past. The main catalyst for the start of a <i><!--del_lnk--> Vergangenheitsbewältigung</i> was the so-called <!--del_lnk--> Waldheim affair. The Austrian reply to allegations during the 1986 Presidential election campaign that successful candidate and former <!--del_lnk--> UN Secretary-General <!--del_lnk--> Kurt Waldheim had been a member of the Nazi party and of the infamous <!--del_lnk--> SA (he was later absolved of direct involvement in <!--del_lnk--> war crimes) was that scrutiny was an unwelcome intervention in the country's internal affairs. Despite the politicians' reactions to international criticism of Waldheim, the Waldheim affair started the first serious major discussion on Austria's past and the Anschluss.<p>Another main factor for Austria and its coming to terms with the past emerged in the 1980s: <!--del_lnk--> Jörg Haider and the rise of the <!--del_lnk--> Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ). The party had combined elements of the <!--del_lnk--> pan-German right with free-market liberalism since its foundation in 1955, but after Haider had ascended to the party chairmanship in 1986, the liberal elements became increasingly marginalized while Haider began to openly use nationalist and anti-immigrant rhetoric. He was often criticised for tactics such as the <i>völkisch</i> (ethnic) definition of national interest ("Austria for Austrians") and his apologism for Austria's past, notably calling members of the <!--del_lnk--> Waffen-SS "men of honour". Following an enormous electoral rise in the 1990s peaking in the <!--del_lnk--> 1999 elections, the FPÖ, now purged of its liberal elements, entered a coalition with the <!--del_lnk--> Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) led by <!--del_lnk--> Wolfgang Schüssel that met international condemnation in 2000. This coalition triggered the regular <i>Donnerstagsdemonstrationen</i> (Thursday demonstrations) in protest against the government, which took place on the <!--del_lnk--> Heldenplatz, where Hitler had greeted the masses during the Anschluss. Haider's tactics and rhetoric, which were often criticised as sympathetic to Nazism, again forced Austrians to reconsider their relationship to the past.<p>But it is not <!--del_lnk--> Jörg Haider alone who has made questionable remarks on Austria's past: <!--del_lnk--> Jörg Haider's coalition partner the current Chancellor <!--del_lnk--> Wolfgang Schüssel in an interview with the <!--del_lnk--> Jerusalem Post as late as 2000 stated that Austria was the first victim of Hitler-Germany.<p><a id="Literature" name="Literature"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Literature</span></h4>
<p>Tearing into the simplism of the <i>victim theory</i> and the time of the <!--del_lnk--> Austrofascism, <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Bernhard's last play, <i>Heldenplatz</i>, was highly controversial even before it appeared on stage in 1988, fifty years after Hitler's visit. Bernhard's achievement was to make the elimination of references to Hitler's reception in Vienna emblematic of Austrian attempts to claim their history and culture under questionable criteria. Many politicians from all political factions called Bernhard a <i>Nestbeschmutzer</i> (so. damaging the reputation of his country) and openly demanded that the play should not be staged in Vienna's <!--del_lnk--> Burgtheater. <!--del_lnk--> Kurt Waldheim, who was at that time still Austrian president called the play <i>a crude insult to the Austrian people</i>.<p><a id="The_Historical_Commission_and_outstanding_legal_issues" name="The_Historical_Commission_and_outstanding_legal_issues"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Historical Commission and outstanding legal issues</span></h3>
<p>In the context of the postwar <!--del_lnk--> Federal Republic of Germany, one encounters a <i><!--del_lnk--> Vergangenheitsbewältigung</i> ("struggle to come to terms with the past") that has been partially institutionalised, variably in literary, cultural, political, and educational contexts (its development and difficulties have not been trivial; see, for example, the <!--del_lnk--> Historikerstreit). Austria formed a <i>Historikerkommission</i> ("Historian's Commission" or "Historical Commission") in 1998 with a mandate to review Austria's role in the Nazi expropriation of Jewish property from a scholarly rather than legal perspective, partly in response to continuing criticism of its handling of property claims. Its membership was based on recommendations from various quarters, including <!--del_lnk--> Simon Wiesenthal and <!--del_lnk--> Yad Vashem. The Commission delivered its report in 2003. Noted Holocaust historian <!--del_lnk--> Raul Hilberg refused to participate in the Commission and in an interview stated his strenuous objections in terms both personal and in reference to larger questions about Austrian culpability and liability, comparing what he to be relative inattention to the settlement governing the <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Swiss</a> bank holdings of those who died or were displaced by the Holocaust:<blockquote>
<p>I personally would like to know why the WJC <!--del_lnk--> World Jewish Congress has hardly put any pressure on Austria, even as leading Nazis and SS leaders were Austrians, Hitler included... Immediately after the war, the US wanted to make the Russians withdraw from Austria, and the Russians wanted to keep Austria neutral, therefore there was a common interest to grant Austria victim status. And later Austria could cry poor - though its per capita income is as high as Germany's. And, most importantly, the Austrian PR machinery works better. Austria has the opera ball, the imperial castle, Mozartkugeln [a chocolate]. Americans like that. And Austrians invest and export relatively little to the US, therefore they are less vulnerable to blackmail. In the meantime, they set up a commission in Austria to clarify what happened to Jewish property. Victor Klima, the former chancellor, has asked me to join. My father fought for Austria in the First World War and in 1939 he was kicked out of Austria. After the war they offered him ten dollars per month as compensation. For this reason I told Klima, no thank you, this makes me sick.</blockquote>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Simon Wiesenthal Centre continues to criticise Austria (as recently as June 2005) for its alleged historical and ongoing unwillingness aggressively to pursue investigations and trials against Nazis for war crimes and crimes against humanity from the seventies onwards. Its 2001 report offered the following characterization:<blockquote>
<p>Given the extensive participation of numerous Austrians, including at the highest levels, in the implementation of the Final Solution and other Nazi crimes, Austria should have been a leader in the prosecution of Holocaust perpetrators over the course of the past four decades, as has been the case in Germany. Unfortunately relatively little has been achieved by the Austrian authorities in this regard and in fact, with the exception of the case of Dr. Heinrich Gross which was suspended this year under highly suspicious circumstances (he claimed to be medically unfit, but outside the court proved to be healthy) not a single Nazi war crimes prosecution has been conducted in Austria since the mid-seventies.</blockquote>
<p>In 2003, the Center launched a worldwide effort named "Operation: Last Chance" in order to collect further information about those Nazis still alive that are potentially subject to prosecution. Although reports issued shortly thereafter credited Austria for initiating large-scale investigations, there has been one case where criticism of Austrian authorities arose recently: The Centre has put 92-year old <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatian</a> <!--del_lnk--> Milivoj Asner on its 2005 top ten list. Asner fled to Austria in 2004 after Croatia announced it would start investigations in the case of war crimes he may have been involved in. In response to objections about Asner's continued freedom, Austria's federal government has deferred to either extradition requests from Croatia or prosecutorial actions from <!--del_lnk--> Klagenfurt, neither of which appears forthcoming (as of June 2005). Extradition is not an option since Asner also holds Austrian <a href="../../wp/c/Citizenship.htm" title="Citizenship">citizenship</a>, having lived in the country from 1946 to 1991.<p>
<br />
<p><a id="Austrian_political_and_military_leaders_in_Nazi_Germany" name="Austrian_political_and_military_leaders_in_Nazi_Germany"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Austrian political and military leaders in Nazi Germany</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Arthur Seyss-Inquart<li><!--del_lnk--> Ernst Kaltenbrunner<li><!--del_lnk--> Odilo Globocnik<li><!--del_lnk--> Amon Göth<li><!--del_lnk--> Lothar Rendulic<li><!--del_lnk--> Alfred Ritter von Hubicki<li><!--del_lnk--> Alexander Löhr<li><!--del_lnk--> Franz Böhme</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anschluss"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Austria', 'German language', 'Austria', 'Nazi Germany', 'Vienna', 'United Kingdom', 'Adolf Hitler', 'World War I', 'Treaty of Versailles', 'World War II', 'Bosnia and Herzegovina', 'Holy Roman Empire', 'Otto von Bismarck', 'Treaty of Versailles', 'France', 'United Kingdom', 'Nazism', 'Austria', 'Pope', 'Italy', 'Fascism', 'Benito Mussolini', 'Ethiopia', 'Germany', 'Nazism', 'France', 'United Kingdom', 'Vienna', 'World War II', 'Cold War', 'Soviet Union', 'British House of Commons', 'Germany', 'Encyclopædia Britannica', 'Treaty of Versailles', 'Jew', 'Vienna', 'Triumph of the Will', 'United States', 'United Kingdom', 'Propaganda', 'Poland', 'Netherlands', 'World War II', 'Switzerland', 'Croatia', 'Citizenship', 'Adolf Hitler'] |
Ant | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Ant,Bamboo,Fire ants,2006,A Bug's Life,Abdominal,Acacia cornigera,Adaptive radiation,Aenictogitoninae,Africa,Agaricaceae" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Ant</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Ant";
var wgTitle = "Ant";
var wgArticleId = 2594;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Ant">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Ant</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Insects_Reptiles_and_Fish.htm">Insects, Reptiles and Fish</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Ants</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/2/275.jpg.htm" title="Formica rufa worker"><img alt="Formica rufa worker" height="222" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Formica_rufa2_mrowka_rudnica.jpg" src="../../images/2/275.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><i>Formica rufa</i> worker</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Arthropod.htm" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Subphylum:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hexapoda<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">Insecta</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Subclass:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pterygota<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Infraclass:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Neoptera<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Superorder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Endopterygota<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/h/Hymenoptera.htm" title="Hymenoptera">Hymenoptera</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Suborder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Apocrita<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Superfamily:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vespoidea<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><b>Formicidae</b><br /><small>Latreille 1809</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center>Subfamilies</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Aenictinae<li><!--del_lnk--> Aenictogitoninae<li><!--del_lnk--> Aneuretinae<li><!--del_lnk--> Apomyrminae<li><!--del_lnk--> Cerapachyinae<li><!--del_lnk--> Dolichoderinae<li><!--del_lnk--> Dorylinae<li><!--del_lnk--> Ecitoninae<li><!--del_lnk--> Formicinae<li><!--del_lnk--> Leptanillinae<li><!--del_lnk--> Leptanilloidinae<li><!--del_lnk--> Myrmeciinae<li><!--del_lnk--> Myrmicinae<li><!--del_lnk--> Nothomyrmeciinae<li><!--del_lnk--> Ponerinae<li><!--del_lnk--> Pseudomyrmecinae</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:285px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/276.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="489" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ant_species_table.svg" src="../../images/2/276.png" width="283" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/276.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:257px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/277.png.htm" title="Diagram of a worker ant (Pachycondyla verenae)."><img alt="Diagram of a worker ant (Pachycondyla verenae)." height="227" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ant_worker_morphology_corrected.svg" src="../../images/2/277.png" width="255" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/277.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Diagram of a worker ant (<i>Pachycondyla verenae</i>).</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:257px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/278.jpg.htm" title="This closeup shows the prominent mandibles and the comparatively small compound eyes."><img alt="This closeup shows the prominent mandibles and the comparatively small compound eyes." height="202" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ant_head_closeup.jpg" src="../../images/2/278.jpg" width="255" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/278.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> This closeup shows the prominent mandibles and the comparatively small compound eyes.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>Ants</b> are one of the most successful groups of <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insects</a> in the <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animal</a> <!--del_lnk--> kingdom. They are of particular interest because they are <!--del_lnk--> social insects and form highly organized <!--del_lnk--> colonies or nests which sometimes consist of millions of individuals. Colonies of invasive ant species will sometimes work together and form super-colonies, spanning a very wide area of land. <!--del_lnk--> Ant colonies are sometimes described as <!--del_lnk--> superorganisms because they appear to operate as a single entity.<p>Ants have colonized almost every landmass on <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>. They can constitute up to 15% of the total animal <!--del_lnk--> biomass of a <!--del_lnk--> tropical rainforest; in the <a href="../../wp/a/Amazon_Rainforest.htm" title="Amazon Rainforest">Amazon</a> the combined weight of the ants is said to be four times larger than that of the <!--del_lnk--> tetrapods in the same area. It has also been estimated that the combined weight of all ants exceeds the weight of mankind.<p>As of 2006, there are 11,880 known ant <!--del_lnk--> species, most of which reside in hot climates.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Ancestry" name="Ancestry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ancestry</span></h2>
<p>Ants are classified as a family, Formicidae, belonging to the order <a href="../../wp/h/Hymenoptera.htm" title="Hymenoptera">Hymenoptera</a> which also includes <!--del_lnk--> sawflies, <a href="../../wp/b/Bee.htm" title="Bee">bees</a> and <a href="../../wp/w/Wasp.htm" title="Wasp">wasps</a>. Ants are a lineage derived from within the <!--del_lnk--> vespoid wasps. <!--del_lnk--> Phylogenetic analysis indicates that ants <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolved</a> from other groups of wasps in the <a href="../../wp/c/Cretaceous.htm" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> period about 120 to 170 million years ago. After the rise of <!--del_lnk--> angiosperms about 100 million years ago, ant evolution also showed rapid change, and by about 60 million years ago ants had moved to ecological dominance <!--del_lnk--> . Several <a href="../../wp/f/Fossil.htm" title="Fossil">fossils</a> from the Cretaceous are intermediate in form between wasps and ants, further confirming the wasp ancestry of ants. Like other Hymenoptera, the genetic system employed by ants is <!--del_lnk--> Haplodiploidy.<p>In 1966 <!--del_lnk--> E. O. Wilson et al. obtained the first remains of an ant from the Cretaceous, <i>Sphecomyrma freyi</i>. The specimen was trapped in <a href="../../wp/a/Amber.htm" title="Amber">amber</a> that was more than eighty million years old. This species provides evidence of a link between modern ants and non-social wasps. Cretaceous ants shared a couple of wasp-like traits together with modern ant-like characteristics.<p>During the Cretaceous times, representatives of only a few species of primitive ants ranged widely on what was the super-continent <!--del_lnk--> Laurasia (the northern hemisphere). They were scarce in comparison to other insects (about only 1%). It was <!--del_lnk--> adaptive radiation which gave ants the dominance at the beginning of the Tertiary Period. Of the species extant in the Cretaceous and Eocene eras, only 1 of about 10 genera is now extinct. 56% of the genera represented on the <!--del_lnk--> Baltic amber fossils (early Oligocene), and 96% of the genera represented in the <a href="../../wp/d/Dominican_Republic.htm" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican</a> amber fossils (apparently early Miocene) still survive today.<p><a id="Morphology" name="Morphology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Morphology</span></h2>
<p>Ants are distinguished from other insects by the following traits: elbowed <!--del_lnk--> antennae; a strongly constricted second <!--del_lnk--> abdominal segment forming a distinct node-like <!--del_lnk--> petiole; the petiole can be formed by one or two "parts" or segments (only the second, or the second and third abdominal segments can form it). Ants have a wingless <!--del_lnk--> worker caste; the presence of a <!--del_lnk--> metapleural gland is also distinctive.<p>Ant bodies, like other insects, have an <!--del_lnk--> exoskeleton, meaning their bodies are externally covered in a protective casing, as opposed to the internal skeletal framework of humans and other <a href="../../wp/v/Vertebrate.htm" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>. Ants do not have <!--del_lnk--> lungs. <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a> passes through tiny pores, the <!--del_lnk--> spiracles, in their exoskeleton - the same holes through which <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> leaves their body. Nor do they have a <!--del_lnk--> heart; a colorless <!--del_lnk--> blood, the <!--del_lnk--> hemolymph, runs from their head to rear and back again along a long tube. Their <!--del_lnk--> nervous system is much like a human <!--del_lnk--> spinal cord in that it is a continuous cord, the <!--del_lnk--> ventral nerve cord, from head to rear with branches into each extremity.<p>There are three main divisions to an ant's anatomy: the head, mesosoma and <!--del_lnk--> metasoma:<br />
<p>The head of an ant has many important parts. Ant eyes are <!--del_lnk--> compound eyes, similar to <!--del_lnk--> fly eyes: they have many smaller eyes attached together which enables them to see movement very well. Most ants have poor to mediocre eyesight; some are blind altogether. A few have exceptional vision though, such as <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> bulldog ant. Also attached to the head of an ant are two <!--del_lnk--> feelers. The feelers are special smelling organs that help ants communicate. Ants release <!--del_lnk--> pheromones (chemicals that have different smells) to communicate with each other and the feelers pick these smells as signals. The head also has two strong pinchers, the <!--del_lnk--> mandibles, which are used to carry food, to dig, and to defend. There is also a small pocket inside the mouth where ants can store food and give to others in need.<p>The <a href="../../wp/t/Thorax.htm" title="Thorax">thorax</a> of the ant is where all six <!--del_lnk--> legs are attached. At the end of each leg is a sharp <!--del_lnk--> claw that helps ants climb and hang onto things. Most <!--del_lnk--> queens and male ants have <!--del_lnk--> wings, which they drop after the <!--del_lnk--> nuptial flight; however wingless queens (ergatoids) and males can occur.<p>The metasoma of the ant houses many of the important internal organs. Some species of ants have <!--del_lnk--> stingers used for subduing <!--del_lnk--> prey and defending their nests.<p><a id="Development" name="Development"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Development</span></h2>
<p>The life of an ant starts with an <!--del_lnk--> egg. If the egg is fertilized, the ant will be female; if not, it will be male. Ants are <!--del_lnk--> holometabolous, and develop by complete <!--del_lnk--> metamorphosis, passing through <!--del_lnk--> larval and <!--del_lnk--> pupal stages before they become adults. The larval stage is particularly helpless – for instance it lacks legs entirely – and cannot care for itself. The difference between queens and workers (which are both female), and between different castes of workers when they exist, is determined by feeding in the larval stage. Food is given to the larvae by a process called <!--del_lnk--> trophallaxis in which an ant <!--del_lnk--> regurgitates food previously held in its crop for communal storage. This is also how adults distribute food amongst themselves. Larvae and pupae need to be kept at fairly constant temperatures to ensure proper development, and so are often moved around various brood chambers within the colony.<p>A new worker spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young. After that it graduates to digging and other nest work, and then to foraging and defense of the nest. These changes are fairly abrupt and define what are called temporal castes. One theory of why this occurs is because foraging has a high death rate, so ants only participate in it when they are older and closer to death anyway. In a few ants there are also physical castes – workers come in a spectrum of sizes, called minor, median, and major workers, the latter beginning foraging sooner. Often the larger ants will have disproportionately larger heads, and so stronger <!--del_lnk--> mandibles. Such individuals are sometimes called "soldier" ants because their stronger mandibles make them more effective in fighting other creatures, although they are still in fact worker ants and their "duties" typically do not vary greatly from the minor or median workers. In a few species the median workers have disappeared, creating a sharp divide and clear physical difference between the minors and majors.<p>Most of the common ant species breed in the same way. Only the Queen and breeding females have the ability to mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens. The male ants, called drones, along with the breeding females are born with wings, and do nothing throughout their life except eat, until the time for mating comes. At this time, all breeding ants, excluding the queen, are carried outside where other colonies of similar species are doing the same. Then, all the winged breeding ants take flight. Mating occurs in flight and the males die shortly afterward. The females that survive land and seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, they break off their own wings and begin to lay eggs, which they care for. <!--del_lnk--> Sperm obtained during their <!--del_lnk--> nuptial flight is stored and used to fertilise all future eggs produced. The first workers to hatch are weak and smaller than later workers, but they begin to serve the colony immediately. They enlarge the nest, forage for food and care for the other eggs. This is how most new colonies start. A few species that have multiple queens can start a new colony as a queen from the old nest takes a number of workers to a new site and founds a colony there.<p><a id="Communication_and_behavior" name="Communication_and_behavior"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Communication and behaviour</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/279.jpg.htm" title="Acrobat ant (Crematogaster - Myrmecidinae)"><img alt="Acrobat ant (Crematogaster - Myrmecidinae)" height="186" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Acrobat.ant1web..jpg" src="../../images/2/279.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/279.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Acrobat ant (<i>Crematogaster</i> - Myrmecidinae)</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/280.jpg.htm" title="Ant mound hole - preventing water coming into nest during rain"><img alt="Ant mound hole - preventing water coming into nest during rain" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ant_mound.jpg" src="../../images/2/280.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/280.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ant mound hole - preventing water coming into nest during rain</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Ant communication is accomplished primarily through chemicals called <!--del_lnk--> pheromones. Because most ants spend their time in direct contact with the ground, these chemical messages are more developed than in other Hymenopterans. So for instance, when a forager finds food, she will leave a pheromone trail along the ground on her way home. Home is typically located through the use of remembered landmarks and the position of the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">sun</a> as detected with compound eyes and also by means of special sky polarization-detecting fibers within the eyes.<p>In a short time other ants will follow this pheromone trail. Returning home, they reinforce this same trail which in turn attracts more ants until the food is exhausted, after which the trail is no longer reinforced and so slowly dissipates.<p>This elementary behaviour explains how ants adapt to changes in their environment. When an established path to a food source is blocked by a new obstacle, the foragers leave the path to explore new routes. If successful, the returning ant leaves a new trail marking the shortest route. Since each ant prefers to follow a path richer in pheromone rather than poorer, the resulting route is also the shortest available.<p>Ants make use of pheromones for other purposes as well. A crushed ant, for example, will emit an alarm pheromone which in high concentration sends nearby ants into an attack frenzy; and in lower concentration, merely attracts them. To confuse their enemies, several ant species even use what are termed <!--del_lnk--> propaganda pheromones.<p>Like other insects, ants smell with their antennae, which are long and thin. These are fairly mobile, having a distinct elbow joint after an elongated first segment; and since they come in pairs--rather like binocular vision or stereophonic sound equipment--they provide information about direction as well as intensity. Pheromones are also exchanged as compounds mixed with food and passed in <!--del_lnk--> trophallaxis, giving the ants information about one another's health and nutrition. Ants can also detect what task group (e.g. foraging or nest maintenance) to which other ants belong. Of special note, the queen produces a certain pheromone without which the workers would begin raising new queens.<p>Ants attack and defend themselves by biting and in many species, stinging, often injecting chemicals like <a href="../../wp/f/Formic_acid.htm" title="Formic acid">formic acid</a>.<p>While many types of animals can <!--del_lnk--> learn behaviors by <!--del_lnk--> imitating other animals, ants may be the only group of animals besides <!--del_lnk--> primates and some other <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammals</a> in which interactive teaching behaviour has been observed. Knowledgeable forager ants of the species <i>Temnothorax albipennis</i> directly lead naive nest-mates to newly discovered food sources by the excruciatingly slow (and time-costly) process of "<!--del_lnk--> tandem running". The follower thereby obtains knowledge that it would not have, had it not been tutored, and this is at the expense of its nest-mate teacher. Both leader and follower are acutely sensitive to the progress of their partner. For example, the leader slows down when the follower lags too far behind, and speeds up when the follower gets too close, while the follower does the opposite (Franks and Richardson, 2006).<p><a id="Locomotion" name="Locomotion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Locomotion</span></h3>
<p>Ants usually lose, or never develop, their wings. Therefore, unlike their wasp ancestors, most ants travel by <!--del_lnk--> walking. Some tend to develop literal paths--the tiny equivalent of deer trails--or create unseen paths using chemical hints (Pheromones) left for others to <!--del_lnk--> smell.<p>The more cooperative species of ants sometimes form chains to bridge gaps, whether that be over water, underground, or through spaces in arboreal paths.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/281.jpg.htm" title="Harpegnathos saltator"><img alt="Harpegnathos saltator" height="101" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Harpegnathos_saltator.jpg" src="../../images/2/281.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/281.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Harpegnathos saltator</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Among their reproductive members, most species of ant do retain wings beyond their mating flight; most females remove their own wings when returning to the ground to lay eggs, while the males almost invariably die after that maiden flight.<p>Some ants are even capable of leaping. A particularly notable species is Jerdon's Jumping ant (<i><!--del_lnk--> Harpegnathos saltator</i>).<p><a id="Gliding_ants" name="Gliding_ants"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Gliding ants</span></h4>
<p>There are several species of <!--del_lnk--> gliding ant. In fact this may be a common trait among most arboreal ants.<p><a id="Ant_cooperation_and_competition" name="Ant_cooperation_and_competition"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ant cooperation and competition</span></h2>
<p>Some species of ants are known for attacking and taking over the colonies of others ant species. Others are less expansionist but nonetheless just as aggressive; they attack colonies to steal eggs or larvae, which they either eat or raise as workers/slaves. Some ants, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Amazon Ants, are incapable of feeding themselves, but must rely on captured worker ants to care for them. Also, sometimes young queens live with their birth colony.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> tetramorium ant (<!--del_lnk--> Pavement ant) is famous for its urge to increase its territory. In early spring, colonies attempt to conquer new areas and often attack the nearest enemy colony. These result in huge sidewalk battles, sometimes leaving thousands of ants dead. Because of their aggressive nature, they also tend to be very clever, often finding ways into seemingly impenetrable areas.<p>Ants identify one another as friends through their scent, a <!--del_lnk--> hydrocarbon-laced secretion that coats their exoskeletons.<p><a id="Types" name="Types"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Types</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/283.jpg.htm" title="Near the Panamá Canal"><img alt="Near the Panamá Canal" height="237" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DirkvdM_ants_on_a_leaf.jpg" src="../../images/2/283.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/283.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Near the Panamá Canal</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/284.jpg.htm" title="Ants in Sumatran Rainforest"><img alt="Ants in Sumatran Rainforest" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rainforestants.jpg" src="../../images/2/284.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/284.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ants in Sumatran Rainforest</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>There is a great diversity among ants and their behaviors. They range in size from 2 to about 25 millimetres (about 0.08 to 1 inch). Their colour may vary; most are red or black, but other colors can also be seen, including some tropical groups with a metallic lustre.<p>See <i><!--del_lnk--> list of ant genera (alphabetical)</i> for an alphabetical compendium of worldwide ant genera, and <i><!--del_lnk--> antbase.org/Hymenoptera Name Server</i>for a complete catalogue of all the currently known ant species of the world and their synonyms. Antbase.org/Hymenoptera Name Server is providing an <!--del_lnk--> up to date record of the actual number of species, and allows to follow <!--del_lnk--> the description of new taxa.<p>Of special note:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Bullet Ants (Genus <!--del_lnk--> Paraponera), located in <!--del_lnk--> Central and <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>, are the most venomous insect. Stings are incredibly painful, though usually non-fatal.<li><!--del_lnk--> Jack jumper ants, (<i>Myrmecia pilosula</i>) located in Australia, are quite deadly to a small number of people in the population, and cause hospitalizations each year.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Masai of Africa had an abiding respect for the <!--del_lnk--> Siafu Ants, voracious predators that consume a large amount of insects and are welcomed for the benefit they bring to farmers, as they will eliminate all pests from a crop and quickly move on.<li>Some of the more advanced ants are the <!--del_lnk--> army ants and <!--del_lnk--> driver ants, from <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> respectively. Unlike most species which have permanent nests, army and driver ants do not form permanent nests, but instead alternate between nomadic stages and stages where the workers form a temporary nest (<!--del_lnk--> bivouac) out of their own bodies. Colonies reproduce either through nuptial flights as described above, or by fission, where a group of workers simply dig a new hole and raise new queens. Colony members are distinguished by smell, and other intruders are usually attacked, with notable exceptions.<li>Some ants will raid the colonies of other ants, taking the <!--del_lnk--> pupae with them, which once hatched act as workers in the raider's colonies despite not being genetically related to the queen. A few species, such as the Amazon ants (e.g. <i><!--del_lnk--> Polyergus rufescens</i>), have become utterly dependent on such slaves, to the point of being otherwise unable to feed themselves.<li>Some ants, called <!--del_lnk--> honeypot ants, have special workers called <i><!--del_lnk--> repletes</i> who simply store food for the rest of the colony, generally becoming immobile with greatly enlarged abdomens. In hot, dry places, even deserts, in Africa, North America and Australia where they live, they are considered a great delicacy.<li><!--del_lnk--> Weaver ants (<i><!--del_lnk--> Oecophylla</i>) build nests in trees by attaching leaves together, first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then sewing them together by pressing silk-producing larvae against them in alternation.<li><!--del_lnk--> Leafcutter ants (<i><!--del_lnk--> Atta</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Acromyrmex</i>) feed exclusively on a special <a href="../../wp/f/Fungus.htm" title="Fungus">fungus</a> that lives only within their colonies. They continually collect <!--del_lnk--> leaves which they cut into tiny pieces for the fungus to grow on. These ants have several differently sized castes especially for cutting up the pieces they are supplied with into even smaller pieces. Leaf cutter ants are sensitive enough to adapt to the fungi's reaction to different plant material, apparently detecting chemical signals from the fungus. If a particular type of leaf is toxic to the fungus the colony will no longer collect it. The ants grow the fungus because it produces special structures called gongylidia which are fed on by the ants. They create antibiotics on their skin, and subsist entirely on this farming of the fungus.<li><!--del_lnk--> Fire ants are unique by having a poison sac where the contents consists largely of <!--del_lnk--> piperidine alkaloids.<li><!--del_lnk--> Silver ants navigate by using their eyes instead of pheromones to find their way back home.<li>Scientists recently discovered that <!--del_lnk--> Sahara desert ants have an internal <!--del_lnk--> pedometer that keeps tracks of how many steps they take, and use it to find their way back to the nest. <!--del_lnk--> <li>Some <!--del_lnk--> ants are equipped with mandibles called trap-jaws. This snap-jaw mechanism, or catapult mechanism, is possible because energy is stored in the large closing muscles. The blow is incredibly fast, about 0.5 ms in the genus Mystrium. Before the strike, the mandibles open wide and are locked in the open position by the labrum, which functions as a latch. The attack is triggered by stimulation of sensory hairs at the side of the mandibles. The mandibles are also able to function as a tool for more finely adjusted tasks. Two similar groups are Odontomachus and Dacetini - examples of <!--del_lnk--> convergent evolution.<li>Australian <!--del_lnk--> green ants are eaten by the aboriginals. Their abdomens taste like lemon sherbet, are high in vitamin C and have antibiotic properties. Squashed green ants mashed in water makes up an excellent lemon-lime flavored drink. The Amazon is also said to have lemon ants.<!--del_lnk--> <li>The Australian <!--del_lnk--> bulldog ant Myrmecia pilosula has only a single pair of chromosomes. Males have just one chromosome since they, like all male <a href="../../wp/h/Hymenoptera.htm" title="Hymenoptera">Hymenopterans</a>, are <!--del_lnk--> haploid. The Australian bulldog ants are also among the biggest and most primitive. Each individual hunts alone, using its large eyes instead of their chemical senses to find prey. Like all ants they are social, but their social behaviour is poorly developed compared to more advanced species.<li>Scientists recently discovered that <i><!--del_lnk--> Polyrhachis sokolova</i>, a species of ant, can swim and live underwater.</ul>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Termites, sometimes called "white ants," are in fact not closely related to ants, though they have a somewhat similar social structure. They comprise the order <!--del_lnk--> Isoptera and are related to the <!--del_lnk--> cockroach.<p><a id="Relationships_between_ants_and_other_species" name="Relationships_between_ants_and_other_species"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Relationships between ants and other species</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/285.jpg.htm" title="An ant collects honeydew from an aphid"><img alt="An ant collects honeydew from an aphid" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ant_Receives_Honeydew_from_Aphid.jpg" src="../../images/2/285.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/285.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An ant collects <!--del_lnk--> honeydew from an aphid</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/a/Aphid.htm" title="Aphid">Aphids</a> secrete a sweet liquid called <!--del_lnk--> honeydew. Normally this is allowed to fall to the ground, but around ants it is kept for them to collect. The ants in turn keep predators away and will move the aphids around to better feeding locations. Upon migrating to a new area, many colonies will take new <a href="../../wp/a/Aphid.htm" title="Aphid">aphids</a> with them, to ensure that they have a supply of honeydew in the new area. Ants also tend <!--del_lnk--> mealybugs to harvest their honeydew. Mealybugs can become a serious pest of pineapple if ants are present to protect mealybugs from natural enemies (Jahn and Beardsley 1994, 1996; Jahn et al. 2003).</ul>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/286.jpg.htm" title="Camponotus compressus tending soft scales"><img alt="Camponotus compressus tending soft scales" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ant_tending_scales3.jpg" src="../../images/2/286.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/286.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Camponotus compressus</i> tending <!--del_lnk--> soft scales</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Myrmecophilous (ant-loving) <!--del_lnk--> caterpillars (e.g., blues, coppers, or hairstreaks) are herded by the ants, led to feeding areas in the daytime, and brought inside the ants' nest at night. The caterpillars have a gland which secretes honeydew when the ants massage them. Some caterpillars are known to produce vibrations and sounds that are sensed by the ants. (DeVries, 1992)<li>Some <!--del_lnk--> myrmecophagous (ant-eating) caterpillars secrete a pheromone which makes the ants think that the caterpillar's larva is one of their own. The larva will then be taken into the ants' nest where it can feed on the ant larvae.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Allomerus decemarticulatus</i> has developed a tripartite association with their host plant and a fungus in order to ambush their prey.<li><!--del_lnk--> Fungus-growing ants that make up the tribe <!--del_lnk--> attini, including <!--del_lnk--> Leafcutter ants, actively cultivate certain species of fungus in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Leucoagaricus</i> or <i><!--del_lnk--> Leucocoprinus</i> genera of the <!--del_lnk--> Agaricaceae family. In this <!--del_lnk--> ant-fungus mutualism, both species depend on each other for survival.<li><!--del_lnk--> Lemon Ants make <!--del_lnk--> Devil's gardens by killing all surrounding plants besides lemon ant trees.<li>Many trees have extra floral nectaries that provide food for ants and the ants in turn protect the plant from herbivorous insects. Some species like the bullhorn acacia (<i><!--del_lnk--> Acacia cornigera</i>) in Central America have hollow thorns that serve to house colonies of stinging ants (<i><!--del_lnk--> Pseudomyrmex ferruginea</i>) that defend the tree against insects, browsing mammals, and <!--del_lnk--> epiphytic vines. In return, the ants obtain food from protein-lipid <!--del_lnk--> Beltian bodies. Another example of this type of <!--del_lnk--> ectosymbiosis comes from the <!--del_lnk--> Macaranga tree which have stems adapted to house colonies of <!--del_lnk--> Crematogaster ants.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> peony plant is visited by ants, who can help the plant open its flowers.</ul>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/287.jpg.htm" title="A Lycaenid larva and an ant"><img alt="A Lycaenid larva and an ant" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lycaenid_ant_sec.jpg" src="../../images/2/287.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/2/287.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A Lycaenid larva and an ant</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Humans_and_ants" name="Humans_and_ants"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Humans and ants</span></h2>
<p>Ants are useful for clearing out insect pests and aerating the soil. On the other hand, they can become annoyances when they invade homes, yards, gardens and fields. <!--del_lnk--> Carpenter ants damage <a href="../../wp/w/Wood.htm" title="Wood">wood</a> by hollowing it out for nesting. Nests may be destroyed by tracing the ants' trails back to the nest, then pouring boiling water into it to kill the queen. (Killing individual ants is less than effective due to the secretion of pheromones mentioned above). Many scales and homopteran species that are considered as horticultural pests are controlled by the use of grease rings on the trunks of the trees. These rings cut off the routes for ants and make the pest species vulnerable to parasites and predators.<p>In some parts of the world large ants have been used as <!--del_lnk--> sutures by pressing the wound together and applying ants along it. The ant in defensive attitude seizes the edges in its mandibles and locks in place. The body is then cut off and the mandibles can remain in place for up to three days closing the wound.<p>Some species, called <i><!--del_lnk--> killer ants</i>, have a tendency to attack much larger animals during foraging or in defending their nests. Human attacks are rare, but the stings and bites can be quite painful and in large enough numbers can be disabling.<p><a id="Ant_control" name="Ant_control"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ant control</span></h3>
<p>Modern society considers the ant a pest, and due to the adaptive nature of ant colonies, eliminating one is near impossible. Pest control with regard to ants is more a matter of controlling local populations than eliminating an entire colony. Attempts to control ant populations of any kind are temporary solutions.<p>Typical ants that are classified as pests include Pavement Ants (otherwise known as the sugar ant), Pharaoh Ants, Carpenter Ants, Argentine Ants, and the Red Imported Fire Ant. Control of species populations are usually done with bait insecticides, which are either in the form of small granules, or as a sticky liquid that is gathered by the ants as food and then brought back to the nest where the poison is inadvertently spread to other members of the brood — a system that can severely reduce the numbers in a colony if used properly. <!--del_lnk--> Boric acid and <!--del_lnk--> borax are often used as <!--del_lnk--> insecticides that are relatively safe for humans. With the recent insurgence of the <!--del_lnk--> Red Imported Fire Ant, a tactic called broadcast baiting has been employed, by which the substance (usually a granule bait designed specifically for Fire Ants) is spread across a large area, such as a lawn, in order to control populations.<p><a id="Ants_as_food" name="Ants_as_food"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ants as food</span></h3>
<p>Ants and their larvae are eaten in different parts of the world.<p>In <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, ants' larvae, known locally as <i><!--del_lnk--> escamoles</i> are considered a great delicacy in many restaurants.<p>In the <a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombian</a> department of <!--del_lnk--> Santander <i><!--del_lnk--> Atta Sp. Colona</i> ants are toasted alive and eaten. This tradition has come down from the native <!--del_lnk--> Guanes.<p>In parts of <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, ants are prepared and eaten in various ways. <!--del_lnk--> Khorat ant eggs and diced flying ants are eaten as an <!--del_lnk--> appetizer. Weaver Ant Eggs and Larva as well as the ants themselves maybe used in a Thai Salad, Yum (ยำ), in a dish called Yum Khai Mod Daeng (ยำไข่มดแดง) or Red Ant Egg Salad, a dish that comes from the Issan or North-Eastern region of Thailand.It is said that the ants taste tart.<p>In <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, ants are used to help harvest <!--del_lnk--> Rooibos, which is an otherwise difficult to cultivate <!--del_lnk--> tisane.<p><a id="Ants_in_human_culture" name="Ants_in_human_culture"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ants in human culture</span></h3>
<p>Ants have often been used in fables and children's stories to represent industriousness and cooperative effort, as well as aggressiveness and vindictiveness. In parts of Africa, ants are the messengers of the gods. Ant bites are often said to have curative properties. Some <!--del_lnk--> Native American religions, such as <!--del_lnk--> Hopi mythology, recognize ants as the very first animals. Others use ant bites in <!--del_lnk--> initiation ceremonies as a test of endurance.<p><a id="Gallery" name="Gallery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h2>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 30px 0;"><a href="../../images/2/288.jpg.htm" title="Image:WeaverAntsNest.JPG"><img alt="" height="86" src="../../images/2/288.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Weaver Ant Nest</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/2/289.jpg.htm" title="Image:LeafAnt.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/2/289.jpg" width="113" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Leaf-cutting Ants (<i>Atta sp</i>. or <i>Acromyrmex sp</i>.)</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 17px 0;"><a href="../../images/2/290.jpg.htm" title="Image:Ant SEM.jpg"><img alt="" height="112" src="../../images/2/290.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Electron Micrograph: Ant Head</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 22px 0;"><a href="../../images/3/352.jpg.htm" title="Image:Ant cultivating aphids.jpg"><img alt="" height="102" src="../../images/2/291.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Ant Cultivating Aphids</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/2/292.jpg.htm" title="Image:Ant hill.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/2/292.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Ant Hill</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/2/293.jpg.htm" title="Image:Ants cleaning dead snake.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/2/293.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Ants Collecting Food</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/2/294.jpg.htm" title="Image:Ant trail.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/2/294.jpg" width="90" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Ant Trail</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 26px 0;"><a href="../../images/92/9251.jpg.htm" title="Image:Ant on mosshill02.jpg"><img alt="" height="94" src="../../images/2/295.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Ant on Mosshill</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/2/296.jpg.htm" title="Image:Fireantwithobject.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/2/296.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Fire Ant Carrying Food</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 16px 0;"><a href="../../images/2/297.jpg.htm" title="Image:Ant Formica sp.jpg"><img alt="" height="114" src="../../images/2/297.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Sterile Female Worker<br /><i>Formica sp</i>.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/2/298.jpg.htm" title="Image:Ant nest in tree.JPG"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/2/298.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Ant nest on <!--del_lnk--> bamboo tree.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/2/299.jpg.htm" title="Image:Red East indian ants.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/2/299.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Weaving ants.</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/3/300.jpg.htm" title="Image:DirkvdM ant with leaf.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/3/300.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/3/301.jpg.htm" title="Image:Oecophylla.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/3/301.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Oecophylla a.k.a. weaver ants.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/3/302.jpg.htm" title="Image:Copie de229232411 2637912542 o.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/3/302.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Oecophylla a.k.a.weaver ant.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Fire ants in water clustering together.</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Arthropod', 'Insect', 'Hymenoptera', 'Insect', 'Animal', 'Earth', 'Amazon Rainforest', 'Hymenoptera', 'Bee', 'Wasp', 'Evolution', 'Cretaceous', 'Fossil', 'Amber', 'Dominican Republic', 'Vertebrate', 'Oxygen', 'Carbon dioxide', 'Australia', 'Thorax', 'Sun', 'Formic acid', 'Mammal', 'South America', 'South America', 'Africa', 'Fungus', 'Hymenoptera', 'Aphid', 'Aphid', 'Wood', 'Mexico', 'Colombia', 'Thailand', 'South Africa'] |
Antananarivo | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Antananarivo,1625,1793,1869,1895,2001,2006,Administrative,Anglican,Antananarivo province,Architectural" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Antananarivo</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Antananarivo";
var wgTitle = "Antananarivo";
var wgArticleId = 56597;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Antananarivo">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Antananarivo</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.African_Geography.htm">African Geography</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/3/304.png.htm" title="Location of Antananarivo in Madagascar"><img alt="Location of Antananarivo in Madagascar" height="245" longdesc="/wiki/Image:MG-Antananarivo.png" src="../../images/3/304.png" width="125" /></a></span></div>
<p><b>Antanànarìvo</b> (pronounced <!--del_lnk--> IPA [æntəˌnænəˈɹiːvoʊ] or [ɑːntəˌnɑːnəˈɹiːvoʊ]), population 1,403,449 (<!--del_lnk--> 2001 census), is the <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> of <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, in <!--del_lnk--> Antananarivo province.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Location" name="Location"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Location</span></h2>
<p>Also known by its <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a> name <b>Tananarive</b> or by its colloquial short-hand form <b>Tana</b>, Antanànarìvo is situated in the centre of the <!--del_lnk--> island length-wise, and 90 miles away from the eastern coast. The city occupies a commanding position, being built on the <!--del_lnk--> summit and <!--del_lnk--> slopes of a long and narrow <!--del_lnk--> rocky <!--del_lnk--> ridge, which extends north and south for about 2½ miles and rising at its highest point to 690 ft. above the extensive rice plain to the west, which is itself 4060 ft. above sea-level. It is <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>'s largest <a href="../../wp/c/City.htm" title="City">city</a> and is its <!--del_lnk--> administrative, <a href="../../wp/c/Communication.htm" title="Communication">communications</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> economic centre. The city is located at 18°55' South, 47°31' East (-18.916667, 47.516667), 135 miles west-southwest of <!--del_lnk--> Tamatave, the principal <!--del_lnk--> seaport of the island, with which it is connected by <!--del_lnk--> railway, and for about 60 miles along the coastal <!--del_lnk--> lagoons, a service of small steamers. <!--del_lnk--> Industries include <a href="../../wp/f/Food.htm" title="Food">food</a> <!--del_lnk--> products, <!--del_lnk--> cigarettes, and <!--del_lnk--> textiles.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/305.jpg.htm" title="A theater in Antananarivo around 1905"><img alt="A theater in Antananarivo around 1905" height="153" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antananarivo_Four_Roads_c1905.jpg" src="../../images/3/305.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/305.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A theatre in Antananarivo around 1905</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Antananarivo was founded about <!--del_lnk--> 1625 by king Andrianjaka and takes its name (the City of the Thousand) from the number of soldiers Andrianjaka assigned to guarding it. For a long time it was the principal <!--del_lnk--> village of the Hova <!--del_lnk--> chiefs, Antananarivo became more important as those chiefs made themselves <!--del_lnk--> sovereigns of the greater part of <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, until it became a <!--del_lnk--> town of some 80,000 inhabitants. In <!--del_lnk--> 1793 it was made the <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> of the <!--del_lnk--> Merina <!--del_lnk--> kings. The conquests of King <!--del_lnk--> Radama I made Antananarivo the capital of almost all of <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>.Until <!--del_lnk--> 1869 all buildings within the <a href="../../wp/c/City.htm" title="City">city</a> proper were of <a href="../../wp/w/Wood.htm" title="Wood">wood</a> or <!--del_lnk--> rushes, but even then it possessed several timber <!--del_lnk--> palaces of considerable size, the largest being 120 ft. high. These crown the <!--del_lnk--> summit of the central portion of the ridge; and the largest palace, with its lofty <!--del_lnk--> roof and <!--del_lnk--> towers, is the most conspicuous object from every point of view.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/84/8445.jpg.htm" title="Antananarivo, Madagascar"><img alt="Antananarivo, Madagascar" height="173" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antananarivo_%28atamari%29.jpg" src="../../images/3/306.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/84/8445.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Antananarivo, Madagascar</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Since the introduction of <!--del_lnk--> stone and <!--del_lnk--> brick, the whole city has been rebuilt and now contains numerous structures of some <!--del_lnk--> architectural pretension, the royal palaces, the houses formerly belonging to the <!--del_lnk--> prime minister and <!--del_lnk--> nobles, the <!--del_lnk--> French <!--del_lnk--> residency, the <!--del_lnk--> Anglican and <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic <!--del_lnk--> cathedrals, several stone <!--del_lnk--> churches, as well as others of brick, <!--del_lnk--> colleges, <!--del_lnk--> schools, <!--del_lnk--> hospitals, <!--del_lnk--> courts of justice and other <a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">government</a> <!--del_lnk--> buildings, and hundreds of good <!--del_lnk--> dwellings.<p><a id="Present_day" name="Present_day"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Present day</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/84/8451.jpg.htm" title="Antananarivo, Madagascar"><img alt="Antananarivo, Madagascar" height="173" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antananarivo_Rova-Palast.jpg" src="../../images/3/307.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/84/8451.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Antananarivo, Madagascar</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The city was captured by the <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1895 and incorporated into their Madagascar <!--del_lnk--> protectorate. Since the <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> <a href="../../wp/i/Invasion.htm" title="Invasion">conquest</a>, good <!--del_lnk--> roads have been constructed throughout the city, broad flights of <!--del_lnk--> steps connect places too steep for the formation of carriage roads, and the central space, called Andohalo, has become a handsome <i>place</i>, with walks and <!--del_lnk--> terraces, <a href="../../wp/f/Flower.htm" title="Flower">flower</a>-beds and <!--del_lnk--> trees. A small <a href="../../wp/p/Park.htm" title="Park">park</a> has been laid out near the residency, and the planting of trees and the formation of gardens in various parts of the city give it a bright and attractive appearance. Water is obtained from springs at the foot of the hill, but it is proposed to bring an abundant supply from the <a href="../../wp/r/River.htm" title="River">river</a> Ikopa, which skirts the capital to the south and west. The city is guarded by two <!--del_lnk--> forts built on hills to the east and south-west respectively. Including an Anglican and a Roman Catholic cathedral, there are about fifty churches in the city and its <!--del_lnk--> suburbs, as well as a <!--del_lnk--> Muslim <a href="../../wp/m/Mosque.htm" title="Mosque">mosque</a>. Antananarivo is home of the <!--del_lnk--> University of Madagascar and the Collège Rural d'Ambatobe.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> colonial period and for some years after independence, the spelling <b>Tananarive</b> was used rather than <i>Antananarivo</i>.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/308.jpg.htm" title="Antananarivo seen from the North-East"><img alt="Antananarivo seen from the North-East" height="87" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ankaratra_as_seen_from_Antananarivo.jpg" src="../../images/3/308.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/308.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Antananarivo seen from the North-East</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Sister_cities" name="Sister_cities"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sister cities</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a class="image" href="../../images/3/309.png.htm" title="Armenia"><img alt="Armenia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Armenia.svg" src="../../images/3/309.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Yerevan</b>, <a href="../../wp/a/Armenia.htm" title="Armenia">Armenia</a></ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antananarivo"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Capital', 'Madagascar', 'French language', 'Madagascar', 'City', 'Communication', 'Food', 'Madagascar', 'Capital', 'Madagascar', 'City', 'Wood', 'Government', 'France', 'France', 'Invasion', 'Flower', 'Park', 'River', 'Mosque', 'Armenia'] |
Antarctic_Treaty_System | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Antarctic Treaty System,1959,1960,1961,1962,1965,1967,1971,1974,1975,1977" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Antarctic Treaty System</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Antarctic_Treaty_System";
var wgTitle = "Antarctic Treaty System";
var wgArticleId = 1291;
var wgCurRevisionId = 92520343;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Antarctic_Treaty_System">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Antarctic Treaty System</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Antarctica.htm">Antarctica</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table align="right">
<tr>
<td>
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="margin-left:0.5em;" width="200">
<tr>
<th align="center" style="background:#ccccff"><a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">International</a> Ownership <!--del_lnk--> Treaties<br />
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><strong class="selflink">Antarctic Treaty System</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Law of the Sea</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Outer Space Treaty</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Moon Treaty</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> International waters</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Extraterrestrial real estate</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>Antarctic Treaty</b> and related agreements, collectively called the <b>Antarctic Treaty System</b> or <b>ATS</b>, regulate <!--del_lnk--> international relations with respect to <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s only uninhabited <a href="../../wp/c/Continent.htm" title="Continent">continent</a>. For the purposes of the <!--del_lnk--> treaty system, <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> is defined as all land and <!--del_lnk--> ice shelves south of the southern 60th <!--del_lnk--> parallel. The treaty has now been signed by 45 countries <!--del_lnk--> , including the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> (now defunct) and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, and set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and banned military activity on that <a href="../../wp/c/Continent.htm" title="Continent">continent</a>. This was the first <!--del_lnk--> arms control agreement established during the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="The_Antarctic_Treaty_System" name="The_Antarctic_Treaty_System"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Antarctic Treaty System</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15965.jpg.htm" title="Research stations and territorial claims in Antarctica (2002)."><img alt="Research stations and territorial claims in Antarctica (2002)." height="311" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antarctica.jpg" src="../../images/7/746.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15965.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Research stations and territorial claims in Antarctica (2002).</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="The_.28Main.29_Antarctic_Treaty" name="The_.28Main.29_Antarctic_Treaty"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The (Main) Antarctic Treaty</span></h3>
<p>The main treaty was opened for signature on <!--del_lnk--> December 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1959, and officially entered into force on <!--del_lnk--> June 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1961. The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during the <!--del_lnk--> International Geophysical Year of 1957-58 and willing to accept a US invitation to the conference at which the treaty was negotiated. These countries were <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> USSR, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and the United States (which opened the <!--del_lnk--> Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station for the <!--del_lnk--> International Geophysical Year).<p><a id="Articles_of_the_Antarctic_Treaty" name="Articles_of_the_Antarctic_Treaty"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Articles of the Antarctic Treaty</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><b>Article 1</b> - area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose;<li><b>Article 2</b> - freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue;<li><b>Article 3</b> - free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> and other international agencies;<li><b>Article 4</b> - does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force;<li><b>Article 5</b> - prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes;<li><b>Article 6</b> - includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south;<li><b>Article 7</b> - treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the introduction of military personnel must be given;<li><b>Article 8</b> - allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states;<li><b>Article 9</b> - frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations;<li><b>Article 10</b> - treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty;<li><b>Article 11</b> - disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the <a href="../../wp/i/International_Court_of_Justice.htm" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a>;<li><b>Articles 12, 13, 14</b> - deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations.</ul>
<p>The main objective of the ATS is to ensure <cite>in the interests of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord</cite>. The treaty forbids <cite>any measures of a military nature</cite>, but not the presence of military personnel per se. It avoided addressing the question of existing <!--del_lnk--> territorial claims asserted by some nations and not recognized by others.<p><a id="Other_agreements" name="Other_agreements"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other agreements</span></h3>
<p>Other agreements - some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments - include:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964) (entered into force in 1982)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (1988) (although it was signed in 1988, it was subsequently rejected and never entered into force)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed <!--del_lnk--> 4 October <!--del_lnk--> 1991 and entered into force <!--del_lnk--> 14 January <!--del_lnk--> 1998; this agreement prevents development and provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes on marine pollution, fauna, and flora, environmental impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas. It prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific.</ul>
<p><a id="Meetings" name="Meetings"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Meetings</span></h2>
<p>The Antarctic Treaty System's yearly <i>Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM)</i> are the international forum for the administration and management of the region. Only 28 of the 45 parties to the agreements have the right to participate in these meetings. These parties are the <i>Consultative Parties</i> and, in addition to the 12 original signatories, include 16 countries that have demonstrated their interest in Antarctica by carrying out substantial scientific activity there.<p><a id="Members" name="Members"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Members</span></h2>
<div class="center">
<div class="thumb tnone">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/749.png.htm" title=" ██ signatory, consulting, territorial claim ██ signatory, consulting, reserved right for territorial claim ██ signatory, consulting ██ signatory, acceding status ██ non-signatory"><img alt=" ██ signatory, consulting, territorial claim ██ signatory, consulting, reserved right for territorial claim ██ signatory, consulting ██ signatory, acceding status ██ non-signatory" height="185" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antarctic_Treaty.png" src="../../images/7/749.png" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/749.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:brown; color:brown;">██</span> signatory, <i>consulting</i>, <!--del_lnk--> territorial <!--del_lnk--> claim</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:orange; color:orange;">██</span> signatory, <i>consulting</i>, <strong class="selflink">reserved right for territorial claim</strong></span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#11FF22; color:#11FF22;">██</span> signatory, <i>consulting</i></span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:yellow; color:yellow;">██</span> signatory, <i>acceding</i> status</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:gray; color:gray;">██</span> non-signatory</span></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>
<br clear="all" />
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Country</th>
<th>Original signatory</th>
<th>Consultative</th>
<th>Acceding</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> <!--del_lnk--> <i>claim</i>*</td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1961-<!--del_lnk--> 06-26</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> <!--del_lnk--> <i>claim</i></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1961-<!--del_lnk--> 06-23</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 1987-<!--del_lnk--> 08-25</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1960-<!--del_lnk--> 07-26</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1983-<!--del_lnk--> 09-12</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1975-<!--del_lnk--> 05-16</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bulgaria.htm" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1998-<!--del_lnk--> 05-25</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1978-<!--del_lnk--> 09-11</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 1988-<!--del_lnk--> 05-04</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a> <!--del_lnk--> <i>claim</i>*</td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1961-<!--del_lnk--> 06-23</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">China</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1985-<!--del_lnk--> 10-07</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1983-<!--del_lnk--> 06-08</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 1989-<!--del_lnk--> 01-31</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 1984-<!--del_lnk--> 08-16</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Czech_Republic.htm" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> (as <!--del_lnk--> Czechoslovakia)</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 1962-<!--del_lnk--> 06-14</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 1965-<!--del_lnk--> 05-20</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Ecuador.htm" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1990-<!--del_lnk--> 11-19</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1987-<!--del_lnk--> 09-15</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Estonia.htm" title="Estonia">Estonia</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 2001-<!--del_lnk--> 05-17</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1989-<!--del_lnk--> 10-09</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1984-<!--del_lnk--> 05-15</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> <!--del_lnk--> <i>claim</i></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1960-<!--del_lnk--> 09-16</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a><br />
<p><i><!--del_lnk--> East Germany</i></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1981-<!--del_lnk--> 03-03<br />
<p><i><!--del_lnk--> 1987-<!--del_lnk--> 10-05</i></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1979-<!--del_lnk--> 02-05<br />
<p><i><!--del_lnk--> 1974-<!--del_lnk--> 11-19</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 1987-<!--del_lnk--> 01-08</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/Guatemala.htm" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 1991-<!--del_lnk--> 07-31</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 1984-<!--del_lnk--> 01-27</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1983-<!--del_lnk--> 09-12</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1983-<!--del_lnk--> 08-19</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1987-<!--del_lnk--> 10-05</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1981-<!--del_lnk--> 03-18</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1960-<!--del_lnk--> 08-04</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1990-<!--del_lnk--> 11-19</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1967-<!--del_lnk--> 03-30</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> <!--del_lnk--> <i>claim</i></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1960-<!--del_lnk--> 11-01</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/North_Korea.htm" title="North Korea">North Korea</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 1987-<!--del_lnk--> 01-21</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a> <!--del_lnk--> <i>claim</i></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1960-<!--del_lnk--> 08-24</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Papua_New_Guinea.htm" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 1981-<!--del_lnk--> 03-16</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1989-<!--del_lnk--> 10-09</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1981-<!--del_lnk--> 04-10</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1977-<!--del_lnk--> 07-29</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1961-<!--del_lnk--> 06-08</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Romania.htm" title="Romania">Romania</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 1971-<!--del_lnk--> 09-15</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> (<a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>)**</td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1960-<!--del_lnk--> 11-02</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Slovakia.htm" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a> (as <!--del_lnk--> Czechoslovakia)</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 1962-<!--del_lnk--> 06-14</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1960-<!--del_lnk--> 06-21</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/South_Korea.htm" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1989-<!--del_lnk--> 10-09</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1986-<!--del_lnk--> 11-28</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1988-<!--del_lnk--> 09-21</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1982-<!--del_lnk--> 03-31</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1988-<!--del_lnk--> 09-21</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1984-<!--del_lnk--> 03-24</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 1990-<!--del_lnk--> 11-15</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 1996-<!--del_lnk--> 01-25</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2004-<!--del_lnk--> 05-27</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1992-<!--del_lnk--> 10-28</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <!--del_lnk--> <i>claim</i>*</td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1960-<!--del_lnk--> 05-31</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>**</td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1960-<!--del_lnk--> 08-18</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/Uruguay.htm" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1985-<!--del_lnk--> 10-07</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1980-<!--del_lnk--> 01-11</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/v/Venezuela.htm" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td style="background:lightgray;"><!--del_lnk--> 1999-<!--del_lnk--> 05-24</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>* Claims overlap.<br /> ** Reserved the right to claim areas.<p>At the end of 2004, there were 45 treaty member nations: 28 consultative and 17 acceding. Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory. The 21 nonclaimant nations do not recognize the claims of others.<p><a id="Legal_system" name="Legal_system"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legal system</span></h2>
<p>Antarctica has no "permanent population" and hence no <a href="../../wp/c/Citizenship.htm" title="Citizenship">citizenship</a> or <a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">government</a>. All personnel present on Antarctica at any time are citizens or nationals of some sovereignty, as there is no Antarctic sovereignty. Various countries claim most areas of it, with some areas claimed by several nations, but most countries do not recognize those claims. The area on the mainland between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only land on Earth not claimed by any country.<p><a id="Argentina_and_Chile" name="Argentina_and_Chile"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Argentina and Chile</span></h3>
<p>According to Argentine regulations, any crime committed within 50 <!--del_lnk--> kilometers of any Argentine base is to be judged in <!--del_lnk--> Ushuaia (as capital of <!--del_lnk--> Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica, and South Atlantic Islands). In the part of <!--del_lnk--> Argentine Antarctica that is also claimed by Chile, the person to be judged can ask to be transferred there.<p><a id="United_States" name="United_States"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">United States</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> law of the United States, including certain criminal offenses by or against U.S. nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. To this end, the United States now stations special deputy <!--del_lnk--> U. S. Marshals in Antarctica to provide a law enforcement presence. <!--del_lnk--> <p>Some U.S. laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 <!--del_lnk--> U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation of <!--del_lnk--> statute:<ul>
<li>the taking of native Antarctic mammals or birds;<li>the introduction into Antarctica of nonindigenous plants and animals;<li>entry into specially protected or scientific areas;<li>the discharge or disposal of pollutants into Antarctica or Antarctic waters;<li>the importation into the U.S. of certain items from Antarctica.</ul>
<p>Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The Departments of <!--del_lnk--> Treasury, <!--del_lnk--> Commerce, <!--del_lnk--> Transportation, and <!--del_lnk--> Interior share enforcement responsibilities.<p>Public Law 95-541, the Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, requires expeditions from the U.S. to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the <!--del_lnk--> Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs of the <!--del_lnk--> State Department, which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty.<p>Further information is provided by the <!--del_lnk--> Office of Polar Programs of the <!--del_lnk--> National Science Foundation.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic_Treaty_System"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['United Nations', 'Antarctica', 'Earth', 'Continent', 'Antarctica', 'Soviet Union', 'United States', 'Continent', 'Cold War', 'Argentina', 'Australia', 'Belgium', 'Chile', 'France', 'Japan', 'New Zealand', 'Norway', 'South Africa', 'United Kingdom', 'United Nations', 'International Court of Justice', 'Argentina', 'Australia', 'Austria', 'Belgium', 'Brazil', 'Bulgaria', 'Canada', 'Chile', "People's Republic of China", 'Colombia', 'Cuba', 'Czech Republic', 'Denmark', 'Ecuador', 'Estonia', 'Finland', 'France', 'Germany', 'Greece', 'Guatemala', 'Hungary', 'India', 'Italy', 'Japan', 'Netherlands', 'New Zealand', 'North Korea', 'Norway', 'Papua New Guinea', 'Peru', 'Poland', 'Romania', 'Russia', 'Soviet Union', 'Slovakia', 'South Africa', 'South Korea', 'Spain', 'Sweden', 'Switzerland', 'Turkey', 'Ukraine', 'United Kingdom', 'United States', 'Uruguay', 'Venezuela', 'Citizenship', 'Government'] |
Antarctic_krill | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Antarctic krill,Filterkrillkils2.gif,Antarctic krill.ogg,1 E11 kg,2001,2003,2005,Aggregate,Albatross,Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research,Amphipod" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Antarctic krill</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Antarctic_krill";
var wgTitle = "Antarctic krill";
var wgArticleId = 43269;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Antarctic_krill">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Antarctic krill</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Insects_Reptiles_and_Fish.htm">Insects, Reptiles and Fish</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="metadata topicon" id="featured-star" style="right:10px; display:none;">
<div style="position: relative; width: 14px; height: 14px; overflow: hidden">
<div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; font-size: 100px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 100px; z-index: 3"><!--del_lnk--> <span title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."> </span></div>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; z-index: 2"><a class="image" href="../../images/0/24.png.htm" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a featured article. Click here for more information." height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LinkFA-star.png" src="../../images/0/24.png" width="14" /></a></div>
</div>
</div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Antarctic Krill</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/232/23281.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="155" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Krill.jpg" src="../../images/232/23281.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center">
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Arthropod.htm" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Subphylum:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Crustacea<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Malacostraca<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Euphausiacea<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Euphausiidae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Euphausia</i><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>E. superba</b></i></span><br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><i><b>Euphausia superba</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Dana, 1850</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
<br /> The <b>Antarctic krill</b> (<i>Euphausia superba</i> ) is a <!--del_lnk--> species of <a href="../../wp/k/Krill.htm" title="Krill">krill</a> found in the <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctic</a> waters of the <a href="../../wp/s/Southern_Ocean.htm" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a>. Antarctic krill are <!--del_lnk--> shrimp-like <a href="../../wp/i/Invertebrate.htm" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> that live in large schools, called <!--del_lnk--> swarms, sometimes reaching densities of 10,000 - 30,000 individual animals per cubic meter. They feed directly on minute <!--del_lnk--> phytoplankton, thereby using the <!--del_lnk--> primary production <a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">energy</a> that the phytoplankton originally derived from the sun in order to sustain their <!--del_lnk--> pelagic (open <a href="../../wp/o/Ocean.htm" title="Ocean">ocean</a>) <!--del_lnk--> life cycle. They grow to a length of 6 cm, weigh up to 2 <!--del_lnk--> grams, and can live for up to six years. They are a key species in the Antarctic <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem and are, in terms of <!--del_lnk--> biomass, likely the most successful animal species on the planet (approximately 500 million tonnes).<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Systematics" name="Systematics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Systematics</span></h2>
<p>All members of the <!--del_lnk--> krill order are shrimp-like animals of the crustacean superorder <!--del_lnk--> Eucarida. Their breastplate units, or <!--del_lnk--> thoracomers, are joined with the <!--del_lnk--> carapace. The short length of these thoracomers on each side of the carapace makes the <!--del_lnk--> gills of the Antarctic krill visible to the human eye. The <!--del_lnk--> legs do not form a <!--del_lnk--> jaw structure, which differentiates this order from the <!--del_lnk--> crabs, lobsters and shrimp.<p><a id="Life_cycle" name="Life_cycle"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Life cycle</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23282.gif.htm" title="The eggs are spawned close to the surface and start sinking. In the open ocean they sink for about 10 days: the nauplii hatch in ca. 3000 meter depth"><img alt="The eggs are spawned close to the surface and start sinking. In the open ocean they sink for about 10 days: the nauplii hatch in ca. 3000 meter depth" height="297" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Krillhatchingkils.gif" src="../../images/232/23282.gif" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23282.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The eggs are spawned close to the surface and start sinking. In the open ocean they sink for about 10 days: the nauplii hatch in ca. 3000 meter depth</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The main <!--del_lnk--> spawning season of Antarctic krill is from January through March, both above the <!--del_lnk--> continental shelf and also in the upper region of deep sea oceanic areas. In the typical way of all euphausiaceans, the male attaches a sperm package to the genital opening of the female. For this purpose, the first <!--del_lnk--> pleopods (legs attached to the abdomen) of the male are constructed as mating tools. Females lay 6,000–10,000 eggs at one time. They are fertilized as they pass out of the genital opening by sperm liberated from <!--del_lnk--> spermatophores which have been attached by the males.<p>According to the classical hypothesis of Marr, derived from the results of the expedition of the famous British research vessel <i><!--del_lnk--> RRS Discovery</i>, egg development then proceeds as follows: <!--del_lnk--> Gastrulation (development of egg into embryo) sets in during the descent of the 0.6 mm eggs on the shelf at the bottom, in oceanic areas in depths around 2,000–3,000 m. From the time the egg hatches, the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> <!--del_lnk--> nauplius (i.e., larval stage) starts migrating towards the surface with the aid of its three pairs of legs; the so-called <i>developmental ascent</i>.<p>The next two larval stages, termed 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> nauplius and metanauplius, still do not eat but are nourished by the remaining <!--del_lnk--> yolk. After three weeks, the little krill has finished the ascent. Growing larger, additional larval stages follow (2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> and 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> calyptopis, 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> to 6<small><sup>th</sup></small> furcilia). They are characterized by increasing development of the additional legs, the compound eyes and the setae (bristles). At 15 mm, the juvenile krill resembles the habitus of the adults. Krill reach maturity after two to three years. Like all <a href="../../wp/c/Crustacean.htm" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, krill must <!--del_lnk--> molt in order to grow. Approximately every 13 to 20 days krill shed their <!--del_lnk--> chitin skin and leave it behind as <!--del_lnk--> exuvia.<br style="clear:both" />
<p><a id="Food" name="Food"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Food</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23283.jpg.htm" title="The head of Antarctic krill. Observe the bioluminescent organ at the eyestalk and the nerves visible in the antennae, the gastric mill, the filtering net at the thoracopods and the rakes at the tips of the thoracopods."><img alt="The head of Antarctic krill. Observe the bioluminescent organ at the eyestalk and the nerves visible in the antennae, the gastric mill, the filtering net at the thoracopods and the rakes at the tips of the thoracopods." height="181" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kilsheadkils.jpg" src="../../images/232/23283.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23283.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The head of Antarctic krill. Observe the <!--del_lnk--> bioluminescent organ at the <!--del_lnk--> eyestalk and the <!--del_lnk--> nerves visible in the <!--del_lnk--> antennae, the <!--del_lnk--> gastric mill, the filtering net at the <!--del_lnk--> thoracopods and the rakes at the tips of the thoracopods.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The gut of <i>E. superba</i> can often be seen shining green through the animal's transparent skin, an indication that this species feeds predominantly on <!--del_lnk--> phytoplankton—especially very small <!--del_lnk--> diatoms (20 <!--del_lnk--> μm), which it filters from the water with a <i>feeding basket</i>. The glass-like shells of the <!--del_lnk--> diatoms are cracked in the "<!--del_lnk--> gastric mill" and then digested in the <!--del_lnk--> hepatopancreas. The krill can also catch and eat <!--del_lnk--> copepods, <!--del_lnk--> amphipods and other small <!--del_lnk--> zooplankton. The gut forms a straight tube; its digestive efficiency is not very high and therefore a lot of <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon.htm" title="Carbon">carbon</a> is still present in the <!--del_lnk--> feces (see "<a href="#The_biological_pump_and_carbon_sequestration" title="">the biological pump</a>" below).<p>In <a href="../../wp/a/Aquarium.htm" title="Aquarium">aquaria</a>, krill have been observed eating each other. When they are not fed in aquaria, they shrink in size after <!--del_lnk--> molting, which is exceptional for animals the size of krill. It is likely that this is an adaptation to the seasonality of their food supply, which is limited in the dark winter months under the ice.<br style="clear:both" />
<p><a id="Filter_feeding" name="Filter_feeding"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Filter feeding</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23284.jpg.htm" title="Krill feeding under high phytoplankton concentration. A slow motion video (from 300 frame/s; 490 kB) is also available."><img alt="Krill feeding under high phytoplankton concentration. A slow motion video (from 300 frame/s; 490 kB) is also available." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Krill_filter_feeding.jpg" src="../../images/232/23284.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23284.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Krill feeding under high phytoplankton concentration. A <!--del_lnk--> slow motion video (from 300 frame/s; 490 kB) is also available.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The Antarctic krill manages to directly utilize the minute <!--del_lnk--> phytoplankton cells, which no other animal of krill size can do. This is accomplished through <!--del_lnk--> filter feeding, using the krill's highly developed front legs, providing for an efficient filtering apparatus: the six <!--del_lnk--> thoracopods (legs attached to the <a href="../../wp/t/Thorax.htm" title="Thorax">thorax</a>) form a very effective "feeding basket" used to collect phytoplankton from the open water. In the finest areas the openings in this basket are only 1 μm in diameter. <!--del_lnk--> Scanning electron microscope images of this amazing structure can be studied <!--del_lnk--> here. In the movie linked to the left, the krill is hovering at a 55° angle on the spot. In lower food concentrations, the feeding basket is pushed through the water for over half a meter in an opened position, as in the <i>in situ</i> image below, and then the algae are combed to the mouth opening with special <!--del_lnk--> setae (bristles) on the inner side of the thoracopods.<br style="clear:both" />
<p><a id="Ice-algae_raking" name="Ice-algae_raking"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ice-algae raking</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23285.jpg.htm" title="Antarctic krill feeding off ice algae. The surface of the ice on the left side is colored green by the algae."><img alt="Antarctic krill feeding off ice algae. The surface of the ice on the left side is colored green by the algae." height="132" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Krillicekils.jpg" src="../../images/232/23285.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23285.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Antarctic krill feeding off <!--del_lnk--> ice algae. The surface of the ice on the left side is colored green by the algae.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Antarctic krill can scrape off the green lawn of <!--del_lnk--> ice-algae from the underside of the <!--del_lnk--> pack ice. The image to the right, taken via a <!--del_lnk--> ROV, shows how most krill swim in an upside-down position directly under the ice. Only a single animal (in the middle) can be seen <!--del_lnk--> hovering in the free water. Krill have developed special rows of rake-like setae at the tips of the <!--del_lnk--> thoracopods, and graze the ice in a zig-zag fashion, akin to a lawnmower. One krill can clear an area of a square foot in about 10 minutes (1.5 cm²/s). It is relatively new knowledge that the film of ice algae is very well developed over vast areas, often containing much more carbon than the whole water column below. Krill find an extensive energy source here, especially in the spring.<br style="clear:both" />
<p><a id="The_biological_pump_and_carbon_sequestration" name="The_biological_pump_and_carbon_sequestration"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The biological pump and carbon sequestration</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23286.jpg.htm" title="In situ image taken with an ecoSCOPE. A green spit ball is visible in the lower right of the image and a green fecal string in the lower left."><img alt="In situ image taken with an ecoSCOPE. A green spit ball is visible in the lower right of the image and a green fecal string in the lower left." height="114" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Krillspitballkils3.jpg" src="../../images/232/23286.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23286.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>In situ</i> image taken with an <!--del_lnk--> ecoSCOPE. A green spit ball is visible in the lower right of the image and a green fecal string in the lower left.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The krill is a highly untidy feeder, and it often spits out <!--del_lnk--> aggregates of <!--del_lnk--> phytoplankton (spit balls) containing thousands of cells sticking together. It also produces fecal strings that still contain significant amounts of <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon.htm" title="Carbon">carbon</a> and the <a href="../../wp/g/Glass.htm" title="Glass">glass</a> shells of the <!--del_lnk--> diatoms. Both are heavy and sink very fast into the abyss. This process is called the <!--del_lnk--> biological pump. As the waters around <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> are very deep (2,000–4,000 m), they act as a <!--del_lnk--> carbon dioxide sink: this process exports large quantities of carbon (fixed <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, CO<small><sub>2</sub></small>) from the biosphere and <!--del_lnk--> sequesters it for about 1,000 years.<p>If the phytoplankton is consumed by other components of the pelagic ecosystem, most of the carbon remains in the upper strata. There is speculation that this process is one of the largest <!--del_lnk--> biofeedback mechanisms of the planet, maybe the most sizable of all, driven by a gigantic biomass. Still more research is needed to quantify the Southern Ocean ecosystem.<br style="clear:both" />
<p><a id="Biological_peculiarities" name="Biological_peculiarities"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biological peculiarities</span></h2>
<p><a id="Bioluminescence" name="Bioluminescence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bioluminescence</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23287.jpg.htm" title="Watercolor of bioluminescent krill"><img alt="Watercolor of bioluminescent krill" height="141" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bioluminescencekils.jpg" src="../../images/232/23287.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23287.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Watercolor of bioluminescent krill</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Krill are often referred to as <i>light-shrimp</i> because they can emit light, produced by <!--del_lnk--> bioluminescent organs. These organs are located on various parts of the individual krill's body: one pair of organs at the <!--del_lnk--> eyestalk (c.f. the image of the head above), another pair on the hips of the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> and 7<small><sup>th</sup></small> <!--del_lnk--> thoracopods, and singular organs on the four <!--del_lnk--> pleonsternites. These light organs emit a yellow-green light periodically, for up to 2 to 3 seconds. They are considered so highly developed that they can be compared with a torchlight: a concave reflector in the back of the organ and a lens in the front guide the light produced, and the whole organ can be rotated by muscles. The function of these lights is not yet fully understood; some hypotheses have suggested they serve to compensate the krill's shadow so that they are not visible to predators from below; other speculations maintain that they play a significant role in <!--del_lnk--> mating or <!--del_lnk--> schooling at night.<p>The krill's bioluminescent organs contain several fluorescent substances. The major component has a maximum <!--del_lnk--> fluorescence at an excitation of 355 <!--del_lnk--> nm and emission of 510 nm.<br style="clear:both" />
<p><a id="Escape_reaction" name="Escape_reaction"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Escape reaction</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23288.gif.htm" title="Lobstering krill"><img alt="Lobstering krill" height="111" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Krilllobsterkils.gif" src="../../images/232/23288.gif" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23288.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lobstering krill</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Krill use an <!--del_lnk--> escape reaction to evade <!--del_lnk--> predators, swimming backwards very quickly by flipping their <!--del_lnk--> telson. This swimming pattern is also known as <!--del_lnk--> lobstering. Krill can reach speeds of over 60 cm per second. The <!--del_lnk--> trigger time to optical <!--del_lnk--> stimulus is, despite the low temperatures, only 55 milliseconds.<br style="clear:both" />
<p><a id="The_compound_eye" name="The_compound_eye"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The compound eye</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/48/4836.jpg.htm" title="Electron microscope image of the compound eye - the eyes are deep black in the living animal"><img alt="Electron microscope image of the compound eye - the eyes are deep black in the living animal" height="191" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Krilleyekils.jpg" src="../../images/48/4836.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/48/4836.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Electron microscope image of the compound eye - the eyes are deep black in the living animal</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Although the uses for and reasons behind the development of their massive black <!--del_lnk--> compound eyes remain a mystery, there is no doubt that Antarctic krill have one of the most fantastic structures for <!--del_lnk--> vision seen in nature.<p>As mentioned above, krill can shrink in size from one molt to the next, which is generally thought to be a survival strategy to adapt to scarce food supplies (a smaller body needs less energy, i.e., food). However, the animal's eyes do <i>not</i> shrink when this happens. The ratio between eye size and body length has thus been found to be a reliable indicator of starvation.<br style="clear:both" />
<p><a id="Geographical_distribution" name="Geographical_distribution"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geographical distribution</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23289.jpg.htm" title="Krill distribution on a NASA SeaWIFS image - the main concentrations are in the Scotia Sea at the Antarctic Peninsula"><img alt="Krill distribution on a NASA SeaWIFS image - the main concentrations are in the Scotia Sea at the Antarctic Peninsula" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Krilldistribution.jpg" src="../../images/232/23289.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23289.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Krill distribution on a <!--del_lnk--> NASA <!--del_lnk--> SeaWIFS image - the main concentrations are in the <!--del_lnk--> Scotia Sea at the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Peninsula</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Antarctic Krill are found thronging the surface waters of the <a href="../../wp/s/Southern_Ocean.htm" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a>; they have a circumpolar distribution, with the highest concentrations located in the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> sector.<p>The northern boundary of the Southern Ocean with its Atlantic, <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Ocean and <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> sectors is defined more or less by the Antarctic convergence, a circumpolar front where the cold Antarctic surface water submerges below the warmer <!--del_lnk--> subantarctic waters. This front runs roughly at 55° South; from there to the continent, the Southern Ocean covers 32 million <!--del_lnk--> square kilometers. This is 65 times the size of the <a href="../../wp/n/North_Sea.htm" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>. In the <a href="../../wp/w/Winter.htm" title="Winter">winter</a> season, more than three quarters of this area become covered by ice, whereas 24 million square kilometers become ice free in <a href="../../wp/s/Summer.htm" title="Summer">summer</a>. The water temperatures range between −1.3 and 3 °<!--del_lnk--> C.<p>The waters of the Southern Ocean form a system of currents. Whenever there is a <!--del_lnk--> West Wind Drift, the surface strata travels around Antarctica in an easterly direction. Near the continent, the <!--del_lnk--> East Wind Drift runs counterclockwise. At the front between both, large <!--del_lnk--> eddies develop, for example, in the <!--del_lnk--> Weddell Sea. The krill schools drift with these water masses, to establish one single stock all around Antarctica, with gene exchange over the whole area. Currently, there is little knowledge of the precise migration patterns since individual krill cannot yet be tagged to track their movements.<br style="clear:both" />
<p><a id="Position_in_the_Antarctic_ecosystem" name="Position_in_the_Antarctic_ecosystem"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Position in the Antarctic ecosystem</span></h3>
<p>The Antarctic krill is the keystone species of the <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> ecosystem, and provides an important food source for <a href="../../wp/w/Whale.htm" title="Whale">whales</a>, <!--del_lnk--> seals, <!--del_lnk--> Leopard Seals, <!--del_lnk--> fur seals, <!--del_lnk--> Crabeater Seals, <!--del_lnk--> squid, <!--del_lnk--> icefish, <a href="../../wp/p/Penguin.htm" title="Penguin">penguins</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Albatross.htm" title="Albatross">albatrosses</a> and many other species of <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">birds</a>. Crabeater seals have even developed special teeth as an adaptation to catch this abundant food source: its most unusual <!--del_lnk--> multilobed teeth enable this species to sieve krill from the water. Its dentition looks like a perfect strainer, but how it operates in detail is still unknown. Crabeaters are the most abundant seal in the world; their diet consists to 98% of <i>E. superba</i>. These seals consume over 63 million tonnes of krill each year. <!--del_lnk--> Leopard seals have developed similar teeth (45% krill in diet). All seals consume 63–130 million tonnes, all whales 34–43 million tonnes, birds 15–20 million tonnes, squid 30–100 million tonnes, and fish 10–20 million tonnes, adding up to 152–313 million tonnes of krill consumption each year.<p>The size step between krill and its prey is unusually large: generally it takes three or four steps from the 20 μm small <!--del_lnk--> phytoplankton cells to a krill-sized organism (via small <!--del_lnk--> copepods, large copepods, <!--del_lnk--> mysids to 5 cm <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a>). The next size step in the <!--del_lnk--> food chain to the <a href="../../wp/w/Whale.htm" title="Whale">whales</a> is also enormous, a <!--del_lnk--> phenomenon only found in the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic ecosystem. <i>E. superba</i> lives only in the Southern Ocean. In the North Atlantic, <i><!--del_lnk--> Meganyctiphanes norvegica</i> and in the Pacific, <i><!--del_lnk--> Euphausia pacifica</i> are the dominant species.<p><a id="Biomass_and_production" name="Biomass_and_production"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Biomass and production</span></h3>
<p>The Antarctic krill's biomass is estimated to be between <!--del_lnk--> 125 to 725 million <!--del_lnk--> tonnes, making <i>E. superba</i> the most successful animal species on the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">planet</a>. It should be noted that of all animals visible to the naked eye some biologists speculate that <a href="../../wp/a/Ant.htm" title="Ant">ants</a> provide the largest biomass (but this speculation adds up hundreds of different species) whilst others speculate that it could be the <!--del_lnk--> copepods, but this too would be the sum of many hundreds of species that exist over the planet. To get an impression of the biomass of <i>E. superba</i> against that of other species: The total non-krill yield from all world fisheries, <!--del_lnk--> finfish, <!--del_lnk--> shellfish, <!--del_lnk--> cephalopods and plankton is about 100 million tonnes per year whilst estimates of the Antarctic krill production are between 13 million to several billion tonnes per year.<p>The reason Antarctic krill are able to build up such a high biomass and production is that the waters around the icy Antarctic continent harbour one of the largest <!--del_lnk--> plankton assemblages in the world, possibly <i>the</i> largest. The ocean is filled with <!--del_lnk--> phytoplankton; as the water rises from the depths to the light-flooded surface, it brings <!--del_lnk--> nutrients from all of the world's oceans back into the <!--del_lnk--> photic zone where they are once again available to living organisms.<p>Thus <!--del_lnk--> primary production — the conversion of sunlight into organic biomass, the foundation of the food chain — has an annual carbon fixation of between 1 and 2 g/m² in the open ocean. Close to the ice it can reach 30 to 50 g/m². These values are not outstandingly high, compared to very productive areas like the <a href="../../wp/n/North_Sea.htm" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> or <!--del_lnk--> upwelling regions, but the area over which it takes place is just enormous, even compared to other large primary producers such as <a href="../../wp/r/Rainforest.htm" title="Rainforest">rainforests</a>. In addition, during the Austral summer there are many hours of daylight to fuel the process. All of these factors make the plankton and the krill a critical part of the planet's ecocycle.<br style="clear:both" />
<p><a id="Decline_with_shrinking_pack_ice" name="Decline_with_shrinking_pack_ice"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Decline with shrinking pack ice</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23290.gif.htm" title="after data compiled by Loeb et al. 1997 - temperature and pack ice area - the scale for the ice is inverted to demonstrate the correlation - the horizontal line is the freezing point - the oblique line the average of the temperature - in 1995 the temperature reached the freezing point"><img alt="after data compiled by Loeb et al. 1997 - temperature and pack ice area - the scale for the ice is inverted to demonstrate the correlation - the horizontal line is the freezing point - the oblique line the average of the temperature - in 1995 the temperature reached the freezing point" height="174" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Krillicekils.gif" src="../../images/232/23290.gif" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23290.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> after data compiled by Loeb et al. 1997 - temperature and pack ice area - the scale for the ice is inverted to demonstrate the correlation - the horizontal line is the freezing point - the oblique line the average of the temperature - in 1995 the temperature reached the freezing point</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>There are concerns that the Antarctic krill's overall biomass has been declining rapidly over the last few decades. Some scientists have speculated this value being as high as 80%. This could be caused by the reduction of the <!--del_lnk--> pack ice zone due to <a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" title="Global warming">global warming</a>. The graph on the right depicts the rising temperatures of the Southern Ocean and the loss of pack ice (on an inverted scale) over the last years 40 years. Antarctic krill, especially in the early stages of development, seem to need the pack ice structures in order to have a fair chance of survival. The pack ice provides natural cave-like features which the krill uses to evade their predators. In the years of low pack ice conditions the krill tend to give way to <!--del_lnk--> Salps, a barrel-shaped free-floating <!--del_lnk--> filter feeder that also grazes on plankton.<p><a id="Fisheries" name="Fisheries"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Fisheries</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23291.gif.htm" title="Annual world catch of E. superba, compiled from FAO data."><img alt="Annual world catch of E. superba, compiled from FAO data." height="84" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Krillcatch.gif" src="../../images/232/23291.gif" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23291.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Annual world catch of <i>E. superba</i>, compiled from <!--del_lnk--> FAO data.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The fishery of the Antarctic krill is on the order of 100,000 tonnes per year. The major catching nations are <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a>. The products are used largely in <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> as a <!--del_lnk--> delicacy and worldwide as animal food and fish bait. Krill fisheries are difficult to operate in two important respects. First, a krill net needs to have very fine meshes, producing a very high <!--del_lnk--> drag, which generates a <!--del_lnk--> bow wave that deflects the krill to the sides. Second, fine meshes tend to clog very fast. Additionally, fine nets also tend to be very delicate, and the first krill nets tore apart while fishing through krill schools.<p>Yet another problem is bringing the krill catch on board. When the full net is hauled out of the water, the organisms compress each other, resulting in great loss of the krill's liquids. Experiments have been carried out to pump krill, while still in water, through a large tube on board. Special krill nets also are currently under development. The processing of the krill must be very rapid since the catch deteriorates within several hours. Processing aims are splitting the muscular hind part from the front part and separating the <!--del_lnk--> chitin armor, in order to produce frosted products and concentrate powders. Its high protein and vitamin content makes krill quite suitable for both direct human consumption and the animal-feed industry.<br style="clear:both" />
<p><a id="Future_visions_and_ocean_engineering" name="Future_visions_and_ocean_engineering"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Future visions and ocean engineering</span></h2>
<p>Despite the lack of knowledge available about the whole Antarctic ecosystem, large scale experiments involving krill are already being performed to increase <!--del_lnk--> carbon sequestration: in vast areas of the Southern Ocean there are plenty of nutrients, but still, the phytoplankton does not grow much. These areas are termed <!--del_lnk--> HNLC (high nutrient, low carbon). The phenomenon is called the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Paradox, and occurs because <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> is missing. Relatively small injections of iron from research vessels trigger very large blooms, covering many miles. The hope is that such large scale exercises will draw down <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> as compensation for the burning of <a href="../../wp/f/Fossil_fuel.htm" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>. Krill is the key player in this process, collecting the minute plankton cells which fix carbon dioxide and converting the substance to rapidly-sinking carbon in the form of spit balls and fecal strings. The vision is that in the future a fleet of tankers would circle the Southern Seas, injecting iron, so this relatively unknown animal might help keep cars and air conditioners running.<br style="clear:both" />
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic_krill"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Arthropod', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Krill', 'Antarctica', 'Southern Ocean', 'Invertebrate', 'Energy', 'Ocean', 'Crustacean', 'Carbon', 'Aquarium', 'Thorax', 'Carbon', 'Glass', 'Antarctica', 'Carbon dioxide', 'Southern Ocean', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Indian Ocean', 'North Sea', 'Winter', 'Summer', 'Antarctica', 'Whale', 'Penguin', 'Albatross', 'Bird', 'Fish', 'Whale', 'Earth', 'Ant', 'North Sea', 'Rainforest', 'Global warming', 'Japan', 'Poland', 'Japan', 'Iron', 'Carbon dioxide', 'Fossil fuel'] |
Antarctica | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Antarctica,.aq,1773,1820,1911,1913,1956,2006,ALH84001,ANSMET,A Greek-English Lexicon" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Antarctica</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Antarctica";
var wgTitle = "Antarctica";
var wgArticleId = 741;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Antarctica">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Antarctica</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Antarctica.htm">Antarctica</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="metadata topicon" id="featured-star" style="right:10px; display:none;">
<div style="position: relative; width: 14px; height: 14px; overflow: hidden">
<div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; font-size: 100px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 100px; z-index: 3"><!--del_lnk--> <span title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."> </span></div>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; z-index: 2"><a class="image" href="../../images/0/24.png.htm" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a featured article. Click here for more information." height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LinkFA-star.png" src="../../images/0/24.png" width="14" /></a></div>
</div>
</div>
<table align="right" border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" width="250">
<caption><big><big><b>Antarctica</b></big></big></caption>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2" style="background:#f9f9f9;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="123" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antarctic_Treaty_secretariat_Emblem.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="131" /></span></div>
</div><small>(<!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Treaty Secretariat emblem)</small><p><a class="image" href="../../images/6/624.png.htm" title="Location of Antarctica."><img alt="Location of Antarctica." height="127" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationAntarctica.png" src="../../images/159/15944.png" width="250" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Area</b></td>
<td>14,000,000 km² (5,405,430 mi²) (280,000 km² (108,108 mi²) ice-free, 13,720,000 km² (5,297,321 mi²) ice-covered)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Population</b></td>
<td>~1000 (none permanent)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">Government</a></b><br />
<br /> – <!--del_lnk--> Executive Secretary</td>
<td>governed by the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Treaty Secretariat<br />
<br /><!--del_lnk--> Johannes Huber</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Partial Territorial claims</b> (frozen - figuratively and literally)</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1447.png.htm" title="Flag of Argentina"><img alt="Flag of Argentina" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Argentina.svg" src="../../images/14/1447.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/7/785.png.htm" title="Flag of Australia"><img alt="Flag of Australia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Australia.svg" src="../../images/7/785.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/7/740.png.htm" title="Flag of Chile"><img alt="Flag of Chile" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Chile_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/7/740.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="Flag of France"><img alt="Flag of France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/29/2940.png.htm" title="Flag of New Zealand"><img alt="Flag of New Zealand" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg" src="../../images/29/2940.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/8/851.png.htm" title="Flag of Norway"><img alt="Flag of Norway" height="16" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Norway.svg" src="../../images/8/851.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="Flag of United Kingdom"><img alt="Flag of United Kingdom" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Reserved the right to make claims</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/592.png.htm" title="Flag of Russia"><img alt="Flag of Russia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Russia_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/592.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Internet <!--del_lnk--> TLD</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .aq</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Calling Code</b></td>
<td>+672</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15945.jpg.htm" title="Antarctic Peninsula glacier."><img alt="Antarctic Peninsula glacier." height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Austral-Ice.jpg" src="../../images/159/15945.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15945.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Antarctic Peninsula glacier.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>Antarctica</b> is the southernmost <a href="../../wp/c/Continent.htm" title="Continent">continent</a> and includes the <!--del_lnk--> South Pole. Geographic sources disagree as to whether it is surrounded by the <a href="../../wp/s/Southern_Ocean.htm" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a> or the South <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, South <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, and <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>. It is divided by the <!--del_lnk--> Transantarctic Mountains. On average, it is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent and has the highest average elevation of all the continents. At 14.425 million km², Antarctica is the third-smallest continent after <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Australia; 98% of it is covered in <a href="../../wp/i/Ice.htm" title="Ice">ice</a>. Because there is little <!--del_lnk--> precipitation, except at the coasts, the interior of the continent is technically the largest <a href="../../wp/d/Desert.htm" title="Desert">desert</a> in the world. There are no permanent human residents and Antarctica has never had an indigenous population. Only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including <a href="../../wp/p/Penguin.htm" title="Penguin">penguins</a>, <!--del_lnk--> fur seals, <a href="../../wp/m/Moss.htm" title="Moss">mosses</a>, <!--del_lnk--> lichens, and many types of <!--del_lnk--> algae. The name "Antarctica" comes from the <!--del_lnk--> Greek <i>ανταρκτικός</i> (<i>antarktikos</i>), meaning "opposite the <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic.htm" title="Arctic">Arctic</a>."<p>Although myths and speculation about a <i><!--del_lnk--> Terra Australis</i> ("Southern Land") date back to antiquity, the first confirmed sighting of the continent is commonly accepted to have occurred in 1820 by the <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a> expedition of <!--del_lnk--> Mikhail Lazarev and <!--del_lnk--> Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen. However, the continent remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of resources, and isolated location.<p>The <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctic_Treaty_System.htm" title="Antarctic Treaty System">Antarctic Treaty</a> was signed in 1959 by 12 countries. The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining, supports scientific research, and protects the continent's <!--del_lnk--> ecozone. Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists of many nationalities and with different research interests.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15946.jpg.htm" title="Mount Herschel, Antarctica"><img alt="Mount Herschel, Antarctica" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mt_Herschel%2C_Antarctica%2C_Jan_2006.jpg" src="../../images/159/15946.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15946.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Mount Herschel, Antarctica</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Belief in the existence of a <i>Terra Australis</i> — a vast continent located in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Europe, Asia and north Africa — had existed since <a href="../../wp/p/Ptolemy.htm" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> suggested the idea in order to preserve <a href="../../wp/s/Symmetry.htm" title="Symmetry">symmetry</a> of <!--del_lnk--> landmass in the world. Depictions of a large southern landmass were common in maps such as the early 16th century Turkish <!--del_lnk--> Piri Reis map. Even in the late 17th century, after explorers had found that <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> were not part of "Antarctica," geographers believed that the continent was much larger than its actual size.<p>European maps continued to show this land until <!--del_lnk--> Captain <a href="../../wp/j/James_Cook.htm" title="James Cook">James Cook</a>'s ships, <!--del_lnk--> HMS <i>Resolution</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Adventure</i>, crossed the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Circle on <!--del_lnk--> January 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1773 and again in 1774. The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by three individuals. According to various organizations (the <!--del_lnk--> National Science Foundation, <!--del_lnk--> NASA, the <!--del_lnk--> University of California, San Diego, and other sources), ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica in 1820: <!--del_lnk--> Fabian von Bellingshausen (a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy), <!--del_lnk--> Edward Bransfield (a captain in the British Navy), and <!--del_lnk--> Nathaniel Palmer (an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut). Von Bellingshausen supposedly saw Antarctica on <!--del_lnk--> January 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1820, three days before Bransfield sighted land, and ten months before Palmer did so in November 1820. On that day the two ship expedition led by Von Bellingshausen and <!--del_lnk--> Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev reached a point within 32 km (20 miles) of the Antarctic mainland and saw ice fields there.<p>In 1841, explorer <!--del_lnk--> James Clark Ross passed through what is now known as the <!--del_lnk--> Ross Sea and discovered <!--del_lnk--> Ross Island. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the <!--del_lnk--> Ross Ice Shelf. <!--del_lnk--> Mount Erebus and <!--del_lnk--> Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition: <!--del_lnk--> HMS <i>Erebus</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Terror</i>.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15948.jpg.htm" title="The Endurance at night during Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition in 1914."><img alt="The Endurance at night during Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition in 1914." height="151" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Shackleton_expedition.jpg" src="../../images/159/15948.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15948.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>The Endurance</i> at night during <!--del_lnk--> Ernest Shackleton's <!--del_lnk--> Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition in 1914.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>During an <!--del_lnk--> expedition led by <!--del_lnk--> Ernest Shackleton in 1907, parties led by <!--del_lnk--> T. W. Edgeworth David became the first to climb <!--del_lnk--> Mount Erebus and to reach the <!--del_lnk--> South Magnetic Pole. In addition, Shackleton himself and three other members of his expedition made several firsts in December 1908 - February 1909: first humans to traverse the <!--del_lnk--> Ross Ice Shelf, the first humans to traverse the Transantarctic Mountain Range (via the <!--del_lnk--> Beardmore Glacier), and the first humans to set foot on the South Polar Plateau. On <!--del_lnk--> December 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1911, a party led by Norwegian polar explorer <a href="../../wp/r/Roald_Amundsen.htm" title="Roald Amundsen">Roald Amundsen</a> from the ship <i><!--del_lnk--> Fram</i> became the first to reach the geographic <!--del_lnk--> South Pole, using a route from the <!--del_lnk--> Bay of Whales and up the <!--del_lnk--> Axel Heiberg Glacier. <p><!--del_lnk--> Richard Evelyn Byrd led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport and conducting extensive geological and biological research. However, it was not until <!--del_lnk--> October 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1956 that anyone set foot on the South Pole again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral <!--del_lnk--> George Dufek successfully landed an aircraft there.<p>
<br style="clear:both;" />
<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15949.jpg.htm" title="A satellite composite image of Antarctica."><img alt="A satellite composite image of Antarctica." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antarctica_6400px_from_Blue_Marble.jpg" src="../../images/159/15949.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15949.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A satellite composite image of Antarctica.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15950.jpg.htm" title="Maritime Antarctica."><img alt="Maritime Antarctica." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Maritime-Antarctica.jpg" src="../../images/159/15950.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15950.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Maritime Antarctica.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15951.png.htm" title="Size comparison Europe-Antarctica."><img alt="Size comparison Europe-Antarctica." height="121" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Europe_antarctica_size.png" src="../../images/159/15951.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15951.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Size comparison Europe-Antarctica.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Most of Antarctica is located south of the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Circle, surrounded by the <a href="../../wp/s/Southern_Ocean.htm" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a>. It is the southernmost <!--del_lnk--> land mass and comprises more than 14 million km², making it the fifth-largest continent. The coastline measures 17 968 km (11,160 miles) and is mostly characterized by ice formations, as the following table shows:<table class="wikitable">
<caption><b>Coastal types around Antarctica (Drewry, 1983)</b></caption>
<tr>
<th>Type</th>
<th>Frequency</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ice shelf (floating ice front)</td>
<td align="right">44%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Ice walls (resting on ground)</td>
<td align="right">38%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Ice stream/outlet glacier (ice front or ice wall)</td>
<td align="right">13%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Rock</td>
<td align="right">5%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Total</th>
<td align="right">100%</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Physically, it is divided in two by the <!--del_lnk--> Transantarctic Mountains close to the neck between the <!--del_lnk--> Ross Sea and the <!--del_lnk--> Weddell Sea. The portion west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called <!--del_lnk--> Western Antarctica and the remainder <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Antarctica, because they roughly correspond to the Western and Eastern Hemispheres relative to the <!--del_lnk--> Greenwich meridian.<p>About 98% of Antarctica is covered by the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic ice sheet. The <a href="../../wp/i/Ice_sheet.htm" title="Ice sheet">ice sheet</a> is, on average, 2.5 kilometers (1.6 miles) thick. The continent has approximately 90% of the world's <a href="../../wp/f/Fresh_water.htm" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a>, in the form of ice. If all of this ice were melted sea levels would rise about 61m (200 feet). In most of the interior of the continent <!--del_lnk--> precipitation is very low, down to 20 mm/yr; in a few "<!--del_lnk--> blue ice" areas precipitation is lower than mass loss by <!--del_lnk--> sublimation and so the local mass balance is negative. In the dry valleys the same effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a desiccated landscape.<p>Western Antarctica is covered by the <!--del_lnk--> West Antarctic Ice Sheet. The sheet has been of recent concern because of the real, if small, possibility of its collapse. If the sheet were to break down, <!--del_lnk--> ocean levels would rise by several meters in a relatively <!--del_lnk--> geologically short period of time, perhaps a matter of centuries. Several Antarctic <!--del_lnk--> ice streams, which account for about 10% of the ice sheet, flow to one of the many <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic ice shelves.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15952.jpg.htm" title="Mt. Erebus, an active volcano on Ross Island."><img alt="Mt. Erebus, an active volcano on Ross Island." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mt_erebus.jpg" src="../../images/159/15952.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15952.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Mt. Erebus, an active volcano on <!--del_lnk--> Ross Island.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Vinson Massif, the highest peak in Antarctica at 4892 meters (16,050 feet), is located in the <!--del_lnk--> Ellsworth Mountains. Although Antarctica is home to many volcanoes, only <!--del_lnk--> Mt. Erebus is active. Mount Erebus, located in <!--del_lnk--> Ross Island, is the southernmost active volcano. There was another famous volcano called <!--del_lnk--> Deception Island, which is famous for its giant eruption in 1970. Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years. Other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active. In 2004, an underwater volcano was found in the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Peninsula by American and Canadian researchers. Recent evidence shows this unnamed volcano may be active.<p>Antarctica is home to more than 70 <!--del_lnk--> lakes that lie thousands of meters under the surface of the continental ice sheet. <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Vostok.htm" title="Lake Vostok">Lake Vostok</a>, discovered beneath <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Vostok Station in 1996, is the largest of these <!--del_lnk--> subglacial lakes. It is believed that the lake has been sealed off for 35 million years. There is some evidence that Vostok's waters may contain <!--del_lnk--> microbial life. The sealed, frozen surface of the lake shares similarities with <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>'s moon <!--del_lnk--> Europa. Confirming that life can survive in Lake Vostok strengthens the argument for life on the satellite.<p><a id="Geology" name="Geology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geology</span></h2>
<p><a id="Geological_history_and_paleontology" name="Geological_history_and_paleontology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Geological history and paleontology</span></h3>
<p>More than 170 million years ago, Antarctica was part of the <!--del_lnk--> supercontinent <!--del_lnk--> Gondwana. Over time Gondwana broke apart and Antarctica as we know it today was formed around 25 million years ago.<p><a id="Paleozoic_era_.28540-250_Mya.29" name="Paleozoic_era_.28540-250_Mya.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Paleozoic era (540-250 <!--del_lnk--> Mya)</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15953.jpg.htm" title="Survey route."><img alt="Survey route." height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Survey-Route.jpg" src="../../images/159/15953.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15953.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Survey route.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>During the Cambrian period Gondwana had a mild climate. West Antarctica was partially in the northern hemisphere, and during this period large amounts of <!--del_lnk--> sandstones, <!--del_lnk--> limestones and <!--del_lnk--> shales were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where sea-floor <a href="../../wp/i/Invertebrate.htm" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> and <!--del_lnk--> trilobites flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the Devonian period (416 Mya) Gondwana was in more southern latitudes and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from this time. <a href="../../wp/s/Sand.htm" title="Sand">Sand</a> and <!--del_lnk--> silts were laid down in what is now the <!--del_lnk--> Ellsworth, <!--del_lnk--> Horlick and <!--del_lnk--> Pensacola Mountains. <!--del_lnk--> Glaciation began at the end of the Devonian period (360 Mya) as Gondwana became centered around the <!--del_lnk--> South Pole and the climate cooled, though flora remained. During the Permian period the plant life became dominated by fern-like plants such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Glossopteris</i>, which grew in swamps. Over time these swamps became deposits of coal in the <!--del_lnk--> Transantarctic Mountains. Towards the end of the Permian period, continued warming led to a dry, hot climate over much of Gondwana.<p><a id="Mesozoic_era_.28250-65_Mya.29" name="Mesozoic_era_.28250-65_Mya.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Mesozoic era (250-65 Mya)</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15954.jpg.htm" title="Bransfield Strait."><img alt="Bransfield Strait." height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bransfield-Strait.jpg" src="../../images/159/15954.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15954.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bransfield Strait.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>As a result of continued warming, the polar ice caps melted and much of Gondwana became a desert. In East Antarctica the <!--del_lnk--> seed fern became established, and large amounts of sandstone and shale were laid down at this time. The Antarctic Peninsula began to form during the Jurassic period (206-146 Mya), and islands gradually rose out of the ocean. <!--del_lnk--> Ginkgo trees and <!--del_lnk--> cycads were plentiful during this period, as were reptiles such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Lystrosaurus</i>. In West Antarctica <!--del_lnk--> conifer <a href="../../wp/f/Forest.htm" title="Forest">forests</a> dominated through the entire Cretaceous period (146-65 Mya), though <!--del_lnk--> Southern beech began to take over at the end of this period. <a href="../../wp/a/Ammonite.htm" title="Ammonite">Ammonites</a> were common in the seas around Antarctica, and dinosaurs were also present, though only two Antarctic dinosaur species (<i><!--del_lnk--> Cryolophosaurus</i> from the <!--del_lnk--> Hanson Formation and <i><!--del_lnk--> Antarctopelta</i>) have been described to date. It was during this period that Gondwana began to break up.<p><a id="Gondwana_breakup_.28160-23_Mya.29" name="Gondwana_breakup_.28160-23_Mya.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Gondwana breakup (160-23 Mya)</span></h4>
<p><a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> separated from Antarctica around 160 Mya, followed by <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Mya). About 65 Mya, Antarctica (then connected to <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>) still had a tropical to subtropical climate, complete with a <!--del_lnk--> marsupial fauna. About 40 Mya <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>-<!--del_lnk--> New Guinea separated from Antarctica and the first ice began to appear. Around 23 Mya, the <!--del_lnk--> Drake Passage between Antarctica and <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a> resulted in the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The ice spread, replacing the forests that then covered the continent. Since about 15 Mya, the continent has been mostly covered with ice.<p><a id="Geology_of_present-day_Antarctica" name="Geology_of_present-day_Antarctica"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Geology of present-day Antarctica</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15955.jpg.htm" title="Antarctica without its ice-shield. This map does not consider that sea level would rise because of the melted ice, nor that the landmass would rise by several hundred meters over a few tens of thousands of years after the weight of the ice was no longer depressing the landmass."><img alt="Antarctica without its ice-shield. This map does not consider that sea level would rise because of the melted ice, nor that the landmass would rise by several hundred meters over a few tens of thousands of years after the weight of the ice was no longer depressing the landmass." height="210" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AntarcticaRockSurface.jpg" src="../../images/159/15955.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15955.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Antarctica without its ice-shield. This map does not consider that sea level would rise because of the melted ice, nor that the landmass would rise by several hundred meters over a few tens of thousands of years after the weight of the ice was no longer depressing the landmass.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15956.jpg.htm" title="Port Lockroy Museum."><img alt="Port Lockroy Museum." height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Port-Lockroy.jpg" src="../../images/159/15956.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15956.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Port Lockroy Museum.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The geological study of Antarctica has been greatly hindered by the fact that nearly all of the continent is permanently covered with a thick layer of ice. However, new techniques such as <!--del_lnk--> remote sensing have begun to reveal the structures beneath the ice.<p>Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the <a href="../../wp/a/Andes.htm" title="Andes">Andes</a> of <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Peninsula was formed by uplift and <!--del_lnk--> metamorphism of sea-bed sediments during the late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic eras. This sediment uplift was accompanied by <!--del_lnk--> igneous intrusions and <!--del_lnk--> volcanism. The most common rocks in West Antarctica are <!--del_lnk--> andesite and <!--del_lnk--> rhyolite volcanics formed during the Jurassic Period. There is also evidence of volcanic activity, even after the ice sheet had formed, in <!--del_lnk--> Marie Byrd Land and <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Island. The only anomalous area of West Antarctica is the <!--del_lnk--> Ellsworth Mountains region, where the <!--del_lnk--> stratigraphy is more similar to the eastern part of the continent.<p>East Antarctica is geologically very old, dating from the <a href="../../wp/p/Precambrian.htm" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a> era, with some rocks formed more than 3 billion years ago. It is composed of a <a href="../../wp/m/Metamorphic_rock.htm" title="Metamorphic rock">metamorphic</a> and <!--del_lnk--> igneous platform which is the basis of the <!--del_lnk--> continental shield. On top of this base are various more modern rocks, such as <!--del_lnk--> sandstones, <!--del_lnk--> limestones, coal and <!--del_lnk--> shales laid down during the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the <!--del_lnk--> Transantarctic Mountains. In coastal areas such as <!--del_lnk--> Shackleton Range and <!--del_lnk--> Victoria Land some <!--del_lnk--> faulting has occurred.<p>The main <a href="../../wp/m/Mineral.htm" title="Mineral">mineral</a> resource known on the continent is <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">coal</a>. It was first recorded near the <!--del_lnk--> Beardmore Glacier by <!--del_lnk--> Frank Wild on the <!--del_lnk--> Nimrod Expedition, and now low-grade coal is known across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains. The <!--del_lnk--> Prince Charles Mountains contain significant deposits of <!--del_lnk--> iron ore. The most valuable resources of Antarctica lie offshore, namely the <!--del_lnk--> oil and <!--del_lnk--> natural gas fields found in the <!--del_lnk--> Ross Sea in 1973. Exploitation of all mineral resources is banned until 2048 by the <!--del_lnk--> Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15957.jpg.htm" title="The Blue ice covering Lake Fryxell, in the Transantarctic Mountains, comes from glacial meltwater from the Canada Glacier and other smaller glaciers."><img alt="The Blue ice covering Lake Fryxell, in the Transantarctic Mountains, comes from glacial meltwater from the Canada Glacier and other smaller glaciers." height="156" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Fryxellsee_Opt.jpg" src="../../images/159/15957.jpg" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15957.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Blue ice covering <!--del_lnk--> Lake Fryxell, in the <!--del_lnk--> Transantarctic Mountains, comes from <a href="../../wp/g/Glacier.htm" title="Glacier">glacial</a> meltwater from the <!--del_lnk--> Canada Glacier and other smaller glaciers.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth. It is a frozen desert with little <!--del_lnk--> precipitation; the South Pole itself receives almost none. Temperatures reach a minimum of between -85 °C and -90 °C (-121 °F and -130 °F) in the winter and about 20 °C (30 °F) higher in the summer months. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects over 90% of the sunlight falling on it. Eastern Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of higher elevation. <!--del_lnk--> Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the centre cold and dry. Despite the lack of precipitation over the central portion of the continent, <a href="../../wp/i/Ice.htm" title="Ice">ice</a> there lasts for extended time periods. Heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the coastal portion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to 1.22 meters (48 inches) in 48 hours have been recorded.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15958.jpg.htm" title="Mountain glaciation."><img alt="Mountain glaciation." height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Friesland-St-Boris.jpg" src="../../images/159/15958.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15958.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Mountain glaciation.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>At the edge of the continent, strong <!--del_lnk--> katabatic winds off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the interior, however, wind speeds are typically moderate. During summer more <!--del_lnk--> solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the <!--del_lnk--> equator in an equivalent period.<p>Antarctica is colder than the <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic.htm" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> for two reasons. First, much of the continent is more than 3 km above sea level, and temperature decreases with elevation. Second, the <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Ocean.htm" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a> covers the north polar zone: the ocean's relative warmth is transferred through the icepack and prevents temperatures in the Arctic regions from reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica.<p>Given the latitude, long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight create climates unfamiliar to human beings in much of the rest of the world. The <!--del_lnk--> aurora australis, commonly known as the southern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the South Pole. Another unique spectacle is <!--del_lnk--> diamond dust, a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. It generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it as clear-sky precipitation. A <!--del_lnk--> sun dog, a frequent atmospheric <!--del_lnk--> optical phenomenon, is a bright "spot" beside the true <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">sun</a>.<div class="center">
<div class="thumb tnone">
<div style="width:502px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15959.jpg.htm" title="Tabletop icebergs in Antarctica."><img alt="Tabletop icebergs in Antarctica." height="104" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Iceberg09.jpg" src="../../images/159/15959.jpg" width="500" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15959.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Tabletop <!--del_lnk--> icebergs in Antarctica.</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Population" name="Population"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Population</span></h2>
<p>Antarctica has no permanent residents, but a number of governments maintain permanent <!--del_lnk--> research stations throughout the continent. The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from approximately 4000 in summer to 1000 in winter. Many of the stations are staffed around the year.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15960.jpg.htm" title="Two researchers studying plankton through microscopes."><img alt="Two researchers studying plankton through microscopes." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antarctic_researchers.jpg" src="../../images/159/15960.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15960.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Two researchers studying <!--del_lnk--> plankton through <a href="../../wp/m/Microscope.htm" title="Microscope">microscopes</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica (areas situated south of the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Convergence) were English and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on <a href="../../wp/s/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands.htm" title="South Georgia Island">South Georgia</a>, from 1786 onward. During the whaling era, which lasted until 1966, the population of that island varied from over 1000 in the summer (over 2000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion of Britons. The settlements included <!--del_lnk--> Grytviken, <!--del_lnk--> Leith Harbour, <!--del_lnk--> King Edward Point, <!--del_lnk--> Stromness, <!--del_lnk--> Husvik, <!--del_lnk--> Prince Olav Harbour, <!--del_lnk--> Ocean Harbour and <!--del_lnk--> Godthul. Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families. Among them was the founder of <!--del_lnk--> Grytviken, Captain <!--del_lnk--> Carl Anton Larsen, a prominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who adopted British citizenship in 1910, and his family.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15961.jpg.htm" title="Field work."><img alt="Field work." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Fieldwork-Melnik.jpg" src="../../images/159/15961.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15961.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Field work.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The first child born in the southern polar region was Norwegian girl <!--del_lnk--> Solveig Gunbjörg Jacobsen, born in Grytviken on <!--del_lnk--> 8 October <!--del_lnk--> 1913, and her birth registered by the resident British Magistrate of <a href="../../wp/s/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands.htm" title="South Georgia Island">South Georgia</a>. She was a daughter of Fridthjof Jacobsen, the assistant manager of the whaling station, and of Klara Olette Jacobsen. Jacobsen arrived on the island in 1904 to become the manager of <!--del_lnk--> Grytviken, serving from 1914 to 1921; two of his children were born on the island.<p><!--del_lnk--> Emilio Marcos Palma was the first person born on the Antarctic mainland, at <!--del_lnk--> Base Esperanza in 1978, his parents being sent there along with seven other families by the <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentinean</a> government to determine if family life was suitable in the continent. In 1986, Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva Base, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station.<p><a id="Flora_and_fauna" name="Flora_and_fauna"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Flora and fauna</span></h2>
<p><a id="Flora" name="Flora"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Flora</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15962.jpg.htm" title="More than 200 species of lichens are known in Antarctica."><img alt="More than 200 species of lichens are known in Antarctica." height="163" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lichen_squamulose.jpg" src="../../images/159/15962.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15962.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> More than 200 species of <!--del_lnk--> lichens are known in Antarctica.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The climate of Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation. A combination of freezing temperatures, poor <a href="../../wp/s/Soil.htm" title="Soil">soil</a> quality, lack of moisture, and lack of sunlight inhibit the flourishing of plants. As a result, plant life is limited to mostly <a href="../../wp/m/Moss.htm" title="Moss">mosses</a> and <!--del_lnk--> liverworts. The <!--del_lnk--> autotrophic community is made up of mostly <!--del_lnk--> protists. The <!--del_lnk--> flora of the continent largely consists of <!--del_lnk--> lichens, <!--del_lnk--> bryophytes, <!--del_lnk--> algae, and <!--del_lnk--> fungi. Growth generally occurs in the summer, and only for a few weeks at most.<p>There are more than 200 species of lichens and approximately 50 species of bryophytes, such as mosses. Seven hundred species of algae exist, most of which are <!--del_lnk--> phytoplankton. Multicolored <!--del_lnk--> snow algae and <!--del_lnk--> diatoms are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer. There are two species of flowering plants found in the Antarctic Peninsula: <i><!--del_lnk--> Deschampsia antarctica</i> (Antarctic hair grass) and <i><!--del_lnk--> Colobanthus quitensis</i> (Antarctic pearlwort).<p><a id="Fauna" name="Fauna"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Fauna</span></h3>
<p>Land <!--del_lnk--> fauna is nearly completely <a href="../../wp/i/Invertebrate.htm" title="Invertebrate">invertebrate</a>. Invertebrate life includes <!--del_lnk--> microscopic <!--del_lnk--> mites, <!--del_lnk--> lice, <!--del_lnk--> nematodes, <!--del_lnk--> tardigrades, <!--del_lnk--> rotifers, and <!--del_lnk--> springtails. The <!--del_lnk--> midge, just 12 <!--del_lnk--> mm in size, is the largest land animal in Antarctica. The <!--del_lnk--> Snow Petrel is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica and have been seen at the <!--del_lnk--> South Pole.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:167px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/155/15523.jpg.htm" title="Emperor Penguins in Ross Sea, Antarctica."><img alt="Emperor Penguins in Ross Sea, Antarctica." height="241" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Emperor_penguin.jpg" src="../../images/159/15963.jpg" width="165" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/155/15523.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/e/Emperor_Penguin.htm" title="Emperor Penguin">Emperor Penguins</a> in <!--del_lnk--> Ross Sea, Antarctica.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>A variety of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes <a href="../../wp/p/Penguin.htm" title="Penguin">penguins</a>, <!--del_lnk--> blue whales, and <!--del_lnk--> fur seals. The <!--del_lnk--> Emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the <!--del_lnk--> Adélie Penguin breeds farther south than any other penguin. The <!--del_lnk--> Rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes. <!--del_lnk--> King penguins, <!--del_lnk--> Chinstrap penguins, and <!--del_lnk--> Gentoo Penguins also breed in the Antarctic.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. The <!--del_lnk--> Weddell Seal, a "<!--del_lnk--> true seal", is named after <!--del_lnk--> Sir James Weddell, commander of <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> sealing expeditions in the <!--del_lnk--> Weddell Sea. <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctic_krill.htm" title="Antarctic krill">Antarctic krill</a>, which congregates in large <!--del_lnk--> schools, is the <!--del_lnk--> keystone species of the <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem of the <a href="../../wp/s/Southern_Ocean.htm" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a>, and is an important food organism for whales, seals, <!--del_lnk--> leopard seals, fur seals, <!--del_lnk--> squid, <!--del_lnk--> icefish, penguins, <a href="../../wp/a/Albatross.htm" title="Albatross">albatrosses</a> and many other birds.<p>The passing of the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Conservation Act brought several restrictions to the continent. The introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty, as can the extraction of any indigenous species. The <!--del_lnk--> overfishing of krill, which plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem, led officials to enact regulations on <a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" title="Fishing">fishing</a>. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty that came into force in 1980, requires that regulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarctic ecosystem. Despite these new acts, unregulated and illegal fishing, particularly of <!--del_lnk--> Patagonian toothfish, remains a serious problem. The illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing, with estimates of 32,000 tonnes in 2000.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15964.jpg.htm" title="Resupply by the Uruguayan Navy vessel 'Vanguardia'."><img alt="Resupply by the Uruguayan Navy vessel 'Vanguardia'." height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Logistic-Support.jpg" src="../../images/159/15964.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15964.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Resupply by the Uruguayan Navy vessel 'Vanguardia'.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>As the only uninhabited continent, Antarctica has no government and belongs to no country. Various countries claim areas of it but these claims are typically not recognized by others. The area between 90°W and 150°W is the only part of Antarctica, indeed the only solid land on Earth, not claimed by any country.<p>Since 1959, claims on Antarctica have been suspended and the continent is considered politically neutral. Its status is regulated by the 1959 <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Treaty and other related agreements, collectively called the <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctic_Treaty_System.htm" title="Antarctic Treaty System">Antarctic Treaty System</a>. For the purposes of the Treaty System, Antarctica is defined as all land and <!--del_lnk--> ice shelves south of 60°S. The treaty was signed by 12 countries, including the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. It set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation, environmental protection, and banned military activity on that continent. This was the first <!--del_lnk--> arms control agreement established during the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<p>The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activity in Antarctica, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military manoeuvres, or the testing of any type of weapon. Military personnel or equipment are only permitted for scientific research or for other peaceful purposes. The only documented large-scale land military maneuver was <!--del_lnk--> Operation NINETY, undertaken ten years before the Antarctic Treaty by the <!--del_lnk--> Argentine military.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> United States military issues the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctica Service Medal to military members or civilians who perform research duty on the Antarctica continent. The medal includes a "wintered over" bar issued to those who remain on the continent for two complete six-month seasons.Unlike other states, the United States has made no territorial claim in Antarctica nor does it recognize the claims of any other state.<p><a id="Antarctic_territories" name="Antarctic_territories"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Antarctic territories</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15965.jpg.htm" title="Territorial claims of Antarctica."><img alt="Territorial claims of Antarctica." height="274" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antarctica.jpg" src="../../images/159/15965.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15965.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Territorial claims of Antarctica.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Country</th>
<th>Territory</th>
<th>Claim limits</th>
<th>Date</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1447.png.htm" title="Flag of Argentina"><img alt="Flag of Argentina" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Argentina.svg" src="../../images/14/1447.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Argentine Antarctica</td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 25°W</span> to <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 74°W</span></td>
<td>1943</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/785.png.htm" title="Flag of Australia"><img alt="Flag of Australia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Australia.svg" src="../../images/7/785.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Australian Antarctic Territory</td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 160°E</span> to <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 142°2′W</span> and <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 136°11′W</span> to <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 44°38′E</span></td>
<td>1933</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/740.png.htm" title="Flag of Chile"><img alt="Flag of Chile" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Chile_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/7/740.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Chilean Territory</td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 53°W</span> to <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 90°W</span></td>
<td>1940</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="Flag of France"><img alt="Flag of France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Adelie Land</td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 142°2′E</span> to <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 136°11′E</span></td>
<td>1924</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/29/2940.png.htm" title="Flag of New Zealand"><img alt="Flag of New Zealand" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg" src="../../images/29/2940.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ross Dependency</td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 150°W</span> to <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 160°E</span></td>
<td>1923</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/8/851.png.htm" title="Flag of Norway"><img alt="Flag of Norway" height="16" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Norway.svg" src="../../images/8/851.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Queen Maud Land</td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 44°38′E</span> to <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 20°W</span></td>
<td>1939</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Peter I Island</td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 68°50′S 90°35′W</span></td>
<td>1929</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="Flag of United Kingdom"><img alt="Flag of United Kingdom" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> British Antarctic Territory</td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 20°W</span> to <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 80°W</span></td>
<td>1908</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>NONE</td>
<td>Unclaimed territory</td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 90°W</span> to <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 150°W</span></td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The Argentine, British and Chilean claims all overlap. <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> has the greatest claim of Antarctic territory.<p><a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> also maintained a claim to Antarctica, known as <!--del_lnk--> New Swabia, between 1939 and 1945. It was situated from <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 20°E</span> to <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 10°W</span>, overlapping Norway's claim.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15966.jpg.htm" title="The illegal capture and sale of the Patagonian toothfish has led to several arrests. Pictured here is the Antarctic toothfish, a sister species."><img alt="The illegal capture and sale of the Patagonian toothfish has led to several arrests. Pictured here is the Antarctic toothfish, a sister species." height="144" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antarctic_cod.jpg" src="../../images/159/15966.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15966.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The illegal capture and sale of the <!--del_lnk--> Patagonian toothfish has led to several arrests. Pictured here is the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic toothfish, a sister species.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Although coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold and other minerals have been found, they exist in quantities too small to exploit. The 1991 <!--del_lnk--> Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty also restricts a struggle for resources. In 1998 a compromise agreement was reached to add a 50-year ban on mining until the year 2048, further limiting economic development and exploitation. The primary agricultural activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish. Antarctic fisheries in 2000-01 reported landing 112,934 tonnes.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15967.jpg.htm" title="Antarctic postal services."><img alt="Antarctic postal services." height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antarctic-Postal-Services.jpg" src="../../images/159/15967.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15967.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Antarctic postal services.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Small-scale <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourism</a> has existed since 1957 and is currently self-regulated by <!--del_lnk--> International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO). However, not all vessels have joined the IAATO. Several <a href="../../wp/s/Ship.htm" title="Ship">ships</a> transport people into Antarctica for specific scenic locations. A total of 27,950 tourists visited in the 2004-05 Antarctic summer with nearly all of them coming from commercial ships. The number is predicted to increase to over 80,000 by 2010. There has been some recent concern over the adverse environmental and ecosystem affects caused by the influx of visitors. A call for stricter regulations for ships and a tourism quota have been made by both environmentalists and scientists. Antarctic sight seeing flights (which did not land) operated out of Australia and New Zealand until the fatal crash of <!--del_lnk--> Air New Zealand Flight 901 in 1979 on <!--del_lnk--> Mount Erebus, and resumed from Australia in the mid-1990s.<p><a id="Transport" name="Transport"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transport</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Transport on the continent has transformed from heroic explorers crossing the isolated remote area of Antarctica by foot to a more open area due to human technologies enabling more convenient and faster transport by land and predominantly air and water.<p><a id="Research" name="Research"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Research</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15968.jpg.htm" title="A full moon and 25-second exposure allowed sufficient light into this photo taken at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station during the long Antarctic night. The new station can be seen at far left, power plant in the center and the old mechanic's garage in the lower right."><img alt="A full moon and 25-second exposure allowed sufficient light into this photo taken at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station during the long Antarctic night. The new station can be seen at far left, power plant in the center and the old mechanic's garage in the lower right." height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Amundsen-Scott_marsstation_ray_h_edit.jpg" src="../../images/159/15968.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15968.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <a href="../../wp/f/Full_moon.htm" title="Full moon">full moon</a> and 25-second exposure allowed sufficient light into this photo taken at <!--del_lnk--> Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station during the long Antarctic night. The new station can be seen at far left, <!--del_lnk--> power plant in the centre and the old mechanic's garage in the lower right.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Each year, scientists from 27 different nations conduct <!--del_lnk--> experiments not reproducible in any other place in the world. In the summer more than 4000 scientists operate <!--del_lnk--> research stations; this number decreases to nearly 1000 in the winter. The <!--del_lnk--> McMurdo Station is capable of housing more than 1000 scientists, visitors, and tourists.<p>Researchers include biologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists. <!--del_lnk--> Geologists tend to study plate tectonics in the Arctic region, meteorites from <!--del_lnk--> outer space, and resources from the breakup of the supercontinent <!--del_lnk--> Gondwanaland. <!--del_lnk--> Glaciologists in Antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating <a href="../../wp/i/Ice.htm" title="Ice">ice</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Snow.htm" title="Snow">seasonal snow</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Glacier.htm" title="Glacier">glaciers</a>, and <a href="../../wp/i/Ice_sheet.htm" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Biologists, in addition to examining the wildlife, are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms. Medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures. <!--del_lnk--> Astrophysicists in <!--del_lnk--> Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station are able to study the celestial dome and <a href="../../wp/c/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation.htm" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background radiation</a> because of the polar's thin ozone layer due lack of sunlight and the location's dry, cold environment. Antarctic ice serves as both the shield and the detection medium for the largest <!--del_lnk--> neutrino telescope in the world, built 2 km below Amundsen-Scott station.<p>Since the 1970s an important focus of study has been the <!--del_lnk--> ozone layer in the <!--del_lnk--> atmosphere above Antarctica. In 1985 3 British Scientists working on data they had gathered at <!--del_lnk--> Halley Station on the Brunt Ice Shelf discovered the existence of a hole in this layer. In 1998 <!--del_lnk--> NASA satellite data showed that the Antarctic <!--del_lnk--> ozone hole was the largest on record, covering 27 million square kilometers. In 2002 significant areas of ice shelves disintegrated in response to regional warming.<p><a id="Meteorites" name="Meteorites"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Meteorites</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15969.jpg.htm" title="Antarctic meteorite, named ALH84001, from Mars."><img alt="Antarctic meteorite, named ALH84001, from Mars." height="140" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ALH84001.jpg" src="../../images/159/15969.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15969.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Antarctic meteorite, named <!--del_lnk--> ALH84001, from <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Meteorites from Antarctica are an important area of study of material formed early in the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a>; most are thought to come from <a href="../../wp/a/Asteroid.htm" title="Asteroid">asteroids</a>, but some may have originated on larger <a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" title="Planet">planets</a>. The first meteorites found in Antarctica were in 1912. In 1969 the Japanese discovered nine meteorites in Antarctica. Most of these meteorites have fallen onto the <a href="../../wp/i/Ice_sheet.htm" title="Ice sheet">ice sheet</a> in the last million years. Motion of the ice sheet tends to concentrate the meteorites at blocking locations such as mountain ranges, with wind erosion bringing them to the surface after centuries beneath accumulated snowfall. Compared with meteorites collected in more temperate regions on Earth, the Antarctic meteorites are relatively well preserved.<p>This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these are pieces blasted off the moon, and probably Mars, by impacts. These specimens, particularly <!--del_lnk--> ALH84001 discovered by <!--del_lnk--> ANSMET, are at the centre of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets.<p>In 2006 a team of researchers from <!--del_lnk--> Ohio State University used gravity measurements by NASA's <!--del_lnk--> GRACE satellites to discover the 300-mile-wide <!--del_lnk--> Wilkes Land crater, which probably formed about 250 million years ago.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Government', 'Argentina', 'Australia', 'Chile', 'France', 'New Zealand', 'Norway', 'United Kingdom', 'Russia', 'United States', 'Continent', 'Southern Ocean', 'Pacific Ocean', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Indian Ocean', 'Europe', 'Ice', 'Desert', 'Penguin', 'Moss', 'Arctic', 'Russia', 'Antarctic Treaty System', 'Ptolemy', 'Symmetry', 'South America', 'Australia', 'James Cook', 'Roald Amundsen', 'Southern Ocean', 'Ice sheet', 'Fresh water', 'Lake Vostok', 'Russia', 'Jupiter', 'Invertebrate', 'Sand', 'Forest', 'Ammonite', 'Africa', 'India', 'Australia', 'Australia', 'South America', 'Andes', 'South America', 'Precambrian', 'Metamorphic rock', 'Mineral', 'Coal', 'Glacier', 'Ice', 'Arctic', 'Arctic Ocean', 'Sun', 'Microscope', 'South Georgia Island', 'South Georgia Island', 'Argentina', 'Soil', 'Moss', 'Invertebrate', 'Emperor Penguin', 'Penguin', 'United Kingdom', 'Antarctic krill', 'Southern Ocean', 'Albatross', 'Fishing', 'Antarctic Treaty System', 'Soviet Union', 'United States', 'Cold War', 'Argentina', 'Australia', 'Chile', 'France', 'New Zealand', 'Norway', 'United Kingdom', 'Australia', 'Germany', 'Tourism', 'Ship', 'Full moon', 'Ice', 'Snow', 'Glacier', 'Ice sheet', 'Cosmic microwave background radiation', 'Mars', 'Solar system', 'Asteroid', 'Planet', 'Ice sheet'] |
Antarctosaurus | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Antarctosaurus,1929,Anacleto Formation,Ancient Greek,Animal,Antarctica,Argentina,Argentinosaurus,Armour (zoology),Bonitasaura,Brazil" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Antarctosaurus</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Antarctosaurus";
var wgTitle = "Antarctosaurus";
var wgArticleId = 2520128;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Antarctosaurus">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Antarctosaurus</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Dinosaurs.htm">Dinosaurs</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><i><b>Antarctosaurus</b></i><br />
<center><small>Fossil range: <!--del_lnk--> Late Cretaceous</small></center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/3/310.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="86" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antarctosaurus_dinosaur.jpg" src="../../images/3/310.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center">
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chordata<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Reptile.htm" title="Sauropsida">Sauropsida</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Superorder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dinosauria<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Saurischia.htm" title="Saurischia">Saurischia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Suborder:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Sauropodomorpha.htm" title="Sauropodomorpha">Sauropodomorpha</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Infraorder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sauropoda<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>(unranked)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Titanosauria<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Antarctosaurus</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> von Huene, <!--del_lnk--> 1929</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center>Species</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<ul>
<li><i>A. wichmannianus</i> (<!--del_lnk--> type)</ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd><small><!--del_lnk--> von Huene, 1929</small></dl>
</dl>
</dl>
<ul>
<li>?<i>A. giganteus</i></ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd><small><!--del_lnk--> von Huene, 1929</small></dl>
</dl>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><i>"A." jaxartensis</i></ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd><small><!--del_lnk--> Riabinin, 1939</small></dl>
</dl>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><i>"A." brasiliensis</i></ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd><small>Arid & Vizotto, 1971</small></dl>
</dl>
</dl>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><i><b>Antarctosaurus</b></i> (ant-ARK-to-SAWR-us; meaning "southern lizard") is a <!--del_lnk--> genus of <!--del_lnk--> titanosaurian <!--del_lnk--> sauropod <a href="../../wp/d/Dinosaur.htm" title="Dinosaur">dinosaur</a> from the Late <a href="../../wp/c/Cretaceous.htm" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> <!--del_lnk--> Period of what is now <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>. It was a huge <!--del_lnk--> quadrupedal <a href="../../wp/h/Herbivore.htm" title="Herbivore">herbivore</a> with a long neck and tail. It was possibly <!--del_lnk--> armored. As <i>Antarctosaurus</i> is not known from a complete skeleton and tail lengths are highly variable among sauropods, the true size of these animals is hard to extrapolate. The <!--del_lnk--> type species may have been over 60 feet (18 meters) long, and a second species may have been one of the <!--del_lnk--> largest land animals ever.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2>
<p>Remains of this dinosaur were first mentioned in print in 1916, although they were not fully described and named until a 1929 manuscript written by <!--del_lnk--> paleontologist <!--del_lnk--> Friedrich von Huene. <i>Antarctosaurus</i> does not refer to the continent of <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, since it was first found in <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, although it does have the same derivation, from the <!--del_lnk--> Greek words <i>anti-</i> meaning 'opposite of', <i>arktos</i> meaning 'north' and <i>sauros</i> meaning 'lizard'. The generic name refers to the animal's <a href="../../wp/r/Reptile.htm" title="Reptile">reptilian</a> nature and its geographical location on a southern continent.<p><a id="Species_of_Antarctosaurus" name="Species_of_Antarctosaurus"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Species of <i>Antarctosaurus</i></span></h2>
<p>Several <!--del_lnk--> species have been assigned to <i>Antarctosaurus</i> over the years, probably incorrectly in most cases.<p><a id="Antarctosaurus_wichmannianus" name="Antarctosaurus_wichmannianus"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><i>Antarctosaurus wichmannianus</i></span></h3>
<p>This is the <!--del_lnk--> type species of the genus, named in 1929 after the discoverer of its remains, geologist R. Wichmann.<p>Von Huene used the name <i>A. wichmannianus</i> to describe a large assemblage of bones, which are now considered to come from the <!--del_lnk--> Anacleto Formation in <!--del_lnk--> Río Negro Province of <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, which is considered to be early <!--del_lnk--> Campanian in age or about 83-80 million years old. Several <!--del_lnk--> skull fragments were described, including a braincase and a <!--del_lnk--> mandible (lower jaw). Other bones referred to this dinosaur include neck and tail <!--del_lnk--> vertebrae, <!--del_lnk--> ribs, and numerous limb bones. One <!--del_lnk--> femur (thigh bone) is over 6 feet (1.85 meters) tall, which has been used to extrapolate a mass of about 34 <!--del_lnk--> metric tonnes, or nearly 75,000 <!--del_lnk--> pounds (Mazzetta et al. 2004).<p>These bones were for the most part not associated with each other but scattered throughout the formation. Consequently, many scientists believe that they may not all belong to the same type of animal. In particular, the very square lower jaw has frequently been suggested to belong to a <!--del_lnk--> rebbachisaurid sauropod similar to <i><!--del_lnk--> Nigersaurus</i> (Upchurch 1999; Sereno et al. 1999; Wilson 2002). However the jaw of <i><!--del_lnk--> Bonitasaura</i> is similar in overall shape and is clearly associated with titanosaur skeletal remains, indicating that the lower jaw may belong to <i>Antarctosaurus wichmannianus</i> after all (Apesteguía 2004). The back of the skull and the remainder of the skeleton are usually regarded as titanosaurian, although they do not necessarily belong to the same type of titanosaur. <i>A. wichmannianus</i> (minus the lower jaw) has been regarded as a lithostrotian, a group which includes armored titanosaurs, although no armor scutes were associated with its remains (Upchurch et al. 2004). This species has also been regarded as a possible <!--del_lnk--> nemegtosaurid titanosaur (Upchurch 1999; Apesteguía 2004; Wilson 2005).<p><a name=".3FAntarctosaurus_giganteus"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">?<i>Antarctosaurus giganteus</i></span></h3>
<p>Von Huene named a second species of <i>Antarctosaurus</i> in 1929, which he called <i>A. giganteus</i> because of its enormous size. Very few remains are known of this species and it is regarded as a <i><!--del_lnk--> nomen dubium</i> by some (Upchurch et al. 2004). The most famous of these bones are two gigantic femora, which are among the largest of any known sauropod. They measure about 7.75 feet (2.35 meters) in length. Extrapolating from the size of these bones has led to a mass estimate of approximately 69 metric tonnes (152,000 pounds) in one study, just a little smaller than the gigantic <i><!--del_lnk--> Argentinosaurus</i>, which at nearly 73 metric tonnes (160,000 pounds) would have been the heaviest known land animal of all time (Mazzetta et al. 2004).<p>The bones mentioned above were recovered in <!--del_lnk--> Neuquén Province of Argentina, from the <!--del_lnk--> Plottier Formation, which dates to the late <!--del_lnk--> Coniacian stage of the <!--del_lnk--> Late Cretaceous Period, or about 87 to 85 million years ago. The Plottier, like the younger Anacleto, is a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Neuquén Group.<p>As so little is known of this animal, and because the material assigned to <i>A. wichmannianus</i> is so confused, <i>A. giganteus</i> cannot be confidently assigned to the genus <i>Antarctosaurus</i> at this time.<p><a name=".22Antarctosaurus.22_septentrionalis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">"Antarctosaurus" septentrionalis</span></h3>
<p>In 1933, von Huene and <!--del_lnk--> Charles Matley described another species from <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>. This species does preserve important anatomical information but does not belong to <i>Antarctosaurus</i>. It was renamed <i><!--del_lnk--> Jainosaurus</i> in 1994.<p><a name=".22Antarctosaurus.22_jaxartensis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">"Antarctosaurus" jaxartensis</span></h3>
<p>A single femur from <a href="../../wp/k/Kazakhstan.htm" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> forms the basis of this species, which was named by <!--del_lnk--> Soviet paleontologist <!--del_lnk--> Anatoly Riabinin in 1939. It is regarded as a <i>nomen dubium</i> today but is almost certainly not a species of the South American <i>Antarctosaurus</i> (Upchurch et al. 2004).<p><a name=".22Antarctosaurus.22_brasiliensis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">"Antarctosaurus" brasiliensis</span></h3>
<p>Remains of this dinosaur, including two fragmentary limb bones and a partial vertebra, were found in the <!--del_lnk--> Bauru Formation of <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> and described by Arid and Vizzotto in 1971. This species is also considered a <i>nomen dubium</i> (Upchurch et al. 2004).<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctosaurus"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Sauropsida', 'Saurischia', 'Sauropodomorpha', 'Dinosaur', 'Cretaceous', 'South America', 'Herbivore', 'Antarctica', 'Argentina', 'Reptile', 'Argentina', 'India', 'Kazakhstan', 'Brazil'] |
Anteater | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Anteater,1811,Aardvark,Animal,Ant,Armadillo,Central America,Chordate,Cyclopedidae,Cyclopes,Cyclopes didactylus" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Anteater</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Anteater";
var wgTitle = "Anteater";
var wgArticleId = 2278;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Anteater">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Anteater</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Anteaters</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/3/311.jpg.htm" title="Northern Tamandua(Tamandua mexicana)"><img alt="Northern Tamandua(Tamandua mexicana)" height="320" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DirkvdM_tamandua.jpg" src="../../images/3/311.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Northern Tamandua<br /> (<i>Tamandua mexicana</i>)</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Superorder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Xenarthra<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pilosa<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Suborder:</td>
<td><b>Vermilingua</b><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Illiger, <!--del_lnk--> 1811</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Families</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Cyclopedidae<br /><!--del_lnk--> Myrmecophagidae</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Anteaters</b> are the four <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammal</a> species of the suborder <b>Vermilingua</b> commonly known for eating <a href="../../wp/a/Ant.htm" title="Ant">ants</a> and <!--del_lnk--> termites. Together with the <!--del_lnk--> sloths and <a href="../../wp/a/Armadillo.htm" title="Armadillo">armadillos</a>, they make up the superorder <!--del_lnk--> Xenarthra.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Physiology" name="Physiology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Physiology</span></h2>
<p>The largest representative of the group is the <!--del_lnk--> giant anteater, or ant-bear (<i>Myrmecophaga tridactyla</i>), an animal measuring 4 feet (1.2 m) in length, excluding the tail, and 2 feet (60 cm) in height at the shoulder. It has a long, thin head and a large, bushy tail. Its prevailing colour is gray, with a broad black band, bordered with white, starting on the chest, and passing obliquely over the shoulder, diminishing gradually in breadth as it approaches the loins, where it ends in a point.<p>It is extensively distributed in the tropical parts of <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Central America, frequenting low swampy savannas, along the banks of rivers, and the depths of the humid forests, but is nowhere abundant.<p>Its food consists mainly of <!--del_lnk--> termites, which it obtains by opening their nests with its powerful sharp anterior (front) claws. As the insects swarm to the damaged part of their dwelling, it draws them into its mouth by means of its long, flexible, rapidly moving tongue covered with sticky saliva. A full-grown giant anteater eats upwards of 30,000 ants and termites a day.<p>The giant anteater lives above ground, not burrowing underground like <a href="../../wp/a/Armadillo.htm" title="Armadillo">armadillos</a>. Though generally an inoffensive animal, when attacked it can defend itself with its sabre-like anterior claws. The female produces one offspring per birth.<p>The two anteaters of the <!--del_lnk--> genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Tamandua</i>, the <!--del_lnk--> Southern Tamandua (<i>Tamandua tetradactyla</i>) and the <!--del_lnk--> Northern Tamandua (<i>Tamandua mexicana</i>), are much smaller than the Giant Anteater, and differ essentially from it in their habits, being mainly arboreal. They inhabit the dense primeval forests of South and Central America. The usual colour is yellowish-white, with a broad black lateral band, covering nearly the whole of the side of the body.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> silky anteater (<i>Cyclopes didactylus</i>) is a native of the hottest parts of South and Central America, and about the size of a <!--del_lnk--> rat, of a general yellowish colour, and exclusively arboreal in its habits.<p><a id="Family_order" name="Family_order"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Family order</span></h2>
<p>ORDER PILOSA<ul>
<li>Suborder <!--del_lnk--> Folivora (<!--del_lnk--> sloths)<li><b>Suborder Vermilingua</b><ul>
<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Cyclopedidae<ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Cyclopes</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Silky Anteater (<i><!--del_lnk--> Cyclopes didactylus</i>)</ul>
</ul>
<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Myrmecophagidae<ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Myrmecophaga</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Giant Anteater (<i><!--del_lnk--> Myrmecophaga tridactyla</i>)</ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Tamandua</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Northern Tamandua (<i><!--del_lnk--> Tamandua mexicana</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Southern Tamandua (<i><!--del_lnk--> Tamandua tetradactyla</i>)</ul>
</ul>
</ul>
</ul>
<p><a id="Gallery" name="Gallery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h2>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/3/312.jpg.htm" title="Image:Tamandua mexicana.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/3/312.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Ant eater <i>Tamandua mexicana</i> in Corcovado, NP Costa Rica</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Similar_animals" name="Similar_animals"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Similar animals</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Pangolins are also called <i>scaly anteaters</i>.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Numbat (<i>Myrmecobius fasciatus</i>), a <!--del_lnk--> marsupial, formerly called the <i>Banded Anteater</i>. This <!--del_lnk--> species is very endangered.<li><!--del_lnk--> Echidnas, a family of <!--del_lnk--> monotremes, are still sometimes called <i>spiny anteaters</i>.<li><a href="../../wp/a/Aardvark.htm" title="Aardvark">Aardvarks</a> are African animals with similar habits.</ul>
<p><a id="Anteaters_as_Mascots" name="Anteaters_as_Mascots"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Anteaters as Mascots</span></h2>
<p>The Anteater is the mascot of the <!--del_lnk--> University of California, Irvine, and of <!--del_lnk--> Methuen High School, Massachusetts.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anteater"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Mammal', 'Mammal', 'Ant', 'Armadillo', 'South America', 'Armadillo', 'Aardvark'] |
Antelope | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Antelope,Adarga,Addax,Aepyceros,Africa,Alcelaphus,Animal,Antelope (disambiguation),Antidorcas,Antilocapridae,Antilope" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Antelope</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Antelope";
var wgTitle = "Antelope";
var wgArticleId = 48517;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Antelope">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Antelope</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Antelope</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/3/313.jpg.htm" title="impala"><img alt="impala" height="166" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Impala.JPG" src="../../images/3/313.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><!--del_lnk--> impala</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chordata<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Artiodactyla<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bovidae<br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Genera</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Aepyceros</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Alcelaphus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Antidorcas</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Antilope</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Cephalophus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Connochaetes</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Damaliscus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Gazella</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Hippotragus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Kobus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Madoqua</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Neotragus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Oreotragus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Oryx</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Ourebia</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Pantholops</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Procapra</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Sylvicapra</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Taurotragus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Tragelaphus</i><br /> and others</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Antelopes</b> are a <!--del_lnk--> polyphyletic group of herbivorous <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">African</a> and Asian animals of the family <!--del_lnk--> Bovidae, distinguished by a pair of hollow horns on their heads. These animals are spread relatively evenly throughout the various subfamilies of Bovidae; many are more closely related to cows or goats than to each other. There are many different species of antelope, ranging in size from the tiny <!--del_lnk--> royal antelope to the <a href="../../wp/g/Giant_Eland.htm" title="Giant Eland">giant eland</a>. They typically have a light, elegant figure, are slender, have graceful limbs, small <!--del_lnk--> cloven hoofs and a short tail. Antelopes have powerful hindquarters and, when startled, run with a peculiar bounding stride that makes them look as though they are bouncing over the terrain like a giant rabbit. Some species of antelope can reach speeds of 60 miles (100 kilometers) per hour, making them among the fastest of land animals.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Physical_characteristics" name="Physical_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Physical characteristics</span></h2>
<p>Apart from basic characteristics, antelopes differ from each other in appearance and physiology almost as much as they differ from other members of the cattle, goat, and sheep family. For example, the common eland towers over most breeds of domestic cattle and can be 300 times heavier than the tiny royal antelope.<p>All antelopes have long, slender legs and powerful muscles where the upper legs meet the body, providing leverage and increasing leg stride and speed. Though antelopes are good jumpers, they are not particularly good climbers. A few do display good balance, such as the <!--del_lnk--> klipspringer, which stands on the tips of its hooves. The gerenuk, another African species, is one of the few antelopes that habitually stands on its back legs.<p>Antelopes bear a dense coat with short fur. Most antelopes have fawn or brown-colored fur so they can camouflage themselves while eating. There are some exceptions, including the rare <!--del_lnk--> zebra duiker which has dark vertical stripes, and the <!--del_lnk--> gemsbok which has gray and black fur and a vivid black-and-white face. A common feature of the <a href="../../wp/g/Gazelle.htm" title="Gazelle">gazelle</a> is a white rump, which flashes a warning to others when it runs from danger. One species of gazelle, the springbok, also has a pouch of white brushlike hairs running along its back. When a springbok senses danger, its pouch opens up, and the hairs stand on end.<p>Antelopes are <!--del_lnk--> ruminants. Like other ruminants, such as cattle and sheep, they have well-developed cheek teeth or molars, which grind <!--del_lnk--> cud into a pulp. They have no upper incisors; in order to tear grass stems and leaves, their lower incisors press against a hard upper gum pad when they bite.<p>Antelopes rely on their keen senses to avoid predators. Their eyes are on the sides of their heads, and their pupils are elongated horizontally, giving them a broad view of danger from both the back and front. Their senses of smell and hearing are also acute, giving them the ability to perceive danger while out in the open where predators often prowl after dark.<p>Both sexes of most antelope species grow horns, though the males' horns are generally larger. The <a href="../../wp/d/Dik-dik.htm" title="Dik-dik">dik-dik</a> and klipspringer, two species where the male mates with only one female, have horns that are little more than spikes. However, in species where males compete to mate with several females, horns may grow as long as 1.5 m (5 ft.). Despite their large size, antelope horns are hollow and lightweight. Antelope horns are almost always slightly curved, although in some species such as the <!--del_lnk--> blackbuck, they are shaped like a pair of corkscrews spiraling out in opposite directions.<p>In many species, the males are larger than the females. In several species, such as the Asian <!--del_lnk--> blackbuck, males and females also differ in colour.<p>Antelope life spans are hard to determine, and most known figures relate only to those in captivity. Captive gnus have lived to be over 20 years old, and captive impalas have lived into their late teens. In the wild, antelopes rarely live to their teens, as they are often preyed upon.<p><a id="Behaviour" name="Behaviour"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Behaviour</span></h2>
<p>Unlike <a href="../../wp/c/Carnivore.htm" title="Carnivore">carnivores</a> and <!--del_lnk--> primates, <a href="../../wp/h/Herbivore.htm" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a> such as the antelope are not noted for high intelligence. Since their food cannot run, antelopes do not have to be quick-thinking. However, they can be very clever in escaping from their enemies. Antelopes are fast runners, although they are not the fastest animals in the world. They are good at quick, precise turns, and they can run very fast for extended periods of time. This gives them an advantage over many predators such as the <a href="../../wp/c/Cheetah.htm" title="Cheetah">cheetah</a>, which relies on sprinting and can be tired out by the antelope's greater stamina.<p>The antelope's choice to flee is based largely on the type of predator and its distance from the herd. Usually, gazelles will permit lions to come within 200 m (650 ft.) before fleeing. They likely recognise that a hunting lion prefers to hide while stalking its prey, meaning a visible lion is unlikely to attack. Cheetahs, who are superb sprinters, pose a more dangerous threat. Gazelles will flee from cheetahs when they are over 800 m (0.5 mi.) away.<p>Antelopes communicate with each other using a varied array of sounds. For example, <a href="../../wp/d/Dik-dik.htm" title="Dik-dik">dik-diks</a> whistle when alarmed, warning other animals of danger as well. This characteristic makes dik-diks less favorable prey for hunters. Generally, though, sight is a much more common form of communication than sound among antelopes. An antelope's mood is indicated by its posture and movement. When excited or alarmed, most medium-sized species of antelope bounce up and down on all four legs, keeping them stretched out straight. This behaviour, known as <i>pronking</i> or <i>stotting</i>, acts as an alarming display. Some biologists theorize that stotting also sends a message to predators, showing that individual antelopes are fit and alert, and therefore not worth pursuing.<p>Antelopes also use scent signals to communicate; these signals can linger for many days. Antelopes that live in herds have special glands in their hooves that leave a scented record of their movement. If an antelope were accidentally separated from its herd, it would be able to follow the scent tracks back.<p>Antelope species common to forests tend to stay in the same place all their lives, but species that live out in the open often <!--del_lnk--> migrate to feed and breed. The <a href="../../wp/w/Wildebeest.htm" title="Wildebeest">gnus</a> carry out the most famous of these migrations through the plains and open <!--del_lnk--> woodlands of eastern and southern <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>. Gnus are sedentary in some places, but in others, such as <!--del_lnk--> Serengeti National Park, gnus travel between two different home ranges. One of these ranges is used during the dry season, while another is used during the wet season. Migration can be very risky; the dangers include crossing <a href="../../wp/c/Crocodile.htm" title="Crocodile">crocodile</a>-infested rivers, but migration also supplies the gnus with food at different times of the year.<p><a id="Species" name="Species"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Species</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/314.jpg.htm" title="Various species of antelope from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur"><img alt="Various species of antelope from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur" height="281" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Haeckel_Antilopina.jpg" src="../../images/3/314.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/314.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Various species of antelope from Ernst Haeckel's <i><!--del_lnk--> Kunstformen der Natur</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>There are about 90 species of antelope in about 30 genera, of which about 15 species are endangered. These include:<table>
<tr>
<td valign="valign">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> addax<li><!--del_lnk--> bluebuck<li><a href="../../wp/b/Bongo_%2528antelope%2529.htm" title="Bongo (antelope)">bongo</a><li><a href="../../wp/b/Bontebok.htm" title="Bontebok">bontebok</a><li><a href="../../wp/c/Common_Eland.htm" title="Common Eland">common eland</a><li><a href="../../wp/d/Dik-dik.htm" title="Dik-dik">dik-dik</a><li><!--del_lnk--> duiker</ul>
</td>
<td valign="valign">
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/g/Gazelle.htm" title="Gazelle">gazelle</a><li><!--del_lnk--> gemsbok<li><!--del_lnk--> hartebeest<li><!--del_lnk--> impala<li><!--del_lnk--> klipspringer<li><!--del_lnk--> kudu<li><!--del_lnk--> nyala</ul>
</td>
<td valign="valign">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> oribi<li><!--del_lnk--> oryx<li><!--del_lnk--> Grey Rhebok<li><!--del_lnk--> roan antelope<li><!--del_lnk--> royal antelope<li><!--del_lnk--> sable antelope<li><!--del_lnk--> springbok</ul>
</td>
<td valign="valign">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> suni<li><!--del_lnk--> tibetan antelope<li><!--del_lnk--> topi<li><!--del_lnk--> waterbuck<li><a href="../../wp/w/Wildebeest.htm" title="Wildebeest">wildebeest</a><li><!--del_lnk--> zeren</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Blackbuck antelope have been imported into the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, primarily for the purpose of "exotic game hunts," common and popular in <!--del_lnk--> Texas. There are no true antelope native to the Americas. The <!--del_lnk--> pronghorn antelope of the Great Plains belongs to the family <!--del_lnk--> Antilocapridae. The Mongolian gazelle or <!--del_lnk--> zeren (<i>Procapra gutturosa</i>), sometimes classified as an antelope, can run with a speed of 80 km/h (50 mph). <!--del_lnk--> Suni are small antelope that live in south-eastern Africa. They stand between 12-17 inches high at the shoulder and are very similar to the dik-dik in size, shape and colour, but have many smaller differences.<p>Antelope are not a cladistic group in and of themselves, but rather are considered a miscellaneous group. The term is used loosely to describe all members of the family <i>Bovidae</i> who do not fall under the category of <!--del_lnk--> sheep, <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">cattle</a> or <a href="../../wp/d/Domestic_goat.htm" title="Goat">goats</a>. Native antelope can be found in Asia, India, and Africa.<p><a id="Hybrid_antelope" name="Hybrid_antelope"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Hybrid antelope</span></h2>
<p>A wide variety of antelope hybrids have been recorded in zoos. This may be due to a lack of more appropriate mates in enclosures shared with other species, or misidentification of species. The ease of hybridization shows how closely related some antelope species are. It is likely that some so-called species are actually variant populations of the same species, and are prevented from hybridization in the wild by behavioural or geographical differences.<ul>
<li>A mating between a male eland and a female kudu produced a sterile male hybrid that resembled the eland.<li>Blue wildebeest produce fertile hybrids with the smaller black wildebeest. This led to an entire herd of 180 "genetically contaminated" black wildebeest being destroyed in a wildlife conservation park in an attempt to preserve species purity.<li>In the early 1900s, the London Zoological Society hybridized several antelope species, including the water-bucks <i>Kobus ellipsiprymnus</i> and <i>Kobus unctuosus</i>, and the selouss antelope <i>Limnotragus seloussi</i> with <i>Limnotragus gratus</i>.</ul>
<p>Listed antelope hybrids include:<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/b/Bongo_%2528antelope%2529.htm" title="Bongo (antelope)">Bongo</a>/<!--del_lnk--> Sitatunga<li><!--del_lnk--> Lesser Kudu/Sitatunga<li>Eland/<!--del_lnk--> Greater Kudu<li><!--del_lnk--> Blue Duiker/<!--del_lnk--> Maxwell's Duiker<li><!--del_lnk--> Bay Duiker/<!--del_lnk--> Red-flanked Duiker<li>Bay duiker/Zebra duiker<li>Black duiker/Kaffir Duiker<li>Cape hartebeest/<!--del_lnk--> Blesbok<li><a href="../../wp/b/Bontebok.htm" title="Bontebok">Bontebok</a>/Blesbok<li><a href="../../wp/b/Black_Wildebeest.htm" title="Black Wildebeest">Black Wildebeest</a>/<a href="../../wp/b/Blue_Wildebeest.htm" title="Blue Wildebeest">Blue Wildebeest</a><li>Common <!--del_lnk--> Waterbuck/Defassa waterbuck<li>Defassa waterbuck/Nile lechwe<li>Defassa waterbuck/Kob<li><!--del_lnk--> Nile Lechwe/<!--del_lnk--> Kob<li>Kafue <!--del_lnk--> Lechwe/Ellipsen waterbuck<li><!--del_lnk--> Red-fronted Gazelle/<!--del_lnk--> Thomson's Gazelle<li><!--del_lnk--> East African Oryx or Beisa oryx/Fringe-eared oryx<li><!--del_lnk--> Grant's Gazelle/Thomson's gazelle<li>Beisa oryx/<!--del_lnk--> Gemsbok<li><!--del_lnk--> Arabian Oryx/<!--del_lnk--> Scimitar Oryx or Scimitar-horned oryx<li>Thomson's gazelle/Roosevelt's gazelle<li>Slender-horned gazelle/<!--del_lnk--> Goitered Gazelle or Persian goitered gazelle<li><!--del_lnk--> Goitered Gazelle or Persian gazelle/<!--del_lnk--> Blackbuck<li><!--del_lnk--> Cuvier's Gazelle/Slender-horned gazelle</ul>
<p><a id="Cultural_aspects" name="Cultural_aspects"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cultural aspects</span></h2>
<p>The antelope's horn is prized for its medicinal and magical powers in many places. In the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Republic of the Congo">Congo</a>, it is thought to confine spirits. Christian iconography sometimes uses the antelope's two horns as a symbol of the two spiritual weapons that Christians possess: the <!--del_lnk--> Old Testament and the <!--del_lnk--> New Testament. In European Medieval culture, the antelope represented nobility as evidenced in <!--del_lnk--> Chaucer and <!--del_lnk--> John Lydgate. The antelope's ability to run swiftly has also led to its association with the <a href="../../wp/w/Wind.htm" title="Wind">wind</a>, such as in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Rig Veda</i> where antelopes are the steeds of the <!--del_lnk--> Maruts and the wind god <!--del_lnk--> Vaya.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Fez, <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, leather made from the hide of the antelope was used to manufacture <!--del_lnk--> Adargas, shields used in battle.<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antelope"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Mammal', 'Africa', 'Giant Eland', 'Gazelle', 'Dik-dik', 'Carnivore', 'Herbivore', 'Cheetah', 'Dik-dik', 'Wildebeest', 'Africa', 'Crocodile', 'Bongo (antelope)', 'Bontebok', 'Common Eland', 'Dik-dik', 'Gazelle', 'Wildebeest', 'United States', 'Cattle', 'Goat', 'Bongo (antelope)', 'Bontebok', 'Black Wildebeest', 'Blue Wildebeest', 'Republic of the Congo', 'Wind', 'Morocco'] |
Anthony_van_Dyck | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" />
<meta content="Anthony van Dyck,Alte Pinakothek,Henrietta Maria of France,George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol,1599,1615,1620,1627,1632,1634,1641" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Anthony van Dyck</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">/*<![CDATA[*/
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false;
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Anthony_van_Dyck";
var wgTitle = "Anthony van Dyck";
var wgAction = "view";
var wgArticleId = "294462";
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserGroups = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
var wgBreakFrames = false;
var wgCurRevisionId = "128120277";
/*]]>*/</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Anthony_van_Dyck">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Anthony van Dyck</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Artists.htm">Artists</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<p>Sir <b>Anthony</b> <b>van Dyck</b> (many variant spellings See <!--del_lnk--> Van Dyke for other uses of all spellings), (<!--del_lnk--> 22 March <!--del_lnk--> 1599 – <!--del_lnk--> 9 December <!--del_lnk--> 1641) was a <a href="../../wp/f/Flemish_people.htm" title="Flemish people">Flemish</a> <!--del_lnk--> artist who became the leading <!--del_lnk--> court painter in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>. He is most famous for his portraits of <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" title="Charles I of England">Charles I of England</a> and his family and court, painted with a relaxed elegance that was to be the dominant influence on <!--del_lnk--> English portrait-painting for the next 150 years. He also painted <!--del_lnk--> biblical and <!--del_lnk--> mythological subjects, displayed outstanding facility as a draftsman, and was a master of <!--del_lnk--> etching.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:322px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8806.jpg.htm" title="Self Portrait With a Sunflower showing the gold collar and medal Charles I gave him in 1633. The sunflower represents the king, or royal patronage."><img alt="Self Portrait With a Sunflower showing the gold collar and medal Charles I gave him in 1633. The sunflower represents the king, or royal patronage." class="thumbimage" height="227" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Anthonyvandyckselfportrait.jpeg" src="../../images/88/8806.jpg" width="320" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8806.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Self Portrait With a Sunflower</i> showing the gold collar and medal Charles I gave him in 1633. The sunflower represents the king, or royal patronage.</div>
</div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script>
<p><a id="Life_and_work" name="Life_and_work"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Life and work</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8808.jpg.htm" title="Self-portrait, 1613-14."><img alt="Self-portrait, 1613-14." class="thumbimage" height="246" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Anthonis_van_Dyck_008.jpg" src="../../images/88/8808.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8808.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Self-portrait</i>, 1613-14.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h3>
<p>Van Dyck was born to prosperous parents in <!--del_lnk--> Antwerp. His talent was evident very early, and he was studying painting with <!--del_lnk--> Hendrick van Balen by 1609, and became an independent painter around <!--del_lnk--> 1615, setting up a workshop with his even younger friend <!--del_lnk--> Jan Brueghel the Younger. By the age of fifteen he was already a highly accomplished artist, as his <i>Self-portrait</i>, 1613-14, shows. He was admitted to the Antwerp painter's <a href="../../wp/g/Guild.htm" title="Guild">Guild</a> of St Luke as a free master by February 1618. Within a few years he was to be the chief assistant to the dominant master of Antwerp, and the whole of Northern Europe, <a href="../../wp/p/Peter_Paul_Rubens.htm" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Peter Paul Rubens</a>, who made much use of sub-contracting artists as well as his own large workshop. His influence on the young artist was immense; Rubens referred to the nineteen-year-old van Dyck as 'the best of my pupils'. The origins and exact nature of their relationship are unclear; it has been speculated that Van Dyck was a pupil of Rubens from about 1613, as even his early work shows little trace of van Balen's style, but there is no clear evidence for this. At the same time the dominance of Rubens in the small and declining city of Antwerp probably explains why, despite his periodic returns to the city, van Dyck spent most of his career abroad.. In 1620, in the Rubens' contract for the major commission for the ceiling of the <!--del_lnk--> Jesuit church at Antwerp (now destroyed), van Dyck is specified as one of the "discipelen" who was to execute the paintings to Rubens' designs.<p><a id="Italy" name="Italy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Italy</span></h3>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1620, at the instigation of the <!--del_lnk--> Earl of Arundel, van Dyck went to England for the first time where he worked for King <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James I</a>, receiving £100. It was in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> that he first saw the work of <!--del_lnk--> Titian, whose use of colour and subtle modeling of form would prove transformational, offering a new stylistic language that would enrich the compositional lessons learned from Rubens.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8810.jpg.htm" title="Genoan hauteur from the Lomelli family, 1623"><img alt="Genoan hauteur from the Lomelli family, 1623" class="thumbimage" height="260" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Anthonis_van_Dyck_012.jpg" src="../../images/88/8810.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8810.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Genoan hauteur from the Lomelli family, 1623</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>After about four months he returned to Flanders, but moved on in late 1621 to <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, where he remained for 6 years, studying the Italian masters and beginning his career as a successful portraitist. He was already presenting himself as a figure of consequence, annoying the rather bohemian Northern artist's colony in <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a>, says <!--del_lnk--> Bellori, by appearing with "the pomp of <!--del_lnk--> Xeuxis... his behaviour was that of a nobleman rather than an ordinary person, and he shone in rich garments; since he was accustomed in the circle of Rubens to noblemen, and being naturally of elevated mind, and anxious to make himself distinguished, he therefore wore - as well as silks - a hat with feathers and brooches, gold chains across his chest, and was accompanied by servants." <p>He was mostly based in <a href="../../wp/g/Genoa.htm" title="Genoa">Genoa</a>, although he also travelled extensively to other cities, and stayed for some time in <!--del_lnk--> Palermo in <!--del_lnk--> Sicily. For the Genoese aristocracy, then in a final flush of prosperity, he developed a full-length portrait style, drawing on <!--del_lnk--> Veronese and Titian, where extremely tall but graceful figures look down on the viewer with great hauteur. In <!--del_lnk--> 1627, he went back to Antwerp where he remained for five years, painting more affable portraits which still made his Flemish patrons look as stylish as possible. He was evidently very charming to his patrons, and, like Rubens, well able to mix in aristocratic and court circles, which added to his ability to obtain commissions. By 1630 he was described as the court painter of the Hapsburg Governor of Flanders, the Archduchess Isabella. In this period he also produced many religious works, including large <!--del_lnk--> altarpieces, and began his printmaking (see below).<p><a id="London" name="London"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">London</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8812.jpg.htm" title="The more intimate, but still elegant style he developed in England, ca 1638"><img alt="The more intimate, but still elegant style he developed in England, ca 1638" class="thumbimage" height="346" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sir-Anthony-van-Dyck-Lord-John-Stuart-and-His-Brother-Lord-Bernard-Stuart.jpg" src="../../images/88/8812.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8812.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The more intimate, but still elegant style he developed in England, ca 1638</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Charles I was the most passionate and generous collector of art among the English monarchs, and saw art as a way of promoting his grandiose view of the monarchy. In 1628 he bought the fabulous collection that the <!--del_lnk--> Gonzagas of <!--del_lnk--> Mantua were forced to dispose of, and he had been trying since his accession in 1625 to bring leading foreign painters to England. In 1626 he was able to persuade <!--del_lnk--> Orazio Gentileschi to settle in England, later to be joined by his daughter <!--del_lnk--> Artemesia and some of his sons. Rubens was an especial target, who eventually came on a diplomatic mission, which included painting, in 1630, and later supplied more paintings from Antwerp. He was very well treated during his nine month visit, during which he was knighted. Charles' court portraitist <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Mytens, was a somewhat pedestrian Fleming. Charles was extremely short (less than five foot tall) and presented challenges to a portraitist.<p>Van Dyck had remained in touch with the English court, and had helped Charles' agents in their search for pictures. He had also sent back some of his own works, including a portrait (1623) of himself with <!--del_lnk--> Endymion Porter, one of Charles's agents, a mythology, and a religious work for the Queen. In April <!--del_lnk--> 1632, van Dyck returned to London, and was taken under the wing of the court immediately, being <!--del_lnk--> knighted in July and at the same time receiving a pension of £200 per year, in the grant of which he was described as <i>principalle Paynter in ordinary to their majesties</i>. He was well paid for paintings in addition to this. He was provided with a house on the river at <!--del_lnk--> Blackfriars, then just outside the <!--del_lnk--> City and hence avoiding the monopoly of the <!--del_lnk--> Painters Guild. A suite of rooms in <!--del_lnk--> Eltham Palace, no longer used by the Royal family, was also provided as a country retreat. His Blackfriars studio was frequently visited by the King and Queen (later a special causeway was built to ease their access), who hardly sat for another painter whilst van Dyck lived. <div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8816.jpg.htm" title="Charles I, ca. 1635 Louvre - see text"><img alt="Charles I, ca. 1635 Louvre - see text" class="thumbimage" height="286" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Van_Dyck_Charles_I.jpg" src="../../images/88/8816.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8816.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Charles I, ca. 1635 Louvre - see text</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>He was an immediate success in England, rapidly painting a large number of portraits of the King and <!--del_lnk--> Queen Henrietta Maria, as well as their children. Many portraits were done in several versions, to be sent as diplomatic gifts or given to supporters of the increasingly embattled king. Altogether van Dyck has been estimated to have painted forty portraits of Charles himself, as well as about thirty of the Queen, nine of <!--del_lnk--> Earl of Strafford and multiple ones of other courtiers. He painted many of the court, and also himself and his mistress, Margaret Lemon. In England he developed a version of his style which combined a relaxed elegance and ease with an understated authority in his subjects which was to dominate English portrait-painting to the end of the 18th century. Many of these portraits have a lush landscape background. His portraits of Charles on horseback updated the grandeur of Titian's Charles V, but even more effective and original is his portrait of Charles dismounted in the <!--del_lnk--> Louvre: "Charles is given a totally natural look of instinctive sovereignity, in a deliberately informal setting where he strolls so negligently that that he seems at first glance nature's gentleman rather than England's king" <p>Van Dyck became a "denizen", effectively a citizen, in 1638 and married the daughter of <!--del_lnk--> Lord Ruthven in 1639-40; this may have been instigated by the King in an attempt to keep him in England. He had spent most of <!--del_lnk--> 1634 in Antwerp, returning the following year, and in 1640-41, as the <!--del_lnk--> English Civil War loomed, spent several months in Flanders and <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>. He left again in the summer of 1641, but fell seriously ill in <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> and returned hurriedly to London, where he died soon after in his house at Blackfriars. He was buried in <!--del_lnk--> Old St. Paul's Cathedral, where the king erected a monument in his memory:<p><i>Anthony returned to England, and shortly afterwards he died in London, piously rendering his spirit to God as a good Catholic, in the year 1641. He was buried in St. Paul's, to the sadness of the king and court and the universal grief of lovers of painting. For all the riches he had acquired, Anthony van Dyck left little property, having spent everything on living magnificently, more like a prince than a painter.</i><p><a id="Portraits_and_other_works" name="Portraits_and_other_works"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Portraits and other works</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:262px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8817.jpg.htm" title="Samson and Delilah, ca. 1630. A strenuous history painting in the manner of Rubens; the saturated use of color reveals van Dyck's study of Titian."><img alt="Samson and Delilah, ca. 1630. A strenuous history painting in the manner of Rubens; the saturated use of color reveals van Dyck's study of Titian." class="thumbimage" height="148" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Anthonis_van_Dyck_052.jpg" src="../../images/88/8817.jpg" width="260" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8817.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Samson and Delilah</i>, ca. 1630. A strenuous history painting in the manner of Rubens; the saturated use of colour reveals van Dyck's study of <!--del_lnk--> Titian.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>With the partial exception of <!--del_lnk--> Holbein, van Dyck and his exact contemporary Velasquez were the first painters of pre-eminent talent to work mainly as Court portraitists. The slightly younger <a href="../../wp/r/Rembrandt.htm" title="Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a> was also to work mainly as a portraitist for a period. In the contemporary theory of the <!--del_lnk--> Hierarchy of genres portrait-painting came well below <!--del_lnk--> History painting (which covered religious scenes also), and for most major painters portraits were a relatively small part of their output, in terms of the time spent on them (being small, they might be numerous in absolute terms). Rubens for example mostly painted portraits only of his immediate circle, but though he worked for most of the courts of Europe, he avoided exclusive attachment to any of them.<p>A variety of factors meant that in the 17th century demand for portraits was stronger than for other types of work. Van Dyck tried to persuade Charles to commission him to do a large-scale series of works on the history of the <a href="../../wp/o/Order_of_the_Garter.htm" title="Order of the Garter">Order of the Garter</a> for the <!--del_lnk--> Banqueting House, Whitehall, for which Rubens had earlier done the huge ceiling paintings (sending them from Antwerp).<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8821.jpg.htm" title="Henrietta Maria and the dwarf, Sir Jeffrey Hudson, 1633"><img alt="Henrietta Maria and the dwarf, Sir Jeffrey Hudson, 1633" class="thumbimage" height="332" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Anthonis_van_Dyck_013.jpg" src="../../images/88/8821.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8821.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Henrietta Maria and the dwarf, <!--del_lnk--> Sir Jeffrey Hudson, 1633</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>A sketch for one wall remains, but by 1638 Charles was too short of money to proceed. This was a problem Velasquez did not have, but equally van Dyck's daily life was not encumbered by trivial court duties as Velasquez's was. In his visits to Paris in his last years van Dyck tried to obtain the commission to paint the <i>Grande Gallerie</i> of the <!--del_lnk--> Louvre without success.<p>A list of history paintings produced by van Dyck in England survives, by Bellori, based on information by <!--del_lnk--> Sir Kenelm Digby; none of these still appear to survive, although the <i>Eros and Psyche</i> done for the King (below) does. But many other works, rather more religious than mythological, do survive, and though they are very fine, they do not reach the heights of Velasquez's history paintings. Earlier ones remain very much within the style of Rubens, although some of his Sicilian works are interestingly individual.<p>Van Dyck's portraits certainly flattered more than Velasquez's; when Sophia, later Electoress of Hanover, first met Queen Henrietta Maria, in exile in Holland in 1641, she wrote: "Van Dyck's handsome portraits had given me so fine an idea of the beauty of all English ladies, that I was surprised to find that the Queen, who looked so fine in painting, was a small woman raised up on her chair, with long skinny arms and teeth like defence works projecting from her mouth..." Some critics have blamed van Dyck for diverting a nascent tougher English portrait tradition, of painters such as <!--del_lnk--> William Dobson, <!--del_lnk--> Robert Walker and <!--del_lnk--> Issac Fuller into what certainly became elegant blandness in the hands of many of van Dyck's successors, like <!--del_lnk--> Lely or <!--del_lnk--> Kneller.<p><a id="Printmaking" name="Printmaking"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Printmaking</span></h2>
<p>Probably during his period in Antwerp after his return from Italy, van Dyck began his <i>Iconography</i>, eventually a very large series of <!--del_lnk--> prints with half-length portraits of eminent contemporaries. Van Dyck produced drawings, and for eighteen of the portraits he himself <!--del_lnk--> etched with great brilliance the heads and the main outlines of the figure, for an <!--del_lnk--> engraver to work up: "Portrait etching had scarcely had an existence before his time, and in his work it suddenly appears at the highest point ever reached in the art" <div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8879.jpg.htm" title="Pieter Brueghel the Younger from the Iconography; etching by Van Dyck (only)"><img alt="Pieter Brueghel the Younger from the Iconography; etching by Van Dyck (only)" class="thumbimage" height="312" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Van_Dyck_Pieter_Brueghel_the_Younger.jpg" src="../../images/88/8879.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8879.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Pieter Brueghel the Younger from the <i>Iconography</i>; etching by Van Dyck (only)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>However for most of the series he left the whole <a href="../../wp/p/Printmaking.htm" title="Printmaking">printmaking</a> work to specialists, who mostly engraved everything after his drawings. His own etched plates appear not to have been published commercially until after his death, and early states are very rare. Most of his plates were printed after only his work had been done; some exist in further <!--del_lnk--> states after engraving had been added, sometimes obscuring his etching. He continued to add to the series until at least his departure for England, and presumably added <!--del_lnk--> Inigo Jones whilst in London.<p>The series was a great success, but was his only venture into printmaking; portraiture probably paid better, and he was constantly in demand. At his death there were eighty plates by others, of which fifty-two were of artists, as well as his own eighteen. The plates were bought by a publisher; with the plates reworked periodically as they wore out they continued to be printed for centuries, and the series added to, so that it reached over two hundred portraits by the late 18th century. In 1851 the plates were bought by the <i>Calcographie du <!--del_lnk--> Louvre</i>.<p>The <i>Iconography</i> was highly influential as a commercial model for reproductive printmaking; now forgotten series of portrait prints were enormously popular until the advent of <a href="../../wp/p/Photography.htm" title="Photography">photography</a>. Van Dyck's brilliant etching style, which depended on open lines and dots, was in marked contrast to that of the other great portraitist in prints of period, <a href="../../wp/r/Rembrandt.htm" title="Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a>, and had little influence until the 19th century, when it had a great influence on artists such as <!--del_lnk--> Whistler in the the last major phase of portrait etching. <p><a id="Studio" name="Studio"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Studio</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/91/9168.jpg.htm" title="This triple portrait of Charles I was sent to Rome for Bernini to model a bust on"><img alt="This triple portrait of Charles I was sent to Rome for Bernini to model a bust on" class="thumbimage" height="196" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Anthonis_van_Dyck_041.jpg" src="../../images/91/9168.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/91/9168.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> This triple portrait of Charles I was sent to Rome for <!--del_lnk--> Bernini to model a bust on</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>His great success compelled van Dyck to maintain a large workshop in London, a studio which was to become "virtually a production line for portraits". He probably only sketched the outlines and painted the heads and hands of many of his later portraits. In his last years these studio collaborations accounted for some decline in the quality of work. In addition many copies untouched by him, or virtually so, were produced by the workshop, as well as by professional copyists and later painters; the number of paintings ascribed to him had by the 19th century become huge, as with <a href="../../wp/r/Rembrandt.htm" title="Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Titian and others. However most of his assistants and copyists could not approach the refinement of his manner, so compared to many masters consensus among <!--del_lnk--> art historians on attributions to him is usually relatively easy to reach, and museum labelling is now mostly updated (<!--del_lnk--> country house attributions may be more dubious in some cases). The relatively few names of his assistants that are known are Flemish; he probably preferred to use trained Flemings, as no English equivalent training yet existed. His enormous influence of English art does not come from a tradition handed down through his pupils; in fact it is not possible to document a connection to his studio for any English painter of any significance.<p><a id="Other_uses_of_van_Dyke" name="Other_uses_of_van_Dyke"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Other uses of van Dyke</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Van Dyck painted many portraits of men, notably Charles I and himself, with the short, pointed beards then in fashion; consequently this particular kind of beard was much later (probably first in America in the 19th century) named a <i>vandyke</i> (which is the anglicized version of his name).<li>During the reign of <!--del_lnk--> George III, a generic "Cavalier" fancy-dress costume called a <i>Van Dyke</i> was popular; <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Gainsborough.htm" title="Thomas Gainsborough">Gainsborough</a>'s 'Blue Boy' is wearing such a <i>Van Dyke</i> outfit.<li>The oil paint pigment <i>van Dyck brown</i> is named after him <!--del_lnk--> , and <!--del_lnk--> Van dyke brown is an early photographic printing process using the same colour.<li>See also several people and places under <!--del_lnk--> Van Dyke, the more common form in English of the same original name.</ul>
<p><a id="Collections" name="Collections"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Collections</span></h2>
<p>Most major museum collections include at least one Van Dyck, but easily the most outstanding collection is the Royal Collection, which still contains many of his paintings of the Royal Family. The <a href="../../wp/n/National_Gallery%252C_London.htm" title="National Gallery, London">National Gallery, London</a> (fourteen works) and the <!--del_lnk--> Frick Collection have splendid examples of all phases of his portrait style.<p><a id="Gallery" name="Gallery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h2>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/95/9504.jpg.htm" title="Image:Anthonis van Dyck Self Portrait.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/95/9504.jpg" width="101" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>"Self Portrait", ca. 1621 <!--del_lnk--> Alte Pinakothek<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/98/9817.jpg.htm" title="Image:Anthonis van Dyck 016.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/98/9817.jpg" width="85" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Elena Grimaldi, Genoa 1623<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/99/9926.jpg.htm" title="Image:Anthonis van Dyck 021.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/99/9926.jpg" width="85" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Marie-Louise de Tassis, Antwerp 1630<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/100/10049.jpg.htm" title="Image:HenriettaMariaofFrance03.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/100/10049.jpg" width="93" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Queen Henrietta Maria, London 1632<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/100/10055.jpg.htm" title="Image:Charles I with M. de St Antoine (1633); Anthony Van Dyck.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/100/10055.jpg" width="88" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Charles I with M. de St Antoine (1633)<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/100/10062.jpg.htm" title="Image:Anthonis van Dyck 027.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/100/10062.jpg" width="68" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>James Stuart, Duke of Richmond, ca. 1637<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 15px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/100/10079.jpg.htm" title="Image:Anthonis van Dyck 001.jpg"><img alt="" height="115" src="../../images/100/10079.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Amor and Psyche, 1638<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/102/10202.jpg.htm" title="Image:George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/102/10202.jpg" width="96" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol, ca. 1638–9<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_van_Dyck"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Flemish people', 'England', 'Charles I of England', 'Guild', 'Peter Paul Rubens', 'James I of England', 'London', 'Italy', 'Rome', 'Genoa', 'France', 'Paris', 'Rembrandt', 'Order of the Garter', 'Printmaking', 'Photography', 'Rembrandt', 'Rembrandt', 'Thomas Gainsborough', 'National Gallery, London'] |
Anthropology | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Anthropology,1906,Age of Enlightenment,Alfred Kroeber,Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown,Algerian War of Independence,American Anthropological Association,American Museum of Natural History,An Essay on the Inequality of Human Races,Ancestry-informative marker,Andaman Islands" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Anthropology</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Anthropology";
var wgTitle = "Anthropology";
var wgArticleId = 569;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Anthropology">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Anthropology</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Peoples.htm">Peoples</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<p><b>Anthropology</b> (from the <!--del_lnk--> Greek word <i><span class="polytonic" lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄνθρωπος</span></i>, "human" or "person") consists of the study of <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Humanity">humanity</a> (see genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Homo</i>). It is <!--del_lnk--> holistic in two senses: it is concerned with all humans at all times and with all dimensions of humanity. In principle, it is concerned with all institutions of all societies. Anthropology is distinguished from other social-science disciplines by its emphasis on <!--del_lnk--> cultural relativity, in-depth examination of context, and <!--del_lnk--> cross-cultural comparisons. Some anthropologists have utilized anthropological knowledge to frame cultural critiques. This has been particularly prominent in America, from the popular attacks on <!--del_lnk--> Victorianism by <!--del_lnk--> Margaret Mead and <!--del_lnk--> Ruth Benedict through contemporary attacks on <!--del_lnk--> post-colonialism under the heading of postmodernism. Anthropology is methodologically diverse using both <!--del_lnk--> qualitative methods and <!--del_lnk--> quantitative methods. <!--del_lnk--> Ethnographies—intensive <!--del_lnk--> case studies based on field research—have historically had a central place in the literature of the discipline.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:332px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/176/17673.jpg.htm" title="Initiation rite of the Yao people of Malawi"><img alt="Initiation rite of the Yao people of Malawi" height="219" longdesc="/wiki/Image:8403452_36f7580a25_o.jpg" src="../../images/3/315.jpg" width="330" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/176/17673.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Initiation rite of the <!--del_lnk--> Yao people of <a href="../../wp/m/Malawi.htm" title="Malawi">Malawi</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Historical_and_institutional_context" name="Historical_and_institutional_context"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Historical and institutional context</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The anthropologist <!--del_lnk--> Eric Wolf once described anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences." Contemporary anthropologists claim a number of earlier thinkers as their forebears, and the discipline has several sources; <a href="../../wp/c/Claude_L%25C3%25A9vi-Strauss.htm" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a>, for example, claimed <!--del_lnk--> Montaigne and <!--del_lnk--> Rousseau as important influences. Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the <a href="../../wp/a/Age_of_Enlightenment.htm" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, a period when Europeans attempted systematically to study human behaviour. The traditions of <!--del_lnk--> jurisprudence, <a href="../../wp/h/History.htm" title="History">history</a>, <!--del_lnk--> philology, and <a href="../../wp/s/Sociology.htm" title="Sociology">sociology</a> then evolved into something more closely resembling the modern views of these disciplines and informed the development of the <!--del_lnk--> social sciences, of which anthropology was a part. At the same time, the <a href="../../wp/r/Romanticism.htm" title="Romanticism">romantic</a> reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers, such as <!--del_lnk--> Johann Gottfried Herder and later <!--del_lnk--> Wilhelm Dilthey, whose work formed the basis for the "culture concept," which is central to the discipline.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/316.jpg.htm" title="Table of natural history, 1728 Cyclopaedia"><img alt="Table of natural history, 1728 Cyclopaedia" height="322" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Table_of_Natural_History%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg" src="../../images/3/316.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/316.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Table of natural history, 1728 <i><!--del_lnk--> Cyclopaedia</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Institutionally, anthropology emerged from the development of <!--del_lnk--> natural history (expounded by authors such as <!--del_lnk--> Buffon) that occurred during the European colonization of the 17th, 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. Programs of ethnographic study have their origins in this era as the study of the "human primitives" overseen by colonial administrations. There was a tendency in late 18th century Enlightenment thought to understand human society as natural phenomena that behaved in accordance with certain principles and that could be observed empirically. In some ways, studying the language, culture, physiology, and artifacts of European colonies was not unlike studying the flora and fauna of those places. Some critics point to the fact that the material culture of "<a href="../../wp/c/Civilization.htm" title="Civilization">civilized</a>" nations such as <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> have historically been displayed in fine-art museums alongside European art, while artifacts from African and Native North American cultures were displayed in Natural History Museums, alongside dinosaur bones and nature dioramas. The <!--del_lnk--> British Museum or the Parisian <!--del_lnk--> Musée de l'Homme are examples of such museums—the Musée de l'Homme held the "<!--del_lnk--> Hottentot Venus" remains until the 1970s. Saartje Baartman, a <!--del_lnk--> Namaqua woman, was examined by anatomist <!--del_lnk--> Georges Cuvier. This being said, curatorial practice has changed dramatically in recent years, and it would be inaccurate to see anthropology as merely an extension of colonial rule and European <!--del_lnk--> chauvinism, since its relationship to <!--del_lnk--> imperialism was and is complex. <p>Anthropology grew increasingly distinct from natural history, and by the end of the nineteenth century, it had begun to crystallize into its modern form; by 1935, for example, it was possible for T. K. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled "A Hundred Years of Anthropology." Early anthropology was dominated by proponents of <!--del_lnk--> unilinealism, who argued that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process, from the most primitive to the most advanced. Non-European societies were thus seen as evolutionary "living fossils," which could be studied in order to understand the European past. Scholars wrote histories of prehistoric migrations that were sometimes valuable but often also fanciful. It was during this time that Europeans, such as <!--del_lnk--> Paul Rivet, first accurately traced <!--del_lnk--> Polynesian migrations across the <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>—though some of them believed those emigrations had originated in <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. Finally, concepts of <a href="../../wp/r/Race.htm" title="Race">race</a> were developed with a view to better understanding the nature of the biological variation within the Human species, and tools such as <!--del_lnk--> Anthropometry were devised as a means of measuring and categorizing this variation, not just within the genus Homo, but in fossil <!--del_lnk--> Hominids and primates as well. <!--del_lnk--> Racialistic concepts were advocated by a few and gave rise to theories of <!--del_lnk--> Scientific racism.<p><!--del_lnk--> Anténor Firmin wrote <i>De l'égalité des races humaines</i> (1885) as a direct rebuttal to Count Arthur de Gobineau’s polemical four-volume work <i>Essai sur l'inegalite des Races Humaines</i> (1853–1855), which asserted the superiority of the Aryan race and the inferiority of blacks and other people of color. Firmin’s work argued the opposite, that "all men are endowed with the same qualities and the same faults, without distinction of colour or anatomical form. The races are equal" (pp. 450). Firmin grew up in <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>, and was admitted to the Societé d’ Anthropologie de Paris in 1884 while serving as a diplomat. His persuasive critique and rigorous analysis of many of that society’s leading scholars made him an early pioneer in the so-called vindicationist struggle in anthropology. Many scholars also associate his work with the very first ideas of <!--del_lnk--> Pan-Africanism. Many modern anthropologists no longer refer to races as biological realities and may instead refer to the idea of <!--del_lnk--> clines.<p>In the twentieth century, academic disciplines began to organize around three main domains. The domain of the <i><!--del_lnk--> sciences</i> seeks to derive natural laws through reproducible and falsifiable experiments; that of the <i><a href="../../wp/h/Humanities.htm" title="Humanities">humanities</a></i> reflects an attempt to study different national traditions, in the form of <a href="../../wp/h/History.htm" title="History">history</a> and the <a href="../../wp/a/Art.htm" title="Art">arts</a>, as an attempt to provide people in emerging nation-states with a sense of coherence; the <i><!--del_lnk--> social sciences</i> emerged at this time as an attempt to develop scientific methods to address social phenomena and provide a universal basis for social knowledge. Anthropology does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains.<p>Drawing on the methods of the <!--del_lnk--> natural sciences and developing new techniques involving not only structured interviews, but unstructured <i>participant observation,</i> and drawing on the new <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Theory of evolution">theory of evolution</a> through <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_selection.htm" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, the branches of anthropology proposed the scientific study of a new object: humankind, conceived of as a whole. Crucial to this study is the concept of <i>culture,</i> which anthropologists defined both as a universal capacity and a propensity for social learning, thinking, and acting (which they saw as a product of human evolution and something that distinguishes <i><a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i>—and perhaps all species of genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Homo</i>—from other species), and as a particular adaptation to local conditions, which takes the form of highly variable beliefs and practices. Thus, culture not only transcends the opposition between nature and nurture, but absorbs the peculiarly European distinction among politics, religion, kinship, and the economy as autonomous domains. Anthropology thus transcends the divisions between the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities to explore the biological, linguistic, material, and symbolic dimensions of humankind in all forms.<p><a id="Anthropology_in_the_United_States" name="Anthropology_in_the_United_States"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Anthropology in the United States</span></h2>
<p><a id="Jacksonian_America_and_polygenism" name="Jacksonian_America_and_polygenism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Jacksonian America and polygenism</span></h3>
<p>Late eighteenth century ethnology established the scientific foundation for the field, which began to mature when <a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Jackson.htm" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> was President of the United States (1829-1837). Jackson was responsible for implementing the <!--del_lnk--> Indian Removal Act, the coerced and forced removal of an estimated 100,000 American Indians during the 1830s to Indian Territory in present-day <!--del_lnk--> Oklahoma; for insuring that the franchise was extended to all white men, irrespective of financial means while denying virtually all black men the right to vote; and, for suppressing abolitionists’ efforts to end slavery while vigorously defending that institution. Finally, he was responsible for appointing Chief Justice Roger B. Taney who would decide, in Scott v. Sandford (1857), that Negroes were “beings of an inferior order, and altogether unfit to associate with the white race. . . and so far inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect.” As a result of this decision, black people, whether free or enslaved, could never become citizens of the United States.<p>It was in this context that the so-called American School of Anthropology thrived as the champion of polygenism or the doctrine of multiple origins—sparking a debate between those influenced by the Bible who believed in the unity of humanity and those who argued from a scientific standpoint for the plurality of origins and the antiquity of distinct types. Like the monogenists, these theories were not monolithic and often used words like races, species, hybrid, and mongrel interchangeably. A scientific consensus began to emerge during this period “that there exists a Genus Homo, embracing many primordial types of ‘species.’” Charles Caldwell, <!--del_lnk--> Samuel George Morton, Samuel A. Cartwright, George Gliddon, Josiah C. Nott, and <!--del_lnk--> Louis Agassiz, and even <!--del_lnk--> South Carolina Governor James Henry Hammond were all influential proponents of this school. While some were disinterested scientists, others were passionate advocates who used science to promote slavery in a period of increasing sectional strife. All were complicit in establishing the putative science that justified slavery, informed the <!--del_lnk--> Dred Scott decision, underpinned miscegenation laws, and eventually fueled <!--del_lnk--> Jim Crow. Samuel G. Morton, for example, claimed to be just a scientist but he did not hesitate to provide evidence of Negro inferiority to <!--del_lnk--> John C. Calhoun, the prominent pro-slavery Secretary of State to help him negotiate the annexation of <!--del_lnk--> Texas as a slave state.<p><a id="Types_of_Mankind.2C_1854" name="Types_of_Mankind.2C_1854"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Types of Mankind, 1854</span></h3>
<p>The high-water mark of polygenitic theories was Josiah Nott and Gliddon’s voluminous eight-hundred page tome entitled <i>Types of Mankind</i>, published in 1854. Reproducing the work of Louis Agassiz and Samuel Morton, the authors spread the virulent and explicitly racist views to a wider, more popular audience. The first printing sold out quickly and by the end of the century it had undergone nine editions. Although many Southerners felt that all the justification for slavery they needed was found in the Bible, others used the new science to defend slavery and the repression of American Indians. Abolitionists, however, felt they had to take this science on on its own terms. And for the first time, African American intellectuals waded into the contentious debate. In the immediate wake of <i>Types of Mankind</i> and during the pitched political battles that led to Civil War, <a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_Douglass.htm" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> (1818-1895), the statesman and persuasive abolitionist, directly attacked the leading theorists of the American School of Anthropology. In an 1854 address, entitled “The Claims of the Negro Ethnologically Considered,” Douglass argued that "by making the enslaved a character fit only for slavery, [slaveowners] excuse themselves for refusing to make the slave a freeman.... For let it be once granted that the human race are of multitudinous origin, naturally different in their moral, physical, and intellectual capacities... a chance is left for slavery, as a necessary institution.... There is no doubt that Messrs. Nott, Glidden, Morton, Smith and Agassiz were duly consulted by our slavery propagating statesmen" (p. 287).<p><a id="Boasian_anthropology" name="Boasian_anthropology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Boasian anthropology</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/317.jpg.htm" title="Franz Boas, one of the pioneers of modern anthropology, often called the "Father of American Anthropology""><img alt="Franz Boas, one of the pioneers of modern anthropology, often called the "Father of American Anthropology"" height="235" longdesc="/wiki/Image:FranzBoas.jpg" src="../../images/3/317.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/317.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Franz Boas, one of the pioneers of modern anthropology, often called the "Father of American Anthropology"</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Cultural anthropology in the United States was influenced greatly by the ready availability of Native American societies as ethnographic subjects. The field was pioneered by staff of the <!--del_lnk--> Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Smithsonian Institution's <!--del_lnk--> Bureau of American Ethnology, men such as <!--del_lnk--> John Wesley Powell and <!--del_lnk--> Frank Hamilton Cushing. <!--del_lnk--> Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881), a lawyer from <!--del_lnk--> Rochester, New York, became an advocate for and ethnological scholar of the <!--del_lnk--> Iroquois. His comparative analyses of religion, government, material culture, and especially kinship patterns proved to be influential contributions to the field of anthropology. Like other scholars of his day (such as <!--del_lnk--> Edward Tylor), Morgan argued that human societies could be classified into categories of cultural evolution on a scale of progression that ranged from <i>savagery</i>, to <i>barbarism</i>, to <i>civilization</i>. Generally, Morgan used technology (such as bowmaking or pottery) as an indicator of position on this scale.<p><!--del_lnk--> Franz Boas established academic anthropology in the United States in opposition to this sort of evolutionary perspective. Boasian anthropology was politically active and suspicious of research dictated by the U.S. government and wealthy patrons. It was rigorously empirical and skeptical of overgeneralizations and attempts to establish universal laws. Boas studied immigrant children to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable, and that human conduct and behaviour resulted from nurture, rather than nature.<p>Influenced by the German tradition, Boas argued that the world was full of distinct <i>cultures,</i> rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little "civilization" they had. He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the <!--del_lnk--> natural sciences, were not possible. In doing so, he fought discrimination against immigrants, African Americans, and Native North Americans. Many American anthropologists adopted his agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular targets for anthropologists today. The so-called "Four Field Approach" has its origins in Boasian Anthropology, dividing the discipline in the four crucial and interrelated fields of sociocultural, biological, linguistic, and prehistoric anthropology.<p>Boas used his positions at <!--del_lnk--> Columbia University and the <!--del_lnk--> American Museum of Natural History to train and develop multiple generations of students. His first generation of students included <!--del_lnk--> Alfred Kroeber, <!--del_lnk--> Robert Lowie, <!--del_lnk--> Edward Sapir and <!--del_lnk--> Ruth Benedict, all of whom produced richly detailed studies of indigenous North American cultures. They provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process. Kroeber and Sapir's focus on Native American languages helped establish <a href="../../wp/l/Linguistics.htm" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on <!--del_lnk--> Indo-European languages.<p>The publication of <!--del_lnk--> Alfred Kroeber's textbook, <i>Anthropology,</i> marked a turning point in American anthropology. After three decades of amassing material, Boasians felt a growing urge to generalize. This was most obvious in the 'Culture and Personality' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as <!--del_lnk--> Margaret Mead and <!--del_lnk--> Ruth Benedict. Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists such as <a href="../../wp/s/Sigmund_Freud.htm" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Carl_Jung.htm" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a>, these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up. Though such works as <i>Coming of Age in Samoa</i> and <i>The Chrysanthemum and the Sword</i> remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined by <!--del_lnk--> Ralph Linton, and Mead was limited to her offices at the <!--del_lnk--> AMNH.<p><a id="Anthropology_in_Britain" name="Anthropology_in_Britain"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Anthropology in Britain</span></h2>
<p>Whereas Boas picked his opponents to pieces through attention to detail, modern anthropology in Britain was formed by rejecting historical reconstruction in the name of a science of society that focused on analyzing how societies held together in the present.<p>The two most important scholars in this tradition were <!--del_lnk--> Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown and <!--del_lnk--> Bronislaw Malinowski, both of whom released seminal works in 1922. Radcliffe-Brown's initial fieldwork, in the <!--del_lnk--> Andaman Islands, was carried out in the old style of historical reconstruction. After reading the work of French sociologists <!--del_lnk--> Émile Durkheim and <!--del_lnk--> Marcel Mauss, Radcliffe-Brown published an account of his research (entitled simply <i>The Andaman Islanders</i>) that paid close attention to the meaning and purpose of rituals and myths. Over time, he developed an approach known as <!--del_lnk--> structural-functionalism, which focused on how institutions in societies worked to balance out or create an equilibrium in the social system to keep it functioning harmoniously. <!--del_lnk--> Malinowski, in contrast, advocated an unhyphenated <!--del_lnk--> functionalism, which examined how society functioned to meet individual needs. He is better known, however, for his detailed <!--del_lnk--> ethnography and advances in methodology. His classic ethnography, <i>Argonauts of the Western Pacific,</i> advocated getting "the native's point of view" and an approach to fieldwork that became standard in the field.<p>Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown's influence stemmed from the fact that they, like Boas, actively trained students and aggressively built up institutions that furthered their programmatic ambitions. This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for "Social Anthropology" by teaching at universities across the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth. From the late 1930s until the postwar period appeared a string of monographs and edited volumes that cemented the paradigm of British Social Anthropology. Famous ethnographies include <i>The Nuer,</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard, and <i>The Dynamics of Clanship Among the Tallensi,</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Meyer Fortes; well-known edited volumes include <i>African Systems of Kinship and Marriage</i> and <i>African Political Systems.</i> Contemporary <!--del_lnk--> social anthropology is international and has branched in many directions.<p><a id="Anthropology_in_France" name="Anthropology_in_France"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Anthropology in France</span></h2>
<p>Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions. Most commentators consider <!--del_lnk--> Marcel Mauss to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss was a member of <!--del_lnk--> Durkheim's <!--del_lnk--> Année Sociologique group, and while Durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as <!--del_lnk--> Henri Hubert and <!--del_lnk--> Robert Hertz) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies which were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states. In particular, Mauss's <i><!--del_lnk--> Essay on the Gift</i> was to prove of enduring relevance in anthropological studies of <!--del_lnk--> exchange and <!--del_lnk--> reciprocity.<p>Throughout the interwar years, French interest in anthropology often dovetailed with wider cultural movements such as <!--del_lnk--> surrealism and <!--del_lnk--> primitivism which drew on ethnography for inspiration. <!--del_lnk--> Marcel Griaule and <!--del_lnk--> Michel Leiris are examples of people who combined anthropology with the French avant-garde. During this time most of what is known as <i>ethnologie</i> was restricted to museums, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Musée de l'Homme founded by <!--del_lnk--> Paul Rivet, and anthropology had a close relationship with studies of <a href="../../wp/f/Folklore.htm" title="Folklore">folklore</a>.<p>Above all, however, it was <a href="../../wp/c/Claude_L%25C3%25A9vi-Strauss.htm" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a> who helped institutionalize anthropology in France. In addition to the enormous influence his <!--del_lnk--> structuralism exerted across multiple disciplines, Lévi-Strauss established ties with American and British anthropologists. At the same time he established centers and laboratories within France to provide an institutional context within anthropology while training influential students such as <!--del_lnk--> Maurice Godelier and <!--del_lnk--> Françoise Héritier who would prove influential in the world of French anthropology. Much of the distinct character of France's anthropology today is a result of the fact that most anthropology is carried out in nationally funded research laboratories (<!--del_lnk--> CNRS) rather than academic departments in universities.<p>Other influential writers in the 1970s include <!--del_lnk--> Pierre Clastres, who explains in his books on the <!--del_lnk--> Guayaki tribe in <a href="../../wp/p/Paraguay.htm" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a> that "primitive societies" actively oppose the institution of the <!--del_lnk--> state. Therefore, these stateless societies are not less evolved than societies with states, but took the active choice of conjuring the institution of <!--del_lnk--> authority as a separate function from society. The <!--del_lnk--> leader is only a spokeperson for the group when it has to deal with other groups ("international relations") but has no inside authority, and may be violently removed if he attempts to abuse this position.<p><a id="Anthropology_after_World_War_II" name="Anthropology_after_World_War_II"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Anthropology after World War II</span></h2>
<p>Before <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">WWII</a> British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. It was after the war that the two would blend to create a 'sociocultural' anthropology.<p>In the 1950s and mid-1960s anthropology tended increasingly to model itself after the <!--del_lnk--> natural sciences. Some anthropologists, such as <!--del_lnk--> Lloyd Fallers and <!--del_lnk--> Clifford Geertz, focused on processes of modernization by which newly independent states could develop. Others, such as <!--del_lnk--> Julian Steward and <!--del_lnk--> Leslie White, focused on how societies evolve and fit their ecological niche —— an approach popularized by <!--del_lnk--> Marvin Harris. <!--del_lnk--> Economic anthropology as influenced by <!--del_lnk--> Karl Polanyi and practiced by <!--del_lnk--> Marshall Sahlins and <!--del_lnk--> George Dalton focused on how traditional <a href="../../wp/e/Economics.htm" title="Economics">economics</a> ignored cultural and social factors. In England, British Social Anthropology's paradigm began to fragment as <!--del_lnk--> Max Gluckman and <!--del_lnk--> Peter Worsley experimented with Marxism and authors such as <!--del_lnk--> Rodney Needham and <!--del_lnk--> Edmund Leach incorporated Lévi-Strauss's structuralism into their work.<p>Structuralism also influenced a number of developments in 1960s and 1970s, including <!--del_lnk--> cognitive anthropology and componential analysis. Authors such as <!--del_lnk--> David Schneider, <!--del_lnk--> Clifford Geertz, and <!--del_lnk--> Marshall Sahlins developed a more fleshed-out concept of culture as a web of meaning or signification, which proved very popular within and beyond the discipline. In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the <!--del_lnk--> Algerian War of Independence and opposition to the <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_War.htm" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>; <a href="../../wp/m/Marxism.htm" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> became a more and more popular theoretical approach in the discipline. By the 1970s the authors of volumes such as <i>Reinventing Anthropology</i> worried about anthropology's relevance.<p>In the 1980s issues of power, such as those examined in <!--del_lnk--> Eric Wolf's <i>Europe and the People Without History</i>, were central to the discipline. Books like <i>Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter</i> pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as <!--del_lnk--> Antonio Gramsci and <!--del_lnk--> Michel Foucault moved issues of power and hegemony into the spotlight. Gender and sexuality became a popular topic, as did the relationship between history and anthropology, influenced by <!--del_lnk--> Marshall Sahlins (again), who drew on <a href="../../wp/c/Claude_L%25C3%25A9vi-Strauss.htm" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Fernand Braudel to examine the relationship between social structure and individual agency.<p>In the late 1980s and 1990s authors such as <!--del_lnk--> George Marcus and <!--del_lnk--> James Clifford pondered ethnographic authority, particularly how and why anthropological knowledge was possible and authoritative. Ethnographies became more reflexive, explicitly addressing the author's methodology and cultural positioning, and their influence on his or her ethnographic analysis. This was part of a more general trend of <!--del_lnk--> postmodernism that was popular contemporaneously. Currently anthropologists have begun to pay attention to <a href="../../wp/g/Globalization.htm" title="Globalization">globalization</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Biotechnology.htm" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>, <!--del_lnk--> indigenous rights, and the anthropology of industrialized societies.<p><a id="Politics_of_anthropology" name="Politics_of_anthropology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics of anthropology</span></h2>
<p>American cultural anthropology developed during the first four decades of the 20th century under the powerful influence of Franz Boas and his students and their struggle against racial determinism and the ethnocentrism of 19th century cultural evolutionism. With the additional impact of the Great Depression and World War II, American anthropology developed a pronounced liberal-left tone by the 1950s. However, the discipline's deep involvement with nonwestern cultures put it in a vulnerable position during the campus upheavals of the late 1960s and in the subsequent "culture wars." The "politics of anthropology" has become a pervasive concern since then. Whatever the realities, the notion of anthropology as somehow complicit in morally unacceptable projects has become a significant topic both within the discipline and in "cultural studies" and "post-colonialism," etc. A few of the central elements in this discourse are the following:<ul>
<li>The claim that the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derived some of its key notions from it, consciously or not. (See, for example, Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004). It is often assumed that an example of this exploitative relationship can be seen in the relationship between British anthropologists and colonial forces in Africa, yet this assumption has not been supported by much evidence. (See Asad et al; cf. Desai.)</ul>
<ul>
<li>The idea that social and political problems must arise because anthropologists usually have more power than the people they study; it is a form of colonialist theft in which the anthropologist gains power at the expense of subjects (Rabinow, Dwyer, McGrane). Anthropologists, they argue, can gain yet more power by exploiting knowledge and artifacts of the people they study while the people they study gain nothing, or even lose, in the exchange (for example, Deloria). Little critical writing has been published in response to these wide-ranging claims, themselves the product of the political concerns and atmosphere of their own times. (See Trencher for a critique.)</ul>
<ul>
<li>It is claimed the discipline was ahistorical, and dealt with its "objects" (sic) "out of time," to their detriment (Fabian). It is often claimed that anthropologists regularly "exoticized 'the Other,'" or, with equal assurance, that they inappropriately universalized "Others" and "human nature." (For references and a response see Lewis 1998.)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Other more explicitly political concerns have to do with anthropologists’ entanglements with government intelligence agencies, on the one hand, and anti-war politics on the other. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists. But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the "Axis" (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan). Many served in the armed forces but others worked in intelligence (for example, Office of Strategic Services [OSS} and the Office of War Information). David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists for their vocal left-wing sympathies. On the other hand, attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little. (Anthropologists did not participate in the stillborn Project Camelot, for example. See Lewis 2005) On the contrary, many anthropologists (students and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement and a great many resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the <!--del_lnk--> American Anthropological Association (AAA). In the decades since the Vietnam war the tone of cultural and social anthropology, at least, has been increasingly politicized, with the dominant liberal tone of earlier generations replaced with one more radical, a mix of, and varying degrees of, Marxist, feminist, post-colonial, post-modern, Saidian, Foucaultian, identity-based, and more.</ul>
<p>Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the <!--del_lnk--> state. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The British Association for Social Anthropology has called certain scholarships ethically dangerous. The AAA's current 'Statement of Professional Responsibility' clearly states that "in relation with their own government and with host governments... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given."<p>More recently, there have been concerns expressed about bioprospecting, along with struggles for self-representation for native peoples and the repatriation of indigenous remains and material culture, with anthropologists often in the lead on these issues.<p>Other political controversies come from the emphasis in American anthropology on cultural relativism and its long-standing antipathy to the concept of race. The development of <!--del_lnk--> sociobiology in the late 1960s was opposed by cultural anthropologists such as <!--del_lnk--> Marshall Sahlins, who argued that these positions were reductive. While authors such John Randal Baker continued to develop the biological concept of race into the 1970s, the rise of genetics has proven to be central to developments on this front. As genetics continues to advance as a science some anthropologists such as Luca <!--del_lnk--> Cavalli-Sforza have continued to transform and advance notions of race through the use of recent developments in <a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, such as tracing past migrations of peoples through their <!--del_lnk--> mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal <a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" title="DNA">DNA</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> ancestry-informative markers.<p><a id="Branches_of_anthropology" name="Branches_of_anthropology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Branches of anthropology</span></h2>
<p>In <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>, anthropology is traditionally divided into four sub-disciplines:<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Physical anthropology</b>, or <!--del_lnk--> biological anthropology, which studies <!--del_lnk--> primate behaviour, <!--del_lnk--> human evolution, <!--del_lnk--> osteology, <!--del_lnk--> forensics, and <!--del_lnk--> population genetics;<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Cultural anthropology</b> (called <!--del_lnk--> social anthropology and now often known as <!--del_lnk--> socio-cultural anthropology in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, and both terms are used in <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> with limited distinction), which studies social networks, <!--del_lnk--> diffusion, social behaviour, <!--del_lnk--> kinship patterns, law, politics, <!--del_lnk--> ideology, religion, beliefs, patterns in production and consumption, exchange, socialization, gender, and other expressions of culture, with strong emphasis on the importance of <!--del_lnk--> fieldwork or participant observation (that is, living among the social group being studied for an extended period of time);<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Linguistic anthropology</b>, which studies variation in <a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" title="Language">language</a> across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture, and<li><b><a href="../../wp/a/Archaeology.htm" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></b>, which studies the material remains of human <a href="../../wp/s/Society.htm" title="Society">societies</a>. Archaeology itself is normally treated as a separate (but related) field in the rest of the world, although closely related to the anthropological field of <!--del_lnk--> material culture, which deals with physical objects created or used within a living or past group as a means of understanding its cultural values.</ul>
<p>More recently, some anthropology programs began dividing the field into two, one emphasizing the <a href="../../wp/h/Humanities.htm" title="Humanities">humanities</a> and <!--del_lnk--> critical theory, the other emphasizing the <!--del_lnk--> natural sciences and <a href="../../wp/e/Empiricism.htm" title="Empiricism">empirical observation</a>.<p><a id="Anthropological_fields_and_subfields" name="Anthropological_fields_and_subfields"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Anthropological fields and subfields</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Biological anthropology (also <!--del_lnk--> physical anthropology) <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Forensic anthropology<li><!--del_lnk--> Paleoethnobotany<li><!--del_lnk--> Paleopathology<li><!--del_lnk--> Medical anthropology<li><!--del_lnk--> Primatology<li><!--del_lnk--> Paleoanthropology<li><!--del_lnk--> Osteology</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Cultural anthropology (also <!--del_lnk--> social anthropology) <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Anthropology of art<li><!--del_lnk--> Anthropology of law<li><!--del_lnk--> Anthropology of media<li><!--del_lnk--> Anthropology of religion<li><!--del_lnk--> Applied anthropology<li><!--del_lnk--> Cross-cultural studies<li><!--del_lnk--> Cyber anthropology<li><!--del_lnk--> Development anthropology<li><!--del_lnk--> Dual inheritance theory<li><!--del_lnk--> Environmental anthropology<li><!--del_lnk--> Economic anthropology<li><!--del_lnk--> Ecological anthropology<li><!--del_lnk--> Ethnography<li><!--del_lnk--> Ethnomusicology<li><!--del_lnk--> Feminist anthropology<li><a href="../../wp/g/Gender.htm" title="Gender">Gender</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Human behavioural ecology<li><!--del_lnk--> Medical anthropology<li><!--del_lnk--> Psychological anthropology<li><!--del_lnk--> Political anthropology<li><!--del_lnk--> Public anthropology<li><!--del_lnk--> Symbolic anthropology<li><!--del_lnk--> Urban anthropology<li><!--del_lnk--> Visual anthropology</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Linguistic anthropology<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Synchronic linguistics (or descriptive linguistics)<li><!--del_lnk--> Diachronic linguistics (or <!--del_lnk--> historical linguistics)<li><!--del_lnk--> Ethnolinguistics<li><!--del_lnk--> Sociolinguistics</ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/a/Archaeology.htm" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Historical archaeology<li><!--del_lnk--> Zooarchaeology</ul>
</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Humanity', 'Malawi', 'Claude Lévi-Strauss', 'Age of Enlightenment', 'History', 'Sociology', 'Romanticism', 'Civilization', 'China', 'Pacific Ocean', 'Egypt', 'Race', 'Haiti', 'Humanities', 'History', 'Art', 'Theory of evolution', 'Natural selection', 'Homo sapiens', 'Andrew Jackson', 'Frederick Douglass', 'Linguistics', 'Sigmund Freud', 'Carl Jung', 'Folklore', 'Claude Lévi-Strauss', 'Paraguay', 'World War II', 'Economics', 'Vietnam War', 'Marxism', 'Claude Lévi-Strauss', 'Globalization', 'Medicine', 'Biotechnology', 'World War I', 'Genetics', 'DNA', 'North America', 'United Kingdom', 'Canada', 'Language', 'Archaeology', 'Society', 'Humanities', 'Empiricism', 'Gender', 'Archaeology'] |
Antigua_and_Barbuda | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Antigua and Barbuda,Caricom,West Indies,Commonwealth Realms,Commonwealth Realms,West Indies,Caricom,.ag,1981,1 E8 m²,2007 Cricket World Cup" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Antigua and Barbuda</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Antigua_and_Barbuda";
var wgTitle = "Antigua and Barbuda";
var wgArticleId = 951;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Antigua_and_Barbuda">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Antigua and Barbuda</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Central_and_South_American_Geography.Central_and_South_American_Countries.htm">Central & South American Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox geography" style="width:23em;">
<tr>
<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><b>Antigua and Barbuda</b></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
<table style="margin:0 auto; background:none; text-align:center;" width="100%">
<tr>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/70/7006.png.htm" title="Flag of Antigua and Barbuda"><img alt="Flag of Antigua and Barbuda" height="83" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda.svg" src="../../images/159/15972.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/159/15973.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Antigua and Barbuda"><img alt="Coat of arms of Antigua and Barbuda" height="105" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antigua_and_barbuda_coa.png" src="../../images/159/15973.png" width="85" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: <i>Each Endeavouring, All Achieving</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <i><!--del_lnk--> Fair Antigua, We Salute Thee</i><br /><!--del_lnk--> Royal anthem: <i><!--del_lnk--> God Save the Queen</i><sup>1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/159/15974.png.htm" title="Location of Antigua and Barbuda"><img alt="Location of Antigua and Barbuda" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationAntiguaAndBarbuda.png" src="../../images/159/15974.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Capital</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> (and largest city)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Saint John's<br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 17°7′N 61°51′W</span></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> Federal const. monarchy</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Head of State</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">Elizabeth II</a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Governor-General</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> James Carlisle</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Baldwin Spencer</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Independence</th>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - From the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1981 </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 442 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 198th)<br /> 171 sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>negligible</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - 2005 estimate</td>
<td>81,479 (<!--del_lnk--> 197th)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>184/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 57)<br /> 394/sq mi</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2005 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> US$750 million (<!--del_lnk--> 170th)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Per capita</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> US$11,523 (<!--del_lnk--> 59th)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2005)</th>
<td>0.797 (<font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>) (<!--del_lnk--> 60)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> East Caribbean dollar (<code><!--del_lnk--> XCD</code>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td>AST (<!--del_lnk--> UTC-4)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</td>
<td>ADT (<!--del_lnk--> UTC-3)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .ag</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+Area code 268</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><small><sup>1</sup> <i>God Save The Queen</i> is officially a national anthem but is generally used only on regal and vice-regal occasions.</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Antigua and Barbuda</b> is an <!--del_lnk--> island nation located in the eastern <a href="../../wp/c/Caribbean_Sea.htm" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a> on the boundary with the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Antigua (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ænˈtiːgə]</span>) and <!--del_lnk--> Barbuda (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[bɑrˈbjuːdə]</span>) are located in the middle of the <!--del_lnk--> Leeward Islands in the Eastern <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean, roughly 17 degrees north of the equator. Antigua and Barbuda are part of the <!--del_lnk--> Lesser Antilles <!--del_lnk--> archipelago with the islands of <a href="../../wp/g/Guadeloupe.htm" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a>, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent & the Grenadines, Barbados, Grenada, Trinidad and Tobago to the south, <a href="../../wp/m/Montserrat.htm" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a> to the southwest, <a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis.htm" title="Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a> to the west and <!--del_lnk--> Saint Barthélemy, <!--del_lnk--> Saint Martin and Anguilla to the northwest.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Pre-ceramic <!--del_lnk--> Amerindians were the first to inhabit the islands of Antigua and <!--del_lnk--> Barbuda in <!--del_lnk--> 2400 BC. Later <!--del_lnk--> Arawak and <!--del_lnk--> Carib <!--del_lnk--> Amerindian tribes populated the islands. The island of Antigua was originally named Wadadli by the natives. <a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Columbus.htm" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> landed on his second voyage in 1493 and gave the island the name Antigua. Early settlements by the <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spanish</a> and <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> were succeeded by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">English</a> who formed a <!--del_lnk--> colony in 1667 by transporting <!--del_lnk--> Irish Catholic slaves to Antigua. <a href="../../wp/s/Slavery.htm" title="Slavery">Slavery</a>, established to run the <a href="../../wp/s/Sugar.htm" title="Sugar">sugar</a> plantations on Antigua, was abolished in 1834.<p>The islands became an independent state within the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Nations on <!--del_lnk--> 1 November <!--del_lnk--> 1981, and <!--del_lnk--> Vere Bird became the first <!--del_lnk--> prime minister.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
<p>Politics of Antigua and Barbuda takes place in a framework of a <!--del_lnk--> federal <a href="../../wp/p/Parliamentary_system.htm" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary</a> <!--del_lnk--> representative democratic <a href="../../wp/m/Monarchy.htm" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a>, whereby the <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister is the <!--del_lnk--> head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. <!--del_lnk--> Executive power is exercised by the government. <!--del_lnk--> Legislative power is vested in both the <a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">government</a> and the two chambers of the <!--del_lnk--> Parliament. The <!--del_lnk--> Bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (17-member body appointed by the governor general) and the House of Representatives (17 seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve five-year terms). The last elections held were on 23 March 2004 for the House of Representatives (next to be held in 2009). The <!--del_lnk--> Antigua Labour Party got 4 seats, while the <!--del_lnk--> United Progressive Party got 13.<p><a id="Government" name="Government"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Government</span></h3>
<p>Since 1949 the party system had been dominated by the <!--del_lnk--> personalist <!--del_lnk--> Antigua Labour Party. However the <!--del_lnk--> Antigua and Barbuda legislative election, 2004, saw the defeat of the longest-serving elected government in the Caribbean. The Prime Minister, <!--del_lnk--> Lester Bird, had been in office since 1994, when he succeeded his father, <!--del_lnk--> Vere Bird. The elder Bird had been Prime Minister from independence in 1981, and before independence had been Chief Minister of Antigua from 1960, except for the period 1971-76.<p><a id="Structure" name="Structure"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Structure</span></h3>
<p>The Head of State is the <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">Queen</a>, who is represented by the <!--del_lnk--> Governor-General. A Council of Ministers is appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister. The Judicial Branch is the <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court (based in Saint Lucia; one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the <!--del_lnk--> Court of Summary Jurisdiction). Antigua is also a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean Court of Justice. The <!--del_lnk--> Supreme Court of Appeal was the British <!--del_lnk--> Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, up until 2001, when the nations of the Caribbean Community voted to abolish the right of appeal to the <!--del_lnk--> Privy Council in favour of a Caribbean Court of Justice. Some debate between member countries had repeatedly delayed the court's date of inauguration. As of March, 2005, only Barbados was set to replace the process of appeals of Her Majesty in Council with the Caribbean Court of Justice which then had come into operation.<p><a id="Administrative_divisions" name="Administrative_divisions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administrative divisions</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The island of Antigua is divided into six <!--del_lnk--> parishes:-<table>
<tr>
<td>
<ul>
<li><small>1</small> <!--del_lnk--> Saint George (4,473)<li><small>2</small> <!--del_lnk--> Saint John (14,121)<li><small>3</small> <!--del_lnk--> Saint Mary (5,303)</ul>
</td>
<td>
<ul>
<li><small>4</small> <!--del_lnk--> Saint Paul (6,117)<li><small>5</small> <!--del_lnk--> Saint Peter (3,622)<li><small>6</small> <!--del_lnk--> Saint Philip (2,964)</ul>
</td>
<td>
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/159/15975.png.htm" title="The Parishes of Antigua"><img alt="The Parishes of Antigua" height="148" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antigua_parishes_numbered.png" src="../../images/159/15975.png" width="200" /></a></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The island of <!--del_lnk--> Barbuda (1,241) and the uninhabited island of <!--del_lnk--> Redonda each enjoy dependency status.<p>The capital is the city of <!--del_lnk--> Saint John's (21,514)<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15976.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="269" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antigua_and_Barbuda_map.png" src="../../images/159/15976.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15976.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The country consists of a number of islands, of which Antigua is the largest one, and the most populated. <!--del_lnk--> Barbuda, just north of Antigua is the other main island. The islands have a warm, tropical <a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" title="Climate">climate</a>, with fairly constant temperatures year round. <!--del_lnk--> Redonda – annexed in the 1860s when Phosphate reserves were noted, unoccupied since 1930 also belongs to the nation of Antigua and Barbuda.<p>The islands are mostly low-lying, with the highest point being <!--del_lnk--> Boggy Peak, at 402 <!--del_lnk--> metres (1,319 <!--del_lnk--> ft). The small country's main town is the capital <!--del_lnk--> Saint John's on Antigua; Barbuda's largest town is <!--del_lnk--> Codrington.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">Tourism</a> dominates its economy, accounting for more than half of its <!--del_lnk--> GDP. Weak tourist arrival numbers since early 2000 have slowed the economy, however, and pressed the government into a tight fiscal corner. The dual-island nation's <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> production is focused on the domestic market and constrained by a limited <!--del_lnk--> water supply and a <!--del_lnk--> labour shortage stemming from the lure of higher wages in tourism and construction work.<p><a href="../../wp/m/Manufacturing.htm" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> comprises enclave-type assembly for export with major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for <!--del_lnk--> economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialised world, especially in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, which accounts for about one-third of all tourist arrivals.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Most of the population are descendants of the slaves that used to work in the sugar plantations, but there are also groups of Europeans, notably <!--del_lnk--> Irish, British and <!--del_lnk--> Portuguese. While the official language is <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>, most of the locals speak <!--del_lnk--> patois, a form of <!--del_lnk--> Creole English.<p>Almost all Antiguans are <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christians</a>, with the <a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Communion.htm" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Church</a> (about 44%) being the largest denomination. <!--del_lnk--> Catholicism is another significant denomination. Non-Christian religions practiced on the islands include <!--del_lnk--> Rastafarianism, <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Baha'i.<p><a id="Places_of_interest" name="Places_of_interest"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Places of interest</span></h2>
<p>The following information is derrived from the Antiguan website "Antigua Nice"<!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Museum_of_Antigua_.26_Barbuda" name="Museum_of_Antigua_.26_Barbuda"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Museum of Antigua & Barbuda</span></h3>
<p>The Museum of Antigua & Barbuda was opened in 1985 and is operated by the Historical & Archaeological Society, a private non-profit organisation. The exhibits, which interpret the story of Antigua from its geological birth to political independence, are placed in the old St. John's Court House of 1750, a very historic building. Today, it is indeed a fine setting for an interpretive museum and is an excellent example of adaptive use for the oldest building of the capital city.<p>Collecting is central to the mission of the Museum. It acquires objects and specimens by field collecting, gifts, loans, and exchanges and welcomes input from all those who are interested in preserving and expressing the island's heritage. Other objectives are education and research of the nation's heritage. It presents to visitors an overview of the island's history and natural history. There is a fine reference library and there are many computer databases totalling 25,000 records, available for quick reference. Some of the Museum's programmes include an education programme for Antigua & Barbuda's schoolchildren, providing special lectures and the organising of monthly field trips to historic sites. Cultural evenings are held for the general public, and a newsletter is distributed to the Society's members. The Museum has something for everyone.<p>Come in and enjoy the historic atmosphere in a cool oasis in the middle of St. John's, purchase gifts, meditate and forget the cares of the world.<p><a id="Dockyard_Museum" name="Dockyard_Museum"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Dockyard Museum</span></h3>
<p>The Dockyard Museum interprets the story of Antigua's famous English Harbour. The harbour was known to be first used in 1671 as a hurricane shelter and for the act of careening warships of the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>.<p>It was not until 1725 the first buildings were erected for maintaining British ships on the West Indies Station. The museum tells the story of how the Dockyard was built, its purpose, the social conditions encountered by the people who worked and toiled in this ancient naval establishment.<p>A fine figurehead welcomes visitors to the museum. Also on display are ship models, tools, instruments and excavated artifacts from the naval hospital and other dockyard buildings of the sailing ship days. There is an interesting case of Nelson memorabilia which contains the famous admiral's telescope and other items. The story is told to the present day, of the yards restoration from the 1930's and of the return of the sailing ships in the 1950's in the form of cruising and charter yachts.<p>There is a library of reference books embracing many subjects. The library includes a lending section as well as a paperback swop section. A large database of naval history is available for researchers, as well as all the historical databases available at the Museum of Antigua & Barbuda in St. John's. A gift shop sells items connected to the sea and to the harbour, including maps, charts and posters. A visit to this famous dockyard is not complete without a visit to it's museum and giftshop.<p><a id="Nelson.27s_Dockyard" name="Nelson.27s_Dockyard"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nelson's Dockyard</span></h3>
<p>English Harbour has been the haunt of many famous naval officers including Rodney, Nelson, Collingwood, Prince William Henry, Hood, and Cochrane. Today the Dockyard at English Harbour is named after the victor of the battle of Trafalgar, Admiral Lord Nelson. Nelson was based at English Harbour from 1784 to 1787. He was Senior Captain at 27 years of age and became temporary Commander-in-Chief of the Leeward Islands for a short time.<p>At the yard, there were skilled resident tradesman and artificers, many of them black. They were employed for the repair of ships. The Bosun was in charge of labourers who were Africans, and who were bought by the Navy and were known as the King's Negroes. Their responsibilities included the building and maintenance of facilities and wharves, the warping of ships into the harbour and the preparation work prior to careening.<p>Today you can visit Nelson's Dockyard where many of the restored buildings house modern facilities that still reflect the naval heritage of English Harbour. Private yachts now replace Naval vessels in the harbour, But English Harbour remains a favorite port for those making the long Atlantic crossing. English Harbour and Nelson's Dockyard also has a number of tourist facilities, including banks, restaurants, t-shirt market and tour and travel agencies.<p><a id="Devil.27s_Bridge" name="Devil.27s_Bridge"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Devil's Bridge</span></h3>
<p>At the north-eastern point of Antigua there is a remote wild area known as Indian Town Point. Why it was named thus, is unknown as to date no Indian archaeological remains have been found on this peninsula. The area was legally constituted a National Park in the 1950's.<p>Within the park there is a remarkable example of sea-water erosion. Geological, Devil's Bridge is a natural arch carved by the sea from soft and hard limestone ledges of the Antigua formation, a geological division of the flat north-eastern part of Antigua. A bridge was created when a soft part of the limestone eroded away by action of Atlantic breakers over countless centuries.<p>Sammy Smith, a 104 year old Antiguan patriot had the answer. Here is a quote from his memoirs "To shoot Hard Labour".<p>"On the east coast of the island is the famous Devil's Bridge. Devil's Bridge was call so because a lot of slaves from the neighboring estates use to go there and throw themselves overboard. That was an area of mass suicide, so people use to say the Devil have to be there. The waters around Devil's Bridge is always rough and anyone fall over the bridge never come out alive".<p><a id="Betty.27s_Hope" name="Betty.27s_Hope"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Betty's Hope</span></h3>
<p>Betty's Hope is located in the limestone district of Antigua's tranquil rural area, with beautiful vistas over the rolling landscape to the distant ocean. The founder of Betty's Hope was Governor Keynell, whose widow inherited the estates upon is death in 1663, but had to flee Antigua during the French occupation in 1666. When Antigua was reoccupied by the British, Parliament annulled all land claims prior to the French occupation, (of those who had fled or been disloyal to the Crown). Instead, in 1674, Betty's Hope was granted to the Codrington family, then residing in Barbados.<p>Like other large plantations, Betty's Hope was an agricultural as well as an industrial enterprise, and home to a large number of people. Supervised by a handful of European managers, hundreds of Africans lived out their lives on this and similar plantations, first as slaves, then as laborers after emancipation in 1834. Enduring the hardship of cultivating and processing the sugar under exhausting conditions, they developed great skills as craftsmen, boilers and distillers which gave Betty's Hope its reputation for excellence lasting to this day.<p>Today an active restoration of Betty's Hope is under way. New sails have been installed on the mill and the crushing machinery has been restored to working condition. The next phase of restoration involves repairing the cistern complex and the planting of trees and crops of former times.<p>A visitor centre has been created by converting a former cotton house storeroom into a museum. This includes various aspects of the plantation's history and shows early estate plans, pictures and maps, artifacts and a model of the central site to giving an overview of the of "Betty's Hope".<p><a id="Antigua_Cruise_Ship_Dock" name="Antigua_Cruise_Ship_Dock"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Antigua Cruise Ship Dock</span></h3>
<p>If you are on a Cruise ship Holiday in the Caribbean and visiting Antigua, this is your first stop on our little corner of paradise. The Antigua cruise ship dock is located at Heritage and Redcliffe Quay, in the capital of St, John's. This modern 900 foot dock, built in 1988, accommodates up to 4 cruise ships a day touring the Caribbean. The Cruise ship dock is just steps away from many duty free shops, restaurants, boutiques, and services at Heritage and Redcliffe Quays. From here shop, have lunch, or take one of the popular taxi tours around the island or to one of our fantastic Antigua beaches.<p>For more ideas on things to do take a look at our Great Days Out category.<p>We hope you enjoy your visit to Antigua on your Caribbean Cruise Ship holiday. If you want to talk to others who have stopped off on a cruise for the day in Antigua visit the Cruise Critic Forum and find out what they did and what they thought about it.<p>If you like a town with atmosphere and entertainment then cruise ship days are a great day to visit St. John’s. If you prefer quieter shopping then days when less or no boats are in will suit you better – the choice is yours.<p><a id="The_Bethesda_Tamarind_Tree" name="The_Bethesda_Tamarind_Tree"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Bethesda Tamarind Tree</span></h3>
<p>In 1951, when the Antigua Trades & Labour Union was in its infancy, Union field officers went into the estates and said no crop would start until the workers were told their rates of pay.<p>Sugar cane cutters had already been on strike for three months and both the workers and the Antigua Sugar Estates were losing money. Subsequently the employer, Mr. Alexander Moody-Stuart, had stated he would starve the workers into submission. Meetings were arranged between the workers and Moody-Stuart, and one of these was under the old Tamarind Tree and the other was at Betty's Hope estate.<p>The employer, sitting on his white horse, insisted on speaking first, "I know you are losing a lot of money, you are losing wages and may I admit that I am losing much myself. I think you should stop this thing and you should go back to work". The answer from the workers was unanimous. "You said you were going to starve us into submission. Nobody shall ever use that remark again. We are not going to work for the balance of the year". For the rest of that year no crop was reaped.<p>The people went into the fields, picked natural resources such as Widdy-Widdy bush <!--del_lnk--> Corchorus siliquosus and went down to the sea to collect cockles and wilks <!--del_lnk--> Livona pica. Without pay they managed to survive, though it was hard. On Jan 2 1952, after a long strike, the workers got the 25% increase they had asked for. The strength, determination, solidarity and sacrifice of the workers fighting against tyranny and injustice had brought the sugar barons to their knees...and much of it had happened in the meeting place of this old tree. The workers had won their rights by their own enormous efforts. It was one of the greatest accomplishments of Antigua people.<p>This historical landmark may be found about one and a half miles from Bethesda on the road towards the northeast. It grows on the north side of the road on a slight curve. Underneath the tree a large boulder has been placed to mark the spot for future generations.<p><a id="Potworks_Reservoir" name="Potworks_Reservoir"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Potworks Reservoir</span></h3>
<p>This expanse of freshwater is reputed to be largest in the Eastern Caribbean. It is about a mile long and half a mile wide, when full. It covers an area of about 320 acres and holds 1 billion gallons of water. This water is held by two dams; the largest is the Potworks dam at the eastern end and the Delaps dam is to the south. The reservoir is named after an 18th century pottery works at the Garden estate, which was owned by the Codrington family from the early 18th to the end of the 20th century. A part of the dam is built over the site of the works and a 19th century bridge. Skilled black potters using a wheel and kiln technology made sugar pots here. The main product was a conical sugar pot used for draining molasses from raw sugar.<p>The Potworks dam was planned in the late 1960's. While work was underway in 1968, only 24 inches of rain fell during the entire year; Antigua's average rainfall is 44 inches a year. Scarcely had the dam been finished when great rains filled the reservoir to capacity. Potworks dam and its reservoir were officially opened on 28th May 1970, and there is a small monument on the west of the dam commemorating this event. Potworks served well in 1974, when there was little or no rainfall from January to mid-August. In September 1984, 5.58 inches fell to end a drought. Potworks dam caught 20 million gallons of water.<p>There is interesting bird watching around the western edge of the reservoir. Some of the year round species include the West Indian whistling duck <!--del_lnk--> Dendrocygna arborea, snowy egret <!--del_lnk--> Egretta thula, cattle egret <!--del_lnk--> Bubulcus ibis and the osprey <!--del_lnk--> Pandion haliaetus.<p><a id="St._John.27s_Cathedral" name="St._John.27s_Cathedral"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">St. John's Cathedral</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15977.jpg.htm" title="St. John's Catherdral"><img alt="St. John's Catherdral" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:St._John%27s_Catherdral.JPG" src="../../images/159/15977.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15977.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> St. John's Catherdral</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Two St. John's Anglican Churches have already stood on the site of the present cathedral. The first was built of wood as early as 1681 and was said to be "totally destitute of beauty or comfort". The second was constructed with English brick about 1720 when the first fell in disrepair and became too small.<p>The church was designed by Mr. Robert Cullen and had a short steeple at its western end. After over a century, the church was elevated to the status of a cathedral when the Diocese of Antigua was created in August 1842. As plans were being made to make the church worthy of its new status, a violent earthquake severely damaged it in February 1843. Temporary repairs were made and in it Bishop Daniel Davis was enthroned as the first Bishop of Antigua. Next to the site of the first two churches a new purpose built cathedral was planned and approved by the House of Assembly. The Governor, Sir Charles Augustus Fitzroy, laid the cornerstone on October 9, 1843 and on October 10 three years later, the Cathedral was opened for divine service. It was consecrated on July 25, 1848.<p>The Cathedral is built of freestone and the architect was Mr. J. Fuller of Bath and the Clerk of Works was Mr. F.W. Rowe of Bristol. The interior is encased in pitch pine, intending to secure the building from ruin during earthquake or hurricane. It has been described as "a building within a building". The Cathedral is dominated by twin towers at the west end and provides a distinct baroque flavour. They are 70 ft high and the cupolas that crown the towers are aluminium in colour. At the time of erection, the edifice was criticised by ecclesiastical architects as being like "a pagan temple with two dumpy pepper pot towers", however in modern times the edifice has been cited as "the most imposing of all the Cathedrals of the West Indian Province". Originally the south gate was the main entrance to the Cathedral. On top of its pillars are the bronze figures of St. John the Divine and St. John the Baptist. H.M.S. Temple is said to have taken these figures from a French ship destined for Martinique in 1756 during the Seven Years War. The iron gates themselves date from 1789.<p>A centenarian, Samuel Smith in his memoirs (To Shoot Hard Labour), says the planters called the Cathedral 'Big Church' and that it frightened the people as a symbol of English power. He also said that the Anglican Church catered more for the planter class, but the black people got more involved at about the time of World War I. At last some black persons names were memorialised on the cathedral's walls.<p><a id="Wallings_Reservoir" name="Wallings_Reservoir"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Wallings Reservoir</span></h3>
<p>One of the finest mixed evergreen deciduous forest walks may be had at Wallings. Proceed westerly from John Hughes village up a slight gradient. At the top on turning to the left, is the pumping station of Wallings reservoir. From the station, start walking westerly to find the footpath that leads to the reservoir.<p>After walking about half a mile along dry scrubland with scattered trees, the spillway of the dam appears. The workmanship of this fine example of Victorian industrial architecture is truly magnificent with its rounded capping and small round tower. The reservoir was started in 1890, but there were complaints in 1897 that it could not hold water. However, it was finally finished to perfection in 1900. It was designed to hold 13 million gallons. Nine years later it had to be repaired again. It was then supplying thirty water tanks in fifteen villages.<p>In 1912, after three years of drought, Wallings became empty, but later heavy rains fell in October and November of that year. A small additional dam creating the Fig Tree reservoir next to the main road was finished in November 1945. This was used to pump additional water up to Wallings. Together these two reservoirs cover 268 acres with a storage volume of 50 acres/ft.<p>In 1915, 13 acres of the reservoir catchment area were sown with tree seeds with a view to reforestation, as the area had become denuded after the turn of the century. In recent years some attention has been focused for both watershed protection and forestry products. Follow the east bank and find a rough footpath that meanders upwards into the forest. Proceed slowly and quietly to listen and watch for birds. If you are lucky you could observe a black whiskered vireo (Vireo altiloquus), Antillean euphonia (Euphonia musica) or a red-necked pigeon (Columba squamosa). On your way back, explore the back of the reservoir where some interesting water diversion channels and sediment traps can be seen.<p>The predominant tree species are locust <!--del_lnk--> Hymenaea courbaril, ironwood <!--del_lnk--> Exostema caribaeum, mahoe <!--del_lnk--> Daphnosis caribaea, black loblolly <!--del_lnk--> Pisonia fragrans, and mango, <!--del_lnk--> Mangifera indica. Of the mid-level types are white cedar <!--del_lnk--> Tabebuia pallida, turpentine <!--del_lnk--> Bursera simaruba, and gunstock <!--del_lnk--> Gauzuma martinicense. In the lower level are mahogany <!--del_lnk--> Swietenia mohogani, Spanish oak <!--del_lnk--> Inga laurina and white prickle <!--del_lnk--> Zanthoxylum martinicense.<p>In a certain area near the reservoir, picnic tables have been installed. Plan to make an outing into this section of Antigua's forest - a perfect place for peace and quiet in this bustling world - full of history and natural history.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
<p><a id="Sport" name="Sport"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sport</span></h3>
<p>Cricket is very popular in Antigua and Barbuda, along with most <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth nations. The <!--del_lnk--> 2007 Cricket World Cup will be hosted in the West Indies from 11 March to 28 April 2007. Antigua hopes to host some matches at the <!--del_lnk--> Sir Vivian Richards Stadium, which is still under construction, and will hold 20,000 people at full capacity.<p><a href="../../wp/f/Football.htm" title="Football">Football</a> (Soccer) is also a very popular sport and in its season, it seems to be the topic on everyones' mind. Antigua has a national football team but because of lack of experience not much has come out in that sector.<p>Athletics is also big in Antigua. In the schools from a young age talented athletes are trained and Antigua has produced one or two fairly adept athletes. <!--del_lnk--> Janelle Williams, a young athlete with much promise hails from <!--del_lnk--> Grey's Farm, Antigua. Also, there is <!--del_lnk--> Sonia Williams and <!--del_lnk--> Heather Samuel who have represented Antigua at the <a href="../../wp/o/Olympic_Games.htm" title="Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a>.<p><a id="Cuisine" name="Cuisine"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cuisine</span></h3>
<p>The national dish is fungie (pronounced <i>foon-gee</i>) and pepper pot. Fungie is a dish very similar to the Italian <!--del_lnk--> Polenta being made mainly of cornmeal. Other local dishes include <!--del_lnk--> ducana, season rice, <!--del_lnk--> Saltfish and lobster (from Barbuda). There are also local confectionaries which include: <!--del_lnk--> sugarcake, fudge, raspberry and tamarind stew and peanut brittle.<p>Although these foods are indigenous to Antigua and Barbuda and to some other Caribbean countries, the local diet has diversified and now include the local dishes of Jamaica (e.g. jerk pork), Guyana (e.g. Roti) and other Caribbean countries. Chinese restaurants have also begun to become more mainstream. The supermarkets sell a wide variety of food, from American to Italian. Meals also vary depending on social class.<ul>
<li>A typical breakfast in Antigua might include cereal or a sandwich and tea/chocolate milk.<li>Lunch might be anything that can be easily bought from a nearby shop, especially a bakery.<li>Dinner is definitely the most varied, as it differs depending on taste, social class and education on nutrition. But it will typically include a starch, like rice/macaroni/pasta, vegetables/salad, an entree (fish, chicken, pork, beef etc.) and a side dish like macaroni pie, scalloped potatoes or plantains. Local drinks are <!--del_lnk--> mauby, <!--del_lnk--> seamoss, tamarind juice, raspberry juice, mango juice, lemonade, coconut milk etc. Adults favour beers and rums, many of which are made locally.</ul>
<p>Sunday is the main Sabbath of the country and is the day when the culture is mostly reflected in the food. For breakfast one might have saltfish, eggplant, eggs, bacon, sausages, or lettuce. Dinner on Sundays is eaten earlier (around 2:00 pm) because parents are usually off from work and can stay home and cook. It may include pork, baked chicken, stewed lamb, or turkey, alongside rice (prepared in a variety of ways), macaroni pie, salads, and a local drink. Dessert may be ice cream and cake or an apple pie (mango and pineapple pie in their season) or Jello.<p><a id="Antiguan_Creole_.28Dialect.29" name="Antiguan_Creole_.28Dialect.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Antiguan Creole (Dialect)</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Antiguan Creole is a <!--del_lnk--> dialect spoken on the small <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean island of <strong class="selflink">Antigua and Barbuda</strong> although the <!--del_lnk--> Barbudan accent is slightly different.<p>Persons of higher social status find it easier to switch between Standard English and Antiguan English (dialect) mainly because of better education. The Dialect gets more raw the lower down the socio-economic ladder one moves.<p>In the years before Antigua and Barbuda's independence (in 1981), Standard English was widely spoken, but after independence, perhaps as a avenue of defiance Antiguan's taught themselves that speaking dialect was a part of their culture and that nothing at all was wrong with it.<p>Many of the words used in the <!--del_lnk--> Antiguan dialect are derived from English and also <!--del_lnk--> African origins. The dialect was formed when <!--del_lnk--> slaves owned by English planters imitated the English of their masters but failed to pronounce it correctly. This can be easily seen in some phrases like: "Me nah go" meaning "I am not going." Another example is: "Ent it?" meaning "Ain't it?" which is in itself dialect and means "isn't it?" Common island <!--del_lnk--> proverbs often can be traced to Africa.<p><a id="Famous_Antiguans" name="Famous_Antiguans"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Famous Antiguans</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Jan-Eric Ahlfors - Stem cell research scientist<li><!--del_lnk--> Paget Henry - Intellectual/Sociologist<li><!--del_lnk--> Shermain Jeremy - Singer, Beauty Queen<li><!--del_lnk--> Sir Issac Vivian Richards - Cricketer<li><!--del_lnk--> Curtly Ambrose - Cricketer<li><!--del_lnk--> Richie Richardson - Cricketer<li><!--del_lnk--> Andy Roberts - Cricketer<li><!--del_lnk--> Jamaica Kincaid - Author<li><!--del_lnk--> Ledley King - Footballer<li><!--del_lnk--> Craig Speedy Claxton - Basketball player (of Antiguan descent)<li><!--del_lnk--> Maurice Hope - Boxer<li><!--del_lnk--> Bert Williams - Actor, Singer, Writer<li><!--del_lnk--> Anna Maria Horsford - Actress (of Antiguan descent)<li><!--del_lnk--> Emile Heskey - Football player (of Antiguan descent)<li><!--del_lnk--> Colin Kazim-Richards - Football Player (of Antiguan descent)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gregory Abbott - Singer<li><!--del_lnk--> Tim Hector - Intellectual, journalist and politician<li><!--del_lnk--> Basil Hill - Author<li><!--del_lnk--> Vere Cornwall Bird - Former Prime Minister (1981-1994)<li><!--del_lnk--> Lester Bird - Former Prime Minister (1994-2004)<li><!--del_lnk--> Baldwin Spencer - Prime Minister (2004 - )<li><!--del_lnk--> Sir James Carlisle - Govenor General/Queen's representative<li><!--del_lnk--> William Harper - US Senator (South Carolina) in the 1800s.<li><!--del_lnk--> Josiah Martin - Colonial governor of the Province of North Carolina (1771-1775)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gregson Davis - Intellectual/Classicist<li><!--del_lnk--> King Short Shirt - Calypsonian<li><!--del_lnk--> Swallow (Calypsonian) - Calypsonian<li><!--del_lnk--> King Obstinate - Calypsonian<li><!--del_lnk--> Burning Flames - Soca Band, (Official Web site <!--del_lnk--> )<li><!--del_lnk--> Conrad Roberts - Actor</ul>
<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Antigua was an important <!--del_lnk--> port to <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> in the sailing ship days. Because of its unique position in relation to the trade winds, it was hard for ships to leave the <!--del_lnk--> port and easy for ones to come in. Therefore, when enemy ships tried to retreat back out to sea, it was very difficult for them, and they could more easily be caught by the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" title="Royal Navy">British Navy</a>.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Antigua Racer Snake is the rarest snake in the world, with only about two hundred living. It is found on Bird Island, a island off the coast of Antigua.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Dickenson Bay Beach, and Half-moon Bay, two beaches in Antigua have been named by wikipedia.co.uk as Two of the Best Beaches in the World.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Antigua and Barbuda claim to collectively have 365 beaches, one for every day in the year. This has never been tested and is taken lightly as humour.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Vere Cornwall Bird Antigua and barbuda's first Prime Minister is accredited to have brought Antigua and the Caribbean into a New era of independence.</ul>
<ul>
<li><strong class="selflink">Antigua and Barbuda</strong> has been named the best Island Wedding Destination in the 12th annual International Caribbean World Awards. And has been cited by the Guinness world records as having the most marraiges per capita.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Antigua's English Harbour Rum has been named one of The Best Rums in the World by Forbes Magazine.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Claudette Peters, Antigua's Soca princess has been awarded Best new Female Aritist in the international Soca Awards.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Young Destroyer, An Antiguan Calypsonian is now crown the Calypso King of the World after winning the CARIFESTA Calypso Competition in September 2006 in Trinidad.</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/e/Eric_Clapton.htm" title="Eric Clapton">Eric Clapton</a>, Musician, has founded a Rehabilitation Clinic, the <!--del_lnk--> The Crossroads Centre, in Antigua which has had celebrity visitors like <!--del_lnk--> Whitney Houston.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Giorgio Armani, fashion designer, has a million dollar mansion in Antigua.</ul>
<p><a id="Foreign_relations" name="Foreign_relations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Foreign relations</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean Community, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/World_Trade_Organization.htm" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Nations, <!--del_lnk--> Organization of American States, <!--del_lnk--> Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, and the Eastern Caribbean's Regional Security System.<p>Antigua and Barbuda is also a member of the <!--del_lnk--> International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">US</a>-military (as covered under <!--del_lnk--> Article 98).<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['English language', 'List of countries by system of government', 'Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom', 'United Kingdom', 'Currency', 'Time zone', 'Caribbean Sea', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Guadeloupe', 'Montserrat', 'Saint Kitts and Nevis', 'Christopher Columbus', 'Spain', 'France', 'United Kingdom', 'Slavery', 'Sugar', 'Parliamentary system', 'Monarchy', 'Government', 'Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom', 'Climate', 'Tourism', 'Agriculture', 'Manufacturing', 'United States', 'English language', 'Christianity', 'Anglican Communion', 'Islam', 'Royal Navy', 'Football', 'Olympic Games', 'Great Britain', 'Royal Navy', 'Eric Clapton', 'United Nations', 'World Trade Organization', 'United States'] |
Antimony | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Antimony,1 E-10 m,1 E-25 kg,2003,4th millennium BC,Acid,Alchemy,Allotropy,Alloy,Antimonial,Antimony pentafluoride" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Antimony</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Antimony";
var wgTitle = "Antimony";
var wgArticleId = 898;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Antimony">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Antimony</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Chemistry.Chemical_elements.htm">Chemical elements</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<dl>
<dd><span class="dablink"><i>Not to be confused with <!--del_lnk--> antinomy, a type of <!--del_lnk--> paradox.</i></span></dl>
<table align="right" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin:0 0 0.5em 0.5em">
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table border="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td align="center"><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">51</span></td>
<td align="center" style="padding-left:2em"><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/t/Tin.htm" title="Tin">tin</a></span> ← <span style="font-size: 120%">antimony</span> → <span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/t/Tellurium.htm" title="Tellurium">tellurium</a></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><span style="font-size:95%"><a href="../../wp/a/Arsenic.htm" title="Arsenic">As</a></span><br /> ↑<br /><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">Sb</span><br /> ↓<br /><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/b/Bismuth.htm" title="Bismuth">Bi</a></span></td>
<td>
<table>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/3/320.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sb-TableImage.png" src="../../images/3/320.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
<div align="center"><!--del_lnk--> Periodic Table - <!--del_lnk--> Extended Periodic Table</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccc99; color:black">General</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_elements_by_name.htm" title="List of elements by name">Name</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Symbol, <!--del_lnk--> Number</td>
<td>antimony, Sb, 51</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chemical series</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> metalloids</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Group, <!--del_lnk--> Period, <!--del_lnk--> Block</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 15, <!--del_lnk--> 5, <!--del_lnk--> p</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">Appearance</a></td>
<td>silvery lustrous grey<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/3/321.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="65" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sb%2C51.jpg" src="../../images/3/321.jpg" width="125" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic mass</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 121.760<!--del_lnk--> (1) g/mol</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electron configuration</td>
<td>[<a href="../../wp/k/Krypton.htm" title="Krypton">Kr</a>] 4d<sup>10</sup> 5s<sup>2</sup> 5p<sup>3</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">Electrons</a> per <!--del_lnk--> shell</td>
<td>2, 8, 18, 18, 5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccc99; color:black">Physical properties</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Phase_%2528matter%2529.htm" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> solid</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Density (near <!--del_lnk--> r.t.)</td>
<td>6.697 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Liquid <!--del_lnk--> density at <!--del_lnk--> m.p.</td>
<td>6.53 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Melting point</td>
<td>903.78 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (630.63 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 1167.13 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boiling point</td>
<td>1860 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (1587 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 2889 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of fusion</td>
<td>19.79 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of vaporization</td>
<td>193.43 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat capacity</td>
<td>(25 °C) 25.23 J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption><!--del_lnk--> Vapor pressure</caption>
<tr align="center">
<td><i>P</i>/Pa</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>100</td>
<td>1 k</td>
<td>10 k</td>
<td>100 k</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>at <i>T</i>/K</td>
<td>807</td>
<td>876</td>
<td>1011</td>
<td>1219</td>
<td>1491</td>
<td>1858</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccc99; color:black">Atomic properties</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Crystal structure</td>
<td>rhombohedral</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Oxidation states</td>
<td>−3, <b>3</b>, 5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electronegativity</td>
<td>2.05 (Pauling scale)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Ionization energies<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> more)</td>
<td>1st: 834 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2nd: 1594.9 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3rd: 2440 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 145 <!--del_lnk--> pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Atomic radius (calc.)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 133 pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Covalent radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 138 pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccc99; color:black">Miscellaneous</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Magnetism.htm" title="Magnetism">Magnetic ordering</a></td>
<td>no data</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electrical resistivity</td>
<td>(20 °C) 417 nΩ·m</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal conductivity</td>
<td>(300 K) 24.4 W·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal expansion</td>
<td>(25 °C) 11.0 µm·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Speed of sound (thin rod)</td>
<td>(20 °C) 3420 <!--del_lnk--> m/s</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Young's modulus</td>
<td>55 GPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Shear modulus</td>
<td>20 GPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bulk modulus</td>
<td>42 GPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness.htm" title="Mohs scale of mineral hardness">Mohs hardness</a></td>
<td>3.0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brinell hardness</td>
<td>294 MPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CAS registry number</td>
<td>7440-36-0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccc99; color:black">Selected isotopes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption>Main article: <!--del_lnk--> Isotopes of antimony</caption>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> iso</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> NA</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> half-life</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DM</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DE <small>(<!--del_lnk--> MeV)</small></th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DP</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>121</sup>Sb</td>
<td>57.36%</td>
<td colspan="4">Sb is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 70 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>123</sup>Sb</td>
<td>42.64%</td>
<td colspan="4">Sb is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 72 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>125</sup>Sb</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td>2.7582 <!--del_lnk--> y</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Beta<sup>-</sup></td>
<td>0.767</td>
<td><sup>125</sup><a href="../../wp/t/Tellurium.htm" title="Tellurium">Te</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccc99; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> References</th>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Antimony</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/anˈtɪməni/</span>) is a <a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_element.htm" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a> in the <a href="../../wp/p/Periodic_table.htm" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> that has the symbol <b>Sb</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Latin: <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>stibium</i></span>, meaning "mark") and <!--del_lnk--> atomic number 51. A <!--del_lnk--> metalloid, antimony has four <!--del_lnk--> allotropic forms. The stable form of antimony is a blue-white metal. Yellow and black antimony are unstable non-metals. Antimony is used in flame-proofing, <!--del_lnk--> paints, <!--del_lnk--> ceramics, <!--del_lnk--> enamels, a wide variety of <!--del_lnk--> alloys, <a href="../../wp/e/Electronics.htm" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> rubber.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Notable_characteristics" name="Notable_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable characteristics</span></h2>
<p>Antimony in its elemental form is a silvery white, <!--del_lnk--> brittle, <!--del_lnk--> fusible, <a href="../../wp/c/Crystal.htm" title="Crystal">crystalline</a> solid that exhibits poor <!--del_lnk--> electrical and <!--del_lnk--> heat conductivity properties and <!--del_lnk--> vaporizes at low <!--del_lnk--> temperatures. A <!--del_lnk--> metalloid, antimony resembles a metal in its appearance and physical properties, but does not chemically react as a metal. It is also attacked by <!--del_lnk--> oxidizing <!--del_lnk--> acids and <!--del_lnk--> halogens. Antimony and some of its alloys are unusual in that they expand on cooling.<p>Estimates of the abundance of antimony in the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s crust range from 0.2 to 0.5 <!--del_lnk--> ppm. Antimony is geochemically categorized as a <!--del_lnk--> chalcophile, occurring with <a href="../../wp/s/Sulfur.htm" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> heavy metals <a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">lead</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a>, and <a href="../../wp/s/Silver.htm" title="Silver">silver</a>.<p><a id="Applications" name="Applications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2>
<p>Antimony is increasingly being used in the <a href="../../wp/s/Semiconductor.htm" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> industry in the production of <!--del_lnk--> diodes, <!--del_lnk--> infrared detectors, and <!--del_lnk--> Hall-effect devices. As an <!--del_lnk--> alloy, this semi-metal greatly increases <a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">lead</a>'s hardness and mechanical strength. The most important use of antimony metal is as a hardener in lead for storage batteries. Uses include:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Batteries<li>antifriction alloys<li><!--del_lnk--> type metal<li>small arms and <!--del_lnk--> tracer bullets<li>cable sheathing<li><!--del_lnk--> matches<li>medicines<li>plumbing<li>soldering - some "lead-free" solders contain 5% Sb<li>main and big-end bearings in <!--del_lnk--> internal combustion engines (as alloy)<li>used in the past to treat <!--del_lnk--> Schistosomiasis; today <!--del_lnk--> Praziquantel is universally used<li>used in <!--del_lnk--> linotype printing machines</ul>
<p>Antimony compounds in the form of <!--del_lnk--> oxides, <!--del_lnk--> sulfides, sodium antimonate, and antimony trichloride are used in the making of flame-proofing compounds, <!--del_lnk--> ceramic enamels, <a href="../../wp/g/Glass.htm" title="Glass">glass</a>, <!--del_lnk--> paints, and <a href="../../wp/p/Pottery.htm" title="Pottery">pottery</a>. Antimony trioxide is the most important of the antimony compounds and is primarily used in flame-retardant formulations. These flame-retardant applications include such markets as children's clothing, toys, aircraft and automobile seat covers. Also, antimony sulfide is one of the ingredients of a modern match.<p>The natural sulfide of antimony, <!--del_lnk--> stibnite, was known and used in Biblical times as <a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and as a <!--del_lnk--> cosmetic. Stibnite is still used in some developing countries as <a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" title="Medicine">medicine</a>. Antimony has been used for the treatment of <!--del_lnk--> schistosomiasis. Antimony attaches itself to <a href="../../wp/s/Sulfur.htm" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> atoms in certain <!--del_lnk--> enzymes which are used by both the parasite and human host. Small doses can kill the parasite without causing damage to the patient. Antimony and its compounds are used in several <!--del_lnk--> veterinary preparations like Anthiomaline or Lithium antimony thiomalate, which is used as a skin conditioner in ruminants. Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues, at least in animals. Tartar emetic is another antimony preparation which is used as an anti-schistosomal drug. Treatments chiefly involving antimony have been called <!--del_lnk--> antimonials.<p>A coin made of antimony was issued in the Keichow Province of China in 1931. The coins were not popular, being too soft and they wore quickly when in circulation. After the first issue no others were produced.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Antimony was recognized in antiquity (<!--del_lnk--> 3000 BC or earlier) in various compounds, and it was prized for its fine <!--del_lnk--> casting qualities.<p>The word Antimony is a Latin corruption of Arabic انتيمون ([al-]ithmīd), which is derived from Latin Stibium, which came from Greek στιβι [stibi] = a cosmetic powder (Sb<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub> was used for cosmetic purposes). The relationship between antimony's modern name and its symbol is complex; the <!--del_lnk--> Coptic name for the cosmetic powder antimony sulfide was borrowed by the <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greeks</a>, which was in turn borrowed by <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a>, resulting in <i>stibium</i>. The chemical pioneer <!--del_lnk--> Jöns Jakob Berzelius used an abbreviation of this name for antimony in his writings, and his usage became the standard symbol. A black antimony-based powder soluble in water known as stibium was the ancient version of <!--del_lnk--> mascara during Roman times. It was used to darken the brows and lashes, or to draw a line around the perimeter of the eye.<p>According to the history of metallurgy the first description of the procedure to isolate antimony is in the Italian book "<!--del_lnk--> De la pirotechnia" of 1540 of <!--del_lnk--> Vannoccio Biringuccio. This book precedes the more famous Latin book "<!--del_lnk--> De re metallica" of 1556 of <!--del_lnk--> Agricola, although the latter has been often incorrectly considered the discoverer of metallic antimony.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:93px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/322.png.htm" title="Alchemical symbol for antimony"><img alt="Alchemical symbol for antimony" height="147" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antimony-symbol.png" src="../../images/3/322.png" width="91" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Alchemical symbol for antimony</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>According to the traditional history of western <a href="../../wp/a/Alchemy.htm" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a> metallic antimony was described (previous to Biringuccio) by the Prior <!--del_lnk--> Basilius Valentinus in the Latin manuscript "Currus Triumphalis Antimonii" of about 1450, published, in the English translation "The triumphal chariot of antimony", only in 1604 by Johann Thölde (1565-1614). The marvellous finding of all of the Valentinus' manuscripts, as in the alchemical tales, is fully described by Jean-Jacques Manget in his "Bibliotheca chemica curiosa" (1702): these manuscripts remained enclosed for more than a century in a pillar of St. Peter's Abbey, at <!--del_lnk--> Erfurt, until the pillar was shattered by a thunderbolt. Many authors consider Basilius Valentinus a mythological personage: the most authoritative of them is <!--del_lnk--> Leibniz (1646-1716), who declared after a careful search that the Prior Valentinus never existed in the Abbey of Erfurt, but was only a pseudonym, probably of Thölde himself, used to merge poorly-translated materials of various origins.<p>According to the traditional history of Middle Eastern alchemy, pure antimony was well known to <!--del_lnk--> Geber, sometimes called "the Father of Chemistry", in the 8th century. Here there is still an open controversy: <!--del_lnk--> Marcellin Berthelot, who translated a number of Geber's books, stated that antimony is never mentioned in them, but other authors claim that Berthelot translated only some of the less important books, while the more interesting ones (some of which might describe antimony) are not yet translated, and their content is completely unknown.<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Precautions</span></h2>
<div class="floatleft"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/3/324.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="80" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Skull_and_crossbones.svg" src="../../images/3/324.png" width="80" /></a></span></div>
<p>Antimony and many of its compounds are <!--del_lnk--> poisonous. Clinically, antimony poisoning is very similar to <a href="../../wp/a/Arsenic.htm" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> poisoning. In small doses, antimony causes <!--del_lnk--> headache, <!--del_lnk--> dizziness, and <!--del_lnk--> depression. Such small doses have in the past been reported in some acidic fruit drinks. The acidic nature of the drink is sufficient to dissolve small amounts of antimony oxide contained in the packaging of the drink; modern manufacturing methods prevent this occurrence. Larger doses cause violent and frequent vomiting, and will lead to death in a few days.<p>A study found that antimony is leached from <!--del_lnk--> PET bottles, but at levels below drinking water guidelines. The guidelines are:<ul>
<li>WHO, 20 µg l<sup>–1</sup><li>US EPA, Health Canada and the Ontario Ministry of Environment, 6 µg l<sup>–1</sup><li>German Federal Ministry of Environment, 5 µg l<sup>–1</sup><li>Japan, 2 µg l<sup>–1</sup></ul>
<p><a id="Compounds" name="Compounds"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Compounds</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Antimony pentafluoride SbF<sub>5</sub>, <!--del_lnk--> antimony trioxide Sb<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, <!--del_lnk--> stibine (antimony trihydride SbH<sub>3</sub>), <!--del_lnk--> indium antimonide (InSb)<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Tin', 'Tellurium', 'Arsenic', 'Bismuth', 'List of elements by name', 'Color', 'Krypton', 'Electron', 'Phase (matter)', 'Magnetism', 'Mohs scale of mineral hardness', 'Neutron', 'Neutron', 'Tellurium', 'Chemical element', 'Periodic table', 'Electronics', 'Crystal', 'Earth', 'Sulfur', 'Lead', 'Copper', 'Silver', 'Semiconductor', 'Lead', 'Glass', 'Pottery', 'Medicine', 'Medicine', 'Sulfur', 'Greece', 'Latin', 'Alchemy', 'Arsenic'] |
Antlion | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Antlion,Abdomen,Animal,Ant,Antennae,Antlion (Half-Life 2),Antlions in Britain,Arthropod,Cocoon (silk),Damselfly,Doodle" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Antlion</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Antlion";
var wgTitle = "Antlion";
var wgArticleId = 1108210;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Antlion">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Antlion</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Insects_Reptiles_and_Fish.htm">Insects, Reptiles and Fish</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Antlion</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/3/325.jpg.htm" title="An adult antlion, camouflaged on a plank"><img alt="An adult antlion, camouflaged on a plank" height="196" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antlion.jpg" src="../../images/3/325.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>An adult antlion, camouflaged on a plank</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Arthropod.htm" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Insecta<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Superorder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Endopterygota<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Neuroptera<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Superfamily:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Myrmeleontoidea<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><b>Myrmeleontidae</b><br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Antlions</b> are a <!--del_lnk--> family of <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insects</a> in the order <!--del_lnk--> Neuroptera, classified as <b>Myrmeleontidae</b>, from the <!--del_lnk--> Greek "myrmex", meaning "ant", and "leon", meaning "lion". Strictly speaking the term antlion applies to the larval form of the members of this family. Antlions are worldwide in distribution, most common in arid and sandy habitats, and can be fairly small to very large (wingspan range of 2-15 cm). Antlions are <!--del_lnk--> omnivorous. The antlion <!--del_lnk--> larvae eat ants and other insects, while the adult antlion eats <!--del_lnk--> pollen and <!--del_lnk--> nectar.<p>The antlion larva is often called a "'doodlebug"'. One theory is that it gets this name from the odd winding, spiralling trails it leaves in the sand while looking for a good location to build its trap. These trails look like someone has <!--del_lnk--> doodled in the sand.<p>The adult antlion has two pairs of long, narrow, multi-veined <!--del_lnk--> wings in which the apical veins enclose regular oblong spaces, and a long, slender <!--del_lnk--> abdomen. Although they greatly resemble <!--del_lnk--> dragonflies or <!--del_lnk--> damselflies, they belong to an entirely different <!--del_lnk--> order of insects. Antlions are easily distinguished from damselflies by their longer, prominent, apically clubbed <!--del_lnk--> antennae and different pattern of wing venation. They also are very feeble fliers and are normally found fluttering about in the night, in search of a mate. The adult is rarely seen in the wild because it is typically active only in the evening.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Development" name="Development"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Development</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/326.jpg.htm" title="Closeup of an antlion larva"><img alt="Closeup of an antlion larva" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ameisenloewe.jpg" src="../../images/3/326.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/326.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Closeup of an antlion larva</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/327.jpg.htm" title="Closeup of another antlion larva"><img alt="Closeup of another antlion larva" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antlion1.jpg" src="../../images/3/327.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/327.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Closeup of another antlion larva</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The life cycle of the antlion begins with <!--del_lnk--> egg-laying or "oviposition". The female antlion repeatedly taps the sand surface with the tip of her abdomen. She then inserts the abdomen into the sand and lays an egg. The antlion larva is a ferocious-appearing creature with a robust, fusiform body bearing three pairs of walking legs and a prothorax forming a slender mobile neck for the large square head, which bears an enormous pair of sicklelike jaws (mandibles) with several sharp, hollow projections. Depending on species and where it lives, the larvae will either hide under leaves or pieces of wood, or dig pits in sandy areas.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/328.jpg.htm" title="Pupa in cocoon"><img alt="Pupa in cocoon" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antlion2.jpg" src="../../images/3/328.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/328.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Pupa in cocoon</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> pupal stage of the ant-lion is <!--del_lnk--> quiescent. The larva makes a globular <!--del_lnk--> cocoon of sand stuck together with fine <!--del_lnk--> silk spun, it is said, from a slender spinneret at the posterior end of the body. These cocoons may be buried several centimeters deep in the sand. It remains there for one month, until the completion of the transformation into the sexually mature insect, which then emerges from the case, leaving the pupal integument behind, and climbs to the surface. After about 20 minutes the adult's wings are fully opened and it will fly off in search of a mate. The adult is considerably larger than the larva; they exhibit the greatest disparity in size between larva and adult of any type of <!--del_lnk--> holometabolous insects, by virtue of the adults having an extremely thin, flimsy <!--del_lnk--> exoskeleton (in other words, they have extremely low mass per unit of volume). The adults are reported to live off of plant nectar, but some species retain strong chewing jaws similar to those of the dragonfly indicating that they also feed on insects. <a id="Pitfall_construction" name="Pitfall_construction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Pitfall construction</span></h2>
<p>Having marked out the chosen site by a circular groove, it starts to crawl backwards, using its abdomen as a plough to shovel up the soil. By the aid of one front leg it places consecutive heaps of loosened particles upon its head, then with a smart jerk throws each little pile clear of the scene of operations. Proceeding thus it gradually works its way from the circumference towards the centre. As it slowly moves round and round, the pit gradually gets deeper and deeper. When the pit is completed, the larva settles down at the bottom, buried in the soil with only the jaws projecting above the surface, often in a wide-opened position on either side of the very tip of the cone.<p><a id="Trapping_prey" name="Trapping_prey"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trapping prey</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/329.jpg.htm" title="Sand pit trap of the antlion"><img alt="Sand pit trap of the antlion" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antlion_trap.jpg" src="../../images/3/329.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/329.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Sand pit trap of the antlion</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Since the sides of the pit consist of loose sand they afford an insecure foothold to any small insects that inadvertently venture over the edge, such as <a href="../../wp/a/Ant.htm" title="Ant">ants</a>. Slipping to the bottom, the prey is immediately seized by the lurking ant-lion; or if it attempts to scramble again up the treacherous walls of the pit, it is speedily checked in its efforts and brought down by showers of loose sand which are jerked at it from below by the larva. Antlion larvae are capable of capturing and killing a variety of insects, and can even subdue small <a href="../../wp/s/Spider.htm" title="Spider">spiders</a>. The projections in the jaws of the insect are hollow and through this the larva will suck the fluids out of its victim. After consuming all the contents, the lifeless, dry carcass is flicked out of the pit, and the pit is readied once again. An average-sized larva digs a pit about 2 inches deep and 3 inches wide at the edge. Amazingly, this behaviour has also evolved in a family of <!--del_lnk--> flies, the <!--del_lnk--> Vermileonidae, whose larvae dig the exact same sort of pit and also feed on ants.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/330.jpg.htm" title="Adult Antlion"><img alt="Adult Antlion" height="126" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antlion02.jpg" src="../../images/3/330.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/330.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Adult Antlion</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Antlions are especially abundant in soft sand beneath trees or under overhanging <!--del_lnk--> rocks. Apparently the larvae prefer dry places that are protected from the rain. Eventually the larva attains its maximum size and undergoes <!--del_lnk--> metamorphosis. The entire length of time from egg-laying to adulthood may take two or three years due to the uncertainty and irregular nature of its food supply. When it first hatches, the tiny larva specializes in very small insects, but as it grows larger, it constructs larger pits and thus catches larger prey.<p>Although antlion larvae have a ferocious appearance, they are completely harmless to humans. In fact, there are those who keep them as pets.<p>In certain species of Myrmeleontidae, such as <i>Dendroleon pantheormis</i>, the larva, although resembling that of <i>Myrmeleon</i> structurally, makes no pitfall, but seizes passing prey from any nook or crevice in which it shelters.<p><a id="Additional_information" name="Additional_information"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Additional information</span></h2>
<p>The exact meaning of the name ant-lion (French <i>fourmilion</i>) is uncertain. It has been thought that it refers to the fact that ants form a large percentage of the prey of the insect, the suffix "lion" merely suggesting destroyer or eater. Perhaps, however, the name may only signify a large terrestrial biting apterous insect, surpassing the ant in size and predatory habits.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antlion"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Arthropod', 'Insect', 'Ant', 'Spider'] |
Antoine_Lavoisier | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Antoine Lavoisier,1743,1794,Agricultural chemistry,Allotropy,Alsace-Lorraine,Ancient Greek,Antoine Laurent Lavoisier,Astronomy,August 26,Banque de France" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Antoine Lavoisier</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Antoine_Lavoisier";
var wgTitle = "Antoine Lavoisier";
var wgArticleId = 1822;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Antoine_Lavoisier">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Antoine Lavoisier</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Chemists.htm">Chemists</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table cellspacing="5" class="infobox" style="width:22em; font-size:90%;">
<caption style="font-size: larger; background-color:transparent;"><b>Antoine Lavoisier</b></caption>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/165/16562.jpg.htm" title=" "><img alt=" " height="324" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antoine_lavoisier_color.jpg" src="../../images/165/16562.jpg" width="220" /></a><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Father of modern chemistry</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Born:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> August 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1743<br /><a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Died:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> May 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1794<br /><a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Occupation:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chemist, <a href="../../wp/e/Economics.htm" title="Economics">economist</a> and <!--del_lnk--> nobleman.</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier</b> (<!--del_lnk--> August 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1743 – <!--del_lnk--> May 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1794) the "<i><!--del_lnk--> father of modern chemistry</i>," was a <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> <!--del_lnk--> nobleman prominent in the histories of <a href="../../wp/c/Chemistry.htm" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Finance.htm" title="Finance">finance</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Biology.htm" title="Biology">biology</a>, and <a href="../../wp/e/Economics.htm" title="Economics">economics</a>.<p>He stated the first version of the <!--del_lnk--> Law of conservation of mass, co-discovered, recognized and named <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> (1778) as well as <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, disproved the <!--del_lnk--> phlogiston theory, introduced the <i><!--del_lnk--> Metric system</i>, invented the first periodic table including 33 elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. He was also an investor and administrator of the "<!--del_lnk--> Ferme Générale," a private tax collection company; chairman of the board of the Discount Bank (later the <!--del_lnk--> Banque de France); and a powerful member of a number of other aristocratic administrative councils.<p>Due to his prominence in the pre-revolutionary government in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, he was <!--del_lnk--> beheaded at the height of the <a href="../../wp/f/French_Revolution.htm" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, instructing his assistant to count the number of words his severed head attempted to mouth.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/155/15540.jpg.htm" title="Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and his Wife, by Jacques-Louis David."><img alt="Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and his Wife, by Jacques-Louis David." height="268" longdesc="/wiki/Image:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg" src="../../images/165/16563.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/155/15540.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and his Wife</i>, by <a href="../../wp/j/Jacques-Louis_David.htm" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Born to a wealthy family in <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Antoine Laurent Lavoisier inherited a large fortune when his mother died. He attended the <!--del_lnk--> College Mazarin from 1754 to 1761, studying <a href="../../wp/c/Chemistry.htm" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Botany.htm" title="Botany">botany</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Astronomy.htm" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, and <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>. His education was filled with the ideals of the French <!--del_lnk--> Enlightenment of the time, and he felt fascination for <!--del_lnk--> Maquois's dictionary. His devotion and passion for chemistry was largely influenced by <!--del_lnk--> Étienne Condillac, a prominent French scholar of the 18th century. His first chemical publication appeared in 1764. In 1767 he <!--del_lnk--> worked on a geological survey of <!--del_lnk--> Alsace-Lorraine. He was elected a member of the <!--del_lnk--> French Academy of Sciences, France's most elite scientific society, at the age of 25 in 1768 for an essay on <!--del_lnk--> street lighting and in recognition for his earlier research. In 1769 he worked on the first geological map of <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>.<p>In 1771, he married the 13-year-old <!--del_lnk--> Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, the daughter of a co-owner of the Ferme. With time, she proved to be a scientific colleague to her husband. She translated documents from English for him, including <!--del_lnk--> Richard Kirwan's "<i>Essay on Phlogiston</i>" and <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Priestley's research. She created many <a href="../../wp/d/Drawing.htm" title="Drawing">sketches</a> and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier and his colleagues. She also edited and published Lavoisier’s memoirs and hosted many parties during which eminent scientists would discuss new chemical theories. As a result of her close work with her husband, it is difficult to separate her individual contributions from his, but it is correctly assumed that much of the work accredited to him bears her fingerprints.<p><a id="Contributions_to_chemistry" name="Contributions_to_chemistry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Contributions to chemistry</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16564.jpg.htm" title="Portrait of Antoine Lavoisier in his youth."><img alt="Portrait of Antoine Lavoisier in his youth." height="105" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antoine_lavoisier.jpg" src="../../images/165/16564.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16564.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Portrait of Antoine Lavoisier in his youth.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Background" name="Background"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Background</span></h3>
<p>Beginning in 1775, Lavoisier served in the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Gunpowder Administration, where his work led to improvements in the production of <a href="../../wp/g/Gunpowder.htm" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> and the use of <!--del_lnk--> agricultural chemistry by designing a new method for preparing <!--del_lnk--> saltpeter.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16565.jpg.htm" title="Hand sketch design aparatus for hydrogen combustion experiment made by Lavoisier in the 1780s."><img alt="Hand sketch design aparatus for hydrogen combustion experiment made by Lavoisier in the 1780s." height="117" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hidrogenexp1.jpg" src="../../images/165/16565.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16565.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/d/Drawing.htm" title="Drawing">Hand sketch</a> design aparatus for hydrogen combustion experiment made by Lavoisier in the 1780s.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Major_works" name="Major_works"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Major works</span></h3>
<p>Some of Lavoisier's most important experiments examined the nature of <!--del_lnk--> combustion, or burning. Through these experiments, he demonstrated that burning is a process that involves the combination of a substance with oxygen. He also demonstrated the role of oxygen in metal rusting, as well as its role in animal and plant respiration: working with <!--del_lnk--> Pierre-Simon Laplace, Lavoisier conducted experiments that showed that respiration was essentially a slow combustion of organic material using inhaled oxygen. Lavoisier's explanation of combustion replaced the <!--del_lnk--> phlogiston theory, which postulates that materials release a substance called phlogiston when they burn.<p><a id="Research_on_hydrogen_and_his_role_in_disproving_the_phlogiston_theory" name="Research_on_hydrogen_and_his_role_in_disproving_the_phlogiston_theory"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Research on hydrogen and his role in disproving the phlogiston theory</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:171px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16566.gif.htm" title="Apparatus for hydrogen combustion experiment made from Lavoisier's sketch by Jean Baptiste Meusnier in 1783."><img alt="Apparatus for hydrogen combustion experiment made from Lavoisier's sketch by Jean Baptiste Meusnier in 1783." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hidrogenexp2.gif" src="../../images/165/16566.gif" width="169" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16566.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Apparatus for hydrogen combustion experiment made from Lavoisier's sketch by Jean Baptiste Meusnier in 1783.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>He also discovered that the flammable air of <!--del_lnk--> Henry Cavendish which he termed <i><a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a></i> (<!--del_lnk--> Greek for "water-former"), combined with oxygen to produce a dew, as <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Priestley had reported, which appeared to be water. Lavoisier's work was partly based on the work of Priestley (he corresponded with Priestley and fellow members of the <!--del_lnk--> Lunar Society). However, he tried to take credit for Priestley's discoveries. This tendency to use the results of others without acknowledgment, then draw conclusions of his own, is said to be characteristic of Lavoisier. In "Sur la combustion en général" ("On Combustion in general," 1777) and "Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides" ("General Considerations on the Nature of Acids," 1778), he demonstrated that the "air" responsible for combustion was also the source of acidity. In 1779, he named this part of the air "oxygen" (Greek for "acid-former"), and the other "azote" (Greek for "no life"). In "Réflexions sur la Phlogistique" ("Reflections on Phlogiston," 1783), Lavoisier showed the <!--del_lnk--> phlogiston theory to be inconsistent.<p><a id="Pioneer_of_stoichiometry" name="Pioneer_of_stoichiometry"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pioneer of <!--del_lnk--> stoichiometry</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:177px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16567.jpg.htm" title="Laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier circa 1780s."><img alt="Laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier circa 1780s." height="130" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Instruments_lavoisier.jpg" src="../../images/165/16567.jpg" width="175" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16567.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier circa 1780s.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Lavoisier's experiments were among the first truly quantitative chemical experiments ever performed; that is, he carefully weighed the reactants and products involved, a crucial step in the advancement of chemistry. He showed that, although matter can change its state in a chemical reaction, the quantity of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical reaction. He burnt phosphorus and sulphur in air, and proved that the products weighed more than the original. Nevertheless, the weight gained was lost from the air. These experiments provided evidence for the law of the conservation of matter, or in other words, the <!--del_lnk--> law of conservation of mass.<p><a id="Major_works_on_analytical_chemistry_and_chemical_nomenclature" name="Major_works_on_analytical_chemistry_and_chemical_nomenclature"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Major works on analytical chemistry and chemical nomenclature</span></h3>
<p>Lavoisier also investigated the composition of water and air, which at the time were considered elements. He discovered the components of water were oxygen and hydrogen, and that air was a mixture of gases - primarily <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen.htm" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. With the French chemists <!--del_lnk--> Claude-Louis Berthollet, Antoine Fourcroy and Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier devised a chemical nomenclature, or a system of names describing the structure of chemical compounds. He described it in <i>Méthode de nomenclature chimique</i> (<i>Method of Chemical Nomenclature</i>, 1787). Their system facilitated communication of discoveries between chemists of different backgrounds and is still largely in use today, including names such as sulfuric acid, sulfates, and sulfites.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16568.jpg.htm" title="A replica of Lavoisier's laboratory at the Deutsches Museum in Munich, Germany."><img alt="A replica of Lavoisier's laboratory at the Deutsches Museum in Munich, Germany." height="142" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lavoisiers_lab.jpg" src="../../images/165/16568.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16568.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A replica of Lavoisier's laboratory at the <i>Deutsches Museum</i> in <a href="../../wp/m/Munich.htm" title="Munich">Munich</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>His <i>Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elementary Treatise of Chemistry</i>, 1789, translated into English by <!--del_lnk--> Robert Kerr) is considered to be the first modern chemical <!--del_lnk--> textbook, and presented a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear statement of the <!--del_lnk--> Law of Conservation of Mass, and denied the existence of phlogiston. Also, Lavoisier clarified the concept of an element as a simple substance that could not be broken down by any known method of chemical analysis, and he devised a theory of the formation of chemical compounds from elements.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:172px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16569.jpg.htm" title="Combustion, generated by focusing sun light over flammable materials using lenses, experiment conducted by Lavosier circa 1770s."><img alt="Combustion, generated by focusing sun light over flammable materials using lenses, experiment conducted by Lavosier circa 1770s." height="102" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lentilles_ardentes.jpg" src="../../images/165/16569.jpg" width="170" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16569.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Combustion, generated by focusing sun light over <!--del_lnk--> flammable materials using lenses, experiment conducted by Lavosier circa 1770s.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In addition, it contained a list of elements, or substances that could not be broken down further, which included oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, <a href="../../wp/p/Phosphorus.htm" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mercury_%2528element%2529.htm" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, <a href="../../wp/z/Zinc.htm" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> sulphur. It also forms the basis for the modern list of elements. His list, however, also included light and <!--del_lnk--> caloric, which he believed to be material substances. While many leading chemists of the time refused to believe Lavoisier's new revelations, the <i>Elementary Treatise</i> was written well enough to convince the younger generation.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16570.jpg.htm" title="Lavoisier while conducting combustion experiment."><img alt="Lavoisier while conducting combustion experiment." height="129" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg" src="../../images/165/16570.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16570.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lavoisier while conducting combustion experiment.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Aftermath" name="Aftermath"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Aftermath</span></h3>
<p>Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort to fit all experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established the consistent use of <!--del_lnk--> chemical balance, used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen was an essential constituent of all acids (which later turned out to be erroneous). Lavoisier also made introductory research on physical chemistry and thermodynamics in joint experiment with <!--del_lnk--> Laplace, when he used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxide produced, eventually they found the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:117px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16571.gif.htm" title="Constant pressure calorimeter made by Lavoisier for chemical enthalpy experiment."><img alt="Constant pressure calorimeter made by Lavoisier for chemical enthalpy experiment." height="85" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Calorimeter.gif" src="../../images/165/16571.gif" width="115" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16571.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Constant <!--del_lnk--> pressure <!--del_lnk--> calorimeter made by Lavoisier for chemical <!--del_lnk--> enthalpy experiment.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>He also made remarkable contributions to <!--del_lnk--> chemical bonding by stating the radical theory, believing that radicals, which function as a single group in a chemical reaction, would combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility of <!--del_lnk--> allotropy in chemical elements when he discovered that <a href="../../wp/d/Diamond.htm" title="Diamond">diamond</a> is a crystalline form of carbon.<p>He also updated many chemical concepts, for the first time the modern notion of elements was laid out systematically; the three or four elements of classical chemistry gave way to the modern system, and Lavoisier worked out reactions in chemical equations that respect the conservation of mass (see, for example, the <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen_cycle.htm" title="Nitrogen cycle">nitrogen cycle</a>).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16572.jpg.htm" title="Lavoisier conducting an experiment in the 1770s."><img alt="Lavoisier conducting an experiment in the 1770s." height="143" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lavoisier_humanexp.jpg" src="../../images/165/16572.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16572.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lavoisier conducting an experiment in the 1770s.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>His contributions are considered the most important in advancing the science of chemistry to the level of what had been achieved in physics and mathematics during 18th century.<p><a id="Contributions_to_biology" name="Contributions_to_biology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Contributions to biology</span></h2>
<p>Lavoisier used a <!--del_lnk--> calorimeter to measure heat production as a result of respiration in a <!--del_lnk--> guinea pig. The outer shell of the calorimeter was packed with snow, which melted to maintain a constant temperature of 0 °C around an inner shell filled with ice. The guinea pig in the centre of the chamber produced heat which melted the ice. The water which flowed out of the calorimeter was collected and weighed. 1 kg melted ice = 80 kcal heat production by the guinea pig. He concluded, "la respiration est donc une combustion." That is, respiratory gas exchange is a combustion, like that of a candle burning.<p><a id="Law_and_politics" name="Law_and_politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Law and politics</span></h2>
<p>Of key significance in Lavoisier's life was his study of <a href="../../wp/l/Law.htm" title="Law">law</a>. He received a <!--del_lnk--> law degree and was admitted to the <!--del_lnk--> bar, but never practiced as a <!--del_lnk--> lawyer. He did become interested in French <a href="../../wp/p/Politics.htm" title="Politics">politics</a>, and as a result, he obtained a position as <!--del_lnk--> tax collector in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Ferme Générale</i>, a <!--del_lnk--> tax farming company, at the age of 26, where he attempted to introduce reforms in the French <!--del_lnk--> monetary and <!--del_lnk--> taxation system. While in government work, he helped develop the <!--del_lnk--> metric system to secure uniformity of <!--del_lnk--> weights and measures throughout France.<p><a id="Execution" name="Execution"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Execution</span></h2>
<p>As one of 28 French tax collectors and a powerful figure in the unpopular Ferme Générale, Lavoisier was branded a traitor during the Reign of Terror by <a href="../../wp/f/French_Revolution.htm" title="French Revolution">revolutionists</a> in 1794. He was tried, convicted, and <!--del_lnk--> guillotined on the same day in Paris, at the age of 51. Ironically, Lavoisier was one of the few liberals in his position. One of his actions that may have sealed his fate was a <!--del_lnk--> contretemps a few years earlier with the young <!--del_lnk--> Jean-Paul Marat, who subsequently became a leading revolutionary.<p>An appeal to spare his life was cut short by the judge: "The Republic has no need of geniuses [or, alternately, "scientists"]." His importance for science was expressed by the mathematician <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Louis Lagrange who lamented the beheading by saying: "It took them only an instant to cut off that head, but France may not produce another like it in a century."<p>One and a half years following his death, Lavoisier was exonerated by the French government. When his private belongings were delivered to his widow, a brief note was included reading "To the widow of Lavoisier, who was falsely convicted".<p>About a century after his death, a statue of Lavoisier was erected in Paris. It was later discovered that the sculptor had not actually copied Lavoisier's head for the statue, but used a spare head of the <!--del_lnk--> Marquis de Condorcet, the Secretary of the Academy of Sciences during Lavoisier's last years. Lack of money prevented alterations being made. The statue was melted down during the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">Second World War</a> and has never been replaced.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Paris', 'France', 'Paris', 'France', 'Economics', 'France', 'Chemistry', 'Finance', 'Biology', 'Economics', 'Oxygen', 'Hydrogen', 'France', 'French Revolution', 'Jacques-Louis David', 'Paris', 'Chemistry', 'Botany', 'Astronomy', 'Mathematics', 'France', 'Drawing', 'Gunpowder', 'Drawing', 'Hydrogen', 'Nitrogen', 'Oxygen', 'Munich', 'Germany', 'Phosphorus', 'Mercury (element)', 'Zinc', 'Diamond', 'Nitrogen cycle', 'Law', 'Politics', 'French Revolution', 'World War II'] |
Anton_Alexander_von_Werner | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Anton Alexander von Werner,1843,1857,1864,1867,1870,1871,1872,1873,1875,1877" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Anton Alexander von Werner</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Anton_Alexander_von_Werner";
var wgTitle = "Anton Alexander von Werner";
var wgArticleId = 2145975;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Anton_Alexander_von_Werner">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Anton Alexander von Werner</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Artists.htm">Artists</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15249.jpg.htm" title="Selbstbildnis - self portrait, 1885"><img alt="Selbstbildnis - self portrait, 1885" height="243" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Anton_von_werner_selbstbildnis_1885.jpg" src="../../images/152/15249.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15249.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Selbstbildnis - self portrait, 1885</b></div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>Anton Alexander von Werner</b> (<!--del_lnk--> May 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1843 – <!--del_lnk--> January 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1915), <!--del_lnk--> Prussian painter, was born at <!--del_lnk--> Frankfurt (Oder), on May 9, 1843. He began painting in <!--del_lnk--> 1857 as a student painter, then studied painting at the <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Academy (<!--del_lnk--> Berliner Akademie der Künste). He pursued his studies at <!--del_lnk--> Carlsruhe, where he studied under <!--del_lnk--> Johann Wilhelm Schirmer, <!--del_lnk--> Ludwig Des Coudres and <!--del_lnk--> Adolf Schrödter. After having won a travelling scholarship upon the exhibition of his early works, he visited <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1867, and afterwards <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, where he remained for some time. On his return, he received several state commissions.<p>On the outbreak of the <!--del_lnk--> Franco-Prussian War in <!--del_lnk--> 1870 he was sent with the staff of the third <i>corps d'armee</i>, and stayed in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> until the close of the campaign in <!--del_lnk--> 1871. In that year, he married <!--del_lnk--> Malwine Schroedter, <!--del_lnk--> Adolph Schroedter's daughter. In <!--del_lnk--> 1873 he was appointed professor at the Berlin Academy. His career reached its peak when he became, in <!--del_lnk--> 1875, director of the Academy in Berlin (<!--del_lnk--> Königliche Hochschule der bildenden Künste). After <!--del_lnk--> 1888, while in <!--del_lnk--> Whilhelm II's court, von Werner tutored the Kaiser to become a painter. In <!--del_lnk--> 1909, he succeeded Hugo von Tschudi in to directing the Nationalgalerie in Berlin. He died in <!--del_lnk--> 1915 and was interred at the <!--del_lnk--> Alten Zwölf-Apostel-Kirchhof à <!--del_lnk--> Berlin-Schöneberg.<p>Among his more important works must be named <i>The Capitulation of Sedan</i>, <i>Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles</i>, <i>Moltke before Paris</i>, <i>Moltke at Versailles</i>, <i>The Meeting of Bismarck and Napoleon III</i>, <i>Christ and the Tribute Money</i>, <i>William I visiting the Tombs</i>, <i>The Congress of Berlin</i>, and some decorations executed in <a href="../../wp/m/Mosaic.htm" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> for the Triumphal Arch at Berlin. Von Werner's work is chiefly interesting for the historic value of his pictures of the events of the Franco-Prussian War.<p><a id="Works" name="Works"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Works</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15250.jpg.htm" title="Die Proklamation des Deutschen Kaiserreiches (1877)"><img alt="Die Proklamation des Deutschen Kaiserreiches (1877)" height="131" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Reichsgr%C3%BCndung1871-AW.jpg" src="../../images/152/15250.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15250.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Die Proklamation des Deutschen Kaiserreiches (1877)</b></div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> 1864 <i>Kinderkopf im Profil</i> (<i>Child's Head in Profile</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> 1867 <i>Kauernder Jüngling</i> (<i>Crouching Boy</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> 1872 <i>Allegorie auf die Entstehung der deutschen Einheit</i> (eine Vorstudie zum Mosaik an der Siegessäule in Berlin)<li><!--del_lnk--> 1873 <i>Husar und älterer Offizier</i> (<i><!--del_lnk--> Hussar and An Older Officer</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> 1877 <i>Die Proklamation des Deutschen Kaiserreiches</i> (<i>The Proclamation of the <!--del_lnk--> German Empire</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> 1883 <i>Sedan Panorama</i></ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Alexander_von_Werner"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Paris', 'Italy', 'France', 'Mosaic'] |
Antonio_Vivaldi | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" />
<meta content="Antonio Vivaldi,01 - Vivaldi Spring mvt 1 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg,02 - Vivaldi Spring mvt 2 Largo - John Harrison violin.ogg,03 - Vivaldi Spring mvt 3 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg,04 - Vivaldi Summer mvt 1 Allegro non molto - John Harrison violin.ogg,05 - Vivaldi Summer mvt 2 Adagio - John Harrison violin.ogg,06 - Vivaldi Summer mvt 3 Presto - John Harrison violin.ogg,07 - Vivaldi Autumn mvt 1 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg,08 - Vivaldi Autumn mvt 2 Adagio molto - John Harrison violin.ogg,09 - Vivaldi Autumn mvt 3 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg,10 - Vivaldi Winter mvt 1 Allegro non molto - John Harrison violin.ogg" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Antonio Vivaldi</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">/*<![CDATA[*/
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false;
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Antonio_Vivaldi";
var wgTitle = "Antonio Vivaldi";
var wgAction = "view";
var wgArticleId = "1425";
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserGroups = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
var wgBreakFrames = false;
var wgCurRevisionId = "133239294";
/*]]>*/</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Antonio_Vivaldi">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Antonio Vivaldi</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Performers_and_composers.htm">Performers and composers</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/126/12652.jpg.htm" title="Unconfirmed portrait of Antonio Vivaldi"><img alt="Unconfirmed portrait of Antonio Vivaldi" class="thumbimage" height="239" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vivaldi.jpg" src="../../images/126/12652.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/126/12652.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Unconfirmed portrait of Antonio Vivaldi</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>Antonio Lucio Vivaldi</b> (<!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1678 – <!--del_lnk--> July 27 or <!--del_lnk--> 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1741), nicknamed <i>Il Prete Rosso</i> ("The Red Priest"), was a <!--del_lnk--> Venetian priest and <!--del_lnk--> baroque music composer, as well as a famous violinist. <i><!--del_lnk--> The Four Seasons</i>, a series of four <!--del_lnk--> violin concertos, are his best known works and highly popular <!--del_lnk--> Baroque music pieces.<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script>
<p><a id="Biography" name="Biography"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Biography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Youth" name="Youth"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Youth</span></h3>
<p>Antonio Lucio Vivaldi was born in <!--del_lnk--> Venice, the capital of the <!--del_lnk--> Republic of Venice. He was baptized immediately at his home by the midwife. It is not known how the life of the infant was in danger, but the immediate baptism was most likely due to his poor health or to an earthquake that shook the city that day. Vivaldi's official church baptism (at least, the rites which remained other than the actual baptism itself) did not take place until two months later. His father, Giovanni Battista, a <!--del_lnk--> barber before becoming a professional <!--del_lnk--> violinist, taught him to play violin and then toured Venice playing the violin with his young son. Giovanni Battista was one of the founders of the <i>Sovvegno dei musicisti di Santa Cecilia</i>, a sort of trade union for musicians and composers. The president of the association was <!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Legrenzi, the <i>maestro di cappella</i> at <!--del_lnk--> St. Mark's Basilica and noted early Baroque composer. It is possible that the young Antonio's first lessons in composition were imparted by him. The Luxemburgese scholar Walter Kolneder sees in the early liturgical work <i>Laetatus sum</i> (RV Anh 31, written in 1691, at the age of 13) an influence of Legrenzi's style. His father may have been a composer himself: in 1688 an opera titled ''<i>La Fedeltà sfortunata</i> was composed by a Giovanni Battista Rossi, and this was the name under which Vivaldi's father had joined the Sovvegno di Santa Cecilia ("Rossi" for "Red", because of the colour of his hair, a family trait).<p>Vivaldi had a medical problem which he called the <i>tightening of the chest</i> (probably some form of <a href="../../wp/a/Asthma.htm" title="Asthma">asthma</a>). His medical problem, however, did not prevent him from learning to play the violin, composing and taking part in the prescribed musical activities. At the age of 15 (<!--del_lnk--> 1693), he began studying to become a <!--del_lnk--> priest. In <!--del_lnk--> 1703, at the age of 25, Vivaldi was ordained as a priest, soon nicknamed <i>Il Prete Rosso</i>, "The Red Priest", probably because of his red hair.<p>Not long after his ordination, in <!--del_lnk--> 1704, he was given a dispensation from celebrating the <!--del_lnk--> Holy Mass because of his ill health. In late <!--del_lnk--> 1706 he withdrew from active priesthood.<p><a id="At_the_Ospedale_della_Piet.C3.A0" name="At_the_Ospedale_della_Piet.C3.A0"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">At the <i>Ospedale della Pietà</i></span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 1 December <!--del_lnk--> 1703, Vivaldi became <i>maestro di violino</i> (master of violin) at an orphanage called the <!--del_lnk--> Pio Ospedale della Pietà (Devout Hospital of the Mercy) in Venice. There were four such institutions in Venice. Their purpose was to give shelter and education to children who were abandoned, orphaned, or whose families could not support them. They were financed by funds provided by the Republic. The boys learned a trade and had to leave at age 15. The girls received musical education and the most talented stayed and became members of the Ospedale's renowned orchestra and choir.<p>Shortly after his appointment, the orphans began to gain appreciation and esteem abroad, too; Vivaldi wrote for them most of his concertos, cantatas, and sacred music. In 1704 the position of teacher of <i>viola all'inglese</i> was added to his duty as violin instructor.<p>His relation with the board of directors of the Ospedale was often strained. The board had to take a vote every year on whether to keep a teacher. The vote on Vivaldi was seldom unanimous and in 1709 he lost his job after a 7 against 6 vote. After a year as free-lance musician, he was recalled by the Ospedale with a unanimous vote in 1711; clearly the board had realized the importance of his role by then. In 1713 he became responsible for the musical activity of the institute. Vivaldi was promoted to <i>maestro de' concerti</i> in 1716.<p>It was during these years that Vivaldi wrote much of his music, including many operas and concerti. In <!--del_lnk--> 1705, the first collection (<i>Raccolta</i>) of his works was published: his Opus 1 is a collection of 12 sonatas for two violins and basso continuo, still in a conventional style. In <!--del_lnk--> 1709 a second collection of 12 sonatas for violin & basso continuo appeared (Opus 2). The real breakthrough came with his first collection of 12 concerti for one, two, and four violins with strings, <i><!--del_lnk--> L'Estro Armonico</i> (Opus 3), that was published in Amsterdam in <!--del_lnk--> 1711 by <!--del_lnk--> Estienne Roger. This was a resounding success all over Europe, and was followed in <!--del_lnk--> 1714 by <i><!--del_lnk--> La Stravaganza</i> (Opus 4), a collection of concerti for solo violin and strings.<p>In February 1711, Vivaldi and his father went to <!--del_lnk--> Brescia where his setting of the <!--del_lnk--> Stabat Mater (RV 621) was played as part of a religious festival. The work seems to have been written in haste: the string parts are simple, the music of the first three movements is repeated in the next three, and not all the text is set. However, and in part as a consequence of the forced essentiality of the music, the work reveals musical and emotional depth and is one of his early masterpieces.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1718, Vivaldi began to travel. Despite his frequent travels, the Pietà paid him to write two concertos a month for the orchestra and to rehearse with them at least four times when in Venice. The Pietà's records show that he was paid for 140 concertos between <!--del_lnk--> 1723 and <!--del_lnk--> 1729.<p><a id="Opera_Impresario" name="Opera_Impresario"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Opera Impresario</span></h3>
<p>In the Venice of the early <a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th century</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Opera.htm" title="Opera">opera</a> was the most popular musical entertainment and the most profitable for the composer. There were several theaters competing for the public attention. Vivaldi started his career as opera writer in undertone: his first opera, <i><!--del_lnk--> Ottone in villa</i> (RV 729) was performed not in Venice, but at the Garzerie theatre in <!--del_lnk--> Vicenza in <!--del_lnk--> 1713. The following year, Vivaldi made the jump to Venice and became the <!--del_lnk--> impresario of the theatre <!--del_lnk--> Sant'Angelo in Venice, where his opera <i><!--del_lnk--> Orlando finto pazzo</i> (RV 727) was performed. However, the work did not meet the public taste and Vivaldi had to close it after a couple of weeks and replace it with a rerun of a different work already given the previous year. In <!--del_lnk--> 1715, he presented <i><!--del_lnk--> Nerone fatto Cesare</i> (RV 274, now lost), with music by seven different composers, of which he was the leader with eleven <!--del_lnk--> arias. This time it was a success and in the late season Vivaldi planned to give an opera completely of his own hand, <i><!--del_lnk--> Arsilda regina di Ponto</i> (RV 700). However, the state censor blocked the performance; he objected to the plot: the main character, Arsilda, falls in love with another woman, Lisea, who is pretending to be a man. Vivaldi managed to get the opera through censorship the following year, and it was eventually performed to a resounding success.<p>In this same period of time, the <i>Pietà</i> commissioned several liturgical works. The most important were two <!--del_lnk--> oratorios. The first, <i><!--del_lnk--> Moyses Deus Pharaonis</i> (RV 643) is unfortunately lost. The second, <i><!--del_lnk--> Juditha triumphans</i> (RV 644), composed in <!--del_lnk--> 1716, is one of his sacred masterpieces. It was commissioned to celebrate the victory of the Republic of Venice against the Turks and the recapture of the island of <!--del_lnk--> Corfù. All eleven singing parts were performed by girls of the Pietà, both for the female and male characters. Many of the arias included parts by solo instruments: recorders, oboes, clarinets, viola d'amore, mandolins, that showcased the range of talents of the girls.<div class="floatleft"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/126/12655.jpg.htm" title="Frontispiece of Il teatro alla moda"><img alt="Frontispiece of Il teatro alla moda" height="274" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Teatro_alla_moda.jpg" src="../../images/126/12655.jpg" width="200" /></a></span></div>
<p>In the same year <!--del_lnk--> 1716, Vivaldi wrote and produced two more operas, <i><!--del_lnk--> L'incoronazione di Dario</i> (RV 719) and <i><!--del_lnk--> La costanza trionfante degli amori e degli odi</i> (RV 706). The latter was so popular that it was re-edited and represented two years later with the title <i>Artabano re dei Parti</i> (RV 701, lost); and was eventually performed in <a href="../../wp/p/Prague.htm" title="Prague">Prague</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1732. In the following years, Vivaldi wrote several operas that were performed all over Italy.<p>His modern operatic style caused him some trouble with other more conservative musicians, like <!--del_lnk--> Benedetto Marcello, a magistrate and amateur musician, who wrote a <!--del_lnk--> pamphlet against him and the modern style of opera. The pamphlet is called <i><!--del_lnk--> Il teatro alla moda</i>, and its cover has a caricature of Vivaldi playing the violin. The Marcello family was the rightful owner of the Sant'Angelo theatre and a long legal battle had been fought with the management for its restitution, without success. The booklet attacks Vivaldi without mentioning him directly. The cover drawing shows a boat (the Sant'Angelo), on the left end of which stands a little angel wearing a priest hat and playing the violin. It is a caricature of Vivaldi. The obscure writing under the picture mentions nonexistent places and names. In particular, <i>ALDIVIVA</i> is an anagram of <i>A. Vivaldi</i>.<p><a id="Maturity" name="Maturity"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Maturity</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/126/12657.png.htm" title="Caricature by P.L.Ghezzi, Rome (1723)"><img alt="Caricature by P.L.Ghezzi, Rome (1723)" class="thumbimage" height="208" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vivaldi_caricature.png" src="../../images/126/12657.png" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/126/12657.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Caricature by P.L.Ghezzi, Rome (1723)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1717 or <!--del_lnk--> 1718, Vivaldi was offered a new prestigious position as <i>Maestro di Cappella</i> of the court of the prince Phillip of <!--del_lnk--> Hesse-Darmstadt, governor of <!--del_lnk--> Mantua. He moved there for three years and produced several operas, among which was <!--del_lnk--> Tito Manlio (RV 738). In <!--del_lnk--> 1721, he was in <a href="../../wp/m/Milan.htm" title="Milan">Milan</a>, presenting the pastoral drama <i>La Silvia</i> (RV 734, lost) and again the next year with the oratorio <i>L'adorazione delli tre re magi al bambino Gesù</i> (RV 645, also lost). The next big step was a move to <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1722, where his operas introduced the new style and where the new pope <!--del_lnk--> Benedict XIII invited Vivaldi to play for him. In <!--del_lnk--> 1725, he returned to Venice, where he produced four operas in the same year.<p>It is also in this period that he wrote the <i><!--del_lnk--> Four Seasons</i>, four violin concertos depicting natural scenes in music. While three of the concerti are of original conception, the first, "Spring", borrows motifs from a Sinfonia in the first act of his opera "<!--del_lnk--> Il Giustino," composed the same time of the Four Seasons. The inspiration for them was probably the countryside around Mantua. They were a revolution in musical conception: in them Vivaldi represented flowing creeks, singing birds (of different species, each specifically characterised), barking dogs, buzzing mosquitoes, crying shepherds, storms, drunken dancers, silent nights, hunting parties (both from the hunter's and the prey's point of view), frozen landscapes, children ice-skating, and burning fires. Each concerto was associated with a <!--del_lnk--> sonnet of Vivaldi's hand, describing the scenes depicted in the music. They were published as the first four of a collection of twelve, <i><!--del_lnk--> Il cimento dell'Armonia e dell'Inventione</i>, his Opus 8, published in Amsterdam by <!--del_lnk--> Le Cène in <!--del_lnk--> 1725.<p>Despite his priestly status, Vivaldi is supposed to have had several love affairs, one of which was with the <!--del_lnk--> singer <!--del_lnk--> Anna Giraud, whom he met at his return to Venice. There is no concrete evidence, however, that links Vivaldi romantically to anyone. He was suspected of editing materials for his operas, which he adapted to the vocal preferences of his protegée.<p><a id="Late_life_and_death" name="Late_life_and_death"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Late life and death</span></h3>
<p>At the height of his career, Vivaldi received commissions from European nobles and royalty. The wedding cantata <i>Gloria e Imeneo</i> (RV 687) was written for the marriage of <!--del_lnk--> Louis XV. Opus 9, <i><!--del_lnk--> La Cetra</i>, was dedicated to <!--del_lnk--> Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Charles VI. Vivaldi had the chance to meet the Emperor in person in <!--del_lnk--> 1728, when he came to <!--del_lnk--> Trieste to oversee the construction of a new port. Charles admired the music of the Red Priest so much that he is said to have spoken more with the composer in that occasion than with his ministers in two years. He gave him the title of <!--del_lnk--> knight, a gold medal, and an invitation to come to <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>. On his part, Vivaldi gave Charles a manuscript copy of <i>La Cetra</i>; this is a set of concertos almost completely different from the one published with the same title as Opus 9. Probably the printing had been delayed and Vivaldi was forced to gather an improvised collection.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1730, accompanied by his father, he travelled to Vienna and Prague, where his opera <i><!--del_lnk--> Farnace</i> (RV 711) was presented. Some late operas marked the collaboration with two of Italy's major writers of the time. <i><!--del_lnk--> L'Olimpiade</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Catone in Utica</i> were written by <!--del_lnk--> Pietro Metastasio, the major representative of the <!--del_lnk--> Arcadian movement and court poet in Vienna. <i><!--del_lnk--> La Griselda</i> was rewritten by the young <!--del_lnk--> Carlo Goldoni from an earlier libretto by <!--del_lnk--> Apostolo Zeno.<p>Vivaldi's life, like those of many composers of the time, ended in financial difficulties. His compositions no longer held the high esteem they once did in Venice; changing musical tastes quickly made them outmoded, and Vivaldi, in response, chose to sell off sizeable numbers of his manuscripts at paltry prices to finance a migration to <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>. Reasons for Vivaldi's departure from Venice are unclear, but it seems likely that he wished to meet Charles VI, who appreciated his compositions (Vivaldi dedicated <i>La Cetra</i> to Charles in <!--del_lnk--> 1727), and take up the position of a composer in the Imperial Court. It is ever more likely that Vivaldi went to Vienna to stage operas, especially as his place of residence was near the Karntner Tor Theatre. However, shortly after Vivaldi's arrival at Vienna, Charles died. This tragic stroke of bad luck left the composer without royal protection and a source of income. Vivaldi had to sell off more manuscripts to make ends meet and eventually died not long after, on either <!--del_lnk--> 27 July or <!--del_lnk--> 28 July <!--del_lnk--> 1741, of <i>internal fire</i> (which was probably from the <a href="../../wp/a/Asthma.htm" title="Asthma">asthma</a> that he had been suffering from) in a house owned by the widow of a Viennese saddle-maker. On <!--del_lnk--> 28 July he was buried in a simple grave at the Hospital Burial Ground in Vienna (the assumption that the young <a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_Haydn.htm" title="Joseph Haydn">Joseph Haydn</a> sang in the choir at Vivaldi's burial was based on the mistranscription of a primary source and has been proven wrong).<p>His burial spot is next to the <!--del_lnk--> Karlskirche in Vienna, at the site of the <!--del_lnk--> Technical Institute. The house he lived in while in Vienna was torn down. In its place there is now the Hotel Sacher. Memorial plaques have been placed at both locations, as well as a Vivaldi <i>star</i> in the Viennese Musikmeile and a monument at the Rooseveltsplatz.<p><a id="Style_and_influence" name="Style_and_influence"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Style and influence</span></h2>
<p>Many of Vivaldi's compositions reflect a buoyant, almost playful, exuberance which are in direct contrast with the dignified seriousness of much Baroque music in his time. Most of Vivaldi's repertoire was rediscovered only in the first half of the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a> in <a href="../../wp/t/Turin.htm" title="Turin">Turin</a> and <a href="../../wp/g/Genoa.htm" title="Genoa">Genoa</a> and was published in the second half. Vivaldi's music is innovative, breaking a consolidated tradition in schemes; he gave brightness to the formal and the rhythmic structure of the concerto, repeatedly looking for <!--del_lnk--> harmonic contrasts and invented innovative melodies and themes. Moreover, Vivaldi was able to compose non-academic music, particularly meant to be appreciated by the wide public and not only by an intellectual minority. The joyful appearance of his music reveals in this regard a transmissible joy of composing. These are among the causes of the vast popularity of his music. This popularity soon made him famous in other countries such as <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> which was, at the time, very independent concerning its musical taste.<p>Vivaldi is considered one of the composers who brought Baroque music (with its typical contrast among heavy sonorities) to evolve into a classical style. <a href="../../wp/j/Johann_Sebastian_Bach.htm" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">Johann Sebastian Bach</a> was deeply influenced by Vivaldi's concertos and arias (recalled in his <i><!--del_lnk--> Johannes Passion</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Matthäuspassion</i>, and <!--del_lnk--> cantatas). Bach transcribed a number of Vivaldi's concertos for solo keyboard, along with a number for orchestra, including the famous <i>Concerto for Four Violins and Violoncello, Strings and Continuo</i> (<!--del_lnk--> RV 580).<p><a id="Posthumous_reputation" name="Posthumous_reputation"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Posthumous reputation</span></h2>
<p>Vivaldi remained unknown for his published concerti, and largely ignored, even after the resurgence of interest in Bach, pioneered by <a href="../../wp/f/Felix_Mendelssohn.htm" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a>. Even his most famous work, <i>The Four Seasons</i>, was unknown in its original edition. In the early 20th century <!--del_lnk--> Fritz Kreisler's concerto in the style of Vivaldi, which he passed off as an original Vivaldi work but which was actually by Kreisler, helped revive Vivaldi's fortunes. This impelled the French scholar Marc Pincherle to begin academic work on Vivaldi's oeuvre. The discovery of many Vivaldi manuscripts and their acquisition by the National University of Turin Library, with the generous sponsorship of Roberto Foa and Filippo Giordano (in memory of their sons, respectively, Mauro and Renzo), led to renewed interest in Vivaldi. People such as <!--del_lnk--> Marc Pincherle, <!--del_lnk--> Mario Rinaldi, <!--del_lnk--> Alfredo Casella, <a href="../../wp/e/Ezra_Pound.htm" title="Ezra Pound">Ezra Pound</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Olga Rudge, <!--del_lnk--> Arturo Toscanini, and <!--del_lnk--> Louis Kaufman were instrumental in the Vivaldi revival of the 20th century. The resurrection of Vivaldi's unpublished works in the 20th century is mostly thanks to the efforts of <!--del_lnk--> Alfredo Casella, who in <!--del_lnk--> 1939 organised the now historic <i>Vivaldi Week</i>, in which the rediscovered <!--del_lnk--> <i>Gloria</i> (RV 589) and <i>l'Olimpiade</i> were first heard again. Since WW II, Vivaldi's compositions have enjoyed almost universal success, and the advent of <!--del_lnk--> historically informed performances has only increased his fame. In <!--del_lnk--> 1947, the Venetian businessman <!--del_lnk--> Antonio Fanna founded the <!--del_lnk--> Istituto Italiano Antonio Vivaldi, with the composer <!--del_lnk--> Gian Francesco Malipiero as its artistic director, with the purpose of promoting Vivaldi's music and publishing new editions of his works.<p>A movie titled <i>Vivaldi, a Prince in Venice</i> was completed in <!--del_lnk--> 2005 as an Italian-French coproduction, under the direction of <!--del_lnk--> Jean-Louis Guillermou, featuring <!--del_lnk--> Stefano Dionisi in the title role and <!--del_lnk--> Michel Serrault as the bishop of Venice. Another film inspired by the life of the composer is in a preproduction state: it has the working title <i><!--del_lnk--> Vivaldi</i>, is produced and directed by <!--del_lnk--> Boris Damast, and is slated to have <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Fiennes in the title role. Also starring are <!--del_lnk--> Malcolm McDowell, <!--del_lnk--> Jacqueline Bisset, and <!--del_lnk--> Gérard Depardieu.<p>Vivaldi's music, together with that of <a href="../../wp/w/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart.htm" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Mozart</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky.htm" title="Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky">Tchaikovsky</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Corelli, has been included in the theories of <!--del_lnk--> Alfred Tomatis on the effects of music on human behaviour, and used in <!--del_lnk--> music therapy.<p>His compositions include:<ul>
<li>Over 500 <!--del_lnk--> concertos; approximately 350 of these are for solo instrument and strings, and of these about 230 are for violin; the others are for bassoon, cello, oboe, flute, viola d'amore, recorder, lute, and mandolin. Approximately 40 concertos are for two instruments and strings, and approximately 30 are for three or more instruments and strings.</ul>
<ul>
<li>46 <a href="../../wp/o/Opera.htm" title="Opera">operas</a></ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> sinfonias</ul>
<ul>
<li>73 sonatas</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> chamber music (even if some sonatas for <a href="../../wp/f/Flute.htm" title="Flute">flute</a>, as <i>Il Pastor Fido</i>, have been erroneously attributed to him, but were composed by <!--del_lnk--> Chédeville).</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> sacred music</ul>
<ul>
<li>His most famous work is perhaps <!--del_lnk--> 1723's <!--del_lnk--> <i>Le Quattro Stagioni</i> (The Four Seasons). In essence, it resembled an early example of a <!--del_lnk--> tone poem, where he attempted to capture all the moods of the four seasons without the use of <!--del_lnk--> percussion to dramatize the effects he sought to portray. (See section above for more detailed description.)</ul>
<p><a name="1926_and_1930_discoveries"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">1926 and 1930 discoveries</span></h3>
<p>As one biography describes it:<table align="center" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; border-style:none; background-color:transparent;">
<tr>
<td style="color:#B2B7F2;font-size:35px;font-family:'Times New Roman',serif;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;padding:10px 10px;" valign="top" width="20">“</td>
<td style="padding:4px 10px;" valign="top">The fate of the Italian composer's legacy is unique. After the Napoleonic wars, it was thought that a large part of Vivaldi's work had been irrevocably lost. However, in the autumn of 1926, after a detective-like search by researchers, 14 folios of Vivaldi's previously unknown religious and secular works were found in the library of a monastery in Piedmont. Some even and odd-numbered volumes were missing and so, the search continued. Finally, in October 1930, the missing volumes were found to be with the descendants of the Grand Duke Durazzo, who had acquired the property as early as the eighteenth century. <p>To its amazement, the world of music was presented with 300 concerts for various instruments, 18 operas, not counting a number of arias and more than 100 vocal-instrumental pieces. Such an impressive list of newly unearthed opuses warranted a re-evaluation of Vivaldi's creativity.</td>
<td style="color:#B2B7F2;font-size:36px;font-family:'Times New Roman',serif;font-weight:bold;text-align:right;padding:10px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="20">”</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Recent_discoveries" name="Recent_discoveries"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Recent discoveries</span></h3>
<p>Recently, four sacred vocal works by Vivaldi have been discovered in the <!--del_lnk--> Saxon State Library in <a href="../../wp/d/Dresden.htm" title="Dresden">Dresden</a>. These compositions were improperly attributed to <!--del_lnk--> Baldassarre Galuppi, a Venetian composer of the early classical period, mostly famous for his choral works.<p>In the years <!--del_lnk--> 1750s or <!--del_lnk--> 1760s, the <!--del_lnk--> Saxon court asked for some sacred works by Galuppi from the Venetian copyist <!--del_lnk--> Don Giuseppe Baldan. Baldan included, among authentic works by Galuppi, the four compositions by Vivaldi, passing them off as Galuppi's. He probably obtained the originals from two of Vivaldi's nephews, (<!--del_lnk--> Carlo Vivaldi and <!--del_lnk--> Daniele Mauro), who worked under him as copyists.<p>The recognition of Vivaldi's authorship could be made by analysing style and instrumentation and by recognizing arias from Vivaldi's operas.<p>The two most recent among these discoveries are two <!--del_lnk--> psalm settings of <i>Nisi Dominus</i> (RV 803, in eight movements) and <i>Dixit Dominus</i> (RV 807, in eleven movements), identified in <!--del_lnk--> 2003 and <!--del_lnk--> 2005, respectively, by the Australian scholar <!--del_lnk--> Janice Stockigt.<p>RV 803 was recorded for the first time in <!--del_lnk--> 2005 by the <!--del_lnk--> King's Consort under the direction of Robert King.<p>RV 807 was recorded for the first time in <!--del_lnk--> 2006 by the <!--del_lnk--> Dresdner Instrumental-Concert under the direction of <!--del_lnk--> Peter Kopp. Vivaldi scholar <!--del_lnk--> Michael Talbot called it "arguably the best non-operatic work from Vivaldi's pen to come to light since ...the <!--del_lnk--> 1920s".<p><a id="Works" name="Works"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Works</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>See also: <!--del_lnk--> Category:Compositions by Antonio Vivaldi<p>Below is a list of Vivaldi works, from his many concerti to his sacred vocal works. While the list is not a complete listing of all Vivaldi works, these lists contain many known compositions, including publications during his lifetime.<p><a id="Works_published_during_his_lifetime" name="Works_published_during_his_lifetime"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Works published during his lifetime</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Opus 1, twelve sonatas for two violins and basso continuo (<!--del_lnk--> 1705)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Opus 2, twelve sonatas for violin and basso continuo (<!--del_lnk--> 1709)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Opus 3, <!--del_lnk--> L'estro Armonico (Harmonic inspiration), twelve concertos for various combinations. Best known concerti are No. 6 in A minor for violin, No. 8 in A minor for two violins and No. 10 in B minor for four violins (<!--del_lnk--> 1711).</ul>
<ul>
<li>Opus 4, <!--del_lnk--> La stravaganza (The extraordinary), twelve violin concertos (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1714)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Opus 5, (second part of Opus 2), four sonatas for violin and two sonatas for two violins and basso continuo (<!--del_lnk--> 1716).</ul>
<ul>
<li>Opus 6, six violin concertos (1716–<!--del_lnk--> 21)</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Opus 7, two oboe concertos and 10 violin concertos (1716–1717)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Opus 8, Il cimento dell'armonia e dell'inventione (The Contest between Harmony and Invention), twelve violin concertos including the celebrated work, <!--del_lnk--> Le quattro stagioni (The Four Seasons), consisting of the first four concertos in opus 8 (<!--del_lnk--> 1723).</ul>
<ul>
<li>Opus 9, La cetra (The lyre), twelve violin concertos and one for two violins (<!--del_lnk--> 1727)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Opus 10, six flute concertos (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1728)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Opus 11, five violin concertos, one oboe concerto, the second in E minor, RV 277, being known as "Il favorito" (<!--del_lnk--> 1729)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Opus 12, five violin concertos and one without solo (<!--del_lnk--> 1729)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Opus 13, Il pastor fido (The Faithful Shepherd), six sonatas for musette, viela, recorder, flute, oboe or violin, and basso continuo (<!--del_lnk--> 1737, spurious works by <!--del_lnk--> Nicolas Chédeville).</ul>
<p><a id="Operas" name="Operas"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Operas</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Ottone in villa</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1713)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Orlando finto pazzo</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1714)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Arsilda regina di Ponto</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1715)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> L'incoronazione di Dario</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1716)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Scanderbeg</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1718)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Il Teuzzone</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1719)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Tito Manlio</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1719)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> La verità in cimento</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1720)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Ercole sul Termodonte</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1723)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Il Giustino</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1724)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Dorilla in Tempe</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1726)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Farnace</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1727)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Orlando furioso</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1727)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Rosilena ed Oronta</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1728)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> La fida ninfa</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1732)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Motezuma</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1733)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> L'Olimpiade</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1734)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Bajazet (Tamerlano)</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1735)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Griselda</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1735)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Catone in Utica</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1737)</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Rosmira</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1738)</ul>
<p><a id="Concerto" name="Concerto"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Concerto</span></h3>
<p>Vivaldi wrote hundreds of concerti for various instruments. Below is a list of notable concerti:<p>Cello:<ul>
<li>Cello concerto in Cm, RV 401</ul>
<ul>
<li>Cello concerto in Em, RV 409</ul>
<ul>
<li>Cello concerto in F, RV 411</ul>
<ul>
<li>Cello concerto in F, RV 412</ul>
<ul>
<li>Cello concerto in G, RV 413</ul>
<ul>
<li>Cello Concerto in G, RV 415</ul>
<ul>
<li>Cello concerto in Gm, RV 417</ul>
<ul>
<li>Cello concerto in Am, RV 418</ul>
<ul>
<li>Cello concerto in Am, RV 420</ul>
<ul>
<li>Cello concerto in Bm, RV 424</ul>
<p>Mandolin:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Mandolin Concerto in C major, RV 425</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto for two Mandolins in G major, RV 532</ul>
<p>Lute:<ul>
<li>Concerto in D major, RV 93</ul>
<p>Recorder and Flute:<ul>
<li>Concerto in D major, RV 95, "La pastorella"</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto in C minor for Treble Recorder, RV 441</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto in F major for Treble Recorder, RV 442</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto in C major for Sopranino Recorder, RV 443</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto in C major for Sopranino Recorder, RV 444</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto in A minor for Sopranino Recorder, RV 445</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto in F major for Flute ("La Tempesta di Mare"), RV 433 (Op. 10, No. 1), RV 98 and RV 570</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto in G minor for Flute ("La Notte"), RV 439 (Op. 10, No. 2)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto in D major for Flute ("Il Gardellino"), RV 428 (Op. 10 No. 3)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto in G major for Flute, RV 435 (Op. 10, No. 4)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto in F major for Flute, RV 434 (Op. 10, No. 5)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto in G major for Flute, RV 437 (Op. 10, No. 6)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto in C major for 2 Flutes, RV 533</ul>
<p>Brass and Woodwind:<ul>
<li>Concerto in C major for Two Trumpets, RV 537</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto in D major for two Oboe, Bassoon, two French Horns, and Solo Violin, RV 562</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto in D minor for two Recorders, two Oboe, and Bassoon, RV 566</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto in F major for Oboe, Bassoon, two French Horns, and Solo Violin, RV 571</ul>
<ul>
<li>Concerto in B-flat major for Oboe, <!--del_lnk--> Chalumeau, and Solo Violin, RV 579</ul>
<p><a id="Sacred_Works" name="Sacred_Works"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Sacred Works</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Missa Sacrum, RV 586 (disputed)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Kyrie, RV 587</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Gloria, RV 588</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Gloria, RV 589</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Gloria, RV 590 (lost)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Credo, RV 591</ul>
<ul>
<li>Credo, RV 592 (disputed)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Domine ad adiuvandum me, RV 593</ul>
<ul>
<li>Dixit Dominus, RV 594</ul>
<ul>
<li>Dixit Dominus, RV 595 ("di Praga")</ul>
<ul>
<li>Confetibor, tibi Domine, RV 596</ul>
<ul>
<li>Beatus vir, RV 597</ul>
<ul>
<li>Beatus vir, RV 598</ul>
<ul>
<li>Beatus vir, RV 599 (lost) — A possible archetype; precursor to RV 597 and later variant RV 795</ul>
<ul>
<li>Laudate pueri Dominum, RV 600</ul>
<ul>
<li>Laudate pueri Dominum, RV 601</ul>
<ul>
<li>Laudate pueri Dominum, RV 602</ul>
<ul>
<li>Laudate pueri Dominum, RV 603</ul>
<ul>
<li>In exitu Israel, RV 604</ul>
<ul>
<li>Credidi propter quod, RV 605 (now RV Anh. 35b)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Laudate Dominum, RV 606</ul>
<ul>
<li>Laetatus sum, RV 607</ul>
<ul>
<li>Nisi Dominus, RV 608</ul>
<ul>
<li>Lauda Jerusalem, RV 609</ul>
<ul>
<li>Magnificat, RV 610/610a/610b/611</ul>
<ul>
<li>Deus Tuorum Militum, RV 612</ul>
<ul>
<li>Gaude Mater Ecclesia, RV 613</ul>
<ul>
<li>Laudate Dominum, RV 614</ul>
<ul>
<li>Regina coeli, RV 615 (incomplete)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Salve Regina, RV 616</ul>
<ul>
<li>Salve Regina, RV 617</ul>
<ul>
<li>Salve Regina, RV 618</ul>
<ul>
<li>Salve Regina, RV 619 (lost)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Sanctorum Meritis, RV 620</ul>
<ul>
<li>Stabat Mater, RV 621</ul>
<ul>
<li>Te Deum, RV 622 (lost)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Canta in Prato, Ride in Monte, RV 623 — not to be confused with RV 636, which is "Canta in Prato, Ride in <i>Fonte</i>"</ul>
<ul>
<li>Clarae Rosae Respirate, RV 624</ul>
<ul>
<li>Clarae, Stellae, RV 625</ul>
<ul>
<li>In Furore Iustissimae Irae, RV 626</ul>
<ul>
<li>In Turbate Mare, RV 627</ul>
<ul>
<li>Invicti Bellate, RV 628</ul>
<ul>
<li>Longe Mala, Umbrae, Terrores, RV 629 — not to be confused with RV 640, which is a similar motet on the same text but intended for different purposes</ul>
<ul>
<li>Nulla in Mundo Pax Sincera, RV 630</ul>
<ul>
<li>O Qui Coeli Terraque Serenitas, RV 631</ul>
<ul>
<li>Sum in Medio Tempestatum, RV 632</ul>
<ul>
<li>Vestro Principi Divino, RV 633</ul>
<ul>
<li>Vos Aurae per Montes, RV 634</ul>
<ul>
<li>Introduzione al Dixit (RV 595) "Ascende Laeta," RV 635</ul>
<ul>
<li>Introduzione al Dixit (RV 594?) "Canta in Prato, Ride in Fonte," RV 636 — not to be confused with RV 623, which is "Canta in Prato, Ride in <i>Monte</i>"</ul>
<ul>
<li>Introduzione ad un Gloria "Cur sagittas," RV 637 — the preceding work that was to follow this introductory motet, most likely a lost setting of the Gloria in B♭ (RV 590), is now presumably lost</ul>
<ul>
<li>Introduzione al Miserere "Filiae Maestae Jerusalem," RV 638</ul>
<ul>
<li>Introduzione al Gloria (RV 588) "Jubilate o amoeni chori," RV 639 — Introductory motet has third movement interwoven with Gloria (RV 588).</ul>
<ul>
<li>Introduzione al Gloria (RV 589) "Longe Mala, Umbrae, Terrores," RV 640 — not to be confused with RV 629, which is a similar motet on the same text but intended for different purposes</ul>
<ul>
<li>Introduzione al Miserere "Non in pratis," RV 641</ul>
<ul>
<li>Introduzione al Gloria (RV 589) "Ostro Picta," RV 642</ul>
<ul>
<li>Oratorio <i>Moyses Deus Pharaonis</i>, RV 643 (lost)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Oratorio <i><!--del_lnk--> Juditha triumphans</i>, RV 644</ul>
<ul>
<li>Oratorio <i>L'adorazione delli tre re magi al bambino Gesu</i>, RV 645 (lost)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Confetibor, tibi domine, RV 789 — manuscript found in damaged condition</ul>
<ul>
<li>Beatus Vir, RV 795</ul>
<ul>
<li>Magnificat, RV 797 (lost) — possibly related to the extant settings of RV 610/610a/610b/611</ul>
<ul>
<li>Nisi Dominus, RV 803</ul>
<ul>
<li>Salve Regina, RV 804 (lost)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Dixit Dominus, RV 807</ul>
<p>A possible setting, or even settings (considering the many settings of other liturgical text Vivaldi composed) of the <!--del_lnk--> Miserere may have existed, as hinted by the two introductory sets of movements intended for the piece(s), but such composition(s) have been lost.<p><a id="Music_Featured_In_Film" name="Music_Featured_In_Film"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Vivaldi"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Asthma', '18th century', 'Opera', 'Prague', 'Milan', 'Rome', 'Vienna', 'Vienna', 'Asthma', 'Joseph Haydn', '20th century', 'Turin', 'Genoa', 'France', 'Johann Sebastian Bach', 'Felix Mendelssohn', 'Ezra Pound', 'Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart', 'Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky', 'Opera', 'Flute', 'Dresden'] |
Antonín_Dvořák | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" />
<meta content="Antonín Dvořák,Cs-Antonin Dvorak.ogg,Antonín Dvořák,17th Street (Manhattan),1841,1876,1878,1883,1904,1960,AIDS" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Antonín Dvořák</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">/*<![CDATA[*/
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false;
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Antonín_Dvořák";
var wgTitle = "Antonín Dvořák";
var wgAction = "view";
var wgArticleId = "76572";
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserGroups = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
var wgBreakFrames = false;
var wgCurRevisionId = "133204915";
/*]]>*/</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Antonín_Dvořák">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Antonín Dvořák</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Performers_and_composers.htm">Performers and composers</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/11/1142.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="362" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dvorak.jpg" src="../../images/11/1142.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/11/1142.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>Antonín Leopold Dvořák</b> (<span class="IPA audiolink nounderlines" style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> [ˈantoɲiːn ˈlɛopolt ˈdvor̝aːk]</span> ; <!--del_lnk--> September 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1841–<!--del_lnk--> May 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1904) was a <!--del_lnk--> Czech composer of <!--del_lnk--> Romantic music, who employed the idioms and melodies of the folk music of his native <!--del_lnk--> Bohemia in <!--del_lnk--> symphonic and <!--del_lnk--> chamber music.<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script>
<p><a id="Biography" name="Biography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Early_career" name="Early_career"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early career</span></h3>
<p>Dvořák was born on <!--del_lnk--> September 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1841 in <!--del_lnk--> Nelahozeves, near <a href="../../wp/p/Prague.htm" title="Prague">Prague</a> (then <!--del_lnk--> Austrian Empire, today the <a href="../../wp/c/Czech_Republic.htm" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>), where he spent most of his life. His father was a butcher, innkeeper, and professional player of the <!--del_lnk--> zither. Dvořák's parents recognized his musical talent early, and he received his earliest musical education at the village school which he entered in 1847, age 6. He studied <a href="../../wp/m/Music.htm" title="Music">music</a> in <a href="../../wp/p/Prague.htm" title="Prague">Prague</a>'s only Organ School at the end of the 1850s, and gradually developed into an accomplished violinist and violist. Throughout the 1860s he played <!--del_lnk--> viola in the Bohemian Provisional Theatre Orchestra, which from 1866 was <!--del_lnk--> conducted by <!--del_lnk--> Bedřich Smetana. The need to supplement his income by teaching left Dvořák with limited free time, and in 1871 he gave up playing in the orchestra in order to compose. During this time, Dvořák fell in love with one of his pupils and wrote a song cycle, <i>Cypress Trees</i>, that expressed his anguish at her marriage to another man. However in 1873 he married his pupil's sister, Anna Čermakova. They had nine children.<p>At about this time Dvořák began to be recognized as a significant composer. He became organist at St. Adalbert's Church, <a href="../../wp/p/Prague.htm" title="Prague">Prague</a>, and began a period of prolific composition. Dvořák composed his <!--del_lnk--> second string quintet in 1875, and in 1877, the critic <!--del_lnk--> Eduard Hanslick informed him that his music had attracted the attention of <!--del_lnk--> Johannes Brahms, whom he later befriended. Brahms contacted the musical publisher <!--del_lnk--> Simrock, who as a result commissioned Dvořák's <i><!--del_lnk--> Slavonic Dances</i>. Published in 1878, these were an immediate success. Dvořák's <i><!--del_lnk--> Stabat Mater</i> (1880) was performed abroad, and after a successful performance in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> in 1883, Dvořák was invited to visit <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> where he appeared to great acclaim in 1884. His Symphony No. 7 was commissioned for London; it premiered there in 1885. In 1891 Dvořák received an honorary degree from <a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Cambridge.htm" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge University</a>, and his <i><!--del_lnk--> Requiem Mass</i> premiered later that year in <a href="../../wp/b/Birmingham.htm" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a> at the <!--del_lnk--> Triennial Music Festival.<p><a id="America_.281892.E2.80.931895.29" name="America_.281892.E2.80.931895.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">America (1892–1895)</span></h3>
<p>From 1892 to 1895, Dvořák was the director of the <!--del_lnk--> National Conservatory of Music in <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a>, at a then-staggering $15,000 annual salary. The Conservatory had been founded by a wealthy and philanthropic socialite, <!--del_lnk--> Jeannette Thurber; it was located at 126-128 <!--del_lnk--> East 17th Street , but was demolished in 1911 and replaced by what is now a high school. Here Dvořák met with <!--del_lnk--> Harry Burleigh, one of the earliest <!--del_lnk--> African-American composers, although Burleigh was never his pupil. Burleigh introduced traditional American <!--del_lnk--> Spirituals to Dvořák at the latter's request.<p>In the winter and spring of 1893, while in New York, Dvořák wrote his most popular work, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Symphony No.9, "From the New World"</i>. He spent the summer of 1893 with his family in the <!--del_lnk--> Czech-speaking community of <!--del_lnk--> Spillville, Iowa, to which some of his cousins had earlier immigrated. While there he composed two of his most famous chamber works, the <!--del_lnk--> String Quartet in F (the "American"), and the <!--del_lnk--> String Quintet in E flat. In the same vein of American inspiration, he also wrote a <!--del_lnk--> Sonatina for violin and piano.<p>Over the course of three months in 1895, Dvořák wrote his <i><!--del_lnk--> Cello Concerto in B minor</i>, which was to become one of his most popular works. However, problems with Mrs. Thurber about his salary, together with increasing recognition in Europe — he had been made an honorary member of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde</i> in <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> — and homesickness made him decide to return to Bohemia. He left New York before the end of the spring term.<p>Dvořák's New York home was located at 327 <!--del_lnk--> East 17th Street near Perlman Place . It was in this home that the Ninth Symphony was written. Despite protests, from the then <!--del_lnk--> Czech President <!--del_lnk--> Václav Havel amongst others, who wanted the house preserved as a historical site, it was demolished to make room for a <!--del_lnk--> Beth Israel Medical Centre residence for people with <a href="../../wp/a/AIDS.htm" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>. To honour Dvořák, however, a statue of him was erected in <!--del_lnk--> Stuyvesant Square .<p><a id="Later_career" name="Later_career"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Later career</span></h3>
<p>During his final years, Dvořák's compositional work centred on opera and chamber music. In 1896 he visited London for the last time to hear the premiere of his Cello Concerto. In 1897 his daughter married his pupil, the composer <!--del_lnk--> Josef Suk. Dvořák was director of the Conservatory in Prague from 1901 until his death in 1904. He is interred in the <!--del_lnk--> Vyšehrad cemetery in Prague.<p>He left many unfinished works, including the early <i>Cello Concerto in A major</i> (see <!--del_lnk--> Concerti below).<p><a id="Works" name="Works"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Works</span></h2>
<p>Dvořák wrote in a variety of forms: his nine <!--del_lnk--> symphonies generally stick to classical models that <a href="../../wp/l/Ludwig_van_Beethoven.htm" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a> would have recognised, but he also worked in the newly developed <!--del_lnk--> symphonic poem form and the influence of <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Wagner.htm" title="Richard Wagner">Richard Wagner</a> is apparent in some works. Many of his works also show the influence of Czech folk music, both in terms of rhythms and melodic shapes; perhaps the best known examples are the two sets of <!--del_lnk--> Slavonic Dances. Dvořák also wrote <a href="../../wp/o/Opera.htm" title="Opera">operas</a> (the best known of which is <i><!--del_lnk--> Rusalka</i>); <!--del_lnk--> chamber music (including a number of <!--del_lnk--> string quartets, and quintets); songs; choral music; and <a href="../../wp/p/Piano.htm" title="Piano">piano</a> music.<p><a id="Numbering" name="Numbering"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Numbering</span></h3>
<p>While the majority of Dvořák's works were given <!--del_lnk--> opus numbers, these often bear little relationship to the order in which they were either written or published. To achieve better sales, some publishers such as <!--del_lnk--> Simrock preferred to present budding composers as being well established, by giving some relatively early works much higher opus numbers than their chronological order would merit. In other cases, the same opus number was given to more than one work. In yet other cases, a work was given as many as three different opus numbers by different publishers. This understandably led to a great deal of confusion, which was exacerbated by the facts that: (a) his symphonies were initially numbered by order of publication, not composition; (b) the first four symphonies to be composed were not published until after the last five were published; and (c) not all of the last five symphonies were published in order of composition. This explains why, for example, the <i>New World Symphony</i> was originally published as No.5, it was later known as No. 8, but is now referred to as No. 9.<p>To shed some light on this confusion, Dvořák's works were chronologically catalogued in <!--del_lnk--> 1960 by <!--del_lnk--> Jarmil Burghauser in <i>Antonín Dvořák. Thematic Catalogue. Bibliography. Survey of Life and Work</i> (Export Artia Prague, Czechoslovakia, 1960). Dvořák's works are now more generally known by their B numbers (for Burghauser) than their opus numbers. In this catalogue, for example, the <i>New World Symphony</i>, Op. 95 is B.178. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Symphonies" name="Symphonies"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Symphonies</span></h3>
<p>During Dvořák’s life only five symphonies were widely known. The first published was the 6th, dedicated to <!--del_lnk--> Hans Richter. After Dvořák’s death, research uncovered four unpublished symphonies, of which the manuscript of the first had even been lost to the composer himself. This led to an unclear situation in which the <!--del_lnk--> "New World" symphony has alternately been called the 5th, 8th and 9th. This article uses the modern numbering system, according to the order in which they were written.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Symphony No. 1 in C minor</i> was written when Dvořák was only 24 years old. Later subtitled <i>The Bells of Zlonice</i> after a village in Dvořák's native Bohemia, it shows inexperience but also genius with its many attractive qualities. It has many formal similarities with Beethoven's 5th Symphony (for example, the movements follow the same keys: C minor, A flat major, C minor, C major), yet in harmony and instrumentation, Dvořák's First follows the style of <a href="../../wp/f/Franz_Schubert.htm" title="Franz Schubert">Franz Schubert</a>. (Some material from this symphony was reused in the <i>Silhouettes</i>, Opus 8, for piano solo.)<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Symphony No. 2 in B flat major</i>, Op. 4, still takes Beethoven as a model, though this time in a brighter, more pastoral light.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Symphony No. 3 in E flat major</i>, Op. 10, clearly shows the sudden and profound impact of Dvořák's recent acquaintance with the music of <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Wagner.htm" title="Richard Wagner">Richard Wagner</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Franz Liszt. (A portion of the slow movement was reused in the sixth of the Legends, Opus 59, for piano duet or orchestra.) There is no scherzo.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Symphony No. 4 in D minor</i>, Op. 13, still shows a strong influence of Wagner, particularly the second movement, which is reminiscent of the overture to <i><!--del_lnk--> Tannhauser</i>. In contrast, the scherzo is strongly Czech in character.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Symphony No. 5 in F major</i>, Op. 76, and <i><!--del_lnk--> Symphony No. 6 in D major</i>, Op. 60, are largely pastoral in nature, and brush away nearly all the last traces of Wagnerian style. The Fifth has a dark slow movement that seems to quote <a href="../../wp/p/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky.htm" title="Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky">Tchaikovsky</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> First Piano Concerto for its main theme. The Sixth shows a very strong resemblance to the <!--del_lnk--> Symphony No. 2 of Brahms, particularly in the outer movements, though this similarity is belied by the third-movement <!--del_lnk--> furiant, a vivid Czech dance.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Symphony No. 7 in D minor</i> of 1885, Op. 70, is sometimes reckoned to exhibit more formal tautness and greater intensity than the more famous <!--del_lnk--> 9th Symphony. There is emotional torment in the Seventh that may reflect personal troubles: around this time, Dvořák was struggling to have his Czech operas accepted in Vienna, feeling pressure to write operas in German, and arguing with his publisher. His sketches show that the Seventh cost him much hard work and soul-searching.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Symphony No. 8 in G major</i>, Op. 88, is, in contrast with the 7th, characterised by a warmer and more optimistic tone. Karl Schumann (in booklet notes for a recording of all the symphonies by <!--del_lnk--> Rafael Kubelík) compares it to the works of <!--del_lnk--> Gustav Mahler. As with the 7th, some feel the 8th is the best of the symphonies. That some critics feel it necessary to promote a symphony as "better than the 9th" shows how the immense popularity of the 9th has overshadowed the earlier works.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Symphony No. 9 in E minor</i>, Op. 95, may be better known by its subtitle, <i>From the New World</i>, and is also called the <i>New World Symphony</i>. It written between January and May 1893, while Dvořák was in New York. At the time of its first performance, he claimed that he used elements from American music such as <!--del_lnk--> Spirituals and <!--del_lnk--> Native American music in this work, but he later denied this. The first movement has a <!--del_lnk--> solo <a href="../../wp/f/Flute.htm" title="Flute">flute</a> passage reminiscent of <i><!--del_lnk--> Swing Low, Sweet Chariot</i>, and one of his students later reported that the second movement depicted, programmatically, the sobbing of <!--del_lnk--> Hiawatha. The second movement was so reminiscent of a <!--del_lnk--> negro spiritual that <!--del_lnk--> William Arms Fisher wrote lyrics for it and called it <i>Goin' Home.</i> Dvořák was interested in indigenous American music, but in an article published in the <!--del_lnk--> New York Herald on December 15, 1893, he wrote "[In the 9th symphony] I have simply written original themes embodying the peculiarities of the Indian music."<p>Complete cycles of these symphonies have been recorded under conductors such as <!--del_lnk--> István Kertész, <!--del_lnk--> Rafael Kubelík, <!--del_lnk--> Otmar Suitner, <!--del_lnk--> Libor Pešek, <!--del_lnk--> Václav Neumann and <!--del_lnk--> Neeme Järvi.<p><a id="Concertos" name="Concertos"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Concertos</span></h3>
<p>Music critic <!--del_lnk--> Harold Schonberg expressed common critical opinion when he wrote that Dvořák wrote "an attractive Piano Concerto in G minor with a rather ineffective piano part, a beautiful Violin Concerto in A minor, and a supreme Cello Concerto in B minor" (<i>The Lives of the Great Composers,</i> W.W. Norton & Company, New York, revised edition, 1980). All the concertos are in the classical three movement form.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Concerto for Piano and Orchestra in G minor, Op. 33 was the first of three <!--del_lnk--> concertos that Dvořák composed and orchestrated, and it is perhaps the least known of those three. Dvořák composed his piano concerto from late August through <!--del_lnk--> September 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1876. Its autograph version contains many corrections, erasures, cuts and additions, the bulk of these made in the piano part. The work was premiered in <a href="../../wp/p/Prague.htm" title="Prague">Prague</a> on <!--del_lnk--> March 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1878, with the orchestra of the <!--del_lnk--> Prague Provisional Theatre conducted by <!--del_lnk--> Adolf Cech, and the Czech pianist <!--del_lnk--> Karel Slavkovsky as soloist. As Dvořák wrote: "I see I am unable to write a Concerto for a virtuoso; I must think of other things." Instead, what Dvořák thought of and created was a concerto with remarkable symphonic values in which the piano plays a leading part <i>in</i> the orchestra rather than opposed to it. The Czech pianist and piano teacher Professor <!--del_lnk--> Vilém Kurz subsequently wrote an alternative, somewhat more virtuosic piano part for the concerto, which may, depending on the performer's preference, be played either partially or entirely in lieu of Dvořák's part. In 1919 concert pianist <!--del_lnk--> Ilona Kurzová played the first performance of the Kurz version, conducted by <!--del_lnk--> Václav Talich.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Concerto for Violin and Orchestra in A minor, Op. 53 was the second of the three <!--del_lnk--> concertos that Dvořák composed and orchestrated. He had met the great violinist <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Joachim in 1878 and decided to write a concerto for him. He finished it in 1879, but Joachim was skeptical of the work. He was a strict classicist and objected to Dvořák's <i>inter alia</i> or his abrupt <!--del_lnk--> truncation of the first movement's orchestral <!--del_lnk--> tutti, and he also did not like that the <!--del_lnk--> recapitulation was similarly cut short and that it led directly to the slow movement. He never actually played the piece. The concerto was premiered in <!--del_lnk--> 1883 in Prague by the violinist <!--del_lnk--> František Ondříček, who subsequently performed it in its debuts in <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>. The second (slow) movement is especially celebrated for its lyricism.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Concerto for Cello and Orchestra in B minor, Op. 104 was the last composed of Dvořák's concertos. He wrote it in 1894-1895 for his friend, the cellist <!--del_lnk--> Hanuš Wihan. Wihan and others had asked for a cello concerto for some time, but Dvořák always refused, stating that the cello was a fine orchestral instrument but totally insufficient for a solo concerto.<p>Dvořák composed the concerto in <!--del_lnk--> New York while serving as the Director of the <!--del_lnk--> National Conservatory. In 1894 <!--del_lnk--> Victor Herbert, who was also teaching at the Conservatory, had written a cello concerto and presented it in a series of concerts. Dvořák attended at least two performances of Victor Herbert's cello concerto and was inspired to fulfill Wihan's request for a cello concerto. Dvořák's concerto received its premiere in London on March 16, 1896, with the English cellist <!--del_lnk--> Leo Stern. The work was well received. <!--del_lnk--> Brahms said of the work: "Had I known that one could write a cello concerto like this, I would have written one long ago!"<p>Over thirty years earlier in 1865, Dvořák had composed a <i>Cello Concerto in A Major</i>, but with accompaniment by piano rather than orchestra. It is believed Dvořák had intended to orchestrate it, but abandoned it. It was orchestrated by the German composer <!--del_lnk--> Günter Raphael between 1925 and 1929, and again by his cataloguer <!--del_lnk--> Jarmil Burghauser and published in this form in 1952 as B.10.<p><a id="Chamber_music" name="Chamber_music"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Chamber music</span></h3>
<p>Dvořák composed fourteen string quartets, the most popular being the 12th, <!--del_lnk--> the 'American', Op. 96. He also composed two piano quintets, of which the <!--del_lnk--> 2nd, Op. 81, is better known. He left three string quintets, a terzetto for two violins and viola, and four piano trios, including the "Dumky", Op. 90.<p><a id="Operas" name="Operas"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Operas</span></h3>
<p>Dvořák’s critical acclaim as a composer of symphonies and concertos gave him a strong desire to write opera. Of all his operas, only <i><!--del_lnk--> Rusalka</i>, Op. 114, and, to a much lesser extent, <i>Kate and the Devil</i>, Op. 112, are played on contemporary opera stages with any frequency outside the Czech Republic. This is due to their uneven invention, their inadequate libretti, and perhaps also their staging requirements — <i>The Jacobin</i>, <i>Armida</i>, <i>Wanda</i> and <i>Dimitrij</i> need stages large enough to portray invading armies.<p>There is speculation by Dvorak scholars such as Michael Beckerman that portions of his Symphony No. 9 "From the New World", notably the second movement, were adapted from studies for a never-written opera about <!--del_lnk--> Pocahontas.<p>The German-born conductor <!--del_lnk--> Gerd Albrecht has recorded many of Dvořák’s operas on the Orfeo and <!--del_lnk--> Supraphon labels.<p><a id="Notable_students_of_Dvo.C5.99.C3.A1k" name="Notable_students_of_Dvo.C5.99.C3.A1k"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable students of Dvořák</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Vítězslav Novák<li><!--del_lnk--> Josef Suk<li><!--del_lnk--> Will Marion Cook<li><!--del_lnk--> William Arms Fisher</ul>
<p><a id="Dvo.C5.99.C3.A1k.27s_music_in_popular_culture" name="Dvo.C5.99.C3.A1k.27s_music_in_popular_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Dvořák's music in popular culture</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>The American <!--del_lnk--> National Football League has repeatedly used part of his Symphony 9 (Allegro Con Fuoco) as a "comeback" theme in the soundtracks of a number of their documentaries.<li>The main theme of the slow movement of the symphony became famous in Britain as the background to a TV advertisement (directed by <!--del_lnk--> Ridley Scott) for <!--del_lnk--> Hovis bread.<li>An extract of Dvorak's piece <i>Humoresque</i> was used as the theme tune for the <!--del_lnk--> Slappy Squirrel segments on <i><!--del_lnk--> Animaniacs</i>.<li>Movement 4 of Dvorak's <i>New World Symphony</i> is played in the background at the climax of the duel between <!--del_lnk--> Monkey D. Luffy and <!--del_lnk--> Sir Crocodile in the anime <i><!--del_lnk--> One Piece</i>.<li><a href="../../wp/n/Neil_Armstrong.htm" title="Neil Armstrong">Neil Armstrong</a> took a recording of the 'New World' symphony to the <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a> during the <a href="../../wp/a/Apollo_11.htm" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> mission, the first Moon landing, in 1969.<li>During <!--del_lnk--> US <a href="../../wp/g/Gerald_Ford.htm" title="President Ford">President Ford</a>'s funeral excerpts from the 'New World' were played several times.</ul>
<p>
<br />
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Prague', 'Czech Republic', 'Music', 'Prague', 'Prague', 'London', 'England', 'University of Cambridge', 'Birmingham', 'New York City', 'Vienna', 'AIDS', 'Ludwig van Beethoven', 'Richard Wagner', 'Opera', 'Piano', 'Franz Schubert', 'Richard Wagner', 'Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky', 'Flute', 'Prague', 'Vienna', 'London', 'Neil Armstrong', 'Moon', 'Apollo 11', 'President Ford'] |
Antwerp | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Antwerp,Olympic Summer Games Host Cities,Olympic Summer Games Host Cities,1338,14th century,1510,1518,1557,1559,1560,1566" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Antwerp</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Antwerp";
var wgTitle = "Antwerp";
var wgArticleId = 58185;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Antwerp">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Antwerp</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.European_Geography.htm">European Geography</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23292.jpg.htm" title="The Onze-Lieve-Vrouwekathedraal (Cathedral of our Lady) at the Handschoenmarkt, in the old quarter of Antwerp is the largest cathedral in the Low Countries and home to several triptychs by Baroque painter Rubens. It remains the tallest building in the city."><img alt="The Onze-Lieve-Vrouwekathedraal (Cathedral of our Lady) at the Handschoenmarkt, in the old quarter of Antwerp is the largest cathedral in the Low Countries and home to several triptychs by Baroque painter Rubens. It remains the tallest building in the city." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kathedraal.jpg" src="../../images/232/23292.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23292.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> <i>Onze-Lieve-Vrouwekathedraal</i> (Cathedral of our Lady) at the <i>Handschoenmarkt</i>, in the old quarter of Antwerp is the largest <!--del_lnk--> cathedral in the <!--del_lnk--> Low Countries and home to several <!--del_lnk--> triptychs by <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> painter <a href="../../wp/p/Peter_Paul_Rubens.htm" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Rubens</a>. It remains the tallest building in the city.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23293.png.htm" title="Antwerp municipality and district within the province of Antwerp"><img alt="Antwerp municipality and district within the province of Antwerp" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AntwerpenLocatie.png" src="../../images/232/23293.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23293.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Antwerp municipality and district within the province of <!--del_lnk--> Antwerp</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23294.jpg.htm" title="Antwerp city crest"><img alt="Antwerp city crest" height="212" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antwerp_City.jpg" src="../../images/232/23294.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23294.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Antwerp city crest</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/c/City.htm" title="City">city</a> and <!--del_lnk--> municipality of <b>Antwerp</b> (<a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl"><i><b>Antwerpen</b></i></span>; <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i><b>Anvers</b></i></span>; <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <span lang="es" xml:lang="es"><i><b>Amberes</b></i></span>) is a centre of commerce in <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> capital of <!--del_lnk--> Antwerp <!--del_lnk--> province, in <a href="../../wp/f/Flanders.htm" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>, one of <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>'s three regions. Antwerp's total population is ca. 461,496 (January 2006) and its total area is 204.51 <!--del_lnk--> km² with a <!--del_lnk--> population density of 2,257 inhabitants per km². The agglomeration has a population of about 800,000 (<!--del_lnk--> municipality: 461,496 (2006), <!--del_lnk--> metropolitan area: ca. 1,225,000<p>Antwerp has long been an important city in the <!--del_lnk--> Low Countries both economically and culturally. It is on the right bank of the river <!--del_lnk--> Scheldt which is linked to the <a href="../../wp/n/North_Sea.htm" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> by the <!--del_lnk--> Westerschelde. Antwerp's <!--del_lnk--> port, which is one of the world's largest, has a high level of <!--del_lnk--> cargo <!--del_lnk--> shipping and <a href="../../wp/o/Oil_refinery.htm" title="Oil refinery">oil refineries</a> traffic, and in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, only <a href="../../wp/r/Rotterdam.htm" title="Rotterdam">Rotterdam</a> 's ports is larger. Families of the large <!--del_lnk--> Hasidic <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> community have traditionally controlled Antwerp's global centre of the <a href="../../wp/d/Diamond.htm" title="Diamond">diamond</a> trading industry, though recently also <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">Indian</a> traders became involved.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Buildings_and_facilities" name="Buildings_and_facilities"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Buildings and facilities</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23295.jpg.htm" title="Antwerp Stadhuis (City Hall) at the Grote Markt (Main Square)"><img alt="Antwerp Stadhuis (City Hall) at the Grote Markt (Main Square)" height="140" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Stadhuis.jpg" src="../../images/232/23295.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23295.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Antwerp <i>Stadhuis</i> (City Hall) at the <i>Grote Markt</i> (Main Square)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In the 16th century Antwerp was noted for the wealth of its citizens ("Antwerpia nummis"); the houses of these wealthy merchants and manufacturers have been preserved throughout Antwerp. Fire has destroyed several old buildings in the city, such as the house of the <!--del_lnk--> Hansa League on the northern quays in <!--del_lnk--> 1891.<ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Antwerp Zoo was founded in 1843, and home to more than 4,000 animals.<li>Central Station is a railway station designed by <!--del_lnk--> Louis Delacenserie that was completed in 1905. It has two monumental neo-baroque facades, a large metal and glass dome (60m/197ft) and a <!--del_lnk--> gilt and <!--del_lnk--> marble interior.<li><!--del_lnk--> Cathedral of Our Lady. This church was begun in the <a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th century</a> and finished in <!--del_lnk--> 1518. The church has three works by <a href="../../wp/p/Peter_Paul_Rubens.htm" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Rubens</a>, viz. "<!--del_lnk--> The Descent from the Cross," "<!--del_lnk--> The Elevation of the Cross," and "<!--del_lnk--> The Assumption."<li>The <!--del_lnk--> church, named for <!--del_lnk--> St James, is more ornate than the cathedral. It contains the tomb of <a href="../../wp/p/Peter_Paul_Rubens.htm" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Rubens</a>.<li>The church of St Paul, has a beautiful baroque interior. It is a few hundred yards north of the Grote Markt.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Plantin-Moretus Museum preserves the house of the printer <!--del_lnk--> Christoffel Plantijn and his successor <!--del_lnk--> Jan Moretus.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Boerentoren (Farmers' Tower) or KBC Tower is the oldest skyscraper in Europe<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten (Royal Museum for Fine Arts) close to the southern quays has a collection of old masters (<a href="../../wp/p/Peter_Paul_Rubens.htm" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Rubens</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Van Dyck, <!--del_lnk--> Titian) and the leading Dutch masters. <div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23296.jpg.htm" title="Grote Markt : open air cafés, City Hall and guildhouses in background"><img alt="Grote Markt : open air cafés, City Hall and guildhouses in background" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antwerpen8.JPG" src="../../images/232/23296.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23296.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Grote Markt</i> : open air cafés, City Hall and guildhouses in background</div>
</div>
</div> The exchange or Bourse, one of the early institutions in Europe with that title, was built in <!--del_lnk--> 1872.</ul>
<p>Antwerp had an artistic reputation in the 17th century, based on its school of painting, which included <a href="../../wp/p/Peter_Paul_Rubens.htm" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Rubens</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Van Dyck, <!--del_lnk--> Jordaens, the two <!--del_lnk--> Teniers and many others. <i>Antwerpenaren</i> (Antverpians, people from Antwerp) speak a dialect which is recognised by Dutch-speaking people because of its A-sound, which sounds more like the 'o' in bore.<p><a id="Commerce" name="Commerce"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Commerce</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:207px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23297.jpg.htm" title="The Boerentoren ('Farmers' tower'), nickname of – nowadays – the KBC Bank building in Antwerp"><img alt="The Boerentoren ('Farmers' tower'), nickname of – nowadays – the KBC Bank building in Antwerp" height="273" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kbc-building-antwerpen.jpg" src="../../images/232/23297.jpg" width="205" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23297.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <i>Boerentoren</i> ('Farmers' tower'), nickname of – nowadays – the <!--del_lnk--> KBC Bank building in Antwerp</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1863, Antwerp was opened again to international trade by the purchase of the Dutch right to levy tolls. Eight principal basins or docks already existed in 1908.<p>With the completion of the new maritime lock, ships drawing 30 feet of water would be able to enter these new docks and also the Lefebvre and America docks. The quays flanking the Scheldt are 3-½ miles in length, constructed of granite.<p><a id="Transportation" name="Transportation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transportation</span></h2>
<p>Due to its importance as a one of Europe's biggest ports and its central location in Europe and within Belgium the city has impressive infrastructure and is easily reached from all directions by car and train.<p><a id="Car" name="Car"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Car</span></h3>
<p>Highways lead to <a href="../../wp/b/Brussels.htm" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Hasselt, <!--del_lnk--> Liège, <!--del_lnk--> Breda (<a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>), <!--del_lnk--> Ghent and <!--del_lnk--> Bruges. They are led around the city by the Ring. Both banks of the Scheldt are connected to each other by several <!--del_lnk--> tunnels, the oldest of which is the Waaslandtunnel (<!--del_lnk--> 1934), on the Ring the Kennedytunnel connects the left with the right bank and in the North between the docks there is the Liefkenshoektunnel. Currently a fourth cartunnel is being planned on the northern part of the Ring which to be completed in 2012.<p><a id="Rail" name="Rail"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Rail</span></h3>
<p>Antwerp has two main stations: Centraal and Berchem. <!--del_lnk--> Central Station (1905) is a monument in itself. As Central Station is the end of the line many trains only stop at Berchem Station. From Berchem Station international trains go to <a href="../../wp/a/Amsterdam.htm" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/Lille.htm" title="Lille">Lille</a>, national trains go directly to Ghent, <!--del_lnk--> Ostend, Brussels, <!--del_lnk--> Charleroi, Hasselt, Liège and Turnhout.<p><a id="City_transportation" name="City_transportation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">City transportation</span></h3>
<p>Antwerp has a fine web of tram and bus lines providing good acces to the suburbs and the Left Bank. The <!--del_lnk--> tram network has 11 lines and is partly underground. This part is thus called the premetro.<p><a id="Air" name="Air"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Air</span></h3>
<p>Antwerp international airport is located in the district of <!--del_lnk--> Deurne. <!--del_lnk--> VLM Airlines flies to <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> (City Airport) and <a href="../../wp/m/Manchester.htm" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> in England. VLM is the only airline with scheduled air services to and from Antwerp International Airport. The airport is connected by bus to the city centre.<p><a id="Fortifications" name="Fortifications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Fortifications</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23298.jpg.htm" title="Het Steen (literally: 'The Stone')"><img alt="Het Steen (literally: 'The Stone')" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Steen.jpg" src="../../images/232/23298.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23298.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Het Steen</i> (literally: 'The Stone')</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Although Antwerp was formerly a fortified city, nothing remains of the former <!--del_lnk--> enceinte or of the old <!--del_lnk--> citadel defended by <!--del_lnk--> General Chassé in <!--del_lnk--> 1832, except for the <i><!--del_lnk--> Steen</i>, which has been restored. Modern Antwerp's broad avenues mark the position of the original fortifications.<p>After the establishment of Belgian independence, Antwerp was defended by the citadel and an enceinte around the city. In <!--del_lnk--> 1859, seventeen of the twenty-two fortresses constructed under <a href="../../wp/w/Wellington.htm" title="Wellington">Wellington</a>'s supervision in <!--del_lnk--> 1815-<!--del_lnk--> 1818 were dismantled and the old citadel and enceinte were removed. A new enceinte 8 miles long was constructed, and the villages of <!--del_lnk--> Berchem and <!--del_lnk--> Borgerhout, now parishes of Antwerp, were absorbed within the city.<p>This enceinte is protected by a broad wet ditch, and in the <!--del_lnk--> caponiers are the magazines and store chambers of the fortress. The enceinte has nineteen openings or gateways, but of these seven are not used by the public. As soon as the enceinte was finished eight detached forts from 2 to 2-½ miles from the enceinte were constructed. They begin on the north near <!--del_lnk--> Wyneghem and the zone of inundation, and terminate on the south at <!--del_lnk--> Hoboken. In <!--del_lnk--> 1870 Fort <!--del_lnk--> Merxem and the redoubts of <!--del_lnk--> Berendrecht and <!--del_lnk--> Oorderen were built for the defence of the area to be inundated north of Antwerp.<p>In the 1870s, the fortifications of Antwerp were deemed to be out of date, given the increased range and power of artillery and explosives. Antwerp was transformed into to a fortified position by constructing an outer line of forts and batteries 6 to 9 miles from the enceinte.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Origin_of_name" name="Origin_of_name"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Origin of name</span></h3>
<p>According to folklore, the city got its name from a legend involving a mythical giant called <i><!--del_lnk--> Antigoon</i> that lived near the river <!--del_lnk--> Scheldt, exacting a toll from those crossing the river. On refusal, the giant severed one of their hands and threw them into the Scheldt. Eventually, the giant was slain by a young hero named <i><!--del_lnk--> Brabo</i>, who cut off the giant's hand and threw it into the river. Hence the name <i>Antwerpen</i> from <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> <i>hand werpen</i> (hand-throwing).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:262px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23299.jpg.htm" title="City of Antwerp, seen across the Scheldt river"><img alt="City of Antwerp, seen across the Scheldt river" height="195" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antwerp.jpg" src="../../images/232/23299.jpg" width="260" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/232/23299.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> City of Antwerp, seen across the <!--del_lnk--> Scheldt river</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>To support this folkloric derivation, it is pointed out that hand-cutting was practised in Europe, when the right hand of a man who died without heir was cut off and sent it to the feudal lord as proof of <i>main-morte</i>. However, <!--del_lnk--> Motley argues that Antwerp's name derives from <i>an t werf</i> (on the wharf), since the form <i>Andhunerbo</i> existed in the 6th century on the separation of Austrasia and Neustria (<i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> 1911).<p><a id="Pre-1500" name="Pre-1500"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pre-1500</span></h3>
<p>The historical Antwerp had its origins in a Gallo-Roman <i><!--del_lnk--> vicus</i> civilization. Excavations carried out in the oldest section near the Scheldt, 1952 to 1961 (ref. Princeton), pottery sherds and fragments of glass from mid-second century to the end of the third century.<p>In the fourth century Antwerp was mentioned in <!--del_lnk--> Germania Secunda . The Merovingian Antwerp, now fortified, was evangelized by <!--del_lnk--> Saint Amand in the seventh century. At the end of the tenth century, the Scheldt became the boundary of the <a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. Antwerp became a <!--del_lnk--> margraviate, a border province facing the <!--del_lnk--> County of Flanders. In the eleventh century <!--del_lnk--> Godfrey of Bouillon was for some years best known as <!--del_lnk--> marquis of Antwerp.<p>In the twelfth century <!--del_lnk--> Norbert of Xanten established a community of his <!--del_lnk--> Premonstratensian canons at St. Michael’s Abbey at Caloes. Antwerp was the headquarters of <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_III_of_England.htm" title="Edward III of England">Edward III</a> during his early negotiations with <!--del_lnk--> Jacob van Artevelde, and his son Lionel, the <!--del_lnk--> earl of Cambridge, was born there in <!--del_lnk--> 1338.<p><a name="1500s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1500s</span></h3>
<p>After the closing of the <!--del_lnk--> Zwyn and the consequent decline of <!--del_lnk--> Bruges, the city of Antwerp, then part of the <!--del_lnk--> Duchy of Brabant, became of importance. At the end of the <a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th century</a> the foreign trading houses were transferred from <!--del_lnk--> Bruges to Antwerp, and the building assigned to the English nation is specifically mentioned in <!--del_lnk--> 1510.<p><!--del_lnk--> Fernand Braudel states that Antwerp became "the centre of the <i>entire</i> international economy—something Bruges had never been even at its height." (Braudel 1985 p. 143.) Antwerp's "Golden Age" is tightly linked to the "<!--del_lnk--> Age of Exploration". Over the first half of the <a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th century</a> Antwerp grew to become the second largest European city north of the <!--del_lnk--> Alps by <!--del_lnk--> 1560. Many foreign merchants were resident in the city. <!--del_lnk--> Guicciardini, the Venetian envoy, stated that hundreds of ships would pass in a day, and 2000 carts entered the city each week. Portuguese ships laden with <a href="../../wp/b/Black_pepper.htm" title="Black pepper">pepper</a> and <!--del_lnk--> cinnamon would unload their cargo.<p>Without a long-distance merchant fleet, and governed by an oligarchy of banker-aristocrats forbidden to engage in trade, the economy of Antwerp was foreigner-controlled, which made the city very international, with merchants and traders from <!--del_lnk--> Venice, <!--del_lnk--> Ragusa, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>. Antwerp had a policy of toleration, which attracted a large orthodox <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jewish</a> (<!--del_lnk--> hasidic) community. Antwerp was not a "free" city though, since it had been reabsorbed into the <!--del_lnk--> duchy of Brabant in 1406 and was controlled from <a href="../../wp/b/Brussels.htm" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:262px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23300.jpg.htm" title="16th-century Guildhouses at the Grote Markt"><img alt="16th-century Guildhouses at the Grote Markt" height="195" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Guildhouses_Antwerp.jpg" src="../../images/233/23300.jpg" width="260" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23300.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 16th-century <a href="../../wp/g/Guild.htm" title="Guild">Guildhouses</a> at the <i>Grote Markt</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Antwerp experienced three booms during its century, the first based on the pepper market, a second launched by American silver coming from Seville (ending with the bankruptcy of Spain in <!--del_lnk--> 1557), and a third boom, after the stabilising <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, in <!--del_lnk--> 1559, based on the textiles industry. The boom-and-bust cycles and inflationary cost-of-living squeezed less-skilled workers.<p>The religious revolution of the <!--del_lnk--> Reformation erupted in violent riots in August <!--del_lnk--> 1566, as in other parts of the Netherlands. The regent <!--del_lnk--> Margaret, duchess of Parma was swept aside when <a href="../../wp/p/Philip_II_of_Spain.htm" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II</a> sent the <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Alva at the head of an army the following summer.<p>When the <!--del_lnk--> Eighty Years' War broke out in 1572, commercial trading between Antwerp and the Spanish port of <!--del_lnk--> Bilbao was not possible. On <!--del_lnk--> November 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1576, the Spanish soldiers plundered the city. During the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Fury 6000 citizens were massacred, 800 houses were burnt down, and over two millions sterling of damage was done.<p>Antwerp became the capital of the <!--del_lnk--> Dutch revolt. In <!--del_lnk--> 1585 <!--del_lnk--> Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza captured it after a <!--del_lnk--> long siege and sent its <!--del_lnk--> Protestant citizens into exile. Antwerp's banking was controlled for a generation by <a href="../../wp/g/Genoa.htm" title="Genoa">Genoa</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Amsterdam.htm" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> became the new trading centre.<p><a name="1600s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1600s</span></h3>
<p>The recognition of the independence of the <!--del_lnk--> United Provinces by the <!--del_lnk--> treaty of Munster in <!--del_lnk--> 1648 stipulated that the Scheldt should be closed to navigation, which destroyed Antwerp's trading activities.<p><a name="1800s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1800s</span></h3>
<p>This impediment remained in force until <!--del_lnk--> 1863, although the provisions were relaxed during French rule from <!--del_lnk--> 1795 to <!--del_lnk--> 1814, and also during the time <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> formed part of the kingdom of the Netherlands (<!--del_lnk--> 1815 to <!--del_lnk--> 1830). Antwerp had reached the lowest point of its fortunes in <!--del_lnk--> 1800, and its population had sunk under 40,000, when <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>, realizing its strategical importance, assigned two millions for the construction of two docks and a mole.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1830 the city was captured by the Belgian insurgents, but the citadel continued to be held by a Dutch garrison under General <!--del_lnk--> David Hendrik Chassé. For a time this officer subjected the town to a periodical bombardment which inflicted much damage, and at the end of <!--del_lnk--> 1832 the citadel itself was besieged by a French army. During this attack the town was further injured. In December 1832, after a gallant defence, Chassé made an honourable surrender.<p><a name="1900s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1900s</span></h3>
<p>During <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the city became the fallback point of the Belgian Army after the defeat at <!--del_lnk--> Liège. It was taken after heavy fighting by the German Army, and the Belgians were forced to retreat westward.<p>During <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> the city was occupied by <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> and was liberated on <!--del_lnk--> September 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1944 when the <!--del_lnk--> British 11th Armoured Division entered the city. After this, the Germans attempted to destroy the <!--del_lnk--> Port of Antwerp, which was used by the Allies to bring new material ashore. The city was hit by more <!--del_lnk--> V-2 rockets than any other target during the entire war, but the attack did not succeed in destroying the port since many of the missiles fell upon other parts of the city. Also many <!--del_lnk--> V-1 and some <!--del_lnk--> V-2 missiles battered the city. As a result, the city itself was severely damaged and rebuilt after the war in a modern style.<p>Antwerp also hosted the <!--del_lnk--> 1920 Summer Olympics and was the first city to host the <!--del_lnk--> World Gymnastics Championships, in <!--del_lnk--> 1903.<p>After the war, Antwerp, which had already had a sizable Jewish population before the war, became a major European centre of <!--del_lnk--> Haredi (and particularly <!--del_lnk--> Hassidic) <!--del_lnk--> Orthodox Judaism.<p><a id="Historical_population" name="Historical_population"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Historical population</span></h2>
<p>This is the population of the city of Antwerp only, not of the larger current municipality of the same name.<ul>
<li>1374: 18,000<li>1486: 40,000<li>1500: around 44/49,000 inhabitants<li>1526: 50,000<li>1567: 105,000 (90,000 inhabitants and 15,000 strangers)<li>1575: around 100,000 (after the <!--del_lnk--> Inquisition)<li>1584: 84,000 (after the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Fury, the French Fury and the calvinistic republic)<li>1586 (May): 60,000 (after <a href="../../wp/s/Siege.htm" title="Siege">siege</a>)<li>1586 (October): 50,000<li>1590: fewer than 40,000<li>1591: 46,000<li>1612: 54,000<li>1620: 66,000 (<!--del_lnk--> Twelve Years' Truce)<li>1640: 54,000 (after the <a href="../../wp/b/Black_Death.htm" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> epidemics)<li>1700: 66,000<li>1765: 40,000<li>1784: 51,000<li>1800: 45,500<li>1815: 54,000<li>1830: 73,500<li>1856: 111,700<li>1880: 179,000<li>1900: 275,100<li>1925: 308,000<li>1959: 260,000</ul>
<p><a id="Municipality" name="Municipality"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Municipality</span></h2>
<p>The municipality comprises the city of Antwerp proper and several towns. So it can be divided into nine entities (<i>districten</i> in <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>):<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/233/23301.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AntwerpDistricts.png" src="../../images/233/23301.png" width="150" /></a></span></div>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Antwerp (district)<li><!--del_lnk--> Berchem<li><!--del_lnk--> Berendrecht-Zandvliet-Lillo<li><!--del_lnk--> Borgerhout<li><!--del_lnk--> Deurne<li><!--del_lnk--> Ekeren<li><!--del_lnk--> Hoboken<li><!--del_lnk--> Merksem<li><!--del_lnk--> Wilrijk</ol>
<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sister cities</span></h2>
<p>The following places are <!--del_lnk--> sister cities to Antwerp:<ul>
<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="France"><img alt="France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Mulhouse, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1954<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/592.png.htm" title="Russia"><img alt="Russia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Russia_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/592.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Saint-Petersburg, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1958<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/584.png.htm" title="People's Republic of China"><img alt="People's Republic of China" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg" src="../../images/5/584.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Shanghai.htm" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">China</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1984<li><a class="image" href="../../images/6/614.png.htm" title="Israel"><img alt="Israel" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Israel_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/6/614.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Haifa, <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1995<li><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1448.png.htm" title="South Africa"><img alt="South Africa" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg" src="../../images/14/1448.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Capetown, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1996<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/539.png.htm" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Spain.svg" src="../../images/5/539.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Barcelona.htm" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1997<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Ludwigshafen, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1998</ul>
<p>Within the context of development cooperation, Antwerp is also linked to:<ul>
<li><a class="image" href="../../images/62/6229.png.htm" title="Suriname"><img alt="Suriname" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Suriname.svg" src="../../images/62/6229.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Paramaribo, <a href="../../wp/s/Suriname.htm" title="Suriname">Suriname</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1448.png.htm" title="South Africa"><img alt="South Africa" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg" src="../../images/14/1448.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Durban, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></ul>
<p>This list does not include relationships of the subordinate <i>districten</i> with cities abroad.<p><a id="People_who_were_born_or_have_lived_in_Antwerp" name="People_who_were_born_or_have_lived_in_Antwerp"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">People who were born or have lived in Antwerp</span></h2>
<p>See also: <!--del_lnk--> Notable people from Antwerp<p><a id="Born_in_Antwerp" name="Born_in_Antwerp"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Born in Antwerp</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23302.jpg.htm" title="Abraham Ortelius"><img alt="Abraham Ortelius" height="223" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abraham_Ortelius.jpg" src="../../images/233/23302.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23302.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Abraham Ortelius</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:94px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23303.jpg.htm" title="Hendrik Conscience"><img alt="Hendrik Conscience" height="123" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hendrik_Conscience.jpg" src="../../images/233/23303.jpg" width="92" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23303.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Hendrik Conscience</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, son of <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_III_of_England.htm" title="Edward III of England">Edward III of England</a> (1338-1368)<li><!--del_lnk--> Frans Floris, <!--del_lnk--> painter (1520-1570)<li><!--del_lnk--> Abraham Ortelius, <!--del_lnk--> cartographer and <!--del_lnk--> geographer (1527-1598)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gillis van Coninxloo, painter of forest landscapes (1544-1607)<li><!--del_lnk--> Bartholomeus Spranger, painter, <!--del_lnk--> draughtsman, and <!--del_lnk--> etcher (1546-1611)<li><!--del_lnk--> Paul and Mattheus Brill, landscape painters (1554-1626, 1550-1583, resp.)<li><!--del_lnk--> Abraham Janssens, painter (c. 1570-1632)<li><!--del_lnk--> Rodrigo Calderón, Count of Oliva, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spanish</a> favourite and <!--del_lnk--> adventurer (d. 1621)<li><!--del_lnk--> Franz Snyders, <!--del_lnk--> still life and animal painter (1579-1657)<li><!--del_lnk--> Frans Hals, painter (1580-1666)<li><!--del_lnk--> Caspar de Crayer, painter (1582-1669)<li><!--del_lnk--> David Teniers the Elder, painter (1582-1649)<li><!--del_lnk--> Jacob Jordaens, painter (1593-1678)<li><a href="../../wp/a/Anthony_van_Dyck.htm" title="Anthony van Dyck">Anthony van Dyck</a>, painter (1599-1641)<li><!--del_lnk--> David Teniers the Younger, painter (1610-1690)<li><!--del_lnk--> Jan Fyt, animal painter (1611-1661)<li><!--del_lnk--> Nicolaes Maes, <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> painter (1634-1693)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gerard Edelinck, copper-plate engraver (1649-1707)<li><!--del_lnk--> John Michael Rysbrack, <!--del_lnk--> sculptor (1694-1770)<li><!--del_lnk--> Hendrik Conscience, <!--del_lnk--> writer and <!--del_lnk--> author of <i>De Leeuw van Vlaanderen</i> (“The Lion of Flanders”) (1812-1883)<li><!--del_lnk--> Georges Eekhoud, <!--del_lnk--> novelist (1854-1927)<li><!--del_lnk--> Hippolyte Delehaye, <!--del_lnk--> Jesuit and <!--del_lnk--> hagiographic <!--del_lnk--> scholar (1859-1941)<li><!--del_lnk--> Willem Elsschot, writer and <!--del_lnk--> poet (1882-1960)<li><!--del_lnk--> Constant Permeke, <!--del_lnk--> expressionist painter (1886-1952)<li><!--del_lnk--> Paul van Ostaijen, poet and writer (1896-1928)</ul>
<p><a id="Lived_in_Antwerp" name="Lived_in_Antwerp"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lived in Antwerp</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:132px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23304.jpg.htm" title="Joachim Patinir"><img alt="Joachim Patinir" height="183" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Patenier.jpg" src="../../images/233/23304.jpg" width="130" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23304.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Joachim Patinir</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23305.jpg.htm" title="Wenceslas Hollar"><img alt="Wenceslas Hollar" height="209" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wenzel_Hollar_nach_Jan_Meyssens.jpg" src="../../images/233/23305.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23305.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wenceslas Hollar</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Quentin Matsys, <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> painter, founder of the Antwerp school (1466-1530)<li><!--del_lnk--> Jan Mabuse, painter (c. 1478-1532)<li><!--del_lnk--> Joachim Patinir, landscape and religious painter (c. 1480-1524)<li><!--del_lnk--> John Rogers, <!--del_lnk--> minister of religion, Bible translator and commentator, and <!--del_lnk--> martyr (c. 1500-1555)<li><!--del_lnk--> Joos van Cleve, painter (c. 1500-1540/41)<li><!--del_lnk--> Damião de Góis, <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> <!--del_lnk--> humanist <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> (1502-1574)<li>Sir <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Gresham, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> <!--del_lnk--> merchant and <!--del_lnk--> financier (c. 1519-1579)<li>Sir <!--del_lnk--> Anthony More, <!--del_lnk--> portrait painter (1520- c. 1577)<li><!--del_lnk--> Christoffel Plantijn, humanist, book <!--del_lnk--> printer and <!--del_lnk--> publisher (c. 1520-1589)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pieter Brueghel the Elder, painter and <!--del_lnk--> printmaker (1525-1569)<li><!--del_lnk--> Philip van Marnix, writer and <!--del_lnk--> statesman (1538-1598)<li><!--del_lnk--> Simon Stevin, <!--del_lnk--> mathematician and <!--del_lnk--> engineer (c. 1548/49-1620)<li><!--del_lnk--> John Bull, <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Welsh</a> <!--del_lnk--> composer, <!--del_lnk--> musician, and <!--del_lnk--> organ builder (c. 1562-1628)<li><!--del_lnk--> Jan Brueghel the Elder, also known as “Velvet” Brueghel, painter (1568-1625)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pieter Paul Rubens, painter (1577-1640)<li><!--del_lnk--> William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle, English <!--del_lnk--> soldier, <!--del_lnk--> politician, and writer (c. 1592-1676)<li><!--del_lnk--> Adriaen Brouwer, painter (1605-1638)<li><!--del_lnk--> Jan Davidszoon de Heem, painter (1606-1684)<li><!--del_lnk--> Wenceslas Hollar, <!--del_lnk--> Bohemian etcher (1607-1677)<li><!--del_lnk--> Jan Lievens, painter (1607-1674)<li><!--del_lnk--> Jan Frans Willems, writer (1793-1846)<li><!--del_lnk--> Henri Alexis Brialmont, military engineer (1821-1903)<li>Sir <!--del_lnk--> Lawrence Alma-Tadema, painter (1836-1912)<li><a href="../../wp/v/Vincent_van_Gogh.htm" title="Vincent van Gogh">Vincent van Gogh</a>, <!--del_lnk--> impressionist painter, lived in Antwerp for about four months (1853-1890)<li><!--del_lnk--> Camille Huysmans, <!--del_lnk--> Socialist politician and former <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister of Belgium (1871-1968)</ul>
<p><a id="Specific_areas_in_Antwerp" name="Specific_areas_in_Antwerp"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Specific areas in Antwerp</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Zurenborg<li><!--del_lnk--> Van Wesenbekestraat – the Chinatown of Antwerp<li><!--del_lnk--> Meir – Antwerp's largest shopping street<li><!--del_lnk--> Den Dam – an area in northern Antwerp</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antwerp"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Baroque', 'Peter Paul Rubens', 'City', 'Dutch language', 'French language', 'Spanish language', 'Belgium', 'Flanders', 'Belgium', 'North Sea', 'Oil refinery', 'Europe', 'Rotterdam', 'Jewish', 'Diamond', 'India', '14th century', 'Peter Paul Rubens', 'Peter Paul Rubens', 'Peter Paul Rubens', 'Peter Paul Rubens', 'Brussels', 'Netherlands', 'Amsterdam', 'Paris', 'Lille', 'London', 'Manchester', 'Wellington', 'Dutch language', 'Holy Roman Empire', 'Edward III of England', '15th century', '16th century', 'Black pepper', 'Spain', 'Portugal', 'Jew', 'Brussels', 'Guild', 'Philip II of Spain', 'Genoa', 'Amsterdam', 'Belgium', 'Napoleon', 'World War I', 'World War II', 'Germany', 'Siege', 'Black Death', 'Dutch language', 'France', 'Russia', 'Shanghai', "People's Republic of China", 'Israel', 'South Africa', 'Barcelona', 'Spain', 'Germany', 'Suriname', 'South Africa', 'Edward III of England', 'Spain', 'Anthony van Dyck', 'Baroque', 'Renaissance', 'Portugal', 'Philosopher', 'England', 'Wales', 'Vincent van Gogh'] |
Apaochi | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" />
<meta content="Apaochi,907,916,926,947,Administration (government),China,Dynasty,Emperor,Emulate,Heir" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Apaochi</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">/*<![CDATA[*/
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false;
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Apaochi";
var wgTitle = "Apaochi";
var wgAction = "view";
var wgArticleId = "9360726";
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserGroups = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
var wgBreakFrames = false;
var wgCurRevisionId = "125787052";
/*]]>*/</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Apaochi">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Apaochi</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Ancient_History_Classical_History_and_Mythology.htm">Ancient History, Classical History and Mythology</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<p><b>Apaochi</b> was a leader of the <!--del_lnk--> Khitan tribes (who spoke <!--del_lnk--> Mongol) located in northwestern <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>. He served for three years as the [khan]] of these tribes, at the end of which he refused to <!--del_lnk--> resign and declared himself <!--del_lnk--> king of the entire nation of Khitan. He later declared himself <!--del_lnk--> emperor in <!--del_lnk--> 907 when <!--del_lnk--> Tang rule over <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> collapsed; by <!--del_lnk--> 916, he had created a <!--del_lnk--> dynasty that was typical of <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> in those times- and his son was his <!--del_lnk--> heir to the throne. He organized <!--del_lnk--> ordos (groups of warriors) from among his people (these are similar to <!--del_lnk--> hordes, a term invented later), and he later grouped 12 of these groups into an <!--del_lnk--> administrative district.<p>By <!--del_lnk--> 926, Apaochi had helped the founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Later Chin <!--del_lnk--> dynasty in his conquest of northern <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, which prompted this founder to give Apaochi the northeastern corner of <!--del_lnk--> Hopeh province to rule over (this territory is located where modern day <a href="../../wp/b/Beijing.htm" title="Peking">Peking</a> is located). When Apaochi died, his people (the Khitans) began to <!--del_lnk--> emulate more <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">Chinese</a> customs; by <!--del_lnk--> 947 they started the <!--del_lnk--> Liao <!--del_lnk--> dynasty and claimed Apaochi as the founder of this <!--del_lnk--> dynasty, giving him the honorable title of <!--del_lnk--> Tai Tsu (which means Grand <!--del_lnk--> Progenitor).<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apaochi"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['China', 'China', 'China', 'China', 'Peking', 'China'] |
Apatosaurus | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Apatosaurus,1975,1983,1987,Ajax (mythology),Ancient Greek,Animal,Barosaurus,Biological tissue,Bird,Bird anatomy" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Apatosaurus</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Apatosaurus";
var wgTitle = "Apatosaurus";
var wgArticleId = 1346;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Apatosaurus">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Apatosaurus</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Dinosaurs.htm">Dinosaurs</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><i><b>Apatosaurus</b></i><br />
<center><small>Fossil range: <!--del_lnk--> Late Jurassic</small></center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/3/331.gif.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="171" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apatosaurus.gif" src="../../images/3/331.gif" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center">
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center; background:pink;">
<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="">
<div style="text-align:center">Extinct (<a href="../../wp/f/Fossil.htm" title="Fossil">fossil</a>)</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Reptile.htm" title="Sauropsid">Sauropsida</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Superorder:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/d/Dinosaur.htm" title="Dinosaur">Dinosauria</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Saurischia.htm" title="Saurischia">Saurischia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Suborder:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Sauropodomorpha.htm" title="Sauropodomorpha">Sauropodomorpha</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Infraorder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sauropoda<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Diplodocidae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Apatosaurus</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Marsh, 1877</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Species</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<ul>
<li><i>A. ajax</i><li><i>A. excelsus</i><li><i>A. louisae</i></ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center; background:pink;">
<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Synonyms</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<ul>
<li><i>Brontosaurus</i> <small><!--del_lnk--> Marsh, 1879c</small><br />
<li><i>Elosaurus</i> <small>Peterson & Gilmore, 1902</small></ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><i><b>Apatosaurus</b></i> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[/əˈpæ.təˌsɔː.rəs/]</span>), previously known as <i><!--del_lnk--> Brontosaurus</i>, is a <!--del_lnk--> genus of <!--del_lnk--> sauropod <a href="../../wp/d/Dinosaur.htm" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a> that lived about 140 <!--del_lnk--> million years ago, during the <a href="../../wp/j/Jurassic.htm" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> <!--del_lnk--> Period. They were some of the largest land <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animals</a> that ever existed, about 4.5 <!--del_lnk--> metres (15 <!--del_lnk--> feet) tall at the hips, with a length of up to 21m (70 feet) and a mass up to 35 <!--del_lnk--> metric tonnes (40 <!--del_lnk--> tons). Their name means 'deceptive lizard', so-named because the <!--del_lnk--> chevron bones were like those of <i><!--del_lnk--> Mosasaurus</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Greek <i>apatelos</i> or <i>apatelios</i> meaning 'deceptive' and <i>sauros</i> meaning 'lizard').<p>The cervical vertebrae and the bones in the legs were bigger and heavier than that of <i><a href="../../wp/d/Diplodocus.htm" title="Diplodocus">Diplodocus</a></i> although, like Diplodocus, Apatosaurus also had both a long neck and a long tail. The tail was held above the ground during normal locomotion. Like most sauropods, <i>Apatosaurus</i> had only a single large claw on each forelimb. The skull was first identified in <!--del_lnk--> 1975, a century after this dinosaur acquired its name.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Discovery_and_species" name="Discovery_and_species"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discovery and species</span></h2>
<p>Fossils of this animal have been found in <!--del_lnk--> Nine Mile Quarry and <!--del_lnk--> Bone Cabin Quarry in <!--del_lnk--> Wyoming and at sites in <!--del_lnk--> Colorado, <!--del_lnk--> Oklahoma and <!--del_lnk--> Utah, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>.<ul>
<li><i>A. ajax</i> is the <!--del_lnk--> type species of the genus, and was named by the <!--del_lnk--> paleontologist <!--del_lnk--> Othniel Charles Marsh in 1877 after <!--del_lnk--> Ajax, the <!--del_lnk--> hero from <a href="../../wp/g/Greek_mythology.htm" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>. It is the <!--del_lnk--> holotype for the genus and two partial skeletons have been found, including part of a <!--del_lnk--> skull.<li><i>A. excelsus</i> (originally <i>Brontosaurus</i>) was named by Marsh in 1879. It is known from six partial skeletons, including part of a skull, which have been found in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, in <!--del_lnk--> Oklahoma, <!--del_lnk--> Utah, and <!--del_lnk--> Wyoming.<li><i>A. louisae</i> was named by <!--del_lnk--> William Holland, in 1915. It is known from one partial skeleton, which was found in <!--del_lnk--> Colorado, in the United States.</ul>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Robert T. Bakker made <i>A. yahnahpin</i> the <!--del_lnk--> type species of a new genus, <i><!--del_lnk--> Eobrontosaurus</i> in 1998, so it is now properly <i>Eobrontosaurus yahnahpin</i>. It was named by Filla, James and Redman in 1994. One partial skeleton has been found in Wyoming.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> March 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1983 the Apatosaurus was made the <!--del_lnk--> official state dinosaur of <a href="../../wp/g/Guam.htm" title="Guam">Guam</a>.<p><a id="Paleobiology" name="Paleobiology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Paleobiology</span></h2>
<p>Early on, it was believed that <i>Apatosaurus</i> was too massive to support its own weight on dry land, so it was theorized that the sauropod must have lived partly submerged in water, perhaps in a swamp. Recent findings do not support this. In fact, like its relative <i><a href="../../wp/d/Diplodocus.htm" title="Diplodocus">Diplodocus</a></i>, <i>Apatosaurus</i> was a <!--del_lnk--> grazing animal with a very long neck and a long tail that served as a counterweight. Fossilized footprints indicate that it probably lived in herds. To aid in processing food, <i>Apatosaurus</i> may have swallowed gizzard stones (<!--del_lnk--> gastroliths) in the same way that many birds do today, as its jaws lacked molars with which to chew tough plant fibers.<p><a id="Neck" name="Neck"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Neck</span></h3>
<p><i>Apatosaurus</i> browsed the tops of trees, on riverbanks. <!--del_lnk--> Scientists believe that these sauropods could not raise their necks to an angle of 90 degrees, as doing so would slow blood flow to the brain excessively; blood starting at the body proper would take two or more minutes to reach the brain. Furthermore, studies of the structure of the neck vertebrae have revealed that the neck was not as flexible as previously thought.<p><a id="Physiology" name="Physiology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Physiology</span></h3>
<p>With such a large body mass, combined with a long neck, <!--del_lnk--> physiologists encounter problems determining how these animals managed to breathe.<p>Beginning with the assumption that <i>Apatosaurus</i>, like <!--del_lnk--> crocodilians, did not have a diaphragm, the <!--del_lnk--> dead-space volume (the amount of unused air remaining in the mouth, trachea and air tubes after each breath) has been estimated at about 184 liters for a 30kg specimen.<p>Its <!--del_lnk--> tidal volume (the amount of air moved in or out during a single breath) has been calculated based on the following <!--del_lnk--> respiratory systems:<ul>
<li>904 liters if avian<li>225 liters if mammalian<li>19 liters if reptilian</ul>
<p>On this basis, its <!--del_lnk--> respiratory system could not have been reptilian, as its tidal volume would not have been able to replace its dead-space volume. Likewise, the mammalian system would only provide a fraction of new air on each breath. Therefore, it must have had either a system unknown in the modern world or one like <!--del_lnk--> birds, i.e. multiple air sacs and a flow-through lung.<p>Furthermore, an avian system would only need a lung volume of about 600 liters compared to a mammalian requirement of 2,950 liters, which would exceed the available space. The overall thoracic volume of <i>Apatosaurus</i> has been estimated at 1,700 liters allowing for a 500-liter, four-chambered <!--del_lnk--> heart (like <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">birds</a>, not three-chambered like <a href="../../wp/r/Reptile.htm" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>) and a 900-liter lung capacity. That would allow about 300 liters for the necessary <!--del_lnk--> tissue.<p>Assuming <i>Apatosaurus</i> had an avian respiratory system and a reptilian resting-metabolism (it certainly could not fly), it would need to consume only about 262 liters (69 gallons) of water per day.<p>It is not known how Apatosaurs ate enough food to satisfy their enormous bodies. It is likely that they ate constantly, pausing only to cool off, drink or to remove parasites. It is surmised that they slept standing upright. They likely relied on their enormous size and herd behaviour to deter predators.<p><a id="Lips" name="Lips"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lips</span></h3>
<p>According to Robert Bakker, it is a major possibility that <i>Apatosaurus</i> may have had thick, moose-like lips.<p><a id="Classification" name="Classification"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Classification</span></h2>
<p><i>Apatosaurus</i> is a member of the <b>Diplodocidae</b>, along with <i><a href="../../wp/d/Diplodocus.htm" title="Diplodocus">Diplodocus</a></i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Barosaurus</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Seismosaurus</i>, although it is not as closely related to the others as they are to each other and hence placed in its own subfamily <b>Apatosaurinae</b>.<p><a id="Apatosaurus.2FBrontosaurus_controversy" name="Apatosaurus.2FBrontosaurus_controversy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline"><i>Apatosaurus</i>/<i>Brontosaurus</i> controversy</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/332.jpg.htm" title="Apatosaurus' correct head"><img alt="Apatosaurus' correct head" height="134" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apatosaurus2.jpg" src="../../images/3/332.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/332.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Apatosaurus' correct head</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In 1877, <!--del_lnk--> Othniel Charles Marsh published notes on his discovery of <i>Apatosaurus ajax</i>. He followed this in 1879 with a description of another, more complete, dinosaur specimen. He speculated that the latter specimen represented a new genus and named it <i>Brontosaurus excelsus</i>. In 1903, it was discovered that <i>Brontosaurus excelsus</i> was in fact an adult <i>Apatosaurus</i> and the name <i>Apatosaurus</i>, having been published first, was deemed to have priority as the official name; <i>Brontosaurus</i> was relegated to being a synonym. In the 1970s, it was proven that the traditional "Brontosaurus" image known to all was, in fact, an <i>Apatosaurus excelsus</i> with a <i><a href="../../wp/c/Camarasaurus.htm" title="Camarasaurus">Camarasaurus</a></i> head incorrectly placed on its body.<p><a id="In_popular_culture" name="In_popular_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">In popular culture</span></h2>
<p><a id="Film_and_television" name="Film_and_television"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Film and television</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><i>Apatosaurus</i> are featured in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Walking with Dinosaurs</i> special "The Ballad Of Big Al" and in <i><!--del_lnk--> When Dinosaurs Roamed America</i>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Littlefoot from the <!--del_lnk--> 1987 film, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Land Before Time</i> was an <i>Apatosaurus</i>.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Flintstones</i> made frequent reference to "Brontosaurus burgers" and steaks.</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apatosaurus"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Fossil', 'Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Sauropsid', 'Dinosaur', 'Saurischia', 'Sauropodomorpha', 'Dinosaur', 'Jurassic', 'Animal', 'Diplodocus', 'United States', 'Greek mythology', 'United States', 'Guam', 'Diplodocus', 'Bird', 'Reptile', 'Diplodocus', 'Camarasaurus'] |
Ape | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Ape,1747,2005,2006,APE,Africa,Animal,Anthropologist,Aquatic ape hypothesis,Arboreal,Archbishop" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Ape</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Ape";
var wgTitle = "Ape";
var wgArticleId = 229914;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Ape">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Ape</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Apes</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/3/333.jpg.htm" title="Lar Gibbon (Hylobates lar)"><img alt="Lar Gibbon (Hylobates lar)" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Weisshandgibbon_tierpark_berlin.jpg" src="../../images/3/333.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Lar Gibbon (<i>Hylobates lar</i>)</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Primates<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Suborder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Haplorrhini<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Parvorder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Catarrhini<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Superfamily:</td>
<td><b>Hominoidea</b><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Gray, 1825</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Families</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Hylobatidae<br /><!--del_lnk--> Hominidae</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Apes</b> are the members of the <b>Hominoidea</b> <a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Superfamily">superfamily</a> of <!--del_lnk--> primates, which includes humans. Under current classification, there are two <!--del_lnk--> families of <b>hominoids</b>:<ul>
<li>the family <!--del_lnk--> Hylobatidae consists of 4 genera and 12 species of <!--del_lnk--> gibbons, including the <!--del_lnk--> Lar Gibbon and the <!--del_lnk--> Siamang, collectively known as the "lesser apes"<li>the family <!--del_lnk--> Hominidae consisting of <a href="../../wp/g/Gorilla.htm" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Chimpanzee.htm" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a>, <!--del_lnk--> orangutans, and <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">humans</a>, collectively known as the "great apes".</ul>
<p>A few other primates have the word "ape" in their common names, but they are not regarded as true apes by most authorities.<p>Except for gorillas and humans, all true apes are agile climbers of trees. They are best described as <!--del_lnk--> omnivorous, their diet consisting of fruit, grass seeds, and in most cases some quantities of meat and invertebrates—either hunted or scavenged—along with anything else available and easily digested. They are native to <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a>, although humans have spread to all parts of the world.<p>Most ape species are rare or <!--del_lnk--> endangered. The chief threat to most of the endangered species is loss of tropical <a href="../../wp/r/Rainforest.htm" title="Rainforest">rainforest</a> habitat, though some populations are further imperiled by hunting for <!--del_lnk--> bushmeat.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Historical_and_modern_terminology" name="Historical_and_modern_terminology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Historical and modern terminology</span></h2>
<p>"Ape" (Old Eng. <i>apa</i>; Dutch <i>aap</i>; Old Ger. <i>affo</i>; Welsh <i>epa</i>; Old Czech <i>op</i>) is a word of uncertain origin and is possibly an <!--del_lnk--> onomatopoetic imitation of animal chatter. The term has a history of rather imprecise usage. Its earliest meaning was a tailless (and therefore exceptionally human-like) non-human primate, but as <!--del_lnk--> zoological knowledge developed it became clear that taillessness occurred in a number of different and otherwise unrelated <!--del_lnk--> species.<p>The original usage of "ape" in <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> may have referred to the <a href="../../wp/b/Baboon.htm" title="Baboon">baboon</a>, an <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">African</a> <!--del_lnk--> monkey. Two tailless species of <!--del_lnk--> macaque are commonly named as apes, the <!--del_lnk--> Barbary Ape of North Africa (introduced into <a href="../../wp/g/Gibraltar.htm" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a>), <i>Macaca sylvanus</i>, and the Sulawesi Black Ape or <!--del_lnk--> Celebes Crested Macaque, <i>M. nigra</i>.<p>Until a handful of decades ago, humans were thought to be distinctly set apart from the other apes (even from the other great apes), so much so that many people still don't think of the term "apes" to include humans at all. However, it is not considered accurate by many biologists to think of apes in a biological sense without considering humans to be included . The terms "non-human apes" or "non-human great apes" is used with increasing frequency to show the relationship of humans to the other apes while yet talking only about the non-human species .<p>A group of apes may be referred to as a <i>troop</i> or a <i>shrewdness</i>.<p><a id="Biology" name="Biology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biology</span></h2>
<p>The gibbon family, Hylobatidae, is composed of thirteen medium-sized species. Their major distinction is their long arms, which they use to <!--del_lnk--> brachiate through the trees. As an evolutionary adaptation to this <!--del_lnk--> arboreal lifestyle, their wrists are ball and socket joints. The largest of the gibbons, the <!--del_lnk--> Siamang, weighs up to 23 kg (50 lb). In comparison, the smallest great ape is the <!--del_lnk--> Common Chimpanzee at a modest 40 to 65 kg (88 to 143 lb).<p>The great ape family was previously referred to as <!--del_lnk--> Pongidae, and humans (and fossil hominids) were omitted from it, but there is no biological case for doing this. However, this definition is still used by many <!--del_lnk--> anthropologists and by <!--del_lnk--> lay people. However, that definition makes Pongidae <!--del_lnk--> paraphyletic, whereas most taxonomists nowadays encourage <!--del_lnk--> monophyletic groups, even though there might not be much signifigance. Chimpanzees, gorillas, humans and orangutans are all more closely related to one another than any of these four genera are to the gibbons. However, the term "hominid" is still used with the specific meaning of extinct animals more closely related to humans than the other great apes (for example, <!--del_lnk--> australopithecines). It is now usual to use even finer divisions, such as <!--del_lnk--> subfamilies and <!--del_lnk--> tribes to distinguish which hominoids are being discussed. Current evidence implies that humans share a common, extinct, ancestor with the chimpanzee line, from which we separated more recently than the gorilla line.<p>Both great apes and lesser apes fall within <!--del_lnk--> Catarrhini, which also includes the <!--del_lnk--> Old World monkeys of <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Eurasia. Within this group, both families of apes can be distinguished from these <a href="../../wp/m/Monkey.htm" title="Monkey">monkeys</a> by the number of cusps on their <!--del_lnk--> molars (apes have five—the "Y-5" molar pattern, Old World monkeys have only four in a "bilophodont" pattern). Apes have more mobile shoulder joints and arms, ribcages that are flatter front-to-back, and a shorter, less mobile spine compared to Old World monkeys. These are all anatomical adaptations to vertical hanging and swinging locomotion (brachiation) in the apes. All living members of the Hylobatidae and Hominidae are tailless, and humans can therefore accurately be referred to as bipedal apes. However, there are also primates in other families that lack tails, and at least one (the <!--del_lnk--> Pig-Tailed Langur) that has been known to walk significant distances bipedally.<p>Although the hominoid fossil record is far from complete, and the evidence is often fragmentary, there is enough to give a good outline of the evolutionary history of humans. The time of the split between humans and living apes used to be thought to have occurred 15 to 20 million years ago, or even up to 30 or 40 million years ago. Some apes occurring within that time period, such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Ramapithecus</i>, used to be considered as <!--del_lnk--> hominins, and possible ancestors of humans. Later fossil finds indicated that <i>Ramapithecus</i> was more closely related to the orangutan, and new biochemical evidence indicated that the last common ancestor of humans and other hominins occurred between 5 and 10 million years ago, and probably in the lower end of that range.<p><a id="Cultural_aspects_of_non-human_apes" name="Cultural_aspects_of_non-human_apes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cultural aspects of non-human apes</span></h2>
<p>The intelligence and humanoid appearance of apes are responsible for legends which attribute human qualities; for example, they are sometimes said to be able to speak but refuse to do so in order to avoid work.<p>They are also said to be the result of a curse—a <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> <!--del_lnk--> folktale claims that one of the races who built the <!--del_lnk--> Tower of Babel became apes as punishment, while <!--del_lnk--> Muslim lore says that the Jews of <!--del_lnk--> Eilat became apes as punishment for <a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" title="Fishing">fishing</a> on the <!--del_lnk--> Sabbath. Some sects of <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christian</a> have folklore that claims that apes are a symbol of <!--del_lnk--> lust and were created by <!--del_lnk--> Satan in response to <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">God</a>'s creation of humans. It is uncertain whether any of these references are to any specific apes, since all date from a period when the distinction between apes and monkeys was not widely understood, or not understood at all.<p>Humans and the other apes share many similarities, including the ability to properly use tools and imitate others. Recent studies at <!--del_lnk--> Yale test some of these similarities. A professor and his/her students gave a challenge to baby humans and baby chimps. Both groups were shown a way that might solve this challenge. However, neither group knew that the solution they were shown was incorrect. Both times the baby humans tried to complete the challenge, they imitated what they were shown and failed at the attempt. The chimpanzee babies also failed their first attempt, as they too mimicked what they were shown. However, on their second attempt, they created a novel solution, and thus completed the challenge. The professor interpreted this as meaning that baby chimps learn from experience, while baby humans just imitate what they are shown. This gave scientists key information in understanding the cultural aspects of ape life and evolutionary similarities between humans and apes.<p>There have also been recent breakthroughs in evidence of ape culture that go beyond what was explained above. This was further explored by scientists at the convention in St. Louis.<p><a id="History_of_hominoid_taxonomy" name="History_of_hominoid_taxonomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History of hominoid taxonomy</span></h2>
<p>The history of hominoid taxonomy is somewhat confusing and complex. The names of subgroups have changed their meaning over time as new evidence from fossil discoveries, anatomy comparisons and DNA sequences, has changed understanding of the relationships between hominoids. The story of the hominoid taxonomy is one of gradual demotion of humans from a special position in the taxonomy to being one branch among many. It also illustrates the growing influence of <!--del_lnk--> cladistics (the science of classifying living things by strict descent) on taxonomy.<p><!--del_lnk--> As of 2006, there are eight extant <!--del_lnk--> genera of hominoids. They are the four great ape genera (<i><!--del_lnk--> Homo</i> (humans), <i><a href="../../wp/c/Chimpanzee.htm" title="Chimpanzee">Pan</a></i> (chimpanzees), <i><a href="../../wp/g/Gorilla.htm" title="Gorilla">Gorilla</a></i>, and <i><!--del_lnk--> Pongo</i> (orangutans)), and the four genera of <!--del_lnk--> gibbons (<i><!--del_lnk--> Hylobates</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Hoolock</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Nomascus</i>, and <i><!--del_lnk--> Symphalangus</i>). (The genus for the <!--del_lnk--> hoolock gibbons was recently changed from <i><!--del_lnk--> Bunopithecus</i> to <i>Hoolock</i>.)<p>In 1758, <a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Carolus Linnaeus</a>, relying on second- or third-hand accounts, placed a second species in <i>Homo</i> along with <i>H. sapiens</i>: <i>Homo troglodytes</i> ("cave-dwelling man"). It is not clear to which animal this name refers, as Linnaeus had no specimen to refer to, hence no precise description. Linnaeus named the orangutan <i>Simia satyrus</i> ("satyr monkey"). He placed the three genera <i>Homo</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Simia</i> and <i>Lemur</i> in the family of Primates.<p>The <i>troglodytes</i> name was used for the chimpanzee by <!--del_lnk--> Blumenbach in 1775 but moved to the genus <i>Simia</i>. The orangutan was moved to the genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Pongo</i> in 1799 by <!--del_lnk--> Lacépède.<p>Linnaeus's inclusion of humans in the primates with monkeys and apes was troubling for people who denied a close relationship between humans and the rest of the animal kingdom. Linnaeus's Lutheran <!--del_lnk--> Archbishop had accused him of "impiety." In a letter to <!--del_lnk--> Johann Georg Gmelin dated <!--del_lnk--> February 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1747, Linnaeus wrote:<dl>
<dd>It is not pleasing to me that I must place <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Humans">humans</a> among the <!--del_lnk--> primates, but man is intimately familiar with himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name is applied. But I desperately seek from you and from the whole world a general difference between men and <!--del_lnk--> simians from the principles of <!--del_lnk--> Natural History. I certainly know of none. If only someone might tell me one! If I called man a <!--del_lnk--> simian or vice versa I would bring together all the <!--del_lnk--> theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to, in accordance with the law of Natural History.</dl>
<p>Accordingly, <!--del_lnk--> Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in the first edition of his <i>Manual of Natural History</i> (1779), proposed that the primates be divided into the <!--del_lnk--> Quadrumana (four-handed, i.e. apes and monkeys) and <!--del_lnk--> Bimana (two-handed, ie. humans). This distinction was taken up by other naturalists, most notably <!--del_lnk--> Georges Cuvier. Some elevated the distinction to the level of <!--del_lnk--> order.<p>However, the many affinities between humans and other primates — and especially the great apes — made it clear that the distinction made no scientific sense. <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Darwin.htm" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> wrote, in <i><!--del_lnk--> The Descent of Man</i>:<dl>
<dd>The greater number of naturalists who have taken into consideration the whole structure of man, including his mental faculties, have followed <!--del_lnk--> Blumenbach and <!--del_lnk--> Cuvier, and have placed man in a separate Order, under the title of the Bimana, and therefore on an equality with the orders of the Quadrumana, <!--del_lnk--> Carnivora, etc. Recently many of our best naturalists have recurred to the view first propounded by <a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, so remarkable for his sagacity, and have placed man in the same Order with the Quadrumana, under the title of the Primates. The justice of this conclusion will be admitted: for in the first place, we must bear in mind the comparative insignificance for classification of the great development of the brain in man, and that the strongly-marked differences between the skulls of man and the Quadrumana (lately insisted upon by <!--del_lnk--> Bischoff, <!--del_lnk--> Aeby, and others) apparently follow from their differently developed brains. In the second place, we must remember that nearly all the other and more important differences between man and the Quadrumana are manifestly adaptive in their nature, and relate chiefly to the erect position of man; such as the structure of his hand, foot, and pelvis, the curvature of his spine, and the position of his head.</dl>
<p>
<br />
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/3/334.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="55" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hominoid_taxonomy_1.png" src="../../images/3/334.png" width="300" /></a></span></div>
<p>Until about 1960, the hominoids were usually divided into two families: humans and their extinct relatives in <!--del_lnk--> Hominidae, the other apes in <!--del_lnk--> Pongidae.<p>
<br style="clear:both" />
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/3/335.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="55" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hominoid_taxonomy_2.png" src="../../images/3/335.png" width="300" /></a></span></div>
<p>The 1960s saw the application of techniques from <!--del_lnk--> molecular biology to primate taxonomy. Goodman used his 1963 immunological study of serum proteins to propose a division of the hominoids into three families, with the non-human great apes in Pongidae and the lesser apes (gibbons) in <!--del_lnk--> Hylobatidae. The <!--del_lnk--> trichotomy of hominoid families, however, prompted scientists to ask which family <!--del_lnk--> speciated first from the common hominoid ancestor.<p>
<br style="clear:both" />
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/3/336.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hominoid_taxonomy_3.png" src="../../images/3/336.png" width="300" /></a></span></div>
<p>Within the superfamily Hominoidea, gibbons are the <!--del_lnk--> outgroup: this means that the rest of the hominoids are more closely related to each other than any of them are to gibbons. This led to the placing of the other great apes into the family Hominidae along with humans, by demoting the Pongidae to a subfamily; the Hominidae family now contained the subfamilies <!--del_lnk--> Homininae and <!--del_lnk--> Ponginae. Again, the three-way split in Ponginae led scientists to ask which of the three genera is least related to the others.<p>
<br style="clear:both" />
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/3/337.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="78" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hominoid_taxonomy_4.png" src="../../images/3/337.png" width="300" /></a></span></div>
<p>Investigation showed <!--del_lnk--> orangutans to be the outgroup, but comparing humans to all three other hominid genera showed that African apes (chimpanzees and gorillas) and humans are more closely related to each other than any of them are to orangutans. This led to the placing of the African apes in the subfamily Homininae, forming another three-way split. This classification was first proposed by M. Goodman in 1974.<p>
<br style="clear:both" />
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/3/338.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hominoid_taxonomy_5.png" src="../../images/3/338.png" width="300" /></a></span></div>
<p>To try to resolve the hominine trichotomy, some authors proposed the division of the subfamily Homininae into the tribes Gorillini (African apes) and Hominini (humans).<p>
<br style="clear:both" />
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/3/339.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="101" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hominoid_taxonomy_6.png" src="../../images/3/339.png" width="300" /></a></span></div>
<p>However, DNA comparisons provide convincing evidence that within the subfamily Homininae, gorillas are the outgroup. This suggests that chimpanzees should be in Hominini along with humans. This classification was first proposed (though one rank lower) by M. Goodman et. al. in 1990. See <!--del_lnk--> Human evolutionary genetics for more information on the speciation of humans and great apes.<p>
<br style="clear:both" />
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/30/3098.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="110" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hominoid_taxonomy_7.png" src="../../images/3/340.png" width="300" /></a></span></div>
<p>Later DNA comparisons split the gibbon genus <i>Hylobates</i> into four genera: <i><!--del_lnk--> Hylobates</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Hoolock</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Nomascus</i>, and <i><!--del_lnk--> Symphalangus</i>.<p>
<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Classification_and_evolution" name="Classification_and_evolution"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Classification and evolution</span></h2>
<p>As discussed above, hominoid taxonomy has undergone several changes. Current understanding is that the apes diverged from the <!--del_lnk--> Old World monkeys about 25 million years ago. The lesser and greater apes split about 18 mya, and the hominid splits happen 14 mya (<i>Pongo</i>), 7 mya (<i>Gorilla</i>), and 3-5 mya (<i>Homo</i> & <i>Pan</i>)<ul>
<li><b>Superfamily Hominoidea</b><ul>
<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Hylobatidae: gibbons <ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Hylobates</i><li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Hoolock</i><li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Symphalangus</i><li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Nomascus</i></ul>
<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Hominidae: great apes <ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Pongo</i>: orangutans<li>Genus <i><a href="../../wp/g/Gorilla.htm" title="Gorilla">Gorilla</a></i>: gorillas<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Homo</i>: humans<li>Genus <i><a href="../../wp/c/Chimpanzee.htm" title="Chimpanzee">Pan</a></i>: chimpanzees</ul>
</ul>
</ul>
<p><a id="Legal_status" name="Legal_status"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legal status</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd><i>See <!--del_lnk--> Primate#Legal_status</i></dl>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ape"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Mammal', 'Superfamily', 'Gorilla', 'Chimpanzee', 'Human', 'Africa', 'Asia', 'Rainforest', 'English language', 'Baboon', 'Africa', 'Gibraltar', 'Africa', 'Monkey', 'Jewish', 'Fishing', 'Christianity', 'God', 'Chimpanzee', 'Gorilla', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Humans', 'Charles Darwin', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Gorilla', 'Chimpanzee'] |
Aphid | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Aphid,Bacteriocyte,Amino acid,Buchnera (proteobacteria),Bacteria,Endosymbiont,Reproduction,Parthenogenetic,Spring (season),Summer,Oviparous" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Aphid</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Aphid";
var wgTitle = "Aphid";
var wgArticleId = 162296;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Aphid">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Aphid</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Insects_Reptiles_and_Fish.htm">Insects, Reptiles and Fish</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<dl>
<dd><i>"Aphid" is also the <!--del_lnk--> NATO reporting name for the Soviet/Russian <!--del_lnk--> Molniya R-60 air-to-air missile.</i></dl>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Aphids</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/3/349.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="301" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aphids1533.JPG" src="../../images/3/349.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center">
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Arthropod.htm" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">Insecta</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hemiptera<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Suborder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sternorryncha<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Superfamily:</td>
<td><b>Aphidoidea</b><br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center>Families</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<p>There are 10 families:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Adelgidae - <!--del_lnk--> adelgids, <!--del_lnk--> conifer aphids, <!--del_lnk--> <i>Adelges cooleyi</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Hemlock Wolly Adelgid, <!--del_lnk--> <i>Adelges piceae</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Anoeciidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Aphididae<li><!--del_lnk--> Drepanosiphidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Homomasagymibutae<li><!--del_lnk--> Greenideidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Hormaphididae<li><!--del_lnk--> Lachnidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Mindaridae<li><!--del_lnk--> Pemphigidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Phloeomyzidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Phylloxeridae<li><!--del_lnk--> Thelaxidae</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Aphids</b>, also known as <b>greenfly</b>, <b>blackfly</b> or <b>plant lice</b>, are minute plant-feeding <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insects</a> in the <a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Superfamily">superfamily</a> <b>Aphidoidea</b> in the homopterous division of the order <!--del_lnk--> Hemiptera. Recent classification within the Hemiptera has changed the old term 'Homoptera' to two suborders: Sternorryncha (aphids, whiteflies, scales, psyllids...) and Auchenorryncha (cicadas, leafhoppers, treehoppers, planthoppers...) with the suborder: Heteroptera containing a large group of insects known as the 'true-bugs'; gnat bugs, pond skaters, shore bugs, toad bugs, water boatmen, backswimmers, etc.<p>About 4,000 species of aphids are known, classified in 10 families; of these, around 250 species are serious pests for <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> and <!--del_lnk--> forestry as well as an annoyance for <!--del_lnk--> gardeners. They vary in size from 1-10 <!--del_lnk--> mm long.<p>Important natural enemies include the predatory <!--del_lnk--> ladybugs (<!--del_lnk--> Coleoptera: <a href="../../wp/c/Coccinellidae.htm" title="Coccinellidae">Coccinellidae</a>), <!--del_lnk--> hoverfly larvae (<!--del_lnk--> Diptera: <!--del_lnk--> Syrphidae), and lacewings (<!--del_lnk--> Neuroptera: <!--del_lnk--> Chrysopidae), and <!--del_lnk--> entomopathogenic fungi like <i>Lecanicillium lecanii</i> and the <!--del_lnk--> Entomophthorales.<p>Aphids are distributed world-wide, but they are most common in <!--del_lnk--> temperate zones. It is possible for aphids to migrate great distances (mainly through passive dispersal riding on winds) depending on the weather patterns; for example, the <!--del_lnk--> lettuce aphid spreading from <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> to <!--del_lnk--> Tasmania. They have also been spread by human transportation of infested plant materials.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Anatomy" name="Anatomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Anatomy</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/350.jpg.htm" title="SEM image"><img alt="SEM image" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aphid_micro.jpg" src="../../images/3/350.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/350.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> SEM image</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The most typical organ of aphids is their piercing-sucking mouthparts called <!--del_lnk--> stylets. They have soft bodies, long, thin legs, two-jointed, two-clawed tarsi, and usually a pair of abdominal tubes through which a waxy secretion is exuded. These tubes were formerly supposed to secrete the sweet substance known as "<!--del_lnk--> honeydew" so much sought after by ants; but this is now known to come from the alimentary canal. Both winged and wingless forms of both sexes occur; the wings when present are two pairs, lacy, transparent and only have one prominent longitudinal vein. Aphids also have a <!--del_lnk--> proboscis originating between and behind the forelegs. Aphids' <!--del_lnk--> antennae are composed of two thick basal segments and a <!--del_lnk--> flagellum with as many as four segments. The last of these four segments is divided into a proximal part and a thinner distal part (called <i>process terminalis</i>).<p>Aphids have two <!--del_lnk--> compound eyes and two <!--del_lnk--> ocular tubercles made up of three lenses, each of which is located behind and above the compound eyes. They have two tarsal segments. The fifth <!--del_lnk--> abdominal segment bears a pair of tubes on the dorsal surface named <!--del_lnk--> siphunculi (cornicles), which are upright and point backward. A <!--del_lnk--> cauda is usually present below and between them on the last abdominal segment.<p><a id="Diet" name="Diet"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Diet</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/351.jpg.htm" title="Aphid life stages. (Aphis pomi)"><img alt="Aphid life stages. (Aphis pomi)" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Snodgrass_Aphis_pomi.jpg" src="../../images/3/351.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/351.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aphid life stages. (<i>Aphis pomi</i>)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Many, but far from all, aphids are monophagous (i.e. feeding only on 1 species of plant). Others, like <i><!--del_lnk--> Myzus persicae</i> feed on hundreds of plant species across many families.<p>Similarly to related families, aphids passively feed on <!--del_lnk--> sap of <!--del_lnk--> phloem vessels in plants. This sap being kept under high pressure, once a phloem vessel is punctured, it is forced into the food canal. Aphids actively 'drink' (suck) from <!--del_lnk--> xylem vessels when thirsty. As they feed, aphids often transmit <!--del_lnk--> plant viruses to their food plants. These viruses can sometimes kill the plants.<p>Some species of <a href="../../wp/a/Ant.htm" title="Ant">ants</a> "farm" aphids, protecting them on the plant they eat, and eating the <!--del_lnk--> honeydew that the aphids secrete; this is a <!--del_lnk--> mutualistic relationship. Aphid honeydew is rich in carbohydrates (like <!--del_lnk--> melezitose), of which the aphids ingest an excess, being phloem-feeders. Many aphids are host to <!--del_lnk--> endosymbiont <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Buchnera</i>, which live in specialized cells called <!--del_lnk--> Bacteriocytes inside the aphid. These bacteria synthesizes some essential <!--del_lnk--> amino acids that are absent in the phloem that the aphids eat.<p><a id="Reproduction" name="Reproduction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Reproduction</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/352.jpg.htm" title="Ant tending aphids"><img alt="Ant tending aphids" height="153" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ant_cultivating_aphids.jpg" src="../../images/3/352.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/352.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ant tending aphids</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Apart from their importance from the economic standpoint, aphids are chiefly remarkable for the phenomena connected with the propagation of the species. For part or all of their life, most aphids are often found to be <!--del_lnk--> parthenogenetic. Aphids have been known to have what is called <!--del_lnk--> telescoping generations. With telescoping generations the female aphid will have a daughter within her who is already parthenogenetically producing its own daughter at the same time. This leads to the bizarre situation where the diet of a female aphid can have inter-generational effects on the body size and birth rate of aphids. In other words, what the aphid eats can directly change the size and fertility of the aphid's daughters and grand-daughters (Nevo and Coll 2001, Jahn et al. 2005).<p>At different times of the year, they can be <!--del_lnk--> viviparous or <!--del_lnk--> oviparous. During <a href="../../wp/s/Spring_%2528season%2529.htm" title="Spring (season)">spring</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Summer.htm" title="Summer">summer</a>, aphids are often parthenogenetic and viviparous and then give birth sexually during <a href="../../wp/a/Autumn.htm" title="Autumn">autumn</a>. Therefore aphids are said to undergo <!--del_lnk--> cyclical parthenogenesis or to have a <!--del_lnk--> holocyclical life circle.<p>Male and female aphids mate in autumn. Sexual females, but also asexual ones, have two <!--del_lnk--> sex chromosomes while sexual males only have one.<p>The following brief summary of what takes place in the plant-louse of the rose (<i><!--del_lnk--> Aphis rosae</i>), may be regarded as typical of the family, though exceptions occur in other species: Eggs produced in the autumn by fertilized females remain on the plant through the winter and hatching in the spring give rise to female individuals which may be winged or wingless. From these, females are born parthenogenetically: that is to say, without the intervention of males, and by a process that has been compared to internal budding, large numbers of young resembling their parents in every respect except size are produced, which themselves reproduce their kind in the same way. This process continues throughout the summer, generation after generation being produced until the number of descendants from a single individual of the spring-hatched brood may amount to many thousands. In the autumn winged males appear; union between the sexes takes place and the females lay the fertilized eggs which are destined to carry the species through the cold months of winter. If, however, the food-plant is grown in a glasshouse or greenhouse where protection against cold is afforded, the aphids may go on reproducing agamogenetically (asexually) without cessation for many years. Likewise, in warm and tropical areas or during the growing season, aphids reproduce asexually without interruption. Since the young can become adults and reproduce within a few days, this process leads to the build-up of very large populations responsible for severe damage to crops and important economic losses; such populations often require <!--del_lnk--> pest control.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/32/3258.jpg.htm" title="P-14 lady beetle consuming an aphid"><img alt="P-14 lady beetle consuming an aphid" height="148" longdesc="/wiki/Image:P-14_lady_beetle.jpg" src="../../images/3/353.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/32/3258.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> P-14 <!--del_lnk--> lady beetle consuming an aphid</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/354.jpg.htm" title="Aphids feeding on a rose bud, in the background lady beetle can be seen"><img alt="Aphids feeding on a rose bud, in the background lady beetle can be seen" height="304" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aphid_rose.jpg" src="../../images/3/354.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/354.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aphids feeding on a <!--del_lnk--> rose bud, in the background <!--del_lnk--> lady beetle can be seen</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Not the least interesting features connected with this strange life-history are the facts that the young may be born by the oviparous or viviparous methods and either gamogenetically or agamogenetically, and may develop into winged forms or remain wingless, and that the males only appear in any number at the close of the season. Although the factors which determine these phenomena are not clearly understood, it is believed that the appearance of the males is connected with the increasing cold of autumn and the growing scarcity of food, and that the birth of winged females is similarly associated with decrease in the quantity or vitiation of the quality of the nourishment imbibed. Sometimes the winged females migrate from the plant they were born on to start fresh colonies on others often of quite a different kind (host plant alternancy). Thus the apple aphid (<i>Aphis mali</i>) after producing many generations of apterous females on its typical food-plant gives rise to winged forms which fly away and settle upon grass or corn-stalks.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/355.jpg.htm" title="Aphid infestation on broccoli plant. Note that most of the aphids one sees in a plant infestation are juveniles."><img alt="Aphid infestation on broccoli plant. Note that most of the aphids one sees in a plant infestation are juveniles." height="116" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aphids_on_broccoli.jpg" src="../../images/3/355.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/355.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aphid infestation on <!--del_lnk--> broccoli plant. Note that most of the aphids one sees in a plant infestation are juveniles.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Another widespread aphid in the <!--del_lnk--> Phylloxeridae family is <i>Daktulosphairia vitifoliae</i> (still frequently called by its former name <i>Phylloxera vitifoliae</i>), the famous <!--del_lnk--> Phylloxera which causes enormous loss by attacking the leaves and roots of grape vines. Its life-history is similar to that of <i>Aphis rosae</i> described above. In the autumn a single fertile egg is laid by apterous females in a crevice of the bark of the vine where it is protected during the winter. From this egg in the spring emerges an apterous female who makes a gall in the new leaf and lays therein a large number of eggs. Some of the apterous young that are hatched from these form fresh galls and continue to multiply in the leaves, others descend to the root of the plant, becoming what are known as root-forms. These, like the parent form of spring, reproduce parthenogenetically, giving rise to generation after generation of egg-laying individuals. In the course of the summer, from some of these eggs are hatched females which acquire wings and lay eggs from which wingless males and females are born. From the union of the sexes comes the fertile egg from which the parent form of spring is hatched.<p>Some species of cabbage aphids (like <i>Brevicoryne brassicae</i>) reproduce rapidly during the summer. They are all females, and can produce up to 41 generations of offspring. If no aphids had died during the summer, there would be more than one and a half billion billion billion aphids (1.5 x 10<sup>27</sup>) by the end of the season.<p><a id="Evolution" name="Evolution"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Evolution</span></h2>
<p>Aphids probably first appeared 280 million years ago, in the <a href="../../wp/c/Carboniferous.htm" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> period. They probably fed on <!--del_lnk--> non-flowering plants like <!--del_lnk--> Cordaitales or <!--del_lnk--> Cycadophyta. The oldest known aphid <a href="../../wp/f/Fossil.htm" title="Fossil">fossil</a> is one of the species <i>Triassoaphis cubitus</i> from the <a href="../../wp/t/Triassic.htm" title="Triassic">Triassic</a>. There were relatively few species of aphids at that time, and the number of species only considerably increased since the appearance of <!--del_lnk--> angiosperms 160 millions of years ago. This is due to the fact that angiosperms provide an occasion for aphids to become specialized.<p>Aphids have not always looked like they do nowadays. Organs like the <!--del_lnk--> cauda or the <!--del_lnk--> siphunculi were not evolved until the <a href="../../wp/c/Cretaceous.htm" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>.<p><a id="Gallery" name="Gallery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h2>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/3/356.jpg.htm" title="Image:Aphid-sap.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/3/356.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Yellow aphid feeding on plant sap.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/3/357.jpg.htm" title="Image:Aphid-sap2.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/3/357.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/3/358.jpg.htm" title="Image:Aphidcolony.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/3/358.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Colony of Aphids.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 39px 0;"><a href="../../images/3/359.jpg.htm" title="Image:Aphids 01.JPG"><img alt="" height="68" src="../../images/3/359.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 26px 0;"><a href="../../images/3/360.jpg.htm" title="Image:Aphid small.jpg"><img alt="" height="94" src="../../images/3/360.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 35px 0;"><a href="../../images/3/361.jpg.htm" title="Image:Aphid-colored.jpg"><img alt="" height="75" src="../../images/3/361.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Aphid colors</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/3/362.jpg.htm" title="Image:Aphid-attack.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/3/362.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Lady beetle larva consuming an aphid</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphid"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Arthropod', 'Insect', 'Insect', 'Superfamily', 'Agriculture', 'Coccinellidae', 'New Zealand', 'Ant', 'Bacteria', 'Spring (season)', 'Summer', 'Autumn', 'Carboniferous', 'Fossil', 'Triassic', 'Cretaceous'] |
Apollo | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Apollo,1100s BC,1200s BC,17th century BC,1 (number),212 BCE,2nd century,3rd century BC,430 BCE,4th century BC,700s BC" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Apollo</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Apollo";
var wgTitle = "Apollo";
var wgArticleId = 594;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Apollo">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Apollo</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Religion.Divinities.htm">Divinities</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/60/6072.jpg.htm" title="Lycian Apollo, early Imperial Roman copy of a fourth century Greek original (Louvre Museum)"><img alt="Lycian Apollo, early Imperial Roman copy of a fourth century Greek original (Louvre Museum)" height="469" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lycian_Apollo_Louvre_left.jpg" src="../../images/165/16573.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/60/6072.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lycian Apollo, early Imperial Roman copy of a fourth century Greek original (<!--del_lnk--> Louvre Museum)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In <a href="../../wp/g/Greek_mythology.htm" title="Greek mythology">Greek</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_mythology.htm" title="Roman mythology">Roman mythology</a>, <b>Apollo</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Ancient Greek <span class="polytonic" lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπόλλων</span>, <i>Apóllōn</i>; or Ἀπέλλων, <i>Apellōn</i>), the ideal of the <i><!--del_lnk--> kouros</i>, was the archer-god of medicine and healing, light, truth, archery and also a bringer of death-dealing plague; as the leader of the <!--del_lnk--> Muses (<i><b>Apollon Musagetes</b></i>) and director of their choir, he is a god of music and poetry. Hymns sung to Apollo were called <!--del_lnk--> Paeans.<p>As the patron of <!--del_lnk--> Delphi ("Pythian Apollo") Apollo is an oracular god; in <!--del_lnk--> Classical times he took the place of <!--del_lnk--> Helios as god of the sun. Apollo was also considered to have dominion over <!--del_lnk--> colonists, over <a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, mediated through his son <!--del_lnk--> Asclepius, and was the patron defender of herds and flocks.<p>Apollo is the son of <a href="../../wp/z/Zeus.htm" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Leto, and the twin brother of the chaste huntress <!--del_lnk--> Artemis, who took the place of <!--del_lnk--> Selene as goddess of the moon. As the prophetic deity of the <!--del_lnk--> Delphic oracle, Apollo was one of the most important and many-sided of the <!--del_lnk--> Olympian deities. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced <!--del_lnk--> Etruscan mythology as <b>Apulu</b>. In Roman mythology he is known as <b>Apollo</b> and increasingly, especially during the <!--del_lnk--> third century BC, as <i>Apollo Helios</i> he became identified with <!--del_lnk--> Sol, the Sun.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Cult_sites" name="Cult_sites"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cult sites</span></h2>
<p>Unusual among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: <!--del_lnk--> Delos and <!--del_lnk--> Delphi. In cult practice, Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality. <!--del_lnk--> Theophoric names such as <i>Apollodorus</i> or <i>Apollonios</i> and cities named <!--del_lnk--> Apollonia are met with throughout the Greek world. Apollo's <!--del_lnk--> cult was already fully established when written sources commence, ca <!--del_lnk--> 700 BCE.<p><a id="Oracular_shrines" name="Oracular_shrines"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Oracular shrines</span></h3>
<p>Apollo had a famous <!--del_lnk--> oracle in <!--del_lnk--> Delphi, and other notable ones in <!--del_lnk--> Clarus and <!--del_lnk--> Branchidae. His oracular shrine in Abea in <!--del_lnk--> Phocis, was important enough to be consulted by <!--del_lnk--> Croesus (<a href="../../wp/h/Herodotus.htm" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, 1.46). Looking at the ancient oracular shrines to Apollo from the oldest to the youngest we find:<ul>
<li>In <!--del_lnk--> Didyma, an oracle on the coast of <!--del_lnk--> Anatolia, south west of <!--del_lnk--> Lydian (<!--del_lnk--> Luwian) <!--del_lnk--> Sardis, in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple.<li>In <!--del_lnk--> Hieropolis, Asia Minor, priests breathed in vapors that for small animals were highly poisonous. Small animals and birds were cast into the Plutonium, named after <a href="../../wp/p/Pluto.htm" title="Pluto">Pluto</a>—the god of death and the underworld—as a demonstration of their power. Prophecy was by movements of an archaic aniconic wooden <i><!--del_lnk--> xoanon</i> of Apollo.<li>In <!--del_lnk--> Delos, there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The <!--del_lnk--> Heiron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was born.<li>In <!--del_lnk--> Corinth, the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of <!--del_lnk--> Tenea, from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War<li>In <!--del_lnk--> Bassae in the <!--del_lnk--> Peloponnese<li>In <!--del_lnk--> Abae, near Delphi<li>In <!--del_lnk--> Delphi, the <!--del_lnk--> Pythia became filled with the <i><!--del_lnk--> pneuma</i> of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the <!--del_lnk--> Adyton. Apollo took this temple from <!--del_lnk--> Gaia.<li>At <!--del_lnk--> Patara, in <!--del_lnk--> Lycia, there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman.<li>At <!--del_lnk--> Clarus, on the west coast of <!--del_lnk--> Asia Minor; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a <i>pneuma</i>, from which the priests drank.<li>In <!--del_lnk--> Segesta in <!--del_lnk--> Sicily, the latest of the series, another oracle of Apollo was seized originally from <!--del_lnk--> Gaia.</ul>
<p>Oracles were also given by sons of Apollo.<ul>
<li>In <!--del_lnk--> Oropus, north of <a href="../../wp/a/Athens.htm" title="Athens">Athens</a>, the oracle <!--del_lnk--> Amphiaraus, was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring.<li>in <!--del_lnk--> Labadea, 20 miles east of Delphi, <!--del_lnk--> Trophonius, another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle.</ul>
<p><a id="Festivals" name="Festivals"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Festivals</span></h2>
<p>The chief Apollonian festivals were the <!--del_lnk--> Carneia, <!--del_lnk--> Carpiae, <!--del_lnk--> Daphnephoria, <!--del_lnk--> Delia, <!--del_lnk--> Hyacinthia, <!--del_lnk--> Pyanepsia, <!--del_lnk--> Pythia and <!--del_lnk--> Thargelia.<p><a id="Attributes_and_symbols" name="Attributes_and_symbols"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Attributes and symbols</span></h2>
<p>Apollo's most common attributes were the lyre and the bow. Other attributes of his included the <!--del_lnk--> kithara (an advanced version of the common <!--del_lnk--> lyre) and <!--del_lnk--> plectrum. Another common emblem was the <!--del_lnk--> sacrificial tripod, representing his prophetic powers. The <!--del_lnk--> Pythian Games were held in Apollo's honour every four years at <!--del_lnk--> Delphi. The <!--del_lnk--> laurel bay plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games. The palm was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in <!--del_lnk--> Delos. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins and roe, swans and grasshoppers (symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows and snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice, laurel and <!--del_lnk--> griffins, mythical eagle-lion hybrids of Eastern origin.<p>As god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, <!--del_lnk--> 750–550 BC. According to Greek tradition, he helped <!--del_lnk--> Cretan or <!--del_lnk--> Arcadian colonists found the city of <!--del_lnk--> Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: <!--del_lnk--> Hittite <!--del_lnk--> cuneiform texts mention a Minor Asian god called <i>Appaliunas</i> or <i>Apalunas</i> in connection with the city of <i>Wilusa</i>, which is now regarded as being identical with the Greek <!--del_lnk--> Illios by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo’s title of <i>Lykegenes</i> can simply be read as "born in Lycia", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a <!--del_lnk--> folk etymology).<p>In literary contexts Apollo represents harmony, order, and reasons—characteristics contrasted with those of <!--del_lnk--> Dionysus, god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives <i><!--del_lnk--> Apollonian</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Dionysian</i>. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for <!--del_lnk--> Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphi Oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the <!--del_lnk--> Borghese Vase.<p><a id="Roman_Apollo" name="Roman_Apollo"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Roman Apollo</span></h2>
<p>The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. Roman name of Apollo was <!--del_lnk--> Phoebus. There is a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the <!--del_lnk--> kings of Rome during the reign of <!--del_lnk--> Tarquinius Superbus. In <!--del_lnk--> 430 BCE, a temple was dedicated to Apollo on the occasion of a pestilence. During the <!--del_lnk--> Second Punic War in <!--del_lnk--> 212 BCE, the <i>Ludi Apollinares</i> ("Apollonian Games") were instituted in his honour. In the time of <a href="../../wp/a/Augustus.htm" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome. After the <!--del_lnk--> battle of Actium, Augustus enlarged his old temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted <!--del_lnk--> quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple on the <!--del_lnk--> Palatine hill and transferred the <!--del_lnk--> secular games, for which Horace composed his <i>Carmen Saeculare</i>, to Apollo and <!--del_lnk--> Diana.<p><a id="Origins_of_the_cult_of_Apollo" name="Origins_of_the_cult_of_Apollo"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origins of the cult of Apollo</span></h2>
<p>It appears that both <a href="../../wp/g/Greek_mythology.htm" title="Greek mythology">Greek</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Etruscan Apollos came to the <!--del_lnk--> Aegean during the <!--del_lnk--> Archaic Period (from <!--del_lnk--> 1,100 BCE till <!--del_lnk--> 800 BCE) from <!--del_lnk--> Anatolia. Homer pictures him on the side of the Trojans, not the Achaeans, in the <a href="../../wp/t/Trojan_War.htm" title="Trojan War">Trojan War</a> and he has close affiliations with <!--del_lnk--> Luwian <!--del_lnk--> Apaliuna, who in turn seems to have traveled west from further east. <!--del_lnk--> Late Bronze Age (from <!--del_lnk--> 1,700 BCE - <!--del_lnk--> 1,200 BCE) <!--del_lnk--> Hittite and <!--del_lnk--> Hurrian "<!--del_lnk--> Aplu", like Homeric Apollo, was a God of the <!--del_lnk--> Plague, and resembles the mouse god <i>Apollo Smintheus</i>. Here we have an apotropaic situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end illness, merging over time through fusion with the <!--del_lnk--> Mycenaean "doctor" god Paieon (PA-JA-WO in <!--del_lnk--> Linear B); <!--del_lnk--> Paean, in Homer, was the Greek physician of the gods. In other writers the word is a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of healing, but it is now known from Linear B that Paean was originally a separate deity.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16575.jpg.htm" title="Apollo (the "Adonis" of Centocelle), Roman after a Greek original (Ashmolean Museum)"><img alt="Apollo (the "Adonis" of Centocelle), Roman after a Greek original (Ashmolean Museum)" height="405" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Roman_Statue_of_Apollo.jpg" src="../../images/165/16575.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16575.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Apollo (the "Adonis" of Centocelle), Roman after a Greek original (<!--del_lnk--> Ashmolean Museum)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Homer left the question unanswered, whilst Hesiod separated the two, and in later poetry Paean was invoked independently as a god of healing. It is equally difficult to separate Paean or Paeon in the sense of "healer" from Paean in the sense of "song." It was believed to refer to the ancient association between the <!--del_lnk--> healing craft and the singing of <!--del_lnk--> spells, but here we see a shift from the concerns to the original sense of "healer" gradually giving way to that of "<!--del_lnk--> hymn," from the phrase Ιή Παιάν.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16576.jpg.htm" title="Base of the Apollo Ietros (gr. for healer) Statue"><img alt="Base of the Apollo Ietros (gr. for healer) Statue" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2006_0814_Appolon_Inscription_20060353.JPG" src="../../images/165/16576.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16576.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Base of the Apollo Ietros (gr. for healer) Statue</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods, <!--del_lnk--> Dionysus, <!--del_lnk--> Helios, <!--del_lnk--> Asclepius, gods associated with Apollo. About the <!--del_lnk--> fourth century BC the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo became recognised as the God of Music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the Python led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won.<p>Hurrian Aplu itself seems to be derived from the Babylonian "Aplu" meaning a "son of"—a title that was given to the Babylonian plague god, <!--del_lnk--> Nergal (son of <!--del_lnk--> Enlil). Apollo's links with oracles again seem to be associated with wishing to know the outcome of an illness.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:368px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16577.jpg.htm" title="Apollo with a radiant halo in a Roman floor mosaic, El Djem, Tunisia, late 2nd century"><img alt="Apollo with a radiant halo in a Roman floor mosaic, El Djem, Tunisia, late 2nd century" height="275" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apollo1.JPG" src="../../images/165/16577.jpg" width="366" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16577.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Apollo with a radiant <!--del_lnk--> halo in a Roman floor mosaic, <!--del_lnk--> El Djem, Tunisia, late 2nd century</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Apollo killed the Python of Delphi and took over that oracle, so he is vanquisher of unconscious terrors. He is golden-haired like the sun; he is an archer who shoots arrows of insight and/or death; he is a god of music and the lyre. Healing belongs to his realm: he was the father of Asclepius, the god of medicine. The Muses are part of his retinue, so that music, history, dreams, poetry, dance, all belong to him. The Muses are those we call on when we evoke creative imagination to give us helpful images…<p><a id="Apollo_in_art" name="Apollo_in_art"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Apollo in art</span></h2>
<p>In art, Apollo is depicted as a handsome beardless young man, often with a lyre or bow in hand. In the late <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">second century</a> floor mosaic from <!--del_lnk--> El Djem, Roman Thysdrus, (<i>illustration, right</i>), he is identifiable as <!--del_lnk--> Apollo Helios by his effulgent halo, though now even a god's divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire. Another haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse <!--del_lnk--> . The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling <!--del_lnk--> hair cut in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict <a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_the_Great.htm" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> (Bieber 1964, Yalouris 1980). Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ will be beardless and haloed.<p><a id="Mythology" name="Mythology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mythology</span></h2>
<p><a id="Birth" name="Birth"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Birth</span></h3>
<p>When <!--del_lnk--> Hera discovered that <!--del_lnk--> Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on "terra-firma", or the mainland, or any island at sea. In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of <!--del_lnk--> Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island, and she gave birth there. The island was surrounded by swans. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo.<p>It is also stated that Hera kidnapped <!--del_lnk--> Ilithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace, nine yards long, of amber. Mythographers agree that Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of <!--del_lnk--> Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the seventh day (ἡβδομαγενης) of the month Thargelion —according to Delian tradition— or of the month Bysios— according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and <a href="../../wp/f/Full_moon.htm" title="Full moon">full moon</a>, were ever afterwards held sacred to him.<p><a id="Youth" name="Youth"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Youth</span></h3>
<p>In his youth, Apollo killed the chthonic dragon <!--del_lnk--> Python, which lived in <!--del_lnk--> Delphi beside the <!--del_lnk--> Castalian Spring because Python had attempted to rape Leto while she was pregnant with Apollo and Artemis. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at Delphi to give her prophesies. Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of <!--del_lnk--> Gaia.<p>Apollo has his ominous aspects, too. Marsyas, who dared challenge him to a music contest, was flayed after he lost. His arrows can bring death: the <i>Iliad</i> begins with a terrible pestilence that Apollo brought down upon the Greeks because they dishonored his priest <!--del_lnk--> Chryses. Apollo's arrows of death struck Niobe, who, excessively proud of her seven sons and seven daughters, had disparaged Apollo's mother, Leto, for having only two children (Apollo and Artemis).<p><a id="Apollo_and_Admetus" name="Apollo_and_Admetus"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Apollo and Admetus</span></h3>
<p>When Zeus struck down Apollo's son, <!--del_lnk--> Asclepius, with a lightning bolt for resurrecting the dead (transgressing <!--del_lnk--> Themis by stealing <!--del_lnk--> Hades's subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the <a href="../../wp/c/Cyclops.htm" title="Cyclops">Cyclops</a>, who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to <!--del_lnk--> Tartarus forever, but was instead sentenced to one year of <!--del_lnk--> hard labor as punishment, thanks to the intercession of his mother, <!--del_lnk--> Leto. During this time he served as shepherd for <!--del_lnk--> King Admetus of <!--del_lnk--> Pherae in <!--del_lnk--> Thessaly. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus.<p>Apollo helped Admetus win <!--del_lnk--> Alcestis, the daughter of <!--del_lnk--> King Pelias and later convinced the <!--del_lnk--> Fates to let Admetus live past his time, if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his elderly parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but <a href="../../wp/h/Heracles.htm" title="Heracles">Heracles</a> managed to "persuade" <!--del_lnk--> Thanatos, the god of death, to return her to the world of the living.<p><a id="Apollo_during_the_Trojan_War" name="Apollo_during_the_Trojan_War"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Apollo during the Trojan War</span></h3>
<p>Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the <a href="../../wp/t/Trojan_War.htm" title="Trojan War">Trojan War</a> in retribution for <a href="../../wp/a/Agamemnon.htm" title="Agamemnon">Agamemnon</a>'s insult to <!--del_lnk--> Chryses, a priest of Apollo whose daughter <!--del_lnk--> Chryseis had been captured. He demanded her return, and the Achaeans complied, indirectly causing the anger of Achilles, which is the theme of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Iliad</i>.<p>When <!--del_lnk--> Diomedes injured <!--del_lnk--> Aeneas, (<i>Iliad</i>), Apollo rescued him. First, <!--del_lnk--> Aphrodite tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by <!--del_lnk--> Apollo, who took him to <!--del_lnk--> Pergamos, a sacred spot in <!--del_lnk--> Troy.<p>Apollo aided Paris in the killing of <a href="../../wp/a/Achilles.htm" title="Achilles">Achilles</a> by guiding the arrow of his bow into <a href="../../wp/a/Achilles.htm" title="Achilles">Achilles</a>' heel. One interpretation of his motive is that it was in revenge for Achilles' sacrilege in murdering <!--del_lnk--> Troilus, the god's own son by <!--del_lnk--> Hecuba, on the very altar of the god's own temple.<p><a id="Niobe" name="Niobe"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Niobe</span></h3>
<p>A queen of <!--del_lnk--> Thebes and wife of <!--del_lnk--> Amphion, <!--del_lnk--> Niobe boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children (<!--del_lnk--> Niobids), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, with the last begging for his life, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared (<!--del_lnk--> Chloris, usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge. A devastated Niobe fled to <!--del_lnk--> Mt. Siplyon in <!--del_lnk--> Asia Minor and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river <!--del_lnk--> Achelous. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them.<p><a id="Apollo.27s_consorts_and_children" name="Apollo.27s_consorts_and_children"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Apollo's consorts and children</span></h3>
<p><a id="Female_lovers" name="Female_lovers"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Female lovers</span></h4>
<p>Apollo chased the nymph <!--del_lnk--> Daphne, daughter of <!--del_lnk--> Peneus, who had scorned him. His infatuation was caused by an arrow from <!--del_lnk--> Eros, who was jealous because Apollo had made fun of his archery skills. Eros also claimed to be irritated by Apollo's singing. Simultaneously, however, Eros had shot a hate arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prayed to Mother Earth, or, alternatively, her father - a river god - to help her and he changed her into a <!--del_lnk--> Laurel tree, which became sacred to Apollo: see <!--del_lnk--> Apollo and Daphne.<p>Apollo had an affair with a human princess named <!--del_lnk--> Leucothea, daughter of <!--del_lnk--> Orchamus and sister of <!--del_lnk--> Clytia. Leucothea loved Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day.<p><!--del_lnk--> Marpessa was kidnapped by <!--del_lnk--> Idas but was loved by Apollo as well. <a href="../../wp/z/Zeus.htm" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old.<p><!--del_lnk--> Castalia was a <!--del_lnk--> nymph whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dived into the spring at Delphi, at the base of <!--del_lnk--> Mt. Parnassos, which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire poets.<p>By <!--del_lnk--> Cyrene, Apollo had a son named <!--del_lnk--> Aristaeus, who became the patron god of cattle, <!--del_lnk--> fruit trees, hunting, husbandry and <!--del_lnk--> bee-keeping. He was also a <!--del_lnk--> culture-hero and taught humanity dairy skills and the use of nets and traps in hunting, as well as how to cultivate olives.<p>With <!--del_lnk--> Hecuba, wife of King <!--del_lnk--> Priam of <!--del_lnk--> Troy, Apollo had a son named <!--del_lnk--> Troilius. An <!--del_lnk--> oracle prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilius reached the age of twenty alive. He and his sister, <!--del_lnk--> Polyxena were ambushed and killed by <a href="../../wp/a/Achilles.htm" title="Achilles">Achilles</a>.<p>Apollo also fell in love with <!--del_lnk--> Cassandra, daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilius' half-sister. He promised Cassandra the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gifted her with the ability to know the future, with a curse that no one would ever believe her.<p><!--del_lnk--> Coronis, daughter of <!--del_lnk--> Phlegyas, King of the <!--del_lnk--> Lapiths, was another of Apollo's liaisons. Pregnant with <!--del_lnk--> Asclepius, Coronis fell in love with <!--del_lnk--> Ischys, son of <!--del_lnk--> Elatus. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for spreading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis. As a result he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the <!--del_lnk--> centaur <!--del_lnk--> Chiron to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Euripides' play <i><!--del_lnk--> Ion</i>, Apollo fathered <!--del_lnk--> Ion by <!--del_lnk--> Creusa, wife of <!--del_lnk--> Xuthus. Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, but Apollo asked <!--del_lnk--> Hermes to save the child and bring him to the oracle at <!--del_lnk--> Delphi, where he was raised by a priestess.<p><a id="Male_lovers" name="Male_lovers"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Male lovers</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16578.jpg.htm" title="Apollo and HyacinthusJacopo Caraglio; 16th c. Italian engraving"><img alt="Apollo and HyacinthusJacopo Caraglio; 16th c. Italian engraving" height="323" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hyacinthus.jpg" src="../../images/165/16578.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16578.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Apollo and Hyacinthus</b><br /> Jacopo Caraglio; 16th c. Italian engraving</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Apollo, the eternal beardless <!--del_lnk--> kouros himself, had the most prominent male relationships of all the <!--del_lnk--> Greek Gods. That was to be expected from a god who was god of the <!--del_lnk--> palaestra, the athletic gathering place for youth who all competed <!--del_lnk--> in the nude, a god said to represent the ideal educator and therefore the ideal <!--del_lnk--> erastes, or lover of a boy (Sergent, p.102). All his lovers were younger than him, in the style of the <!--del_lnk--> Greek pederastic relationships of the time. Many of Apollo's young beloveds died "accidentally", a reflection on the function of these myths as part of <!--del_lnk--> rites of passage, in which the youth died in order to be reborn as an adult.<p><!--del_lnk--> Hyacinth was one of his male lovers. Hyacinthus was a <!--del_lnk--> Spartan prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair were practicing throwing the <!--del_lnk--> discus when Hyacinthus was struck in the head by a discus blown off course by <!--del_lnk--> Zephyrus, who was jealous of Apollo and loved Hyacinthus as well. When Hyacinthus died, Apollo is said in some accounts to have been so filled with grief that he cursed his own immortality, wishing to join his lover in mortal death. Out of the blood of his slain lover Apollo created the <!--del_lnk--> hyacinth flower as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with <i>άί</i> <i>άί</i>, meaning alas. The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta.<p>One of his other liaisons was with <!--del_lnk--> Acantha, the spirit of the <!--del_lnk--> acanthus tree. Upon his death, he was transformed into a sun-loving herb by Apollo, and his bereaved sister, Acanthis, was turned into a <a href="../../wp/e/European_Goldfinch.htm" title="European Goldfinch">thistle finch</a> by the other gods.<p>Another male lover was <!--del_lnk--> Cyparissus, a descendant of <a href="../../wp/h/Heracles.htm" title="Heracles">Heracles</a>. Apollo gave the boy a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a <!--del_lnk--> javelin as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo turned the sad boy into a <!--del_lnk--> cypress tree, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk.<p><a id="Apollo_and_the_birth_of_Hermes" name="Apollo_and_the_birth_of_Hermes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Apollo and the birth of Hermes</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Hermes was born on <!--del_lnk--> Mount Cyllene in Arcadia. The story is told in the <!--del_lnk--> Homeric Hymn to <!--del_lnk--> Hermes. His mother, <!--del_lnk--> Maia, had been secretly impregnated by <a href="../../wp/z/Zeus.htm" title="Zeus">Zeus</a>, in a secret affair. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep. Hermes ran to <!--del_lnk--> Thessaly, where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near <!--del_lnk--> Pylos, covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a <!--del_lnk--> tortoise and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first <!--del_lnk--> lyre. Apollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange of the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo became a master of the lyre and Hermes invented a kind of pipes-instrument called a <!--del_lnk--> syrinx.<p>Later, Apollo exchanged a <!--del_lnk--> caduceus for a <!--del_lnk--> syrinx from Hermes.<p><a id="Other_stories" name="Other_stories"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other stories</span></h3>
<p>Apollo gave the order, through the Oracle at Delphi, for <!--del_lnk--> Orestes to kill his mother, <!--del_lnk--> Clytemnestra, and her lover, <!--del_lnk--> Aegisthus. Orestes was punished fiercely by the <!--del_lnk--> Erinyes (<!--del_lnk--> female personifications of <!--del_lnk--> vengeance) for this crime.<p>In the <a href="../../wp/o/Odyssey.htm" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Odysseus.htm" title="Odysseus">Odysseus</a> and his surviving crew landed on an island sacred to Helios the sun god, where he kept sacred cattle. Though Odysseus warned his men not to (as <!--del_lnk--> Tiresias and <!--del_lnk--> Circe had told him), they killed and ate some of the cattle and Helios had <a href="../../wp/z/Zeus.htm" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> destroy the ship and all the men save <a href="../../wp/o/Odysseus.htm" title="Odysseus">Odysseus</a>.<p>Apollo also had a <!--del_lnk--> lyre-playing contest with <!--del_lnk--> Cinyras, his son, who committed suicide when he lost.<p>Apollo killed the <!--del_lnk--> Aloadae when they attempted to storm <!--del_lnk--> Mt. Olympus.<p>It was also said that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the <!--del_lnk--> Hyperboreans during the winter months, a swan that he also lent to his beloved Hyacinthus to ride.<p>Apollo turned <!--del_lnk--> Cephissus into a <!--del_lnk--> sea monster.<p><a id="Musical_contests" name="Musical_contests"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Musical contests</span></h4>
<p><a id="Pan" name="Pan"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">Pan</span></h5>
<p>Once <!--del_lnk--> Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the <!--del_lnk--> lyre, to a trial of skill. <!--del_lnk--> Tmolus, the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, <!--del_lnk--> Midas, who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented, and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a <!--del_lnk--> donkey.<p><a id="Marsyas" name="Marsyas"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">Marsyas</span></h5>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16579.jpg.htm" title="The Flaying of Marsyas by Titian, c.1570-76."><img alt="The Flaying of Marsyas by Titian, c.1570-76." height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:The_Flaying_of_Marsyas.jpg" src="../../images/165/16579.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16579.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>The Flaying of Marsyas</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Titian, c.1570-76.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Marsyas was a <!--del_lnk--> satyr who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an <!--del_lnk--> aulos on the ground, tossed away after being invented by <a href="../../wp/a/Athena.htm" title="Athena">Athena</a> because it made her cheeks puffy. Marsyas lost and was <!--del_lnk--> flayed alive in a cave near <!--del_lnk--> Calaenae in <!--del_lnk--> Phrygia for his <!--del_lnk--> hubris to challenge a god. His blood turned into the river Marsyas.<p>Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the <a href="../../wp/f/Flute.htm" title="Flute">flute</a>), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive. [taken from <i>MAN MYTH & MAGIC</i> by Richard Cavendish]<p><a id="Epithets_and_cult_titles" name="Epithets_and_cult_titles"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Epithets and cult titles</span></h2>
<p>Apollo, like other Greek deities, had a number of <!--del_lnk--> epithets applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in <!--del_lnk--> Latin literature, chief among them <b><!--del_lnk--> Phoebus</b> ("shining one"), which was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans in Apollo's role as the god of light.<p>In Apollo's role as healer, his appellations included <b>Akesios</b> and <b>Iatros</b>, meaning "healer". He was also called <b>Alexikakos</b> ("restrainer of evil") and <b>Apotropaeus</b> ("he who averts evil"), and was referred to by the Romans as <b>Averruncus</b> ("averter of evils"). As a plague god and defender against rats and locusts, Apollo was known as <b>Smintheus</b> ("mouse-catcher") and <b>Parnopius</b> ("grasshopper"). The Romans also called Apollo <b>Culicarius</b> ("driving away <!--del_lnk--> midges"). In his healing aspect, the Romans referred to Apollo as <b>Medicus</b> ("the Physician"), and a <!--del_lnk--> temple was dedicated to <i>Apollo Medicus</i> at Rome, probably next to the temple of <!--del_lnk--> Bellona.<p>As a god of archery, Apollo was known as <b>Aphetoros</b> ("god of the bow") and <b>Argurotoxos</b> ("with the silver bow"). The Romans referred to Apollo as <b>Articenens</b> ("carrying the bow") as well. As a pastoral shepherd-god, Apollo was known as <b>Nomios</b> ("wandering").<p>Apollo was also known as <b>Archegetes</b> ("director of the foundation"), who oversaw colonies. He was known as <b>Klarios</b>, from the Doric <i>klaros</i> ("allotment of land"), for his supervision over cities and colonies.<p>He was known as <b>Delphinios</b> ("Delphinian"), meaning "of the womb", in his association with <i>Delphoi</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Delphi). At Delphi, he was also known as <b>Pythios</b> ("Pythian"). An <!--del_lnk--> aitiology in the <!--del_lnk--> Homeric hymns connects the epitheton to <a href="../../wp/d/Dolphin.htm" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a>. <b>Kynthios</b>, another common epithet, stemmed from his birth on Mt. <!--del_lnk--> Cynthus. He was also known as <b>Lyceios</b> or <b>Lykegenes</b>, which either meant "wolfish" or "of <!--del_lnk--> Lycia", Lycia being the place where some postulate that his cult originated.<p>Specifically as god of prophecy, Apollo was known as <b>Loxias</b> ("the obscure"). He was also known as <b>Coelispex</b> ("he who watches the heavens") to the Romans. Apollo was attributed the epithet <b>Musagetes</b> as the leader of the <!--del_lnk--> muses, and <b>Nymphegetes</b> as "<!--del_lnk--> nymph-leader".<p><b>Acesius</b> was a surname of Apollo, under which he was worshipped in <!--del_lnk--> Elis, where he had a temple in the <!--del_lnk--> agora. This surname, which has the same meaning as <i>akestor</i> and <i>alezikakos</i>, characterized the god as the averter of evil.<p><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2>
<p>The name <i>Apollo</i> might have been derived from a Pre-Hellenic compound <i>Apo-ollon</i>, likely related to an archaic verb <i>Apo-ell-</i> and literally meaning "he who elbows off", and thus "the Dispelling One". Indeed, he seems to have personified the power to dispel and ward off evil, which was related to his association with the darkness-dispelling power of the morning sun and the conceived power of reason and prophecy to dispel doubt and ignorance. In addition, Apollo's dispelling aspect made him associated with:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> city walls and doorways, which served as bulwarks to guard against trespassers;<li>disembarkations and <!--del_lnk--> expatriations to colonies, which served to carry people away;<li>like his son <!--del_lnk--> Asclepius, healing, which dispelled disease and illness;<li>shepherds tending their flocks, who warded off pests and predators;<li>music and the arts, which dispelled discord and <!--del_lnk--> barbarism;<li>fit and skilled young men, with their highly important ability to dispel intruders and invading armies;<li>the ability of foresight into the future.</ul>
<p>An explanation given by <!--del_lnk--> Plutarch in <i><!--del_lnk--> Moralia</i> is that <i>Apollon</i> signified <!--del_lnk--> unity, since <i>pollon</i> meant "many", and the <!--del_lnk--> prefix <i>a-</i> was a negative. Thus, Apollon could be read as meaning "deprived of multitude". Apollo was consequently associated with the <!--del_lnk--> monad.<p><!--del_lnk--> Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric απελλα, which means assembly, so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation σηκος ("fold"), in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds.<p><a id="Spoken-word_myths_-_audio_files" name="Spoken-word_myths_-_audio_files"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">In popular culture</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>In the 1960s, <!--del_lnk--> NASA named its <!--del_lnk--> Apollo Lunar program after Apollo, because he was considered the god of all wisdom. Many people mistakenly believe that the rockets that carried astronauts to the Moon were called Apollo rockets; they were actually <a href="../../wp/s/Saturn_V.htm" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> rockets, on top of which sat the Apollo spacecraft.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Apollo is the subject of <!--del_lnk--> Percy Bysshe Shelley's poem of 1820 the "Hymn of Apollo"</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> William Rimmer's artistic depiction of Apollo was used as the symbol of the band <!--del_lnk--> Led Zeppelin's <!--del_lnk--> record label <!--del_lnk--> Swan Song Records.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Apollo is the name of a <!--del_lnk--> Daedalus class battlecruiser in the science-fiction television series <!--del_lnk--> Stargate Atlantis.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Apollo is the name of a superhuman (inspired by <a href="../../wp/s/Superman.htm" title="Superman">Superman</a>) with connections to the sun, in the superhero comic <i><!--del_lnk--> The Authority</i>.</ul>
<ul>
<li>In both series of <!--del_lnk--> Battlestar Galatica one of the central protagonists, <!--del_lnk--> Captain Lee Adama, is often referred to by his call sign Apollo.</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Greek mythology', 'Roman mythology', 'Medicine', 'Zeus', 'Herodotus', 'Pluto', 'Athens', 'Augustus', 'Greek mythology', 'Trojan War', '2nd century', 'Alexander the Great', 'Full moon', 'Cyclops', 'Heracles', 'Trojan War', 'Agamemnon', 'Achilles', 'Achilles', 'Zeus', 'Achilles', 'European Goldfinch', 'Heracles', 'Zeus', 'Odyssey', 'Odysseus', 'Zeus', 'Odysseus', 'Athena', 'Flute', 'Dolphin', 'Saturn V', 'Superman'] |
Apollo_11 | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Apollo 11,Lunar Module,16 mm,11 (number),1969,2006,A-001,A-002,A-003,A-004,A-101" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Apollo 11</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Apollo_11";
var wgTitle = "Apollo 11";
var wgArticleId = 662;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Apollo_11">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Apollo 11</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_transport.htm">Space transport</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox" style="font-size: 90%; width: 23em; text-align: left">
<caption><i><b>Apollo 11</b></i></caption>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#FFDEAD; text-align: center">Mission insignia</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/95/9507.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="202" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apollo_11_insignia.png" src="../../images/165/16580.png" width="200" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#FFDEAD; text-align: center">Mission statistics<span style="font-weight:normal"></span></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Mission name:</th>
<td><i>Apollo 11</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Call sign:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Command module:<br /><i>Columbia</i><br /><!--del_lnk--> Lunar module:<br /><i>Eagle</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Number of crew members:</th>
<td>3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Launch pad:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Kennedy Space Centre, <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> LC 39A</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Launch:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> July 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1969<br /> 13:32:00 <!--del_lnk--> UTC</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Lunar landing:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> July 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1969<br /> 20:17:40 UTC<br /><!--del_lnk--> Sea of Tranquility<br /> 0° 40' 26.69" N,<br /> 23° 28' 22.69" E<br /> (based on the <!--del_lnk--> IAU<br /> Mean Earth Polar Axis<br /><!--del_lnk--> coordinate system)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Lunar EVA length:</th>
<td>2 h 31 min 40 s</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Lunar surface time:</th>
<td>21 h 36 min 20 s</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Lunar sample mass:</th>
<td>21.55 kg (47.5 lb)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Landing:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> July 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1969<br /> 16:50:35 UTC<br /><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 13°19′N 169°9′W</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Duration:</th>
<td>195 h 18 min 35 s</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Time in lunar orbit:</th>
<td>59 h 30 min 25.79 s</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Mass:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CSM: 30,320 kg<br /><!--del_lnk--> LM: 16,448 kg</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#FFDEAD; text-align: center">Crew photo</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/95/9512.jpg.htm" title="L-R: Armstrong, Collins and Aldrin"><img alt="L-R: Armstrong, Collins and Aldrin" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ap11-s69-31740.jpg" src="../../images/165/16581.jpg" width="200" /></a><br /> L-R: Armstrong, Collins and Aldrin</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#FFDEAD; text-align: center">Navigation</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table style="text-align: center; width: 100%; background: none; border: 0">
<tr>
<th style="width: 50%; border:0">Previous mission</th>
<th style="border:0">Next mission</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border:0"><!--del_lnk--> Apollo 10</td>
<td style="border:0"><!--del_lnk--> Apollo 12</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><i><b>Apollo 11</b></i> was the first manned mission to land on the <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a>. It was the fifth <!--del_lnk--> human spaceflight of the <!--del_lnk--> Apollo program, and the third human voyage to the moon. Launched on <!--del_lnk--> July 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1969, it carried Commander <a href="../../wp/n/Neil_Armstrong.htm" title="Neil Armstrong">Neil Armstrong</a>, Command Module Pilot <!--del_lnk--> Michael Collins and Lunar Module Pilot <!--del_lnk--> Edwin 'Buzz' Aldrin. On <!--del_lnk--> July 20, Armstrong and Aldrin became the first humans to land on the Moon, while Collins orbited above.<p>The mission fulfilled <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy.htm" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>'s goal of "landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the Earth" by the end of the 1960s.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Crew" name="Crew"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Crew</span></h2>
<p><a id="Primary_crew" name="Primary_crew"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Primary crew</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/n/Neil_Armstrong.htm" title="Neil Armstrong">Neil Armstrong</a> (2), commander<li><!--del_lnk--> Michael Collins (2), command module pilot<li><!--del_lnk--> Edwin 'Buzz' Aldrin (2), lunar module pilot</ul>
<p><small>*Number in parentheses indicates number of spaceflights by each individual prior to and including this mission.</small><p><a id="Backup_crew" name="Backup_crew"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Backup crew</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> James Lovell (flew in <i><!--del_lnk--> Gemini 7</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Gemini 12</i>, <i><a href="../../wp/a/Apollo_8.htm" title="Apollo 8">Apollo 8</a></i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Apollo 13</i>), commander<li><!--del_lnk--> Bill Anders (flew in <i><a href="../../wp/a/Apollo_8.htm" title="Apollo 8">Apollo 8</a></i>), command module pilot<li><!--del_lnk--> Fred Haise (flew in <i><!--del_lnk--> Apollo 13</i>), lunar module pilot</ul>
<p><a id="Support_crew" name="Support_crew"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Support crew</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Charles Moss Duke, Jr., <!--del_lnk--> Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM)<li><!--del_lnk--> Ronald Evans, CAPCOM<li><!--del_lnk--> Owen K. Garriott, CAPCOM<li><!--del_lnk--> Don L. Lind, CAPCOM<li><!--del_lnk--> Ken Mattingly, CAPCOM<li><!--del_lnk--> Bruce McCandless II, CAPCOM<li><!--del_lnk--> Harrison Schmitt, CAPCOM<li><!--del_lnk--> Bill Pogue<li><!--del_lnk--> Jack Swigert</ul>
<p><a id="Flight_directors" name="Flight_directors"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Flight directors</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Clifford E. Charlesworth, Lead <!--del_lnk--> Flight Director, Green team<li>Gerald D. Griffin, Gold team<li><!--del_lnk--> Gene Kranz, White team<li><a href="../../wp/g/Glynn_Lunney.htm" title="Glynn Lunney">Glynn S. Lunney</a>, Black team</ul>
<p><a id="Mission_highlights" name="Mission_highlights"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mission highlights</span></h2>
<p><a id="Launch_and_lunar_landing" name="Launch_and_lunar_landing"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Launch and lunar landing</span></h3>
<p>In addition to one million people crowding the highways and beaches near the launch site, an estimated audience of over 600 million people viewed the event on television; a new record at that time. <!--del_lnk--> President Nixon viewed the proceedings from the Oval Office of the White House.<p><i>Apollo 11</i> was launched by a <a href="../../wp/s/Saturn_V.htm" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> from the <!--del_lnk--> Kennedy Space Centre on <!--del_lnk--> July 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1969 at 13:32 UTC (9:32 A.M. local time). It entered Earth's orbit 12 minutes later. After one and a half orbits, the <!--del_lnk--> S-IVB third-stage engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon. About 30 minutes later, the <!--del_lnk--> command/service module pair separated from the last remaining Saturn V stage, and docked with the lunar module still nestled in the <!--del_lnk--> Lunar Module Adaptor. A <!--del_lnk--> translunar injection burn (TLI) then launched the combined spacecraft towards the moon.<p><i>Apollo 11</i> passed behind the Moon on <!--del_lnk--> July 19 and fired its Service propulsion engine in order to enter lunar orbit. In the several orbits that followed, the crew got passing views of their landing site. In the southern <!--del_lnk--> Sea of Tranquility about 20 km (12 mi) southwest of the crater Sabine D (0.67408N,23.47297E), the landing site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated <i><!--del_lnk--> Ranger 8</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Surveyor 5</i> landers, as well as by <i><!--del_lnk--> Lunar Orbiter</i> mapping spacecraft. It was therefore unlikely to present major landing or <!--del_lnk--> extra-vehicular activity (EVA) challenges.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:235px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16582.jpg.htm" title="Buzz Aldrin bootprint. It was part of an experiment to test the properties of the lunar regolith."><img alt="Buzz Aldrin bootprint. It was part of an experiment to test the properties of the lunar regolith." height="235" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apollo_11_bootprint.jpg" src="../../images/165/16582.jpg" width="233" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16582.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Buzz Aldrin bootprint. It was part of an experiment to test the properties of the lunar <!--del_lnk--> regolith.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> July 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1969, while on the <!--del_lnk--> far side of the Moon, the <!--del_lnk--> lunar module, called <i>Eagle</i> after the eagle present on the insignia, separated from the Command Module, named <i>Columbia</i> after the <!--del_lnk--> columbiad cannon used to launch moonships in <!--del_lnk--> Jules Verne's novel <i><!--del_lnk--> From the Earth to the Moon</i>. Some internal NASA planning documents referred to the callsigns as <i>Snowcone</i> and <i>Haystack</i>; these were quietly changed before being announced to the press. Collins, alone aboard <i>Columbia</i>, inspected <i>Eagle</i> as it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged. Armstrong and Aldrin used <i>Eagle'</i>s descent engine to right themselves and descend to the lunar surface.<p>As the landing began, Armstrong reported they were "running long"; <i>Eagle</i> was 4 seconds further along its descent trajectory than planned, and would land miles west of the intended site. The <!--del_lnk--> LM navigation and guidance computer reported several unusual "program alarms" as it guided the LM's descent, taking the crew's attention from the scene outside as the descent proceeded. In NASA's <!--del_lnk--> Mission Control Centre in <!--del_lnk--> Houston, <!--del_lnk--> Texas, <!--del_lnk--> controller <!--del_lnk--> Steve Bales told the <!--del_lnk--> flight director that it was safe to continue the descent in spite of the alarms; the computer was merely reporting it was overtasked and that nothing was wrong with the spacecraft. Once Armstrong returned his attention to the view outside it was apparent that the computer was guiding them toward a field of large rocks scattered around a large crater. Armstrong took manual control of the lunar module at that point, and with Aldrin's assistance, calling out data from the radar and computer, guided it to a landing at 20:17 UTC on <!--del_lnk--> July 20 with about 15 seconds of fuel left.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/107/10791.jpg.htm" title="The Saturn V carrying Apollo 11 took several seconds to clear the tower on July 16, 1969."><img alt="The Saturn V carrying Apollo 11 took several seconds to clear the tower on July 16, 1969." height="251" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ap11-KSC-69PC-442.jpg" src="../../images/165/16583.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/107/10791.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <a href="../../wp/s/Saturn_V.htm" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> carrying <i>Apollo 11</i> took several seconds to clear the tower on <!--del_lnk--> July 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1969.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The program alarms were "executive overflows", indicating that the computer could not finish its work in the time allotted. The cause was later determined to be the LM rendezvous radar being left on during the descent, causing the computer to spend unplanned time servicing the unused radar. Although <i>Apollo 11</i> landed with less fuel than other missions, they also encountered a premature low fuel warning. It was later found caused by the lunar gravity permitting greater propellant 'slosh', uncovering a fuel sensor; extra baffles in the tanks were subsequently added.<p>Armstrong bestowed the name <!--del_lnk--> Tranquility Base on the landing site immediately after touchdown to the partial confusion of the staff at Mission Control.<p>Shortly after landing, before preparations began for the <!--del_lnk--> EVA, Aldrin broadcast that:<dl>
<dd><i>This is the LM pilot. I'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way.</i></dl>
<p>He then took <!--del_lnk--> Communion, privately. At this time, NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheist <!--del_lnk--> Madalyn Murray O'Hair (who had objected to the <i><a href="../../wp/a/Apollo_8.htm" title="Apollo 8">Apollo 8</a></i> crew reading from the <!--del_lnk--> Book of Genesis), which demanded that their astronauts refrain from religious activities while in space. As such, Aldrin (an <!--del_lnk--> Episcopalian) chose to refrain from directly mentioning this. He had kept the plan quiet, not even mentioning it to his wife, and did not reveal it publicly for several years. <p><a id="Lunar_surface_operations" name="Lunar_surface_operations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lunar surface operations</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/95/9516.jpg.htm" title="Neil Armstrong takes his first step onto the Moon"><img alt="Neil Armstrong takes his first step onto the Moon" height="137" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apollo_11_first_step.jpg" src="../../images/165/16584.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/95/9516.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Neil Armstrong takes his first step onto the Moon</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>At 2:56 UTC on <!--del_lnk--> July 21, six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong made his descent to the Moon surface and spoke his famous line "<!--del_lnk--> That's one small step for (a) man, one giant leap for mankind". Aldrin joined him, saying, "Beautiful. Beautiful. Magnificent desolation." The two spent two-and-a-half hours <!--del_lnk--> drilling <!--del_lnk--> core samples, photographing what they saw and collecting rocks.<p>It has long been assumed that Armstrong mistakenly omitted the word "a" from his famous remark, rendering the phrase redundant. Armstrong thought he had said it and claimed he did indeed say it. A digital audio analysis conducted by Peter Shann Ford, suggests Armstrong did, in fact, say "a man", but the "a" was inaudible due to static noise and the limitations of communications technology of the time. Ford and <!--del_lnk--> Auburn University professor of history <!--del_lnk--> James R. Hansen, Armstrong's authorized biographer, presented these findings to Armstrong and NASA representatives; completed at the end of September 2006, it claims to confirm Armstrong did say "a" and settles the long-standing controversy. Ford's claims have not yet been reviewed by speech researchers, only by Armstrong and a physiotherapist with a Masters in Biomechanics. (Armstrong has expressed his preference that written quotations include the "a" in parentheses.)<div class="medialist videolist">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Buzz Aldrin steps onto the Moon<ul>
<li><i></i></ul>
</ul>
</div>
<p>They planned placement of the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package (EASEP) and the U.S. flag by studying their landing site through <i>Eagle'</i>s twin triangular windows, which gave them a 60° field of view. Preparation required longer than the two hours scheduled. Armstrong had some initial difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his <!--del_lnk--> Portable Life Support System (PLSS). According to veteran moonwalker <!--del_lnk--> John Young, a redesign of the <!--del_lnk--> LM to incorporate a smaller hatch was not followed by a redesign of the PLSS backpack, so some of the highest heart rates recorded from <i>Apollo</i> astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:277px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16585.jpg.htm" title="Buzz Aldrin poses on the Moon allowing Neil Armstrong to photograph both of them using the visor's reflection."><img alt="Buzz Aldrin poses on the Moon allowing Neil Armstrong to photograph both of them using the visor's reflection." height="275" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Buzz_Aldrin_on_the_Moon.jpg" src="../../images/165/16585.jpg" width="275" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16585.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Buzz Aldrin poses on the <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a> allowing <a href="../../wp/n/Neil_Armstrong.htm" title="Neil Armstrong">Neil Armstrong</a> to photograph both of them using the visor's reflection.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Remote Control Unit controls on Armstrong's chest prevented him from seeing his feet. While climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA) folded against <i>Eagle'</i>s side and activate the TV camera. The first images used a <!--del_lnk--> Slow-scan television system which was incompatible with commercial broadcast technology at the time so the images rebroadcasted were played on screens mounted in front of conventional television cameras. The signal was picked up at <!--del_lnk--> Goldstone in the USA but with better fidelity by <!--del_lnk--> Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station in Australia. Minutes later the TV was switched to normal television, and the feed was switched to the more sensitive <a href="../../wp/r/Radio_telescope.htm" title="Radio telescope">radio telescope</a> station at the <!--del_lnk--> Parkes Observatory in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>. Despite some technical and weather difficulties, ghostly black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and were immediately broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth.<p>After describing the surface dust ("fine and powdery ... I only go in a small fraction of an inch, but I can see the footprints of my boots"), Armstrong stepped off <i>Eagle'</i>s footpad and into history as the first human to set foot on another world, famously describing it as "one small step for (a) man, one giant leap for mankind." He reported that moving in the Moon's gravity, one-sixth of Earth's, was "even perhaps easier than the simulations ... It's absolutely no trouble to walk around".<p>In addition to fulfilling President <a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy.htm" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>'s mandate to land a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s, <i>Apollo 11</i> was an engineering test of the Apollo system; therefore, Armstrong snapped photos of the LM so engineers would be able to judge its post-landing condition. He then collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. He removed the TV camera from the MESA, made a panoramic sweep, and mounted it on a tripod 12 m (40 ft) from the LM. The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16586.jpg.htm" title="Photo of the actual plaque left on the moon (attached to the ladder of the LM Descent Stage)."><img alt="Photo of the actual plaque left on the moon (attached to the ladder of the LM Descent Stage)." height="197" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apollo_11_plaque_closeup_on_Moon.jpg" src="../../images/165/16586.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16586.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Photo of the actual plaque left on the moon (attached to the ladder of the LM Descent Stage).</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backwards, but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into <i>Eagle'</i>s shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, though the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16587.jpg.htm" title="A visible shockwave formed as the Saturn V encountered Max Q at about 1 minute 20 seconds into the flight (altitude 12.5 km, 4 km downrange, velocity 440 m/s)."><img alt="A visible shockwave formed as the Saturn V encountered Max Q at about 1 minute 20 seconds into the flight (altitude 12.5 km, 4 km downrange, velocity 440 m/s)." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apollo_11_launch.jpg" src="../../images/165/16587.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16587.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A visible shockwave formed as the <a href="../../wp/s/Saturn_V.htm" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> encountered <!--del_lnk--> Max Q at about 1 minute 20 seconds into the flight (altitude 12.5 km, 4 km downrange, velocity 440 m/s).</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Together the astronauts planted the U.S. flag, then took a phone call from President <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Nixon.htm" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>.<p>The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits, the integrated thermal meteoroid garment.<p>They deployed the EASEP, which included a passive seismograph and a <!--del_lnk--> laser ranging <!--del_lnk--> retroreflector. Then Armstrong loped about 120 m (400 ft) from the LM to snap photos at the rim of East Crater while Aldrin collected two core tubes. He used the geological hammer to pound in the tubes - the only time the hammer was used on <i>Apollo 11</i>. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documented sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 min.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/95/9515.jpg.htm" title="Neil Armstrong works at the LM in one of the few photos taken of him from the lunar surface. NASA photo as 11-40-5886"><img alt="Neil Armstrong works at the LM in one of the few photos taken of him from the lunar surface. NASA photo as 11-40-5886" height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:As11-40-5886.jpg" src="../../images/165/16588.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/95/9515.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Neil Armstrong works at the LM in one of the few photos taken of him from the lunar surface. NASA photo as 11-40-5886</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>During this period Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong that his metabolic rates were high and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. Rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, however, so Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension.<p><a id="Lunar_ascent_and_return" name="Lunar_ascent_and_return"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lunar ascent and return</span></h3>
<p>Aldrin entered <i>Eagle</i> first. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing more than 22 kg (48 lb) of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor. Armstrong then jumped to the ladder's third rung and climbed into the LM. After transferring to LM <!--del_lnk--> life support, the explorers lightened the ascent stage for return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, one <!--del_lnk--> Hasselblad camera, and other equipment. They then repressurised the LM, and settled down to sleep.<p>While moving in the cabin Aldrin accidentally broke the circuit breaker that armed the main engine for lift off from the moon. There was initial concern this would prevent firing the engine, which would strand them on the moon. Fortunately a felt-tip pen was sufficient to activate the switch. Had this not worked, the Lunar Module circuitry could have been reconfigured to allow firing the ascent engine.<p>After about seven hours of rest, they were awoken by Houston to prepare for the return flight. Two and a half hours later, at 17:54 UTC, they lifted off in <i>Eagle</i>'s ascent stage, carrying 21.5 kilograms of lunar samples with them, to rejoin CMP Michael Collins aboard <i>Columbia</i> in lunar orbit.<p>After more than 2½ hours on the lunar surface, they had left behind scientific instruments such as a <!--del_lnk--> retroreflector array used for the <!--del_lnk--> Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment. They also left an <!--del_lnk--> American flag and a <!--del_lnk--> plaque (mounted on the LM Descent Stage ladder) bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Nixon.htm" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>. The inscription read <i>Here Men From Planet Earth First Set Foot Upon the Moon, July 1969 A.D. We Came in Peace For All Mankind.</i><p>Film taken from the LM Ascent Stage upon liftoff from the moon reveal the American flag, planted some 25 feet from the descent stage, whipping violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine. As the landing site receded out of the camera field of view, the flag appeared ready to topple, but whether it did in fact fall or not is unknown. Subsequent Apollo missions usually planted the American flags at least 100 feet from the LM to avoid being blown over by the ascent engine exhaust.<p>
<br /> After rendezvous with <i>Columbia</i>, <i>Eagle</i> was jettisoned and left in lunar orbit. Later NASA reports mentioned that <i>Eagle</i>'s orbit had decayed resulting in it impacting in an "uncertain location" on the lunar surface.<p>The astronauts returned to earth on <!--del_lnk--> July 24, welcomed as heroes. The splashdown point was <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 13°19′N 169°9′W</span>, 2,660 km (1,440 <!--del_lnk--> nm) east of <a href="../../wp/w/Wake_Island.htm" title="Wake Island">Wake Island</a>, or 380 km (210 nm) south of <a href="../../wp/j/Johnston_Atoll.htm" title="Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a>, and 24 km (15 <!--del_lnk--> mi) from the recovery ship, <!--del_lnk--> <i>USS Hornet</i>. After recovery by helicopter approximately one hour after <!--del_lnk--> splashdown, the astronauts were placed in a trailer that had been designed as a quarantine facility. <!--del_lnk--> President Nixon was aboard the recovery vessel to personally welcome the astronauts back to Earth.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/95/9517.jpg.htm" title="The crew of Apollo 11 in quarantine after returning to earth, visited by Richard Nixon."><img alt="The crew of Apollo 11 in quarantine after returning to earth, visited by Richard Nixon." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apollo_11_crew_in_quarantine.jpg" src="../../images/165/16589.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/95/9517.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The crew of <i>Apollo 11</i> in <!--del_lnk--> quarantine after returning to earth, visited by <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Nixon.htm" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The astronauts were placed in <!--del_lnk--> quarantine after their landing on the moon due to fears that the moon might contain undiscovered <!--del_lnk--> pathogens, and that the astronauts were exposed to them during their moon walks. However, after almost three weeks in confinement (first in their trailer and later in the <!--del_lnk--> Lunar Receiving Laboratory at the <!--del_lnk--> Lyndon B. Johnson Space Centre), the astronauts were given a clean bill of health. On August 13, 1969, the astronauts exited quarantine to the cheers of the American public. Parades were held in their honour in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles on the same day.<p>That evening in Los Angeles there was an official State Dinner to celebrate <i>Apollo 11</i>, attended by Members of Congress, 44 Governors, the Chief Justice, and ambassadors from 83 nations. <!--del_lnk--> President Nixon and Vice President <!--del_lnk--> Spiro T. Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of the <!--del_lnk--> Presidential Medal of Freedom. This celebration was the beginning of a 45-day "Giant Leap" tour that brought the astronauts to 25 foreign countries and included visits with prominent leaders such as <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">Queen Elizabeth II</a> of the United Kingdom. Many nations would honour the first <a href="../../wp/m/Moon_landing.htm" title="Moon landing">moon landing</a> by issuing <i>Apollo 11</i> commemorative postage stamps or coins.<p>On September 16, 1969, the three astronauts spoke before a Joint Session of Congress on Capitol Hill. They presented two U.S. flags, one to the House of Representatives and the other to the Senate, that had been carried to the surface of the moon with them.<p>The command module is displayed at the <!--del_lnk--> National Air and Space Museum, <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>. It is placed in the central exhibition hall in front of the Jefferson Drive entrance, and shares the main hall with other pioneering flight vehicles such as the <!--del_lnk--> Spirit of St. Louis, the <!--del_lnk--> Bell X-1, the <!--del_lnk--> North American X-15, <!--del_lnk--> Mercury capsule <!--del_lnk--> Friendship 7, and <!--del_lnk--> Gemini 4. The quarantine trailer is displayed at the Smithsonian's <!--del_lnk--> Udvar-Hazy Centre annex near <!--del_lnk--> Washington Dulles International Airport in Virginia.<p><a id="Communications_link" name="Communications_link"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Communications link</span></h2>
<p>Early in the planning of <!--del_lnk--> Project Apollo, NASA decided to combine all communications between spacecraft and Earth into a single multiplexed feed called 'The Unified <!--del_lnk--> S-Band System', including audio communications, television images, crew medical <!--del_lnk--> telemetry and the <!--del_lnk--> spacecraft systems telemetry.<p>The signal was picked up by three purpose-built stations, called <!--del_lnk--> Goldstone (<a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>), <!--del_lnk--> Honeysuckle Creek (<a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>) and Fresnedillas (<a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>), and backed-up by the three nearby <!--del_lnk--> deep space network stations (known as 'wing stations'). All of the signals were routed to <!--del_lnk--> NASA's communications centre (now the <!--del_lnk--> Goddard Space Flight Centre) in <!--del_lnk--> Greenbelt, <!--del_lnk--> Maryland.<p><!--del_lnk--> Intelsat satellites began taking over the trans-oceanic transmissions toward the end of the 1960s, and NASA ended its contracts for the submarine telephone circuits, which were then reallocated by telephone administrations for normal voice use.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 14 July <!--del_lnk--> 1969, two days before last day of the launch window, the INTELSAT III satellite over the Atlantic failed, cutting off the link between the dish in Spain and Greenbelt, Maryland. It was decided that the problem needed to be fixed by two hours before launch time, or the launch would be scrubbed - potentially the last launch opportunity in 1969.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Early Bird satellite was activated, but there were concerns that it might not have enough power to get a signal to the United States. So, with great difficulty, twelve undersea telephone circuits were made available to NASA from six countries, for their <!--del_lnk--> inverse multiplexed signal. An official with the Spanish communications authority helped the team secure the circuits with his own personal list of contacts. The last circuit using inverse multiplexing was accepted by NASA just minutes before the time limit.<p><a id="Conspiracy_theories" name="Conspiracy_theories"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Conspiracy theories</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>There are allegations that the Apollo 11 moon landing was faked by <!--del_lnk--> NASA and possibly members of other involved organizations. A number of groups and individuals have advanced alternate historical narratives which tend, to varying degrees, to include the following common elements:<ul>
<li>The Apollo astronauts did not land on the Moon;<li>NASA and possibly others intentionally deceived the public into believing the landing[s] did occur by manufacturing, destroying, or tampering with evidence, including photos, <!--del_lnk--> telemetry tapes, transmissions, and rock samples;<li>NASA and possibly others continue to actively participate in the conspiracy to this day.</ul>
<p>According to a 1999 poll conducted by the <!--del_lnk--> The Gallup Organization, 6% of the American public believes the landing was faked, while what Gallup termed an "overwhelming majority", some 89%, did in fact occur. The hoax claims are widely dismissed as baseless by mainstream scientists, technicians and engineers, as well as by NASA, and have been widely analyzed by debunkers such as <!--del_lnk--> Phil Plait.<p><a id="Mission_insignia" name="Mission_insignia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mission insignia</span></h2>
<p>The familiar patch of <i>Apollo 11</i> was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for "peaceful lunar landing by the United States". He picked an eagle as the symbol, put an <!--del_lnk--> olive branch in its beak, and drew a moon background with the earth in the distance. (Collins drew the light shining on the earth from the wrong direction; it would have shone from the top of the patch.) NASA officials said the talons of the eagle looked too "warlike" and after some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the claws. The crew decided the <!--del_lnk--> Roman numeral <!--del_lnk--> XI would not be understood in some nations and went with <i>Apollo 11</i>; they decided not to put their names on the patch to "allow it to symbolize everyone who worked on the moon landing". All colors are natural, with blue and gold borders around the patch. The LM was named <i>Eagle</i> to match the insignia. When the Eisenhower silver dollar was revived a few years later, the patch design provided the eagle for the back of the coin; the design was kept for the smaller <!--del_lnk--> Susan B. Anthony dollar.<p><a id="Contingency_television_address" name="Contingency_television_address"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Contingency television address</span></h2>
<p>A speech titled "<!--del_lnk--> In Event of Moon Disaster" was prepared by <!--del_lnk--> William Safire for President Nixon to read on television in the event the <i>Apollo 11</i> astronauts were stranded on the Moon. Following this address, radio communications with the moon would have been cut off, the astronauts left alone to die, while a clergyman was to commend their souls to "the deepest of the deep" in the fashion of a burial at sea.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Photo gallery</span></h2>
<center>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/165/16590.png.htm" title="Image:Apollo11.png"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/165/16590.png" width="119" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Aldrin stands next to the Passive Seismic Experiment Package with the <!--del_lnk--> Lunar Module in the background.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/165/16591.jpg.htm" title="Image:Aldrin near Module leg.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/165/16591.jpg" width="119" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Aldrin inspects the LM landing gear.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/165/16592.jpg.htm" title="Image:5927 NASA.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/165/16592.jpg" width="119" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Aldrin unpacks experiments from the LM.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/165/16593.jpg.htm" title="Image:Buzz salutes the U.S. Flag.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/165/16593.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Aldrin with the U.S. flag</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 52px 0;"><a href="../../images/165/16594.jpg.htm" title="Image:23 A11neilmesa.jpg"><img alt="" height="42" src="../../images/165/16594.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Panoramic Assembly showing Neil Armstrong</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 25px 0;"><a href="../../images/165/16595.jpg.htm" title="Image:Armstrong 16mm.jpg"><img alt="" height="95" src="../../images/165/16595.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Armstrong on lunar surface with gold visor raised. From <!--del_lnk--> 16 mm film (NASA).</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 36px 0;"><a href="../../images/165/16596.jpg.htm" title="Image:Apollo 11 - Crew at the White House.jpg"><img alt="" height="74" src="../../images/165/16596.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><i>Apollo 11</i> crew members at the White House in 2004</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</center>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Florida', 'Moon', 'Neil Armstrong', 'President of the United States', 'John F. Kennedy', 'Neil Armstrong', 'Apollo 8', 'Apollo 8', 'Glynn Lunney', 'Saturn V', 'Saturn V', 'Apollo 8', 'Moon', 'Neil Armstrong', 'Radio telescope', 'Australia', 'John F. Kennedy', 'Saturn V', 'Richard Nixon', 'Richard Nixon', 'Wake Island', 'Johnston Atoll', 'Richard Nixon', 'Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom', 'Moon landing', 'Washington, D.C.', 'California', 'Australia', 'Spain'] |
Apollo_8 | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Apollo 8,Apollo 8 liftoff.ogg,Apollo 8 go for TLI.ogg,Apollo 8 Borman describing the Earth.ogg,Apollo 8 Lovell describing the Earth.ogg,Apollo 8 prior to LOI.ogg,Apollo 8 first lunar orbit transmissions.ogg,Apollo 8 describing the Moon.ogg,Apollo 8 genesis reading.ogg,Apollo 8 on the way home.ogg,Project Apollo" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Apollo 8</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Apollo_8";
var wgTitle = "Apollo 8";
var wgArticleId = 663;
var wgCurRevisionId = 92393017;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Apollo_8">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Apollo 8</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_transport.htm">Space transport</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox" style="font-size: 90%; width: 23em; text-align: left">
<caption><i><b>Apollo 8</b></i></caption>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#FFDEAD; text-align: center">Mission insignia</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/7/762.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="171" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apollo-8-patch.png" src="../../images/7/762.png" width="200" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#FFDEAD; text-align: center">Mission statistics</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Mission name:</th>
<td><i>Apollo 8</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Command Module:</th>
<td>CM-103</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Service Module:</th>
<td>SM-103</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Lunar Module:</th>
<td>Lunar Test Article (LTA-B)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Booster:</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Saturn_V.htm" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> SA-503</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Call sign:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Command module:<br /><i>Apollo 8</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Number of crew members:</th>
<td>3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Launch pad:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Kennedy Space Centre, <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> LC 39A</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Launch:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1968<br /> 12:51:00 <!--del_lnk--> UTC</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Landing:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1968<br /> 15:51:42 UTC<br /><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 8°6′N 165°1′W</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Duration:</th>
<td>6 d 3 h 0 min 42 s</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Number of lunar Orbits:</th>
<td>10</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Time in lunar orbit:</th>
<td>20 h 10 min 13.0 s</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Mass:</th>
<td>CSM 28,817 kg;<br /> LTA 9,026 kg</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#FFDEAD; text-align: center">Crew photo</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/7/773.jpg.htm" title="L-R: Lovell, Anders and Borman"><img alt="L-R: Lovell, Anders and Borman" height="253" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ap8-s68-50265HR.jpg" src="../../images/7/773.jpg" width="200" /></a><br /> L-R: Lovell, Anders and Borman</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#FFDEAD; text-align: center">Navigation</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table style="text-align: center; width: 100%; background: none; border: 0">
<tr>
<th style="width: 50%; border:0">Previous mission</th>
<th style="border:0">Next mission</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border:0"><!--del_lnk--> Apollo 7</td>
<td style="border:0"><!--del_lnk--> Apollo 9</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><i><b>Apollo 8</b></i> was the second <!--del_lnk--> manned mission of the <!--del_lnk--> Apollo space program, in which Commander <!--del_lnk--> Frank Borman, Command Module Pilot <!--del_lnk--> James Lovell and Lunar Module Pilot <!--del_lnk--> William Anders became the <!--del_lnk--> first humans to orbit around the <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a>. It was also the first manned launch of the <a href="../../wp/s/Saturn_V.htm" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> <!--del_lnk--> rocket.<p><!--del_lnk--> NASA prepared for the mission in only four months. The hardware involved had only been used a few times—the Saturn V had launched only twice before, and the Apollo spacecraft had only just finished its first manned mission, <i><!--del_lnk--> Apollo 7</i>. However, the success of the mission paved the way for the successful completion of <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">U.S. President</a> <a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy.htm" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>'s goal of landing on the Moon before the end of the decade.<p>After launching on <!--del_lnk--> December 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1968, the crew took three days to travel to the Moon, which they orbited for 20 hours. While in lunar orbit they made a <!--del_lnk--> Christmas Eve <!--del_lnk--> television broadcast in which the crew read from the book of <!--del_lnk--> Genesis. It had been the most watched broadcast to date.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Crew" name="Crew"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Crew</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Frank Borman (2) (flew on <i><!--del_lnk--> Gemini 7</i>, <i>Apollo 8</i>), commander<li><!--del_lnk--> James Lovell (3) (flew on <i>Gemini 7</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Gemini 12</i>, <i>Apollo 8</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Apollo 13</i>), command module pilot<li><!--del_lnk--> William Anders (1) (flew on <i>Apollo 8</i>), lunar module pilot</ul>
<p><small>*Number in parentheses indicates number of spaceflights by each individual, prior to and including this mission.</small><p><a id="Backup_crew" name="Backup_crew"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Backup crew</span></h3>
<p>The backup crew trained to take the place of the prime crew in case of illness or death.<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/n/Neil_Armstrong.htm" title="Neil Armstrong">Neil Armstrong</a> (flew on <i><!--del_lnk--> Gemini 8</i>, <i><a href="../../wp/a/Apollo_11.htm" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a></i>), commander<li><!--del_lnk--> Edwin E. Aldrin (flew on <i><!--del_lnk--> Gemini 12</i>, <i><a href="../../wp/a/Apollo_11.htm" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a></i>), command module pilot<li><!--del_lnk--> Fred Haise (flew on <i><!--del_lnk--> Apollo 13</i>), lunar module pilot</ul>
<p><a id="Support_crew" name="Support_crew"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Support crew</span></h3>
<p>The support crew were not trained to fly the mission but were able to stand in for astronauts in meetings and be involved in the minutiae of mission planning, while the prime and backup crews trained. They often also served as capcoms during the mission.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> John Bull (never flew in space)<li><!--del_lnk--> Vance Brand (flew on <i><!--del_lnk--> Apollo-Soyuz Test Project</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> STS-5</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> STS-41-B</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> STS-35</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Gerald Carr (flew on <i><!--del_lnk--> Skylab 4</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Ken Mattingly (flew on <i><!--del_lnk--> Apollo 16</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> STS-4</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> STS-51-C</i>)</ul>
<p><a id="Flight_directors" name="Flight_directors"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Flight directors</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Cliff Charlesworth, Green team<li><a href="../../wp/g/Glynn_Lunney.htm" title="Glynn Lunney">Glynn Lunney</a>, Black team<li>Milton Windler, Maroon team</ul>
<p><a id="Planning" name="Planning"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Planning</span></h2>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1966, NASA announced the crew for the third manned Apollo flight: Frank Borman, <!--del_lnk--> Michael Collins and Bill Anders. Collins was replaced by his backup Jim Lovell in July 1968, after Collins had to have surgery due to suffering a <!--del_lnk--> cervical <!--del_lnk--> disc herniation, requiring two <!--del_lnk--> vertebrae to be fused together. Collins recovered and went on to be the Command Module Pilot for <i><a href="../../wp/a/Apollo_11.htm" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a></i>.<p>In September 1967, the <!--del_lnk--> Manned Spacecraft Centre in <a href="../../wp/h/Houston%252C_Texas.htm" title="Houston, Texas">Houston, Texas</a> proposed a series of missions that would lead up to a manned lunar landing. Seven mission types were outlined, each testing a specific set of components and tasks; each previous step needed to be completed successfully before the next mission type could be undertaken. These were:<ol style="list-style-type: upper-alpha;">
<li>Unmanned <!--del_lnk--> Command/Service Module (CSM) test<br />
<li>Unmanned <!--del_lnk--> Lunar Module (LM) test<br />
<li>Manned CSM in <!--del_lnk--> low Earth orbit<br />
<li>Manned CSM and LM in low Earth orbit<br />
<li>Manned CSM and LM in an <!--del_lnk--> elliptical Earth orbit with an apogee of 4600 mi (7400 km)<br />
<li>Manned CSM and LM in lunar orbit<br />
<li>Manned lunar landing</ol>
<p>Of all the components of the Apollo system, the <!--del_lnk--> Lunar Module (LM), which would eventually be used to land on the Moon, presented the most problems. It was behind schedule, and when the first model was shipped to <a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Canaveral.htm" title="Cape Canaveral">Cape Canaveral</a> in June 1968, over 100 separate defects were discovered. <!--del_lnk--> Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, which was the lead contractor for the LM, predicted that the first mannable LM, to be used for the D mission, would not be ready until at least February 1969, delaying the entire sequence.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/774.png.htm" title="Apollo CSM diagram (NASA)"><img alt="Apollo CSM diagram (NASA)" height="163" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apollo-linedrawing.png" src="../../images/7/774.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/774.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Apollo CSM diagram (NASA)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> George Low, the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office, proposed a solution in August. Since the <!--del_lnk--> Command/Service Module (CSM) would be ready three months before the Lunar Module, they could fly a CSM-only mission in December 1968. But instead of just repeating the flight of <i><!--del_lnk--> Apollo 7</i>, the C mission that would fly the CSM in Earth orbit, they could send the CSM all the way to the Moon and maybe even enter into orbit. This mission was dubbed the "C-Prime" mission. This new mission would allow NASA to test procedures that would be used on the manned lunar landings that would otherwise have to wait until <i><!--del_lnk--> Apollo 10</i>, the F mission. There were also concerns from the <!--del_lnk--> CIA that the <!--del_lnk--> Soviets were planning their own circumlunar flight for December to upstage the Americans once again (see <!--del_lnk--> Zond program).<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/107/10757.jpg.htm" title="The first stage of AS-503 being erected in the VAB on February 1, 1968"><img alt="The first stage of AS-503 being erected in the VAB on February 1, 1968" height="257" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ap8-68-HC-70.jpg" src="../../images/7/784.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/107/10757.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The first stage of AS-503 being erected in the VAB on <!--del_lnk--> February 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1968</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Almost every senior manager at NASA agreed with this new mission. The only person who needed some convincing was <!--del_lnk--> James E. Webb, the NASA administrator. However, outvoted by the rest of the agency, he gave his approval. After leading the agency for eight years, he would resign just four days before the launch of <i>Apollo 7</i>, the first manned Apollo flight.<p><!--del_lnk--> Deke Slayton, the Director of Flight Crew Operations, decided to swap the crews of the D and E missions. <!--del_lnk--> James McDivitt, the original commander of the D mission, has said he was never offered the circumlunar flight but would probably have turned it down, as he wanted to fly the lunar module. Borman, on the other hand, jumped at the chance: his original mission would just have been a repeat of the previous flight, except in a higher orbit. This swap also meant a swap of spacecraft — Borman's crew would now use CSM-103, while McDivitt's crew would use CSM-104.<p>In the end, the E mission was canceled as most its objectives had been covered by the <i>Apollo 8</i> and <i>Apollo 9</i> flights. Mission managers were also confident that <i>Apollo 10</i> would also cover the remaining objectives with its lunar orbit flight.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> September 9, the crew entered the <!--del_lnk--> simulators to begin their preparation for the flight. By the time the mission flew, the crew would have spent seven hours training for every actual hour of flight. Although all crew members were trained for all aspects of the mission, it was necessary to specialize. Borman, as commander, was given training on controlling the spacecraft during the <!--del_lnk--> re-entry. Lovell was trained on <!--del_lnk--> navigating the spacecraft in case communication was lost with the Earth. Anders was placed in charge of checking the spacecraft was in working order.<p>It was not until <!--del_lnk--> November 12 that a public announcement was made about the change of mission for <i>Apollo 8</i>. Previous to this <!--del_lnk--> Thomas O. Paine, the deputy Administrator of NASA, had made a fleeting remark that all options were being considered.<p>Borman's main concern during the four months leading up to the launch was keeping the flight plan as simple as possible, not accepting any addition that went beyond the simple objectives of performing the first manned Saturn V launch, going to the Moon and orbiting it. He made sure that they stayed in lunar orbit only as long as necessary — 10 orbits.<p>The crew, now living in the crew quarters at <!--del_lnk--> Kennedy Space Centre, received a visit from <!--del_lnk--> Charles Lindbergh and his wife the night before the launch. They talked about how before his <!--del_lnk--> 1927 flight, Lindbergh had used a piece of string to measure the distance from <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> to <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> on a globe and from that calculated the fuel needed for the flight. The total was a tenth of the amount that the Saturn V would burn every second.<p>The next day, Lindbergh and his wife, <!--del_lnk--> Anne Morrow Lindbergh, watched the Start of Apollo 8 together, and she later wrote her book <i>Earthshine</i> about the event.<p><a id="The_Saturn_V" name="The_Saturn_V"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Saturn V</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/785.jpg.htm" title="The Apollo 8 Saturn V being rolled out to Pad 39A"><img alt="The Apollo 8 Saturn V being rolled out to Pad 39A" height="235" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ap8-KSC-68PC-147.jpg" src="../../images/7/785.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/785.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <i>Apollo 8</i> Saturn V being rolled out to <!--del_lnk--> Pad 39A</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Saturn V rocket used by <i>Apollo 8</i> was designated SA-503, the third flight model. When it was erected in the <!--del_lnk--> Vertical Assembly Building on <!--del_lnk--> December 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1967, it was thought that the rocket would be used for an unmanned test flight carrying a <!--del_lnk--> boilerplate Command/Service Module. Although <i><!--del_lnk--> Apollo 6</i> had suffered several major problems (it suffered severe <!--del_lnk--> pogo oscillation during its first stage and two second stage engines shutdown early), <!--del_lnk--> Marshall Space Flight Centre, in charge of the Saturn V, was confident that it could solve all the issues without the need for another unmanned test flight. The SA-503 mission was thus changed to a manned one.<p>However, NASA managers did impose some restrictions on a manned flight taking place: the <!--del_lnk--> S-II second stage had to undergo <!--del_lnk--> cryogenic testing at the <!--del_lnk--> Mississippi Test Facility and other changes were to be made to "man-rate" the vehicle. So on <!--del_lnk--> April 30, the Saturn V was unstacked and the <!--del_lnk--> S-II second stage shipped by barge to the test site. The spark igniters on the second and third stage engines were also modified. In May 1968 a leak was found in a first stage engine, requiring it to be replaced.<p>With only two launches of the Saturn V under its belt, the ground crew at <!--del_lnk--> Kennedy Space Centre (KSC) was having problems keeping to the schedule. The Grumman crew was also having issues with the lunar module. Concern was expressed at the fact so much work had to be done on the lunar module after it had shipped to the Cape. The ascent engine developed leaks that caused redesigns and valve changes.<p>Then in August 1968, the entire mission changed. SA-503 would launch men to the Moon and would not be carrying a lunar module, instead carrying a mass equivalent, called a lunar module test article (LTA), similar to ones used for <i><!--del_lnk--> Apollo 4</i> and <i>Apollo 6</i>. In order to speed up the pre-launch preparations, much of the modification of the Saturn V was taken out of the hands of KSC and given to appropriate development centers; only changes that affected crew safety were made.<p>The <i>Apollo 8</i> spacecraft was placed on top of the rocket on <!--del_lnk--> September 21 and the rocket made the slow 3-mile (5 km) journey to the launch pad on <!--del_lnk--> October 9. Testing continued all through December until the day before launch.<p>The SA-503 designation stood for Saturn-Apollo, and was used by NASA departments concerned with the launch vehicle. However, departments concerned with the manned flight often used AS-503, standing for Apollo-Saturn; both of these designations were used at the time to refer to the mission as a whole. The -503 number indicated that it was flight number <i>3</i> (5<b>03</b>) of the Saturn <i>V</i> (<b>5</b>03).<p><a id="The_mission" name="The_mission"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The mission</span></h2>
<p><a id="Launch_and_trans-lunar_injection" name="Launch_and_trans-lunar_injection"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Launch and trans-lunar injection</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/786.jpg.htm" title="Apollo 8 launch - the photo is a double exposure, as the Moon was not visible at the time of launch. (NASA)"><img alt="Apollo 8 launch - the photo is a double exposure, as the Moon was not visible at the time of launch. (NASA)" height="376" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ap8-KSC-68PC-329.jpg" src="../../images/7/786.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/786.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Apollo 8</i> launch - the photo is a <!--del_lnk--> double exposure, as the Moon was not visible at the time of launch. (NASA)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><i>Apollo 8</i> launched at 7:51:00 a.m. <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Standard Time on <!--del_lnk--> December 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1968. The entire launch phase was practically flawless with only minor problems. The <!--del_lnk--> S-IC first stage's engines underperformed by 0.75%, causing the engines to burn for 2.45 seconds longer than planned. Towards the end of the second stage burn, the rocket underwent <!--del_lnk--> pogo oscillations that Frank Borman estimated were of the order of 12 <!--del_lnk--> Hz and about ±0.25 <!--del_lnk--> g (±2.5 m/s²). The first manned Saturn V placed the spacecraft into a 112.8 mi by 118.9 mi (181.5 km by 191.3 km) Earth orbit with a period of 88 minutes and 10 seconds. The <!--del_lnk--> apogee was also slightly higher than intended, with a planned circular orbit of 115 mi (185 km). The S-IC impacted the Atlantic Ocean at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 30°12′N 74°7′W</span> and the S-II at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 31°50′N 37°17′W</span>.<div class="medialist listenlist">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Launch of Apollo 8 — <span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> </span><ul>
<li>Air-to-ground transmissions from T-15 seconds to T+3 minutes<li><i></i></ul>
</ul>
</div>
<p>For the next 2 hours and 38 minutes the crew and Mission Control worked to check that the spacecraft was in working in order and ready for Trans-Lunar Injection (TLI), the burn that would put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the Moon. At the same time the crew transformed the capsule from a rocket payload to a spacecraft. And the <!--del_lnk--> S-IVB third stage had to be in working order. On the previous unmanned test, the S-IVB had failed to re-ignite.<p>During the flight there would be three <!--del_lnk--> capsule communicators (usually referred to as "capcoms") on a rotating roster. These were the only people who would normally communicate with the crew. <!--del_lnk--> Michael Collins was the first of these on duty and at 2 hours, 27 minutes and 22 seconds after launch radioed "<i>Apollo 8</i>. You are Go for TLI". Mission Control had given official permission for the crew to go to the moon. Over the next twelve minutes before the burn, the crew continued to monitor the spacecraft and the rocket. The <!--del_lnk--> S-IVB third stage rocket ignited on time and burned perfectly for 5 minutes and 17 seconds. The burn increased the velocity of the spacecraft to 35,505 ft/s (10,822 m/s) and their altitude at the end of the burn was 215.4 mi (346.7 km). They were the fastest humans in history.<div class="medialist listenlist">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Go for TLI — <span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> </span><ul>
<li>Capsule communicator Michael Collins gives the crew of <i>Apollo 8</i> a 'go' for Trans-Lunar Injection<li><i></i></ul>
</ul>
</div>
<p>Now that the S-IVB had performed its required tasks it was jettisoned. The crew then rotated the spacecraft to take some photographs of the spent stage, as well as practiced flying in formation with it. As the crew rotated the spacecraft around they had their first views of the Earth as they moved away from it. This was the first time humans had been able to see the entire Earth in one go.<p>Borman became worried that the S-IVB was staying too close to the CSM and suggested to Mission Control that the crew perform a separation maneuver. Mission Control at first suggested pointing the spacecraft towards Earth and using the Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters on the Service Module to add 3 ft/s (0.9 m/s) away from the Earth, but Borman did not want to lose sight of the S-IVB. After much discussion it was decided to burn in this direction anyway but at 9 ft/s (2.7 m/s). These discussions ended up putting the crew an hour behind their flight plan.<p>Five hours after launch, mission control commanded the S-IVB booster to vent its remaining fuel through its engine bell to change its trajectory such that it would flyby the Moon and enter into a solar orbit, so as to pose no future hazard to the crew. It went into a 0.99 by 0.92 <!--del_lnk--> AU solar orbit with an <!--del_lnk--> inclination of 23.47° and a period of 340.80 days.<p>The members of the <i>Apollo 8</i> crew were the first humans to pass through the <!--del_lnk--> Van Allen radiation belts, which extend up to 15,000 mi (25,000 km) from Earth. Although it was predicted that the passage through the belts would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest <!--del_lnk--> X-ray or 1 <!--del_lnk--> milligray (during the course of a year, the average human receives a dose of 2 to 3 mGy), there was still interest in the radiation dosages on the crew. So each crewmember wore a Personal Radiation <!--del_lnk--> Dosimeter that could be read back to the ground as well as three passive film dosimeters that show the cumulative radiation experienced by the crew. By the end of the mission, the average radiation dose of the crew was 1.6 mGy.<p><a id="Coasting_to_the_Moon" name="Coasting_to_the_Moon"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Coasting to the Moon</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/787.jpg.htm" title="One of the first images taken by humans of the whole Earth, probably photographed by Bill Anders; South is up with South America in the middle."><img alt="One of the first images taken by humans of the whole Earth, probably photographed by Bill Anders; South is up with South America in the middle." height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:As08-16-2593.jpg" src="../../images/7/787.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/787.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> One of the first images taken by humans of the whole Earth, probably photographed by <!--del_lnk--> Bill Anders; South is up with <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a> in the middle.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Jim Lovell's main job as Command Module Pilot was to act as <!--del_lnk--> navigator. Although Mission Control performed all the actual navigation calculation, it was necessary that in case of communication loss the crew could navigate their way home. This was done by star sightings using a <!--del_lnk--> sextant built into the spacecraft, measuring the angle between a star and the Earth's (or the Moon's) <!--del_lnk--> horizon. This proved to be difficult, as the venting by the S-IVB had caused a large cloud of debris to form around the spacecraft, making it hard to distinguish the stars.<p>By seven hours into the mission, the delay in moving away from the S-IVB and Lovell's star sightings meant that they were behind schedule on the flight plan by about one hour and 40 minutes. The crew now placed the spacecraft into Passive Thermal Control (PTC), or what is more aptly called <!--del_lnk--> barbecue mode. This had the spacecraft roll about one rotation per hour, along its long axis in order to ensure even <!--del_lnk--> heat distribution of the spacecraft. In direct sunlight, the spacecraft could be heated to over 200 °C while the parts in shadow would be -100 °C. These temperatures could cause the <!--del_lnk--> heat shield to crack or propellant lines to burst. As it was impossible to get a perfect roll, the spacecraft actually swept out a <!--del_lnk--> cone as it rotated. This would have to be trimmed every half hour as it started to get larger and larger.<p>The first mid-course correction came 11 hours into the flight. Testing on the ground had shown there was a small chance that the <!--del_lnk--> Service Propulsion System (SPS) engine would explode when burned for long periods unless its <!--del_lnk--> combustion chamber was 'coated' first. This could be done by burning the engine for a short period. This first correction burn was only 2.4 seconds and added about 20.4 ft/s (6.2 m/s) <!--del_lnk--> prograde (in the direction of travel). This was less than the 24.8 ft/s (7.5 m/s) planned, and the shortfall was due to a bubble of <a href="../../wp/h/Helium.htm" title="Helium">helium</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> oxidizer lines causing lower than expected fuel pressure, requiring the crew to use the small Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters to make up the shortfall. Two later planned midcourse corrections were cancelled as the trajectory was found to be perfect.<p>Eleven hours into the flight, the crew had been awake for over 16 hours, having been awakened about 5 hours before launch. So it was time for Frank Borman to start his scheduled 7-hour sleep period. It proved difficult to sleep. NASA had decided that at least one crewmember should be awake at all times to deal with any issues that might arise. But the constant radio chatter with the ground and the air circulation fans made it hard to sleep. As well as this, sleeping in space is a somewhat unnatural experience—you cannot rest your head on a <!--del_lnk--> pillow and Bill Anders said that he would suddenly jolt awake with the sensation that he was falling.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/788.jpg.htm" title="Apollo 8 S-IVB rocket stage (NASA)"><img alt="Apollo 8 S-IVB rocket stage (NASA)" height="219" longdesc="/wiki/Image:As8-16-2583.jpg" src="../../images/7/788.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/788.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Apollo 8</i> <!--del_lnk--> S-IVB rocket stage (NASA)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>About an hour after starting his sleep period, Borman requested clearance to take a <!--del_lnk--> Seconal <!--del_lnk--> sleeping pill, but the pill had little effect. After Borman slept for seven hours fitfully, he awoke feeling ill. He <!--del_lnk--> vomited twice, and had a bout of <!--del_lnk--> diarrhea that left the spacecraft full of small globules of vomit and <!--del_lnk--> feces. The crew cleaned up as best as they could. Borman decided that he did not want the world to know about his medical problems but Lovell and Anders still wanted to tell the ground. They decided to use the Data Storage Equipment (DSE), which could be used by the crew to <!--del_lnk--> tape voice recordings and telemetry, which were then dumped to the ground at high speed. After recording a description of Borman's illness they requested that mission control check the recording, as the crew <i>"would like an evaluation of the voice comments"</i>.<p>A conference between the crew and medical personnel was held using the unoccupied second floor control room (there were two identical control rooms in Houston on the second and third floor, of which only one is used during the course of a mission). During a private communication with the crew, it was decided that there was little to worry about and that it was either a <!--del_lnk--> 24-hour flu as Borman thought, or just a reaction to the sleeping pill. In fact it is now thought that he was suffering from <!--del_lnk--> Space Adaptation Syndrome, which affects about a third of astronauts during their first day in space as their <!--del_lnk--> vestibular system adapts to <!--del_lnk--> weightlessness. It had never arisen on previous spacecraft (<!--del_lnk--> Mercury and <!--del_lnk--> Gemini) as they had been too small to move freely in.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/789.jpg.htm" title="In-flight footage of the crew taken while they were in orbit around the Moon; Frank Borman is in the center."><img alt="In-flight footage of the crew taken while they were in orbit around the Moon; Frank Borman is in the center." height="182" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ap8-S68-56531.jpg" src="../../images/7/789.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/789.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> In-flight footage of the crew taken while they were in orbit around the Moon; Frank Borman is in the centre.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight, with little happening except for the crew checking that the spacecraft was in working order and they were on course. During this time, NASA scheduled a television broadcast for 31 hours after launch. The camera used was 2 kg and broadcast in <!--del_lnk--> black-and-white only, using a <!--del_lnk--> Vidicon tube. It had two <!--del_lnk--> lenses: a very <!--del_lnk--> wide-angle (160°) lens and a <!--del_lnk--> telephoto (9°) lens.<p>During this first broadcast the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft and attempted to show how the Earth appeared. However this proved impossible, as the narrow-angle lens was difficult to aim without the aid of a monitor to show what it was looking at. Also without proper <!--del_lnk--> filters, the image became saturated by any bright source. In the end all the crew could do was show the people watching back on Earth a bright blob. After broadcasting for 17 minutes the rotation of the spacecraft took the <!--del_lnk--> high-gain antenna out of view of the receiving stations on Earth and they ended the transmission with Lovell wishing his mother happy birthday.<div class="medialist listenlist">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Borman described the Earth — <span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> </span><ul>
<li>Frank Borman describes view of Earth from midway to Moon<li><i></i></ul>
</ul>
</div>
<p>By this time the planned sleep periods had completely been abandoned. 32½ hours into the flight, Lovell went to bed, 3½ hours before he had planned to. A short while later Anders also went to bed after taking a sleeping pill.<p>Somewhat strangely the crew were unable to see the Moon for much of the outward cruise. Three of the five windows had fogged up, due to outgassed oils from the <!--del_lnk--> silicone <!--del_lnk--> sealant, and due to the <!--del_lnk--> attitude required for the PTC, the Moon was almost impossible to see from inside the spacecraft. In fact it was not until the crew had gone behind the Moon that they would be able to see it for the first time.<p>A second television broadcast came at 55 hours. This time the crew had managed to rig up <!--del_lnk--> filters meant for the still cameras, so that they could acquire images of the Earth through the <!--del_lnk--> telephoto lens. Although difficult to aim, as they had to maneuver the entire spacecraft, the crew was able to broadcast back to Earth the first <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">television</a> pictures of the Earth. The crew spent the transmission describing the Earth and what was visible and the colors that could be seen. The transmission lasted 23 minutes.<div class="medialist listenlist">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Lovell describes the Earth — <span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> </span><ul>
<li>Jim Lovell describes view of Earth from 200,000 miles out<li><i></i></ul>
</ul>
</div>
<p><a id="Lunar_sphere_of_influence" name="Lunar_sphere_of_influence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lunar sphere of influence</span></h3>
<p>At about 55 hours and 40 minutes into the flight, the crew of <i>Apollo 8</i> became the first humans to enter the gravitational sphere of influence of another celestial body. Or to put it another way, the Moon's <!--del_lnk--> gravitational force became stronger than that of the Earth. At the time it happened, they were 38,759 mi (62,377 km) from the Moon and had a speed of 3,990 ft/s (1,216 m/s) with respect to the Moon. This historic moment was of little interest to the crew as they still calculated their <!--del_lnk--> trajectory with respect to the launch pad at Kennedy Space Centre and would do so until they performed their last midcourse correction, when they would switch to a <!--del_lnk--> reference frame based on ideal orientation for the second engine burn they would make in lunar orbit. It was only thirteen hours until they would be in lunar orbit.<p>The last major event before Lunar Orbit Insertion was a second midcourse correction. It was in <!--del_lnk--> retrograde (against direction of travel) and slowed the spacecraft down by 2.0 ft/s (0.6 m/s), in effect lowering the closest distance that the spacecraft would pass the moon. At exactly 61 hours after launch, about 24,200 mi (39,000 km) from the Moon, the crew burned the RCS for 11 seconds. They would now pass 71.7 mi (115.4 km) from the lunar surface.<p>At 64 hours into the flight, the crew began to prepare for Lunar Orbit Insertion-1 (LOI-1). This maneuver had to be performed perfectly, and due to <!--del_lnk--> orbital mechanics had to be on the far side of the Moon, out of contact with the Earth. After Mission Control was polled for a Go/No Go decision, the crew was told at 68 hours, they were Go and <i>"riding the best bird we can find"</i>. At 68 hours and 58 minutes, the spacecraft went behind the Moon and out of radio contact with the Earth.<div class="medialist listenlist">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> <i>Apollo 8</i> goes behind the Moon — <span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> </span><ul>
<li>The last transmissions from the spacecraft before it goes behind the Moon<li><i></i></ul>
</ul>
</div>
<p>With ten minutes before the LOI-1, the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems and made sure that every switch was in the correct place. Then they finally got their first glimpses of the Moon. They had been flying over the unlit side, and it was Lovell who saw the first shafts of sunlight <!--del_lnk--> obliquely illuminating the lunar surface. But the burn was only two minutes away so the crew had little time to appreciate the view.<p><a id="Lunar_orbit" name="Lunar_orbit"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lunar orbit</span></h3>
<p>Igniting at 69 hours, 8 minutes and 16 seconds after launch, the SPS burned for 4 minutes and 13 seconds, placing the crew of <i>Apollo 8</i> in orbit around the Moon. The crew described this as being the longest four minutes of their lives. If the burn had not lasted exactly the right amount of time, the spacecraft could have ended up in a highly <!--del_lnk--> elliptical lunar orbit or even flung off into space. If it lasted too long they could have ended up impacting the Moon. After making sure the spacecraft was working, they finally had a chance to look at the Moon, which they would orbit for the next 20 hours.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/179/17974.jpg.htm" title="The first Earthrise photographed by humans"><img alt="The first Earthrise photographed by humans" height="245" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AS8-13-2329.jpg" src="../../images/7/790.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/179/17974.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The first Earthrise photographed by humans</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>On Earth, Mission Control continued to wait. If the crew had not burned the engine or the burn had not lasted the planned length of time the crew would appear early from behind the Moon. However this time came and went without <i>Apollo 8</i> reappearing. And then exactly at the predicted moment, the signal was received from the spacecraft indicating it was in a 193.3 mi by 69.5 mi (311.1 km by 111.9 km) orbit about the Moon.<div class="medialist listenlist">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> <i>Apollo 8</i> appears from behind the Moon — <span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> </span><ul>
<li>First transmissions from <i>Apollo 8</i> after it has entered into lunar orbit<li><i></i></ul>
</ul>
</div>
<p>After reporting on the status of the spacecraft, Lovell gave the first description of what the lunar surface looked like:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="20">
<div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Apollo 8"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Apollo 8"><img alt="Apollo 8" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div>
</td>
<td>The Moon is essentially grey, no colour; looks like <!--del_lnk--> plaster of Paris or sort of a grayish beach sand. We can see quite a bit of detail. The <!--del_lnk--> Sea of Fertility doesn't stand out as well here as it does back on Earth. There's not as much contrast between that and the surrounding craters. The craters are all rounded off. There's quite a few of them, some of them are newer. Many of them look like—especially the round ones—look like hit by <!--del_lnk--> meteorites or projectiles of some sort. <!--del_lnk--> Langrenus is quite a huge crater; it's got a central cone to it. The walls of the crater are terraced, about six or seven different <!--del_lnk--> terraces on the way down.</td>
<td valign="bottom" width="20">
<div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Apollo 8"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Apollo 8"><img alt="Apollo 8" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Lovell continued to describe the terrain that they were passing over. One of the crew's major tasks was <!--del_lnk--> reconnaissance of the planned landing sites on the Moon, especially one in <!--del_lnk--> Mare Tranquillitatis that would be the <i><a href="../../wp/a/Apollo_11.htm" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a></i> landing site. The launch time of <i>Apollo 8</i> had been chosen to give the best lighting conditions for the site. A <!--del_lnk--> film camera had been set up in one of the windows to record a frame every second of the Moon below. Bill Anders would spend much of the next 20 hours taking as many photographs as possible of targets of interest. By the end of the mission the crew would take 700 photographs of the Moon and 150 of the Earth.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/791.jpg.htm" title="A portion of the lunar near side; the large crater in the bottom half of the photo is Goclenius."><img alt="A portion of the lunar near side; the large crater in the bottom half of the photo is Goclenius." height="243" longdesc="/wiki/Image:As8-13-2225.jpg" src="../../images/7/791.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/791.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A portion of the lunar near side; the large crater in the bottom half of the photo is <!--del_lnk--> Goclenius.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Throughout the hour that the spacecraft was in contact with the Earth, Borman kept asking how the data for the SPS looked. He wanted to make sure that the engine was working and could be used to return early to the Earth if necessary. He also asked that they receive a Go/No Go decision before they passed behind the Moon on each orbit.<p>As they reappeared for their second pass in front of the Moon, the crew set up the television to broadcast a view of the lunar surface. Anders described the craters that they were passing over. At the end of this second orbit they performed the eleven-second LOI-2 burn of the SPS to circularize the orbit to 70.0 mi by 71.3 mi (112.6 km by 114.8 km).<p>Over the next two orbits the crew continued to keep check of the spacecraft and to observe and photograph the Moon. During the third pass, Borman read a small <!--del_lnk--> prayer for his church, as he was meant to lay read during the <!--del_lnk--> Midnight service at St. Christopher's <!--del_lnk--> Episcopal Church near <!--del_lnk--> Seabrook, Texas but due to the Apollo 8 flight was unable. A fellow parishioner and engineer at Mission Control, Rod Rose, suggested that Borman read the prayer which could be recorded and then replayed during the service.<p>It was as the spacecraft came out from behind the Moon for its fourth pass across the front that the crew witnessed an event never before seen—Earthrise. Anders glanced out the window and saw a blue and white orb and realized it was the Earth. Instantly the crew understood that they needed to take a photograph of this. Anders took both the first photograph, which was black-and-white, and then later the more famous colour photo. (After the flight, Borman and Anders both claimed they took the first earthrise photo - Lovell also did, but more as a joke than anything else - but it was determined that it was probably Anders.) It should be noted that, due to the <!--del_lnk--> synchronous rotation of the Moon about the Earth, Earthrise is not visible from the Lunar surface. The phenomenon is only visible when orbiting the Moon.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/91/9177.jpg.htm" title="Earth as seen from Apollo 8, December 24, 1968 (NASA)"><img alt="Earth as seen from Apollo 8, December 24, 1968 (NASA)" height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg" src="../../images/7/792.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/91/9177.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Earth as seen from <i>Apollo 8</i>, December 24, 1968 (NASA)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Anders continued to take photographs while Lovell took the controls of the spacecraft so that Borman could get some rest. As always, resting was difficult in the cramped and noisy capsule, though Borman was able to doze for two orbits. He would awaken at times to ask a question about their status, only to be told that everything was going fine.<p>Borman did wake up however when he started to hear his fellow crewmembers make mistakes. They were beginning to not understand questions and would have to ask for the answers to be repeated. Borman realized that everyone was extremely tired having not had a good night's sleep in over three days. Taking command, he ordered Anders and Lovell to get some sleep and that the rest of the flight plan regarding observing the Moon be scrubbed. At first Anders protested saying that he was fine, but Borman would not be swayed. At last Anders agreed as long as the commander would set up the camera to continue to take automatic shots of the Moon. Borman also remembered that there was a second television broadcast planned, and with so many people expected to be watching he wanted the crew to be alert. For the next two orbits Anders and Lovell slept while Borman sat at the helm.<p>As they rounded the Moon for the ninth time, the second television transmission began. Borman introduced the crew, followed by each man giving his impression of the lunar surface and what it was like to be orbiting the Moon. Borman described it as being <i>"a vast, lonely, forbidding type of existence or expanse of nothing"</i>. And then after talking about what they were flying over, Anders said that the crew had a message for all those on Earth.<div class="medialist listenlist">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> <i>Apollo 8'</i>s describing the Moon — <span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> </span><ul>
<li>The <i>Apollo 8</i> crew talk about the Moon and their impressions of it<li><i></i></ul>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="medialist listenlist">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> The crew of <i>Apollo 8</i> reading Genesis and wishing Merry Christmas — <span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> </span><ul>
<li>Each man reading a section of <!--del_lnk--> Genesis 1:1-10, the story of <!--del_lnk--> creation. Borman closes with: "And from the crew of <i>Apollo 8</i>, we close with, Good night, Good luck, a Merry <!--del_lnk--> Christmas, and God bless all of you, all of you on the good Earth."<li><i></i></ul>
</ul>
</div>
<p>The only thing left for the crew now was to perform the Trans-Earth Injection or TEI, which would occur 2½ hours after the end of the television transmission. This was the most critical burn of the whole flight. If the SPS failed to ignite, then the crew would be stuck in orbit around the Moon, with only about 5 more days of oxygen and no chance of escape. And once again the burn had to be performed while the crew was out of contact with Earth, on the far side of the Moon.<p>The burn occurred perfectly on time. The spacecraft telemetry was reacquired as it re-emerged from behind the Moon at 89 hours, 28 minutes, and 39 seconds, the exact time predicted. When voice contact was regained, Lovell announced, "Please be informed, there is a <a href="../../wp/s/Santa_Claus.htm" title="Santa Claus">Santa Claus</a>", to which <!--del_lnk--> Ken Mattingly, the capcom, replied, "That's affirmative, You are the best ones to know". It was <!--del_lnk--> Christmas Day, 1968.<div class="medialist listenlist">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> There is a Santa Claus — <span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> </span><ul>
<li><i>Apollo 8</i> appears from behind the Moon after its successful SPS engine burn<li><i></i></ul>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/793.jpg.htm" title="Rupes Cauchy in eastern Mare Tranquillitatis"><img alt="Rupes Cauchy in eastern Mare Tranquillitatis" height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AS8-13-2344.jpg" src="../../images/7/793.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/793.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Rupes Cauchy in eastern Mare Tranquillitatis</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Unplanned_manual_re-alignment" name="Unplanned_manual_re-alignment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Unplanned manual re-alignment</span></h3>
<p>Later, Lovell used some otherwise idle time to do some navigational sightings, maneuvering the module to view various stars by using the computer keyboard. However, an accidental entry erased some of the computer's memory, which caused the inertial measuring unit (IMU) to think the module was in the same relative position it had been in before lift-off and fire the thrusters to "correct" the module's attitude.<p>Once the crew realized why the computer had changed the module's attitude, they realized they would have to re-enter data that would tell the computer its real position. It took Lovell ten minutes to figure out the right numbers, using the thrusters to get the stars <!--del_lnk--> Rigel and <a href="../../wp/s/Sirius.htm" title="Sirius">Sirius</a> aligned, and another fifteen minutes to enter the corrected data into the computer.<p>Sixteen months later, Lovell would once again have to perform a similar manual re-alignment, under more critical conditions, during the <i><!--del_lnk--> Apollo 13</i> mission, after that module's IMU had to be turned off to conserve energy. In his 1994 book, <i>Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13</i> (later re-titled <i>Apollo 13</i> when the movie based on it, <i><!--del_lnk--> Apollo 13</i>, came out), Lovell wrote, "My training [on Apollo 8] came in handy!" In that book he dismissed the incident as a 'planned experiment', requested by the ground crew. However, in subsequent interviews Lovell has acknowledged that the incident was an accident, caused by his mistake, as described in <!--del_lnk--> Robert Zimmerman's 1998 book <i>Genesis: The Story of Apollo 8</i>.<p><a id="Cruise_back_to_Earth_and_re-entry" name="Cruise_back_to_Earth_and_re-entry"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cruise back to Earth and re-entry</span></h3>
<p>The cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft. As long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly, the spacecraft would re-enter 2½ days after TEI and <!--del_lnk--> splashdown in the Pacific.<p>On Christmas afternoon, the crew made their fifth and final television broadcast. This time they gave a tour of the spacecraft, showing how an astronaut lived in space. When they had finished broadcasting they found a small present from <!--del_lnk--> Deke Slayton in the food locker—real <a href="../../wp/d/Domesticated_turkey.htm" title="Domesticated turkey">turkey</a> with <!--del_lnk--> stuffing and three miniature bottles of <!--del_lnk--> brandy (which remained unopened). There were also small presents to the crew from their wives.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/794.jpg.htm" title="The Apollo 8 Command Module on the deck of the USS Yorktown"><img alt="The Apollo 8 Command Module on the deck of the USS Yorktown" height="263" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ap8-S68-56310.jpg" src="../../images/7/794.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/794.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <i>Apollo 8</i> Command Module on the deck of the <!--del_lnk--> USS <i>Yorktown</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>After two uneventful days the crew prepared for re-entry. The computer would control the re-entry and all the crew had to do was put the spacecraft in the correct attitude, blunt end forward. If the computer broke down, Borman would take over.<p>After separating from the Service Module, all the crew could do was sit and wait. Six minutes before they hit the top of the atmosphere, the crew saw the Moon rising above the Earth's horizon, just as had been predicted by the trajectory specialists. As they hit the thin outer atmosphere they noticed it was becoming hazy outside as glowing <!--del_lnk--> plasma formed around the capsule. The capsule started slowing down and the deceleration peaked at 6 g (59 m/s²). With the computer controlling the descent by changing the <!--del_lnk--> attitude of the capsule, <i>Apollo 8</i> rose briefly like a skipping stone before descending to the ocean. At 30,000 feet (9 km) the drogue parachute stabilized the spacecraft and was followed at 10,000 feet (3 km) by the three main parachutes. The spacecraft splashdown position was estimated to be <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 8°6′N 165°1′W</span>.<p>When it hit the water, the parachutes dragged the spacecraft over and left it upside down, in what was termed Stable 2 position. As they were buffeted by a 10-foot (3 m) swell, Borman was sick, waiting for the three floatation balloons to right the capsule. It was 43 minutes after splashdown before the first <!--del_lnk--> frogman from the <!--del_lnk--> USS <i>Yorktown</i> arrived, as the capsule had landed before sunrise. Forty-five minutes later they were on the deck of the aircraft carrier.<p>The command module is now displayed at the <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> <!--del_lnk--> Museum of Science and Industry, along with a collection of personal items from the flight donated by Lovell and the spacesuit worn by Frank Borman. Jim Lovell's spacesuit can be found at NASA's <!--del_lnk--> Glenn Research Centre.<p><a id="Historical_importance" name="Historical_importance"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Historical importance</span></h2>
<p><i>Apollo 8</i> came at the end of 1968, a year that had seen much upheaval around the world. Yet <i><!--del_lnk--> TIME</i> magazine chose the crew of <i>Apollo 8</i> as their <!--del_lnk--> Men of the Year for 1968, recognizing them as the people that most influenced events in the preceding year. They had been the first people to ever leave the gravitational influence of the Earth and orbit another celestial body. They had survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as only having a fifty-fifty chance of fully succeeding. The effect of <i>Apollo 8</i> can be summed up by a telegram from a stranger, received by Borman after the mission, that simply stated, "Thank you <i>Apollo 8</i>. You saved 1968."<p>One of the most famous aspects of the flight was the Earthrise picture that was taken as they came around for their fourth orbit of the Moon. Although it was not the first image taken of the whole Earth nor would it be the last, this was the first time that humans had taken such a picture. Some regard the picture as being the start of the <!--del_lnk--> environmentalist movement, with the first <!--del_lnk--> Earth Day in 1970.<!--del_lnk--> <p>The mission was the most widely covered by the media since the first American orbital flight, <!--del_lnk--> Mercury Atlas 6 by <!--del_lnk--> John Glenn in 1962. There were 1200 journalists covering the mission, with the <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a> coverage being broadcast in 54 countries in 15 different languages. The Soviet newspaper <i><!--del_lnk--> Pravda</i> even covered the flight without the usual anti-American editorializing. It is estimated that a quarter of the people alive at the time saw — either live or delayed — the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon; it had a tremendous impact. Touring the world after the mission, Borman met with <!--del_lnk--> Pope Paul VI; he was told "I have spent my entire life trying to say to the world what you did on Christmas Eve."<p><a href="../../wp/a/Atheism.htm" title="Atheism">Atheist</a> <!--del_lnk--> Madalyn Murray O'Hair later caused controversy by bringing a lawsuit against NASA over the <!--del_lnk--> reading from <i>Genesis</i>; she wished the courts to ban US astronauts—who were all Government employees—from public prayer in space. This was eventually rejected by the courts, but it caused NASA to be skittish about the issue of religion throughout the rest of the Apollo program. <!--del_lnk--> Buzz Aldrin, on <i><a href="../../wp/a/Apollo_11.htm" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a></i>, took <!--del_lnk--> communion on the surface of the moon after landing; he refrained from mentioning this publicly for several years, and only obliquely referred to it at the time.<p><a id="Mission_parameters" name="Mission_parameters"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mission parameters</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><b>CSM <!--del_lnk--> Mass:</b> 63,531 lb (28,817 kg)</ul>
<p><a id="Earth_parking_orbit" name="Earth_parking_orbit"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Earth parking orbit</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Perigee:</b> 112.8 mi (181.5 km)<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Apogee:</b> 118.9 mi (191.3 km)<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Inclination:</b> 32.51°<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Period:</b> 88.17 min</ul>
<p><a id="Lunar_orbit_2" name="Lunar_orbit_2"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lunar orbit</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Perilune:</b> 69.5 mi (111.9 km)<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Apolune:</b> 193.3 mi (311.1 km)<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Inclination:</b> 12°<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Period:</b> 128.7 min</ul>
<p><a id="Translunar_injection_burn" name="Translunar_injection_burn"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Translunar injection burn</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> December 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1968, 15:41:38 UTC</ul>
<p>The Saturn V, <!--del_lnk--> S-IVB third stage, was fired for a second time. It burned for a total of 318 seconds. <i>Apollo 8</i> was propelled from an Earth <!--del_lnk--> parking orbit velocity of 25,567 ft/s (7793 m/s) to a translunar <!--del_lnk--> trajectory <!--del_lnk--> velocity of 35,505 ft/s (10,822 m/s).<p><a id="Movie" name="Movie"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Movie</span></h2>
<p>NASA created movies to summarize each mission, often shown at science museums such as the <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Science Centre in <a href="../../wp/s/Seattle%252C_Washington.htm" title="Seattle, Washington">Seattle</a>. The movie for Apollo 8 used soundtrack music from the Beatles' <i><!--del_lnk--> Yellow Submarine</i>.<p><a id="Mission_insignia" name="Mission_insignia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mission insignia</span></h2>
<p>The triangular shape of the insignia symbolizes the shape of the Apollo command module. It shows a red figure 8 looping around the earth and moon representing the mission number as well as the circumlunar nature of the mission. On the red number 8 are the names of the three astronauts.<p>The initial design of the insignia was developed by Jim Lovell. Lovell reportedly sketched the initial design while riding in the backseat of a T-38 flight from California to Houston, shortly after learning of the re-designation of the flight to become a circumlunar mission.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_8"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Saturn V', 'Florida', 'Moon', 'Saturn V', 'President of the United States', 'John F. Kennedy', 'Neil Armstrong', 'Apollo 11', 'Apollo 11', 'Glynn Lunney', 'Apollo 11', 'Houston, Texas', 'Cape Canaveral', 'New York City', 'Paris', 'South America', 'Helium', 'Television', 'Apollo 11', 'Santa Claus', 'Sirius', 'Domesticated turkey', 'Chicago', 'BBC', 'Atheism', 'Apollo 11', 'Seattle, Washington'] |
Apostolic_Succession | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" />
<meta content="Apostolic Succession,1820,1830,1896,431 AD,96 AD,Aaronic Priesthood,Acts of Supremacy,Acts of the Apostles,Ad Tuendam Fidem,American Revolution" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Apostolic Succession</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">/*<![CDATA[*/
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false;
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Apostolic_Succession";
var wgTitle = "Apostolic Succession";
var wgAction = "view";
var wgArticleId = "2257";
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserGroups = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
var wgBreakFrames = false;
var wgCurRevisionId = "131425750";
/*]]>*/</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Apostolic_Succession">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Apostolic Succession</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Religion.Religious_disputes.htm">Religious disputes</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<p>In <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, the doctrine of <b>Apostolic Succession</b> (or the belief that the Church is 'apostolic') maintains that the Christian Church today is the spiritual successor to the original body of believers in <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus Christ">Christ</a> composed of the <!--del_lnk--> Apostles. Different <!--del_lnk--> Christian denominations interpret this doctrine in different ways.<p>In <i>episcopal</i> churches, the Apostolic Succession is understood to be the basis of the authority of <!--del_lnk--> bishops (the <i>episcopate</i>). In the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> and the <a href="../../wp/e/Eastern_Orthodox_Church.htm" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>, Apostolic Succession is claimed as having been passed through unbroken lines of bishops beginning with the original Apostles. The Roman Catholic Church has traditionally been the most vocal in claiming <!--del_lnk--> unique legitimacy in terms of Apostolic Succession based on the assertion that <!--del_lnk--> Saint Peter, believed to be the rightful leader of the Church, was the first <a href="../../wp/p/Pope.htm" title="Pope">Bishop of Rome</a>. Other communions such as <a href="../../wp/a/Anglicanism.htm" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Oriental Orthodoxy claim legitimacy on a similar basis. Virtually all <!--del_lnk--> Christian denominations consider Apostolic Succession important in some fashion although their definitions of the concept may vary.<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script>
<p><a id="Apostolicity_as_doctrinal_continuity" name="Apostolicity_as_doctrinal_continuity"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Apostolicity as doctrinal continuity</span></h2>
<p>While many churches within the <!--del_lnk--> historic episcopate argue that holy orders are valid only through apostolic succession, most <!--del_lnk--> Protestant Churches would deny that the apostolicity of the Church rests on an unbroken episcopacy. They generally hold that one important qualification of the apostles was that they were chosen directly by <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> and that they witnessed the resurrected Christ. According to this understanding, the work of these twelve (and the Apostle <a href="../../wp/p/Paul_of_Tarsus.htm" title="Paul of Tarsus">Paul</a>), together with the prophets of the twelve tribes of Israel, provide the doctrinal foundation for the whole church of subsequent history through the Scriptures of the Bible. To share with the apostles the same faith, to believe their word as found in the Scriptures, to receive the same Holy Spirit, is the only sense in which apostolic succession is meaningful, because it is in this sense only that men have fellowship with God in the truth (an extension of the <!--del_lnk--> Reformation doctrines of <i><!--del_lnk--> sola fide</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> sola scriptura</i>). The most meaningful <i>apostolic succession</i> for most Protestants, then, is the faithful succession of apostolic <b>teaching</b>. There is, of course, much disagreement among various Protestant churches about the exact content of apostolic teaching. In addition, Protestants state that the teaching of Apostolic Succession did not arise until 170-200 A.D. <p>It is worth noting, however, that some Protestant <!--del_lnk--> charismatic churches include "apostles" among the offices that should be evident into modern times in a true church, though they never trace an historical line of succession.<p>Those who hold to the importance of episcopal apostolic succession would counter the above by appealing to the <!--del_lnk--> New Testament, which, they say, implies a personal apostolic succession (from <a href="../../wp/p/Paul_of_Tarsus.htm" title="Paul of Tarsus">Paul</a> to <!--del_lnk--> Timothy and <!--del_lnk--> Titus, for example) and which states that Jesus gave the Apostles a "blank cheque" to lead the Church as they saw fit under the guidance of the <!--del_lnk--> Holy Spirit. They appeal as well to other documents of the very early Church, especially the Epistle of St. Clement to the Church at Corinth, written around <!--del_lnk--> 96 AD In it, <!--del_lnk--> Clement defends the authority and prerogatives of a group of "<!--del_lnk--> elders" or "<!--del_lnk--> bishops" in the Corinthian Church which had, apparently, been deposed and replaced by the congregation on its own initiative. In this context, Clement explicitly states that the apostles both appointed bishops as successors and had directed that these bishops should in turn appoint their own successors; given this, such leaders of the Church were not to be removed without cause and not in this way. Further, proponents of the necessity of the personal apostolic succession of bishops within the Church point to the universal practice of the undivided early Church (up to <!--del_lnk--> 431 AD), from which, as organizations, the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox (at that point in time one Church until 1054, see <!--del_lnk--> Great Schism), as well Oriental Orthodox and the Assyrian Churches have all directly descended.<p>At the same time, no defender of the personal apostolic succession of bishops would deny the importance of doctrinal continuity in the Church. As stated above, Irenaeus explicitly ties the two together.<p><a id="Mainstream_Christianity" name="Mainstream_Christianity"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Mainstream Christianity</span></h2>
<p><a id="Catholic.2C_Orthodox.2C_and_Anglican_Churches" name="Catholic.2C_Orthodox.2C_and_Anglican_Churches"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican Churches</span></h3>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Orthodox, <!--del_lnk--> Oriental Orthodox, <!--del_lnk--> Assyrian, <!--del_lnk--> Independent Catholic, <a href="../../wp/a/Anglicanism.htm" title="Anglicanism">Anglican Communion</a> and some others hold that apostolic succession is maintained through the consecration of their <!--del_lnk--> bishops in unbroken personal <!--del_lnk--> succession back to the apostles. These churches hold that Jesus Christ founded a community of believers and selected the apostles to serve, as a group, as the leadership of that community. In Catholic and Orthodox theology, the "College of Apostles" received the sacrament of Holy Orders from Christ, making them the first bishops, and the bishops of the world today, as a group (the <!--del_lnk--> College of Bishops) have the same role within the church as the College of Apostles did immediately after Christ's ministry (the Catholic Church additionally holds that within the College of Apostles, Peter was picked out for the unique role of leadership and to serve as the source of unity among the apostles, a role among the bishops and within the church inherited by the pope as Peter's successor today).<p>These churches hold that Christ entrusted the leadership of the community of believers, and the obligation to transmit and preserve the "deposit of faith" (the experience of Christ and his teachings contained in the doctrinal "tradition" handed down from the time of the apostles, the written portion of which is Scripture) to the apostles, and the apostles passed on this role by ordaining bishops after them.<p>Catholic and Orthodox theology additionally hold that the power and authority to confect the <!--del_lnk--> sacraments, or at least all of the sacraments aside from baptism and matrimony (the first of which may be administered by anyone, the second of which is administered by the couple to each other) is passed on only through the sacrament of Holy Orders, and an unbroken line of ordination of bishops to the apostles is necessary for the valid celebration of the sacraments today. Catholics recognize the validity of the apostolic successions of the bishops, and therefore the rest of the clergy, of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Assyrian, Old Catholic, and some Independent Catholic Churches. The Eastern Orthodox do not recognize Catholics nor any other group as having Apostolic Succession, examples of <!--del_lnk--> economia such as the reception of Catholic priests by "vesting" rather than by re-ordination, notwithstanding. Neither the Catholic nor the Orthodox Church recognize the validity of the apostolic succession of the clergy of the Anglican or other Protestant churches, in large measure because of their theology of the Eucharist.<p>The unbrokenness of apostolic succession is also significant because of Jesus Christ's promise that the "gates of hell" would not prevail against the Church, and his promise that he himself would be with the apostles to "the end of the age". According to this interpretation, a complete disruption or end of such apostolic succession would mean that these promises were not kept as would an apostolic succession which, while formally intact, completely abandoned the teachings of the Apostles and their immediate successors; as, for example, if all the bishops of the world agreed to abrogate the <!--del_lnk--> Nicene Creed or to repudiate the <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a>.<p><!--del_lnk--> Pope Leo XIII stated, in his <!--del_lnk--> 1896 <!--del_lnk--> bull <i><!--del_lnk--> Apostolicae Curae</i> that the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> believes specifically that the <a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Communion.htm" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Church</a>'s consecrations are "absolutely invalid and utterly void" because of changes made to the rite of consecration under <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VI_of_England.htm" title="Edward VI of England">Edward VI</a>, thus denying that Anglicans participate in the apostolic succession. A reply of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York (1896) countered Pope Leo's arguments.<p>The language of Leo's statement was reinforced in the accompanying commentary to <!--del_lnk--> Ad Tuendam Fidem:<blockquote>
<p>With regard to those truths connected to revelation by historical necessity and which are to be held definitively, but are not able to be declared as divinely revealed, the following examples can be given: the legitimacy of the election of the Supreme Pontiff or of the celebration of an ecumenical council, the canonizations of saints (dogmatic facts), the declaration of Pope Leo XIII in the Apostolic Letter Apostolicae Curae on the invalidity of Anglican ordinations... </blockquote>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Old Catholic Union of Utrecht, is in full communion with <a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Canterbury and Anglicanism</a> since the <!--del_lnk--> Bonn Agreement of 1931. It should also be noted that since the issuance of <i>Apostolicae Curae</i>, many Anglican jurisdictions have revised their ordinals, bringing them more in line with ordinals of the early Church.<p>In addition to a line of historic transmission, <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Orthodox and <!--del_lnk--> Oriental Orthodox churches additionally require that a hierarch maintain Orthodox Church doctrine, which they hold to be that of the Apostles, as well as communion with other Orthodox bishops. The <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Orthodox have permitted clergy ordained by Catholic and Anglican bishops to be rapidly ordained within Orthodoxy. However, this is a matter of <!--del_lnk--> economia and not recognition of Apostolic Succession, although in some cases, Catholic priests entering Eastern Orthodoxy have been received by "vesting" and have been allowed to function immediately within Orthodoxy as priests, which is still merely economia and not recognition of Apostolic Succession.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Armenian Apostolic Church, which is one of the Oriental Orthodox churches, recognizes Catholic episcopal consecrations without qualification (and that recognition is reciprocated).<p><a id="Protestant_Churches" name="Protestant_Churches"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Protestant Churches</span></h3>
<p><a id="Lutheran_Church" name="Lutheran_Church"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Lutheran Church</span></h4>
<p>Some <!--del_lnk--> Lutheran Churches, the Churches of the <!--del_lnk--> Porvoo Communion, and the <!--del_lnk--> Old Catholic Church (which is also in communion with the <a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Communion.htm" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Communion</a>) also believe that they ordain their bishops in the apostolic succession in line from the apostles.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Church of Sweden's apostolic succession is, according to some reports and despite its <!--del_lnk--> Lutheranism, seen by the Catholic Church as having been maintained, and following the establishment of the <!--del_lnk--> Porvoo Communion an increasing number of Anglicans could alternatively trace their succession through Swedish bishops as well as <!--del_lnk--> Old Catholic bishops, whose <!--del_lnk--> holy orders are recognized as valid by Rome. Other Churches within the <!--del_lnk--> historic episcopate also see the <!--del_lnk--> Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland as having mantained apostolic succession.<p><a id="Methodist_Church" name="Methodist_Church"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Methodist Church</span></h4>
<p>Bishops in the <!--del_lnk--> United Methodist Church do not claim to be within the <!--del_lnk--> historic episcopate in the same way as Anglican, Catholic, and Orthodox bishops. They do, however, claim a corporate ("connectional") and theological form of Apostolic succession, and are not adverse to <!--del_lnk--> ecumenical acts which would further establish their ministry within the historic episcopate, though such would have to be accomplished without repudiating or otherwise questioning the validity of their current orders and ministries. Methodist episcopal succession derives from <!--del_lnk--> John Wesley, who was an ordained <!--del_lnk--> presbyter of the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> but not himself a bishop and thus not officially authorized to consecrate others. Wesley justified his practice of ordaining bishops (which he called "<!--del_lnk--> General Superintendents") and <!--del_lnk--> Elders (i.e., presbyters) for Methodists in the newly independent <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States of America">United States of America</a> in 1784 by appealing to a perceived need and by citing a minority opinion among the early <!--del_lnk--> Church Fathers and an ancient precedent from the <!--del_lnk--> Church of Alexandria, which held that presbyters ("priests" or "elders") could, at least collectively, indeed ordain other such presbyters and even consecrate, or "set apart" bishops in certain emergency situations. Based upon this argument, the United Methodist Church understands all of its Elders, not just its Bishops, as being part of an Apostolic succession of the entire body (or "conference") of ministers:<table align="center" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; border-style:none; background-color:transparent;">
<tr>
<td style="color:#B2B7F2;font-size:35px;font-family:'Times New Roman',serif;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;padding:10px 10px;" valign="top" width="20">“</td>
<td style="padding:4px 10px;" valign="top">In ordination, the church affirms and continues the apostolic ministry through persons empowered by the Holy Spirit. (<!--del_lnk--> Book of Discipline paragraph 303)</td>
<td style="color:#B2B7F2;font-size:36px;font-family:'Times New Roman',serif;font-weight:bold;text-align:right;padding:10px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="20">”</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>In other words, Methodists understand apostolic succession as being rooted within the <!--del_lnk--> Presbyterate. This does not mean, however, that all elders may ordain; quite the contrary: only those elders who have been elected and consecrated as bishops can further the apostolic succession through the ordination of bishops, elders, and deacons within the United Methodist Church. In this way, the United Methodist episcopacy functions as if it were within the historic episcopate.<p>Accepting, but moving beyond this position, a few Methodists do affirm that their bishops stand in a form of the historic, as well as theological, Apostolic Succession (i.e., in the Anglican fashion); their argument is that Wesley's ordinations, and therefore the subsequent line of Methodist bishops, are legitimate due to the critical nature of the circumstances extant at that time. Some Methodists even make an appeal to the "Erasmian consecration," which asserts that, while on a visit to London in 1763, the <!--del_lnk--> Greek Orthodox bishop of the Diocese of Arcadia, <!--del_lnk--> Crete, secretly consecrated Wesley to the episcopacy. That Wesley actually met with Bishop Erasmus during the bishop's visit to London is not questioned; what is questioned is that Erasmus did more than simply "confirm Wesley in his ministry among the Methodists in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> and <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">America</a>." When Wesley was asked by a <!--del_lnk--> clergyman if Erasmus of Arcadia had consecrated him a bishop, he said: "I cannot answer you." Another source states that when Wesley was asked if Erasmus had made him a bishop, he offered no personal response but, rather, took the unusual course of authorizing a representative to reply that he had not requested episcopal consecration within the Greek Orthodox line. Many take this as a sufficient denial, and it was enough to keep Wesley out of jail, but those who believe that Wesley was actually consecrated make the following arguments to the contrary:<ol>
<li>Wesley personally remained silent on the subject,<li>Wesley took the unusual step of having someone to speak on his behalf, and<li>Wesley <i>never actually denied being consecrated a bishop,</i> what he denied was <i>requesting</i> consecration from Erasmus.</ol>
<p>This distinction may seem meaningless today, but it is actually quite substantive given the circumstances of the 1700s. Were Wesley <i>actually</i> consecrated a bishop by Erasmus, he would not have been able to publicly affirm such without falling prey to the stipulations of the English <!--del_lnk--> Acts of Supremacy (1534 & 1559). To keep from being charged with treason, and to keep his head, it is argued that Wesley skirted the question altogether by offering a "non-denial denial." Given the circumstances, many assert that this argument actually makes some sense: Wesley was asked if he had been made a bishop by Erasmus; his response was that he had not requested consecration ... which actually doesn't answer the original question! After all, episcopal consecration could have been Erasmus' idea, not Wesley's. If Wesley had affirmed that he had been made a bishop, or even if he had just confessed that he had requested consecration, he would have been placing himself in jeopardy of treason against the crown! Wesley was a self-professed <!--del_lnk--> Whig and a faithful "son of the English Church". To publicly violate the Oaths of Supremacy would have been entirely repugnant to him on both political and theological grounds ... not to mention that he was understandably fond of his own neck. Hence, the argument concludes that Wesley obfuscated the entire issue by distancing himself from the question and by answering in such a way as to deflect further inquiry. Despite the beliefs of many Methodists and other Anglicans -- beliefs which were finally articulated after Wesley's death -- it worked; while the question never died out entirely, Wesley remained a presbyter of the Church of England until the day he died. Contrary to the "Erasmian consecration" stands the undeniable fact that, beginning with the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution in the 1770s, Wesley did request episcopal consecration for several of his preachers and, indeed, for himself, so as to provide sacramental ministry for the Methodists in the break-away colonies. Opponents of the possibility that John Wesley had been consecrated a bishop by <!--del_lnk--> Erasmus of Arcadia argue that if Wesley had already been consecrated a bishop by Erasmus, he would have not requested such consecrations for others or for himself. The Greek Orthodox Bishop, <!--del_lnk--> Erasmus of Arcadia, is said to have ordained several Methodist lay preachers during <!--del_lnk--> Reverend John Wesley's absence from London in 1764,notably, <!--del_lnk--> Reverend John Jones.<p>Nevertheless, the "Erasmian consecration" remained a very popular argument throughout much of the 1800s and, while still garnering a following among some proponents today, it is not accepted by a majority of Methodists nor even by most of those who affirm a form of Apostolicity for their bishops. Interestingly enough, Wesley's consecration as a bishop by Erasmus of Arcadia is affirmed by <i>Unity Catholic Church</i>, an <!--del_lnk--> Independent Catholic Church.<p><a id="Latter-day_Saints_.28Mormons.29" name="Latter-day_Saints_.28Mormons.29"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Succession"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Christianity', 'Jesus Christ', 'Roman Catholic Church', 'Eastern Orthodox Church', 'Pope', 'Anglicanism', 'Jesus', 'Paul of Tarsus', 'Paul of Tarsus', 'Catholic Church', 'Anglicanism', 'Bible', 'Catholic Church', 'Anglican Communion', 'Edward VI of England', 'Archbishop of Canterbury', 'Anglican Communion', 'Church of England', 'United States of America', 'England', 'United States'] |
Apple | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Apple,2006,Adam's apple,Adam and Eve,Agricultural Research Service,Albrecht Dürer,Alcoholic beverage,Almaty,Alzheimer's,Amygdalin,Ancestor" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Apple</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Apple";
var wgTitle = "Apple";
var wgArticleId = 156319;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Apple">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Apple</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Food_and_agriculture.htm">Food and agriculture</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: lightgreen;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Apple</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/3/364.jpg.htm" title="Apple tree (Malus domestica)"><img alt="Apple tree (Malus domestica)" height="301" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Koeh-108.jpg" src="../../images/3/364.jpg" width="240" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Apple tree (<i>Malus domestica</i>)</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: lightgreen;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">Plantae</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Division:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliophyta<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliopsida<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rosales<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rosaceae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Subfamily:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Maloideae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Malus</i><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>M. domestica</b></i></span><br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="lightgreen">
<th>
<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><i><b>Malus domestica</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Borkh.</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>apple</b> is a <a href="../../wp/t/Tree.htm" title="Tree">tree</a> and its <!--del_lnk--> pomaceous <a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" title="Fruit">fruit</a>, of the <!--del_lnk--> species <i>Malus domestica</i> in the <!--del_lnk--> rose family <!--del_lnk--> Rosaceae. It is one of the most widely <!--del_lnk--> cultivated tree fruits. It is a small <!--del_lnk--> deciduous tree reaching 5-12 m tall, with a broad, often densely twiggy crown. The <!--del_lnk--> leaves are <!--del_lnk--> alternately arranged, simple oval with an acute tip and serrated margin, slightly downy below, 5-12 cm long and 3-6 cm broad on a 2-5 cm petiole. The <a href="../../wp/f/Flower.htm" title="Flower">flowers</a> are produced in spring with the leaves, white, usually tinged pink at first, 2.5-3.5 cm diameter, with five <!--del_lnk--> petals. The fruit matures in <a href="../../wp/a/Autumn.htm" title="Autumn">autumn</a>, and is typically 5-9 cm diameter (rarely up to 15 cm). The centre of the fruit contains five <!--del_lnk--> carpels arranged star-like, each carpel containing one or two (rarely three) <a href="../../wp/s/Seed.htm" title="Seed">seeds</a>.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Botanical_origins" name="Botanical_origins"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Botanical origins</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/365.jpg.htm" title="Wild Malus sieversii apple in Kazakhstan"><img alt="Wild Malus sieversii apple in Kazakhstan" height="134" longdesc="/wiki/Image:95apple.jpeg" src="../../images/3/365.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/365.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wild <i><!--del_lnk--> Malus sieversii</i> apple in <a href="../../wp/k/Kazakhstan.htm" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The wild <!--del_lnk--> ancestor of <i>Malus domestica</i> is <i><!--del_lnk--> Malus sieversii</i>. It has no common name in English, but is known in <a href="../../wp/k/Kazakhstan.htm" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, where it is native, as "alma"; in fact, the region where it is thought to originate is called <a href="../../wp/a/Almaty.htm" title="Almaty">Alma-Ata</a>, or "father of the apples". This tree is still found wild in the mountains of <!--del_lnk--> Central Asia in southern Kazakhstan, <a href="../../wp/k/Kyrgyzstan.htm" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Tajikistan.htm" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Xinjiang, <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>.<p>For many years, there was a debate about whether <i>M. domestica</i> evolved from chance hybridisation among various wild species. Recent DNA analysis by Barrie Juniper, Emeritus Fellow in the Department of Plant Sciences at <!--del_lnk--> Oxford University and others, has indicated, however, that the hybridisation theory is probably false. Instead, it appears that a single species still growing in the Ili Valley on the northern slopes of the Tien Shan mountains at the border of northwest China and the former Soviet Republic of Kazakhstan is the progenitor of the apples we eat today. Leaves taken from trees in this area were analyzed for DNA composition, which showed them all to belong to the species <i><!--del_lnk--> M. sieversii</i>, with some genetic sequences common to <i>M. domestica</i>.<p>Some individual <i>M. sieversii</i>, recently planted by the US government at a research facility, resist many <a href="#Pests_and_diseases" title="">diseases and pests</a> that affect domestic apples, and are the subject of continuing research to develop new disease-resistant apples.<p>Other <!--del_lnk--> species that were previously thought to have made contributions to the <!--del_lnk--> genome of the domestic apples are <i><!--del_lnk--> Malus baccata</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Malus sylvestris</i>, but there are no hard evidence for this in older apple <a href="../../wp/c/Cultivar.htm" title="Cultivar">cultivars</a>. These and other <i>Malus</i> species have been used in some recent breeding programmes to develop apples suitable for growing in climates unsuitable for <i>M. domestica</i>, mainly for increased cold tolerance.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/366.jpg.htm" title="Apple cut horizontally, showing seeds"><img alt="Apple cut horizontally, showing seeds" height="179" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sterappel_dwarsdrsn.jpg" src="../../images/3/366.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/366.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Apple cut horizontally, showing seeds</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The apple tree was perhaps the earliest tree to be cultivated, and apples have remained an important food in all cooler climates. To a greater degree than other tree fruit, except possibly <a href="../../wp/c/Citrus.htm" title="Citrus">citrus</a>, apples store for months while still retaining much of their nutritive value. Winter apples, picked in late autumn and stored just above freezing, have been an important food in <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> for millennia, as well as in <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> and in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> since the <!--del_lnk--> arrival of Europeans.<p>The word "apple" comes from the Old English word <b>æppel</b>, which in turn has recognisable cognates in a number of the northern branches of the Indo-European language family. The prevailing theory is that "apple" may be one of the most ancient <!--del_lnk--> Indo-European words (*<i>abl-</i>) to come down to English in a recognisable form. The scientific name <i>malus</i>, on the other hand, comes from the Latin word for apple, and ultimately from the archaic Greek <i>mālon</i> (<i>mēlon</i> in later dialects). The legendary placename <!--del_lnk--> Avalon is thought to come from a Celtic evolution of the same root as the English "apple"; the name of the town of <!--del_lnk--> Avellino, near <!--del_lnk--> Naples in <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> is likewise thought to come from the same root via the <!--del_lnk--> Italic languages.<p><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a> assigned the apple to the genus <i>Pyrus</i>, along with <!--del_lnk--> pears and <!--del_lnk--> quinces. Philip Miller subsequently separated the apple into its own genus, a division repeatedly ratified over the years.<p><a id="Apple_cultivars" name="Apple_cultivars"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Apple cultivars</span></h2>
<p>There are more than 7,500 known <a href="../../wp/c/Cultivar.htm" title="Cultivar">cultivars</a> of apples. Different cultivars are available for <a href="../../wp/t/Temperate.htm" title="Temperate">temperate</a> and <!--del_lnk--> subtropical climates. Apples do not flower in tropical climates because they have a chilling requirement.<p>Commercially popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Other desired qualities in modern commercial apple breeding are a colourful skin, absence of <!--del_lnk--> russeting, ease of shipping, lengthy storage ability, high yields, disease resistance, typical 'Red Delicious' apple shape, long stem (to allow <!--del_lnk--> pesticides to penetrate the top of the fruit), and popular flavour.<p>Old cultivars are often oddly shaped, russeted, and have a variety of textures and colours. Many of them have excellent flavour (often better than most modern cultivars), but may have other problems which make them commercially unviable, such as low yield, liability to disease, or poor tolerance for storage or transport. A few old cultivars are still produced on a large scale, but many have been kept alive by home gardeners and farmers that sell directly to local markets. Many unusual and locally important cultivars with their own unique taste and appearance are out there to discover; apple conservation campaigns have sprung up around the world to preserve such local cultivars from extinction.<p>Although most cultivars are bred for eating fresh (dessert apples), some are cultivated specifically for cooking (<!--del_lnk--> cooking apples) or producing <a href="../../wp/c/Cider.htm" title="Cider">cider</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Cider apples are typically too tart and astringent to eat fresh, but they give the beverage a rich flavour that dessert apples cannot.<p>Modern apples are, as a rule, sweeter than older cultivars. Most <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North Americans</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europeans</a> favour sweet, subacid apples, but tart apples have a strong minority following. Extremely sweet apples with barely any acid flavour are popular in <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a> and especially India.<p>Tastes in apples vary from one person to another and have changed over time. As an example, the <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">U.S. state</a> of <!--del_lnk--> Washington made its reputation for apple growing on Red Delicious. In recent years, many apple connoisseurs have come to regard the Red Delicious as inferior to cultivars such as Fuji and Gala due to its merely mild flavour and insufficiently firm texture.<p><a id="Growing_Apples" name="Growing_Apples"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Growing Apples</span></h2>
<p><a id="Apple_breeding" name="Apple_breeding"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Apple breeding</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/367.jpg.htm" title="In this hybrid of an orchard apple with a red-fruited crabapple cultivar, the pulp is of the same colour as the peel."><img alt="In this hybrid of an orchard apple with a red-fruited crabapple cultivar, the pulp is of the same colour as the peel." height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cyborglog-of-eating-old-apple-d360.jpg" src="../../images/3/367.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/367.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> In this hybrid of an orchard apple with a red-fruited crabapple cultivar, the pulp is of the same colour as the peel.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/368.jpg.htm" title="Seeds of the above apple, which are same colour as the rest of the fruit."><img alt="Seeds of the above apple, which are same colour as the rest of the fruit." height="130" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Old-appleseed-d402.jpg" src="../../images/3/368.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/368.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Seeds of the above apple, which are same colour as the rest of the fruit.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Like most perennial fruits, apples are ordinarily propagated asexually by <!--del_lnk--> grafting. Seedling apples are different from their parents, sometimes radically. Most new apple cultivars originate as seedlings, which either arise by chance or are bred by deliberately crossing cultivars with promising characteristics. The words "seedling", "pippin", and "kernel" in the name of an apple cultivar suggest that it originated as a seedling. Apples can also form <!--del_lnk--> bud sports (mutations on a single branch). Some bud sports turn out to be improved strains of the parent cultivar. Some differ sufficiently from the parent tree to be considered new cultivars.<p>Some breeders have crossed ordinary apples with <!--del_lnk--> crabapples or unusually hardy apples in order to produce <!--del_lnk--> hardier cultivars. For example, the Excelsior Experiment Station of the <!--del_lnk--> University of Minnesota has, since the 1930s, introduced a steady progression of important hardy apples that are widely grown, both commercially and by backyard orchardists, throughout <a href="../../wp/m/Minnesota.htm" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Wisconsin. Its most important introductions have included '<!--del_lnk--> Haralson' (which is the most widely cultivated apple in Minnesota), 'Wealthy', 'Honeygold', and '<!--del_lnk--> Honeycrisp'.<p><a id="Starting_an_orchard" name="Starting_an_orchard"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Starting an orchard</span></h3>
<p>Apple orchards are established by planting trees two to four year old. These small trees are usually purchased from a <!--del_lnk--> nursery where they are produced by <!--del_lnk--> grafting or budding. First, a <!--del_lnk--> rootstock is produced either as a seedling or cloned using tissue culture or layering. This is allowed to grow for a year. Then, a small section of branch called a <!--del_lnk--> scion is obtained from a mature apple tree of the desired cultivar. The upper stem and branches of the rootstock are cut away and replaced with the scion. In time, the two sections grow together and produce a healthy <a href="../../wp/t/Tree.htm" title="Tree">tree</a>.<p>Rootstocks affect the ultimate size of the tree. While many rootstocks are available to commercial growers, those sold to homeowners who want just a few trees are usually one of two cultivars; a standard seedling rootstock that gives a full-size tree, or a semi-dwarf rootstock that produces a somewhat smaller tree. <!--del_lnk--> Dwarf rootstocks are generally more susceptible to damage from wind and cold. Full dwarf trees are often supported of posts or trellises and planted in high density orchards which are much simpler to culture and greatly increase productivity per unit of land.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/369.jpg.htm" title="Apple orchard"><img alt="Apple orchard" height="271" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apple_orchard.jpg" src="../../images/3/369.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/369.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Apple orchard</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/370.jpg.htm" title="A community apple orchard originally planted for productive use during the 1920's, in Westcliff on Sea (Essex, England)"><img alt="A community apple orchard originally planted for productive use during the 1920's, in Westcliff on Sea (Essex, England)" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Orchard3.jpg" src="../../images/3/370.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/370.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A community apple orchard originally planted for productive use during the 1920's, in <!--del_lnk--> Westcliff on Sea (<!--del_lnk--> Essex, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Some trees are produced with a dwarfing "interstem" between a standard rootstock and the tree, resulting in two grafts.<p>After the small tree is planted in the orchard, it must grow for 3-5 years (semi-dwarf) or 4-10 years (standard trees) before it will bear sizeable amounts of <a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" title="Fruit">fruit</a>. Good training of limbs and careful nipping of buds growing in the wrong places, are extremely important during this time, to build a good scaffold that will later support a fruit load.<p><a id="Location" name="Location"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Location</span></h3>
<p>Apples are relatively indifferent to <a href="../../wp/s/Soil.htm" title="Soil">soil</a> conditions and will grow in a wide range of <!--del_lnk--> pH values and fertility levels. They do require some protection from the wind and should not be planted in low areas that are prone to late spring <!--del_lnk--> frosts. Apples do require good drainage, and heavy soils or flat land should be <!--del_lnk--> tilled to make certain that the root systems are never in saturated soil.<p><a id="Pollination" name="Pollination"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Pollination</span></h3>
<p>Apples are self-incompatible and must be <!--del_lnk--> cross-pollinated to develop fruit. <!--del_lnk--> Pollination management is an important component of apple culture. Before planting, it is important to arrange for <!--del_lnk--> pollenizers, cultivars of apple or crab apple that provide plentiful, viable and compatible pollen. Orchard blocks may alternate rows of compatible cultivars, or may have periodic crab apple trees, or grafted-on limbs of crab apple. Some cultivars produce very little pollen, or the pollen is sterile, so these are not good pollenizers. Quality nurseries have pollenizer compatibility lists.<p>Growers with old orchard blocks of single cultivars sometimes provide bouquets of crab apple blossoms in drums or pails in the orchard for pollenizers. Home growers with a single tree, and no other cultivars in the neighbourhood can do the same on a smaller scale.<p>During the flowering each season, apple growers usually provide <a href="../../wp/p/Pollinator.htm" title="Pollinator">pollinators</a> to carry the pollen. <!--del_lnk--> Honeybee hives are most commonly used, and arrangements may be made with a commercial beekeeper who supplies hives for a fee. <!--del_lnk--> Orchard mason bees are also used as supplemental pollinators in commercial orchards. Home growers may find these more acceptable in suburban locations because they do not sting. Some wild bees such as <!--del_lnk--> carpenter bees and other <!--del_lnk--> solitary bees may help. <!--del_lnk--> Bumble bee <!--del_lnk--> queens are sometimes present in orchards, but not usually in enough quantity to be significant pollinators.<p>Symptoms of inadequate pollination are excessive fruit drop (when marble sized), small and misshapen apples, slowness to ripen, and low seed count. Well pollinated apples are the best quality, and will have 7 to 10 seeds. Apples having fewer than 3 seeds will usually not mature and will drop from the trees in the early summer. Inadequate pollination can result from either a lack of pollinators or pollenizers, or from poor pollinating weather at flowering time. It generally requires multiple bee visits to deliver sufficient grains of pollen to accomplish complete pollination.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/371.jpg.htm" title="Apple tree in flower"><img alt="Apple tree in flower" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apple_blossoms04.jpg" src="../../images/3/371.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/371.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Apple tree in flower</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>A common problem is a late frost that destroys the delicate outer structures of the flower. It is best to plant apples on a slope for air drainage, but not on a south facing slope (in the northern hemisphere) as this will encourage early flowering and increase susceptibility to frost. If the frost is not too severe, the tree can be wetted with water spray before the morning sun hits the flowers, and it may save them. Frost damage can be evaluated 24 hours after the frost. If the <!--del_lnk--> pistil has turned black, the flower is ruined and will not produce fruit.<p>Growing apples near a body of water can give an advantage by slowing spring warm up, which retards flowering until frost is less likely. In some areas of the USA, such as the eastern shore of <!--del_lnk--> Lake Michigan, the southern shore of <!--del_lnk--> Lake Ontario, and around some smaller lakes, this cooling effect of water, combined with good, well-drained soils, has made apple growing concentrations possible. However, the cool, humid spring weather in such locations can also increase problems with fungal diseases, notably <!--del_lnk--> apple scab; many of the most important apple-growing regions (e.g. northern China, central Turkey, and eastern Washington in the USA) have climates more like the species' native region well away from the sea or any lakes, with cold winters leading to a short, but warm spring with low risk of frost.<p>Home growers may not have a body of water to help, but can utilise north slopes or other geographical features to retard spring flowering. Apples (or any fruit) planted on a south facing slope in the northern hemisphere (or north facing in the southern hemisphere), will flower early and be particularly vulnerable to spring frost.<p><a id="Thinning" name="Thinning"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Thinning</span></h3>
<p>Apples are prone to <!--del_lnk--> biennial bearing. If the fruit is not thinned when the tree carries a large crop, it may produce very little flower the following year. Good thinning helps even out the cycle, so that a reasonable crop can be grown every year.<p>Commercial orchardists practice chemical thinning, which is not practical for home fruit. Apples bear in groups of five (or more rarely six) blossoms. The first blossom to open is called the <i>king bloom</i>. It will produce the best possible apple of the five. If it sets, it tends to suppress setting of the other blossoms, which, if they set anyway, should be removed. The next three blossoms tend to bloom and set simultaneously, therefore there is no dominance. All but one of these should be thinned for best quality. If the final blossom is the only one that sets, the crop will not be as good, but it will help reduce excessive woody growth (suckering) that usually happens when there is no crop.<p><a id="Maturation_and_harvest" name="Maturation_and_harvest"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Maturation and harvest</span></h3>
<p>Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock. Some cultivars, if left unpruned, will grow very large, which allows them to bear a great deal more fruit, but makes harvest very difficult. Mature trees typically bear 40-200 kg of apples each year, though productivity can be close to zero in poor years. Apples are harvested using three-point ladders that are designed to fit amongst the branches. Dwarf trees will bear about 10-80 kg of fruit per year.<p><a id="Pests_and_diseases" name="Pests_and_diseases"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Pests and diseases</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/372.jpg.htm" title="Leaves with significant insect damage."><img alt="Leaves with significant insect damage." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apple_tree_leaves_with_insect_damage.jpg" src="../../images/3/372.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/372.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Leaves with significant insect damage.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The trees are susceptible to a number of <a href="../../wp/f/Fungus.htm" title="Fungus">fungal</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacterium">bacterial</a> diseases and <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insect</a> pests. Nearly all commercial orchards pursue an aggressive program of chemical sprays to maintain high fruit quality, tree health, and high yields. A trend in orchard management is the use of <!--del_lnk--> Integrated Pest Management (IPM), which reduces needless spraying when pests are not present, or more likely, are being controlled by natural <!--del_lnk--> predators.<p>Spraying for insect pests must never be done during flowering because it kills pollinators. Nor should bee-attractive plants be allowed to establish in the orchard floor if insecticides are used. <!--del_lnk--> White clover is a component of many grass seed mixes, and many bees are poisoned by insecticides while visiting the flowers on the orchard floor.<p>Among the most serious disease problems are <!--del_lnk--> fireblight, a bacterial disease; and <i><!--del_lnk--> Gymnosporangium</i> rust, <!--del_lnk--> apple scab, and <!--del_lnk--> black spot, three fungal diseases.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> plum curculio is the most serious insect pest. Others include <!--del_lnk--> Apple maggot and <!--del_lnk--> codling moth. For other <!--del_lnk--> Lepidoptera <!--del_lnk--> larvae which feed on apple trees, see <!--del_lnk--> List of Lepidoptera which feed on Malus.<p>Young apple trees are also prone to mammal pests like mice and deer, which feed on the soft bark of the trees, especially in winter. Growers usually sheath juvenile trees with wire mesh to protect them.<p>Apples are difficult to grow organically, though a few orchards have done so with commercial success, using disease-resistant cultivars and the very best cultural controls. The latest tool in the organic repertoire is to spray a light coating of <!--del_lnk--> kaolin clay, which forms a physical barrier to some pests, and also helps prevent apple sun scald.<p><a id="Commerce_and_uses" name="Commerce_and_uses"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Commerce and uses</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/376.jpg.htm" title="A display of different apples"><img alt="A display of different apples" height="270" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apples.jpg" src="../../images/3/373.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/376.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A display of different apples</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>45 million <!--del_lnk--> tonnes of apples were grown worldwide in 2002, with a value of about 10 billion USD. <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> produced almost half of this total. <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> is the second leading producer, with more than 15% of the world production. The <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> is the third leading producer, accounting for 7.5% of world production. <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> is also a leading producer. <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a> are among the leading apple exporters.<p>In the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, more than 60% of all the apples sold commercially are grown in <!--del_lnk--> Washington state. Imported apples from <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> and other more temperate areas are competing with US production and increasing each year.<p>Apples can be canned, juiced, and optionally fermented to produce <!--del_lnk--> apple juice, <a href="../../wp/c/Cider.htm" title="Cider">cider</a>, <!--del_lnk--> vinegar, and <!--del_lnk--> pectin. Distilled apple cider produces the <!--del_lnk--> spirits <!--del_lnk--> applejack and <!--del_lnk--> Calvados. <!--del_lnk--> Apple wine can also be made. They make a popular lunchbox fruit as well.<p>Apples are an important ingredient in many winter <!--del_lnk--> desserts, for example <!--del_lnk--> apple pie, apple <!--del_lnk--> crumble, <!--del_lnk--> apple crisp and <!--del_lnk--> apple cake. They are often eaten <!--del_lnk--> baked or <!--del_lnk--> stewed, and they can also be dried and eaten or re-constituted (soaked in water, alcohol or some other liquid) for later use. Puréed apples are generally known as <!--del_lnk--> apple sauce. Apples are also made into <!--del_lnk--> apple butter and apple jelly. They are also used cooked in meat dishes.<ul>
<li>In the UK, a <!--del_lnk--> toffee apple is a traditional confection made by coating an apple in hot <!--del_lnk--> toffee and allowing it to cool. Similar treats in the US are <!--del_lnk--> candy apples (coated in a hard shell of crystallised sugar syrup), and <!--del_lnk--> caramel apples, coated with cooled <!--del_lnk--> caramel.<li>Apples are eaten with honey at the Jewish New Year of <!--del_lnk--> Rosh Hashanah to symbolise a sweet new year.<li>Apples are historically known for producing <!--del_lnk--> apple milk. A derivative of apple curd, apple milk is widely used throughout <a href="../../wp/t/Tibet.htm" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>.</ul>
<p><a id="Health_benefits" name="Health_benefits"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Health benefits</span></h2>
<table style="margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse:collapse; border: 1px solid black; background: white; color: black; float:right; clear:right; font-size: smaller;">
<tr>
<th align="center" colspan="2"><b>Apples, with skin (edible parts)<br /> Nutritional value per 100 g</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="background:#e0e0e0; color:black;">
<td align="center">Energy 50 kcal 220 kJ</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<table cellpadding="0px" cellspacing="0px" style="margin:0.3em;">
<tr>
<th align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Carbohydrates </th>
<td>14 g</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>- Sugars 10 g</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>- <!--del_lnk--> Dietary fibre 2.4 g </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left"><a href="../../wp/f/Fatty_acid.htm" title="Fatty acid">Fat</a></th>
<td>0 g</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Protein</th>
<td>0 g</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">Water</a></b></td>
<td>85 g</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin_C.htm" title="Vitamin C">Vitamin C</a> 5 mg</td>
<td>8%</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background:#e0e0e0; color:black;">
<td align="center"><small>Percentages are relative to US<br /><!--del_lnk--> recommendations for adults.<br /></small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>An old <!--del_lnk--> proverb attests to the health benefits of the fruit: "An apple a day keeps the doctor away." Research <!--del_lnk--> suggests that apples may reduce the risk of <!--del_lnk--> colon cancer, <a href="../../wp/p/Prostate_cancer.htm" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/Lung_cancer.htm" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a>. Like many fruits, Apples contain <a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin_C.htm" title="Vitamin C">Vitamin C</a> as well as a host of other <!--del_lnk--> antioxidant compounds, which may reduce the risk of cancer by preventing <a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" title="DNA">DNA</a> damage. The fibre content, while less than in most other fruits, helps regulate bowel movements and may thus reduce the risk of colon cancer. They may also help with <!--del_lnk--> heart disease, <!--del_lnk--> weight loss and controlling <!--del_lnk--> cholesterol, as they do not have any cholesterol, have fibre (which reduces cholesterol by preventing reabsorption), and are bulky for their caloric content like most fruits and vegetables.<p>A group of chemicals in apples could protect the brain from the type of damage that triggers such <!--del_lnk--> neurodegenerative diseases as <!--del_lnk--> Alzheimer's and <!--del_lnk--> Parkinsonism. Chang Y. "Cy" Lee of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cornell_University.htm" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> found that the apple <!--del_lnk--> phenolics, which are naturally occurring <!--del_lnk--> antioxidants found in fresh apples, can protect <!--del_lnk--> nerve cells from neurotoxicity induced by <!--del_lnk--> oxidative stress. The researchers used red delicious apples from New York State to provide the extracts to study the effects of <!--del_lnk--> phytochemicals. Lee said that all apples are high in the critical <!--del_lnk--> phytonutrients and that the amount of phenolic compounds in the apple flesh and in the skin vary from year to year, season to season and from growing region to growing region (November/December 2004 issue of the Journal of Food Science). The predominant phenolic phytochemicals in apples are <!--del_lnk--> quercetin, <!--del_lnk--> epicatechin, and <!--del_lnk--> procyanidin B2 (<!--del_lnk--> PMID 14558772).<p>The <a href="../../wp/s/Seed.htm" title="Seed">seeds</a> are mildly poisonous, containing a small amount of <!--del_lnk--> amygdalin, a <!--del_lnk--> cyanogenic <!--del_lnk--> glycoside, but a large amount would need to be chewed to have any toxic effect .<p><!--del_lnk--> Pesticide contamination is linked to an increasing number of diseases, and they are mostly found on the outside of fruits and vegetables. Washing or peeling before eating may reduce pesticide intake but peeling will also reduce the intake of the beneficial nutrients.<p><a id="Cultural_aspects" name="Cultural_aspects"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Cultural aspects</span></h2>
<p><a id="Apples_as_symbols" name="Apples_as_symbols"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Apples as symbols</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/374.jpg.htm" title="Adam and EveA classic depiction of the biblical tale showcasing the apple as a symbol of sin.Albrecht Dürer, 1507; Oil on panel; 209 x 81 cm (per panel); Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid.[1]."><img alt="Adam and EveA classic depiction of the biblical tale showcasing the apple as a symbol of sin.Albrecht Dürer, 1507; Oil on panel; 209 x 81 cm (per panel); Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid.[1]." height="228" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Durer_Adam_and_Eve.jpg" src="../../images/3/374.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/374.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Adam and Eve</b><br /> A classic depiction of the biblical tale showcasing the apple as a symbol of sin.<br /><a href="../../wp/a/Albrecht_D%25C3%25BCrer.htm" title="Albrecht Dürer">Albrecht Dürer</a>, 1507; Oil on panel; 209 x 81 cm (per panel); Museo Nacional del Prado, <a href="../../wp/m/Madrid.htm" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>.<!--del_lnk--> .</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Apples appear in many <!--del_lnk--> religious traditions, often as a mystical and <!--del_lnk--> forbidden fruit. Though the forbidden fruit in the book of <i><!--del_lnk--> Genesis</i> is not identified, popular European <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christian</a> tradition has held that it was an apple that <!--del_lnk--> Eve coaxed <!--del_lnk--> Adam to share with her. As a result, in the story of Adam and Eve the apple became a symbol for temptation, the fall of man into sin, and sin itself. In <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a>, the words for "apple" and for "<!--del_lnk--> evil" are similar ("malus" - apple, "malum" - evil). This may be the reason that the apple was interpreted as the <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">biblical</a> "forbidden fruit". The <!--del_lnk--> larynx in the human throat has been called <!--del_lnk--> Adam's apple because of a notion that it was caused by the forbidden fruit sticking in the throat of Adam.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/375.jpg.htm" title="Two Young Men In this painting modern interpreters have viewed the apple alternately as an ironic twist on Christian symbology intended by the painter as a sexual innuendo between two men [2], or as a memento mori [3]. Crispin van den Broeck (Dutch), ca. 1590; Oil on panel; Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge."><img alt="Two Young Men In this painting modern interpreters have viewed the apple alternately as an ironic twist on Christian symbology intended by the painter as a sexual innuendo between two men [2], or as a memento mori [3]. Crispin van den Broeck (Dutch), ca. 1590; Oil on panel; Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge." height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Two_Young_Men%2C_Crispin_van_den_Broeck.jpg" src="../../images/3/375.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/375.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Two Young Men</b><br /> In this painting modern interpreters have viewed the apple alternately as an ironic twist on Christian symbology intended by the painter as a sexual innuendo between two men <!--del_lnk--> , or as a <i><!--del_lnk--> memento mori</i> <!--del_lnk--> .<br /><!--del_lnk--> Crispin van den Broeck (Dutch), ca. 1590; Oil on panel; Fitzwilliam Museum, <a href="../../wp/c/Cambridge.htm" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>This notion of the apple as a symbol of sin is reflected in artistic renderings of the fall from <!--del_lnk--> Eden. When held in Adam's hand, the apple symbolises sin. However, when <!--del_lnk--> Christ is portrayed holding an apple, he represents the Second Adam who brings life. This also reflects the evolution of the symbol in Christianity. In the <!--del_lnk--> Old Testament the apple was significant of the fall of man; in the <!--del_lnk--> New Testament it is an emblem of the redemption from that fall, and as such is also represented in pictures of <!--del_lnk--> the Madonna and <!--del_lnk--> Infant Jesus.<p>There are several instances in the Old Testament where the apple is used in a more favourable light. The phrase "the apple of your eye" comes from verses in Deuteronomy 32:10, Psalm 17:8 Proverbs 7:2, and Zechariah 2:8 implying an object or person greatly valued. In <!--del_lnk--> Proverbs 25:11, the verse states, <i>"a word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in settings of silver"</i>. In the love songs of the <!--del_lnk--> Song of Solomon, the apple is used in a sensual context. In these latter instances the apple is used as a symbol for beauty. The apple appears again in Joel 1:12 in a verse with a sense of profound loss when the apple tree withers.<p>At times artists would co-opt the apple, as well as other religious symbology, whether for ironic effect or as a stock element of symbolic vocabulary. Thus, secular art as well made use of the apple as symbol of love and sexuality. It is often an attribute associated with <!--del_lnk--> Venus who is shown holding it.<p><a id="Apples_in_mythology" name="Apples_in_mythology"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Apples in mythology</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Greek hero <a href="../../wp/h/Heracles.htm" title="Heracles">Heracles</a>, as a part of his <!--del_lnk--> Twelve Labours, was required to travel to the <!--del_lnk--> Garden of the Hesperides and pick the golden apples off the <!--del_lnk--> Tree of Life growing at its centre.<p>The Greek goddess of discord, <!--del_lnk--> Eris, became disgruntled after she was excluded from the wedding of <!--del_lnk--> Peleus and <!--del_lnk--> Thetis. In retaliation, she tossed a golden apple inscribed <!--del_lnk--> Kallisti ("For the most beautiful one"), into the wedding party. Three goddesses claimed the apple: <!--del_lnk--> Hera, <a href="../../wp/a/Athena.htm" title="Athena">Athena</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Aphrodite. <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> of <!--del_lnk--> Troy was appointed to select the recipient. After being bribed by both Hera and Athena, Aphrodite tempted him with the most beautiful woman in the world, <a href="../../wp/h/Helen.htm" title="Helen">Helen</a> of <!--del_lnk--> Sparta. He awarded the apple to Aphrodite, thus indirectly causing the <a href="../../wp/t/Trojan_War.htm" title="Trojan War">Trojan War</a>.<p><!--del_lnk--> Atalanta, also of Greek mythology, raced all her suitors in an attempt to avoid marriage. She outran all but <!--del_lnk--> Hippomenes, who defeated her by cunning, not speed. Hippomenes knew that he could not win in a fair race, so he used three golden apples to distract Atalanta. It took all three apples and all of his speed, but Hippomenes was finally successful, winning the race and Atalanta's hand.<p>In <a href="../../wp/n/Norse_mythology.htm" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a>, the goddess <!--del_lnk--> Iðunn was the appointed keeper of apples that kept the <!--del_lnk--> Æsir young forever. Iðunn was abducted by <!--del_lnk--> Þjazi the <!--del_lnk--> giant, who used <!--del_lnk--> Loki to lure Iðunn and her apples out of <!--del_lnk--> Ásgarðr. The Æsir began to age without Iðunn's apples, so they coerced Loki into rescuing her. After borrowing <!--del_lnk--> Freyja's falcon skin, Loki liberated Iðunn from Þjazi by transforming her into a nut for the flight back. Þjazi gave chase in the form of an eagle, where upon reaching Ásgarðr he was set aflame by a bonfire lit by the Æsir. With the return of Iðunn's apples, the Æsir regained their lost youth.<p><a href="../../wp/c/Celtic_mythology.htm" title="Celtic mythology">Celtic mythology</a> includes a story about <!--del_lnk--> Conle who receives an apple which feeds him for a year but also gives him an irresistible desire for <!--del_lnk--> Fairyland.<p><a id="Legends.2C_folklore.2C_and_traditions" name="Legends.2C_folklore.2C_and_traditions"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Legends, folklore, and traditions</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Swiss <a href="../../wp/f/Folklore.htm" title="Folklore">folklore</a> holds that <!--del_lnk--> William Tell courageously shot an apple from his son's head with his crossbow, defying a tyrannical ruler and bringing freedom to his people.<li><a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Irish</a> folklore claims that if an apple is peeled into one continuous ribbon and thrown behind a woman's shoulder, it will land in the shape of the future husband's initials.<li><a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Danish</a> folklore says that apples wither around adulterers.<li>Apples are said to increase a woman's chances of <!--del_lnk--> conception as well as remove <!--del_lnk--> birthmarks when rubbed on the skin.<li>According to a popular legend, <a href="../../wp/i/Isaac_Newton.htm" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, upon witnessing an apple fall from its tree, was inspired to conclude that a similar <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">'universal gravitation'</a> attracted the moon toward the Earth as well (this legend is discussed in more detail in the article on Isaac Newton).<li>In the European fairy tale <i><!--del_lnk--> Snow White</i>, the princess is killed, or sunk into a kind of coma with the appearance of death, by choking on a poisoned apple given to her by her stepmother. Later, the princess is jostled into coughing up the piece, miraculously returning her to life.<li>In <!--del_lnk--> Arthurian legend, the mythical isle of <!--del_lnk--> Avalon's name is believed to mean "isle of apples".<li>In some places, <!--del_lnk--> bobbing for apples is a traditional <a href="../../wp/h/Halloween.htm" title="Halloween">Halloween</a> activity.<li>In the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, an apple (polished) is a traditional gift for a teacher. This stemmed from the fact that teachers during the 16th to 18th centuries were poorly paid, so parents would compensate the teacher by providing food. As apples were a very common crop, teachers would often be given baskets of apples by students. As wages increased, the quantity of apples was toned down to a single fruit.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Apple Wassail is a traditional form of <!--del_lnk--> wassailing practiced in <a href="../../wp/c/Cider.htm" title="Cider">cider</a> <!--del_lnk--> orchards of <!--del_lnk--> southwest England during the winter. The ceremony is said to "bless" the apple trees to produce a good crop in the forthcoming season.<li>In <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>, a man throwing an apple to a woman was a proposal of marriage. Catching it meant she accepted .</ul>
<p><a id="Apple_facts" name="Apple_facts"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Apple facts</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>The ancient <a href="../../wp/k/Kazakhstan.htm" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakh</a> city of <a href="../../wp/a/Almaty.htm" title="Almaty">Almaty</a>, 'Father of Apples' (<!--del_lnk--> Turkic language alma, apple, + ata, father), owes its name to the forests of wild apples (<i>Malus sieversii</i>) found naturally in the area.<li>The apple blossom is the <!--del_lnk--> state flower of <!--del_lnk--> Arkansas and <!--del_lnk--> Michigan.<li>The Norwegian municipality of <!--del_lnk--> Leikanger has apples in its coat-of-arms.<li>The name of the Russian party <!--del_lnk--> Yabloko means "apple". Its logo represents an apple in the <a href="../../wp/c/Constructivism_%2528art%2529.htm" title="Constructivism (art)">constructivist</a> style.<li><!--del_lnk--> Apple Corps (including <!--del_lnk--> Apple Records) and <!--del_lnk--> Apple Computer have also adopted the apple as logos for their companies.<li>The 'fruit-bearing tree' referred to by <!--del_lnk--> Tacitus in his description of Norse <!--del_lnk--> runic divination may have been the apple.<li><a href="../../wp/j/Johnny_Appleseed.htm" title="Johnny Appleseed">Johnny Appleseed</a> was an <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> pioneer orchardist; he earned his name by planting apple trees across large swaths of <!--del_lnk--> Ohio, <!--del_lnk--> Indiana, and <!--del_lnk--> Illinois.<li>One of the youngest apple varieties is Aurora Golden Gala (2003) , a sweet yellow Canadian apple; while one of the oldest apples in the United States may be the Roxbury Russet (1640) .<li><!--del_lnk--> Cary Fowler, executive secretary of the <!--del_lnk--> Global Crop Diversity Trust, said in a statement:</ul>
<dl>
<dd>"<i>At the end of the 1800s, 7,000 named apple varieties were grown in the United States. Now, 6,800 of those are as extinct as the dinosaurs.</i>" </dl>
<p><a id="Apples_as_food" name="Apples_as_food"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Plant', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Tree', 'Fruit', 'Flower', 'Autumn', 'Seed', 'Kazakhstan', 'Kazakhstan', 'Almaty', 'Kyrgyzstan', 'Tajikistan', 'China', 'Cultivar', 'Citrus', 'Asia', 'Europe', 'Argentina', 'United States', 'Italy', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Cultivar', 'Temperate', 'Cider', 'North America', 'Europe', 'Asia', 'U.S. state', 'Minnesota', 'Tree', 'England', 'Fruit', 'Soil', 'Pollinator', 'Fungus', 'Bacterium', 'Insect', 'China', 'Argentina', 'United States', 'Turkey', 'France', 'Italy', 'South Africa', 'Chile', 'United States', 'New Zealand', 'Cider', 'Tibet', 'Fatty acid', 'Water', 'Vitamin C', 'Prostate cancer', 'Lung cancer', 'Vitamin C', 'DNA', 'Cornell University', 'Seed', 'Albrecht Dürer', 'Madrid', 'Christianity', 'Latin', 'Bible', 'Cambridge', 'Heracles', 'Athena', 'Paris', 'Helen', 'Trojan War', 'Norse mythology', 'Celtic mythology', 'Folklore', 'Ireland', 'Denmark', 'Isaac Newton', 'Gravity', 'Halloween', 'United States', 'Denmark', 'Sweden', 'Cider', 'Ancient Greece', 'Kazakhstan', 'Almaty', 'Constructivism (art)', 'Johnny Appleseed', 'United States'] |
Applied_mathematics | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Applied mathematics,Applied-footer,Actuarial science,Approximation theory,Bioinformatics,Brown University,Chaos theory,Classical mechanics,Combinatorics,Complexity theory,Computability theory" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Applied mathematics</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Applied_mathematics";
var wgTitle = "Applied mathematics";
var wgArticleId = 1379;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Applied_mathematics">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Applied mathematics</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Mathematics.htm">Mathematics</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<p><b>Applied Mathematics</b> is a branch of <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> that concerns itself with the mathematical techniques typically used in the application of mathematical knowledge to other domains.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Divisions_of_Applied_Mathematics" name="Divisions_of_Applied_Mathematics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Divisions of Applied Mathematics</span></h2>
<p>Traditionally, <i>applied mathematics</i> consisted of three major areas: <!--del_lnk--> Approximation theory (including <!--del_lnk--> representation theory and computational methods); <!--del_lnk--> differential equations (especially <!--del_lnk--> partial differential equations); and applied <!--del_lnk--> probability. One could even do so-called "theoretical applied mathematics" in these areas, by performing research on the fundamentals of the subjects.<p>Many statisticians contend that <a href="../../wp/s/Statistics.htm" title="Statistics">statistics</a> is a separate discipline from mathematics, but in practice both subjects are often taught in the math department. <!--del_lnk--> Engineering mathematics and <!--del_lnk--> mathematical physics describe physical processes, and so are almost indistinguishable from <!--del_lnk--> theoretical physics. Traditionally, <!--del_lnk--> classical mechanics was often taught in applied math departments at American universities rather than in <a href="../../wp/p/Physics.htm" title="Physics">physics</a> departments.<p>Today the term <i>applied mathematics</i> is often used in a much broader sense. Mathematicians generally consider it incorrect to conflate applied mathematics (a subset of mathematics) with applications of mathematics (the actual act of applying mathematics to real-world problems). But scientists and social scientists who utilize mathematics in their work do not usually make this distinction.<p>An example may serve to sharpen the somewhat fuzzy lines separating traditional <i>applied mathematics</i> from <!--del_lnk--> <i>pure mathematics</i> and distinguishing both of these from <i>applicable mathematics</i>, or the use of mathematics as a tool. A "smooth" function, such as cos<i>x</i>, can be represented by a <!--del_lnk--> Taylor series containing a countably infinite number of terms. <i>Pure mathematics</i> is concerned with the problem of proving that the Taylor series exists, and with the closely associated problems of determining its coefficients and its circle of convergence, or the domain in which it is valid. <i>Applied mathematics</i> addresses the more practical problems of how the series may best be calculated; how many terms must be included to achieve a desired level of precision; and how best to tabulate the resulting values, or perhaps encapsulate the Taylor series within a computer algorithm. Finally, a surveyor who consults the tabulated or computerized values of cos<i>x</i> while making trigonometric calculations is not really <i>doing</i> mathematics – he is simply using results the mathematicians have derived to complete a surveying project.<p>Some branches of mathematics – <!--del_lnk--> differential equations (<a href="../../wp/o/Ordinary_differential_equation.htm" title="Ordinary differential equation">ODEs</a> and <!--del_lnk--> PDEs), <!--del_lnk--> matrix theory, <!--del_lnk--> continuous modelling, <!--del_lnk--> probability, and <a href="../../wp/s/Statistics.htm" title="Statistics">statistics</a> – are widely applicable to many fields of science and technology. Others – such as <!--del_lnk--> numerical analysis, <!--del_lnk--> scientific computing, <!--del_lnk--> information theory, <a href="../../wp/c/Cryptography.htm" title="Cryptography">cryptography</a>, <!--del_lnk--> graph theory as applied to <!--del_lnk--> network analysis, and theoretical <a href="../../wp/c/Computer_science.htm" title="Computer science">computer science</a> – have fueled the rapid proliferation of digital computers. Problems associated with computer technology have, in their turn, provided the motivation for mathematical advances in all these fields. And the increasing power and speed of the computers themselves have opened new possibilities in <!--del_lnk--> computational topology and <!--del_lnk--> computational geometry.<p>Both <!--del_lnk--> physics and <a href="../../wp/e/Engineering.htm" title="Engineering">engineering</a> have their own specialized mathematical dialects, including <!--del_lnk--> control theory. Advances in the life sciences have stimulated the development of <!--del_lnk--> mathematical biology and have recently generated an entirely new field, <a href="../../wp/b/Bioinformatics.htm" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Economics, <!--del_lnk--> finance, and <!--del_lnk--> insurance have spawned several related disciplines that might be characterized as <i>commercial</i> mathematics. Certain special economic problems gave the initial impetus to <a href="../../wp/g/Game_theory.htm" title="Game theory">game theory</a>. Additional problems from business and commerce have driven mathematical research into <!--del_lnk--> optimization techniques, including the widely employed methods of <!--del_lnk--> operations research and <!--del_lnk--> linear programming. As time passes all these optimization methods are finding new applications in a widening circle of disciplines.<p><a id="Segregation_within_Universities" name="Segregation_within_Universities"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Segregation within Universities</span></h2>
<p>Some universities in the UK host departments of <i>Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics</i>, but it is now much less common to have separate departments of pure and applied mathematics. Schools with separate applied mathematics departments range from <!--del_lnk--> Brown University, which has a well-known and large Division of Applied Mathematics that offers degrees through the <!--del_lnk--> doctorate, to <!--del_lnk--> Santa Clara University, which offers only the <!--del_lnk--> M.S. in applied mathematics. Many research universities divide their mathematics department into pure and applied sections (e.g., <!--del_lnk--> MIT).<p>Fundamental applied mathematics is taught at second-level in some countries, such as <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a>, where it is a minority option at <!--del_lnk--> Leaving Certificate.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_mathematics"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Mathematics', 'Statistics', 'Physics', 'Ordinary differential equation', 'Statistics', 'Cryptography', 'Computer science', 'Engineering', 'Bioinformatics', 'Game theory', 'Republic of Ireland'] |
Apricot | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Apricot,17th century,2nd century,4th century BCE,A Midsummer Night's Dream,Almond,Alternative medicine,Amygdalin,Anatolia,Anemia,Aphrodisiac" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Apricot</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Apricot";
var wgTitle = "Apricot";
var wgArticleId = 56668;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Apricot">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Apricot</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Food_and_agriculture.htm">Food and agriculture</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: lightgreen;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Apricot</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/3/377.jpg.htm" title="Apricot fruit"><img alt="Apricot fruit" height="181" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Apricots.jpg" src="../../images/3/377.jpg" width="240" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Apricot fruit</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: lightgreen;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">Plantae</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Division:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliophyta<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliopsida<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rosales<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rosaceae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Prunus</i><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Subgenus:</td>
<td><i><a href="../../wp/p/Plum.htm" title="Plum">Prunus</a></i><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>P. armeniaca</b></i></span><br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="lightgreen">
<th>
<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><i><b>Prunus armeniaca</b></i><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">L.</a></small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>apricot</b> (<i>Prunus armeniaca</i>, <!--del_lnk--> syn. <i>Armeniaca vulgaris</i>, <a href="../../wp/c/Chinese_language.htm" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 杏子) is a <a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" title="Fruit">fruit</a>-bearing <a href="../../wp/t/Tree.htm" title="Tree">tree</a> native to <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>. It is classified with the <a href="../../wp/p/Plum.htm" title="Plum">plum</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> subgenus <i>Prunus</i> of the <!--del_lnk--> Prunus genus.<p>It is a small- to medium-sized tree with a dense, spreading canopy 8–12 m tall; its <!--del_lnk--> leaves are shaped somewhat like a <!--del_lnk--> heart, with pointed tips, and about 8 cm long and 3–4 cm wide. Its <a href="../../wp/f/Flower.htm" title="Flower">flowers</a> are <!--del_lnk--> white to <!--del_lnk--> pinkish in colour. The fruit appears similar to a <!--del_lnk--> peach or <!--del_lnk--> nectarine, with a colour ranging from <!--del_lnk--> yellow to <!--del_lnk--> orange and sometimes a <!--del_lnk--> red cast; its surface is smooth and nearly hairless. Apricots are stone fruit (<!--del_lnk--> drupes), so called because the lone <a href="../../wp/s/Seed.htm" title="Seed">seed</a> is often called a "stone".<p>The name derives from "<i>apricock</i>" and "<i>abrecox</i>", through the <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a> <i>abricot</i>, from the <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> <i>albaricoque</i>, which was an adaptation of the <a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> <i>al-burquk</i>, itself a rendering of the late <!--del_lnk--> Greek πρεκοκκια or πραικοκιον, adapted from the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>praecox</i> or <i>praecoquus</i>, early, possibly referring to the fruit maturing much earlier in the summer than plums. However, in <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a> the word for "apricot" is "<i>damasco</i>" which probably indicates that to the Argentines the fruit was associated with <a href="../../wp/d/Damascus.htm" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Cultivation" name="Cultivation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cultivation</span></h2>
<p>The apricot originated in northeastern <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> near the <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a> border, not in <a href="../../wp/a/Armenia.htm" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> as the scientific name suggests. It did arrive in Armenia after moving through central Asia, which took about 3,000 years. The <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a> brought it into <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> through <!--del_lnk--> Anatolia about 70 BC. While <!--del_lnk--> English settlers brought the apricot to the <!--del_lnk--> English colonies in the New World, most of modern American production of apricots comes from the seedlings carried to the west coast by <!--del_lnk--> Spanish missionaries. <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> provides 85 percent of the world's dried apricot and <!--del_lnk--> apricot kernels today (concentrated around the city of <!--del_lnk--> Malatya). Most <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a> production is in <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a> with some in <a href="../../wp/o/Oregon.htm" title="Oregon">Oregon</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Utah.<p>The Apricot is slightly more cold-hardy than the <!--del_lnk--> peach, tolerating winter temperatures as cold as −30 °C or lower if healthy. The limiting factor in apricot culture is spring <!--del_lnk--> frosts: They tend to flower very early, before the <!--del_lnk--> vernal equinox even in northern locations like the <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Lakes.htm" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> region, meaning spring frost often kills the flowers. The trees do need some winter cold (even if minimal) to bear and grow properly and do well in <!--del_lnk--> Mediterranean climate locations since spring frosts are less severe here but there is some cool winter weather to allow a proper <!--del_lnk--> dormancy. The dry climate of these areas is best for good fruit production. <!--del_lnk--> Hybridisation with the closely related <i><!--del_lnk--> Prunus sibirica</i> (Siberian Apricot; hardy to −50°C but with less palatable fruit) offers options for breeding more cold-tolerant plants <!--del_lnk--> .<p>Apricot <a href="../../wp/c/Cultivar.htm" title="Cultivar">cultivars</a> are most often <!--del_lnk--> grafted on plum or peach rootstocks. A cutting of an existing apricot plant provides the fruit characteristics such as flavor, size, etc., but the rootstock provides the growth characteristics of the plant.<p>Many apricots are also cultivated in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, particularly <!--del_lnk--> South Australia where they are commonly grown in the region known as the <!--del_lnk--> Riverland and in a small town called Mypolonga in the <a href="../../wp/m/Murray_River.htm" title="Murray River">Lower Murray</a> region of the state. In states other than South Australia apricots are still grown, particularly in <!--del_lnk--> Tasmania and western <!--del_lnk--> Victoria and southwest <!--del_lnk--> New South Wales, but they are less common than in South Australia.<p>Apricots are also cultivated in <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and are among the common fruits well known there. The seasons in which apricot is present in the market in Egypt is very short. There is even an Egyptian proverb that says "Fel meshmesh" (English "in the apricot"} which is used to refer to something that will not happen because the apricot disappears from the market in Egypt so shortly after it has appeared. Egyptians usually dry apricot and sweeten it then use it to make a drink called "amar el deen".<p><a id="Medicinal_and_non-food_uses" name="Medicinal_and_non-food_uses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Medicinal and non-food uses</span></h2>
<p>Fresh or dried, apricots are an excellent health and beauty food. Three small fresh apricots contain more than 50% of the recommended daily intake (RDA) of <!--del_lnk--> beta-carotene, a potent antioxidant. Beta-carotene prevents the build-up of plaque deposits in the <!--del_lnk--> arteries, protects the eyes from sun damage and deactivates <!--del_lnk--> free radicals that, if left unchecked, accelerate the ageing process and increase the risk of <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a>. In addition, the body converts beta-carotene into <a href="../../wp/r/Retinol.htm" title="Retinol">vitamin A</a>, which is vital for good vision and for keeping the eyes lubricated. Those at risk of dry eyes, such as contact-lens wearers, should include plenty of apricots in their diet. Apricots contain significant levels of <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a>, essential for <!--del_lnk--> hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying pigment in red blood cells. Iron deficiency leads to <a href="../../wp/a/Anemia.htm" title="Anemia">anaemia</a>, pale skin, and thinning, undernourished hair.<p><!--del_lnk--> Cyanogenic <!--del_lnk--> glycosides (found in most <!--del_lnk--> stone fruit <a href="../../wp/s/Seed.htm" title="Seed">seeds</a>, <!--del_lnk--> bark, and <!--del_lnk--> leaves) are found in high concentration in apricot seeds. <!--del_lnk--> Laetrile, a purported <!--del_lnk--> alternative treatment for cancer, is extracted from apricot seeds. As early as the year 502, apricot seeds were used to treat <!--del_lnk--> tumors, and in the <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th century</a> apricot oil was used in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> against tumors and <!--del_lnk--> ulcers. Seeds of the apricot grown in <!--del_lnk--> central Asia and around the <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> are so sweet that they may be substituted for <a href="../../wp/a/Almond.htm" title="Almond">almonds</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Oil pressed from these cultivars has been used as <!--del_lnk--> cooking oil. Powderized seeds can also be added to pastry dough to give a distinct flavor.<p>In <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, apricots were long considered an <!--del_lnk--> aphrodisiac, and were used in this context in <a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>'s <i><!--del_lnk--> A Midsummer Night's Dream</i>, and as an inducer of childbirth labor, as depicted in <!--del_lnk--> John Webster's <i><!--del_lnk--> The Duchess of Malfi</i>. Dreaming of apricots, in English folklore, is said to be good luck, though the Chinese believe the fruit is a symbol of cowardice.<p>The IUD (<!--del_lnk--> intrauterine device) form of birth control, based on the premise that a foreign obejct within the uterus will prevent the implantation of an embryo, is linked to an old practice of camel herders and drivers who would place an apricot pit within the uterus of their female camels to prevent pregenancy and keep them working at carrying cargo rather than the work of mothering.<p><a id="Apricot_in_culture" name="Apricot_in_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Apricot in culture</span></h2>
<p>The Chinese associate the apricot with education and medicine. <!--del_lnk--> Chuang Tzu, a Chinese philosopher in <!--del_lnk--> 4th century BCE, had told a story that <a href="../../wp/c/Confucius.htm" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> taught his students in a <!--del_lnk--> forum among the wood of apricot.<p>In the <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd century</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Tung Fung, a medical doctor, lived in <!--del_lnk--> Lushan. He asked his cured patients to plant apricots in his backyard instead of paying consultation and medical fees. Those cured of serious illness planted five, and the rest planted one. After some years, a hundred thousand apricot trees were planted and the wood become the symbol for doctors and medicine.<p>In <i><!--del_lnk--> The Wizard of Oz</i>, the Cowardly Lion sings, "What puts the ape in the apricot? Courage!"<p>Among tank-driving soldiers, apricots are taboo, by superstition. Tankers will not eat apricots, allow apricots onto their vehicles, and often will not even say the word "apricot".<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apricot"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Plant', 'Plum', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Chinese language', 'Fruit', 'Tree', 'China', 'Plum', 'Flower', 'Seed', 'French language', 'Spanish language', 'Arabic language', 'Latin', 'Argentina', 'Chile', 'Damascus', 'China', 'Russia', 'Armenia', 'Roman Empire', 'Europe', 'Turkey', 'United States', 'California', 'Oregon', 'Great Lakes', 'Cultivar', 'Australia', 'Murray River', 'Egypt', 'Cancer', 'Retinol', 'Iron', 'Anemia', 'Seed', '17th century', 'England', 'Mediterranean Sea', 'Almond', 'Europe', 'William Shakespeare', 'Confucius', '2nd century'] |
Aquarium | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Aquarium,Abraham Trembley,Acid,Activated carbon,Alkali,Ammonia,Ammonium,Amphibian,Ancient Egypt,Animal,Aquaculture" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Aquarium</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Aquarium";
var wgTitle = "Aquarium";
var wgArticleId = 3185;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Aquarium">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Aquarium</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Everyday_life.htm">Everyday life</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.General_Biology.htm">General Biology</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="metadata topicon" id="featured-star" style="right:10px; display:none;">
<div style="position: relative; width: 14px; height: 14px; overflow: hidden">
<div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; font-size: 100px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 100px; z-index: 3"><!--del_lnk--> <span title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."> </span></div>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; z-index: 2"><a class="image" href="../../images/0/24.png.htm" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a featured article. Click here for more information." height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LinkFA-star.png" src="../../images/0/24.png" width="14" /></a></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23307.jpg.htm" title="A tropical display tank at the Georgia Aquarium"><img alt="A tropical display tank at the Georgia Aquarium" height="189" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Georgia_Aquarium_Tropical_Tank.jpg" src="../../images/233/23307.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23307.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A tropical display tank at the <!--del_lnk--> Georgia Aquarium</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>An <b>aquarium</b> (plural <i>aquariums</i> or <i>aquaria</i>) is a <!--del_lnk--> vivarium, usually contained in a clear-sided container (typically constructed of <a href="../../wp/g/Glass.htm" title="Glass">glass</a> or high-strength <!--del_lnk--> plastic) in which <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a>-dwelling <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plants</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animals</a> (usually <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a>, and sometimes <a href="../../wp/i/Invertebrate.htm" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>, as well as <!--del_lnk--> amphibians, <!--del_lnk--> marine mammals, and <a href="../../wp/r/Reptile.htm" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>) are kept in captivity, often for public display; or it is an establishment featuring such displays. Aquarium keeping is a popular <!--del_lnk--> hobby around the world, with about 60 million enthusiasts worldwide. From the 1850s, when the predecessor of the modern aquarium was first developed as a <!--del_lnk--> novelty, the ranks of aquarists have swelled as more sophisticated systems including lighting and filtration systems were developed to keep aquarium fish healthy. Public aquaria reproduce the home aquarist's hobby on a grand scale — the <!--del_lnk--> Osaka Aquarium, for example, boasts a tank of 5,400 m³ (1.4 million U.S. gallons) and a collection of about 580 species of aquatic life, whilst the planned <!--del_lnk--> National institute for research into aquatic habitats in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> would be at 40-hectares the world's largest aquarium.<p>A wide variety of aquaria are now kept by hobbyists, ranging from a simple bowl housing a single fish to complex simulated ecosystems with carefully engineered support systems. Aquaria are usually classified as containing <a href="../../wp/f/Fresh_water.htm" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a> or <!--del_lnk--> salt water and <!--del_lnk--> brackish water, at tropical or cold water <!--del_lnk--> temperatures. These characteristics, and others, determine the type of fish and other inhabitants that can survive and thrive in the aquarium. Inhabitants for aquaria are often collected from the wild, although there is a growing list of <a href="../../wp/o/Organism.htm" title="Organism">organisms</a> that are bred in captivity for supply to the aquarium trade.<p>The careful aquarist dedicates considerable effort to maintaining a tank <a href="../../wp/e/Ecology.htm" title="Ecology">ecology</a> that mimics its inhabitants' natural habitat. Controlling <!--del_lnk--> water quality includes managing the inflow and outflow of nutrients, most notably the management of <!--del_lnk--> waste produced by tank inhabitants. The <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen_cycle.htm" title="Nitrogen cycle">nitrogen cycle</a> describes the flow of nitrogen from input via food, through toxic nitrogenous waste produced by tank inhabitants, to metabolism to less toxic compounds by beneficial <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> populations. Other components in maintaining a suitable aquarium environment include appropriate species selection, management of biological loading, and good physical design. Failing to provide these conditions may invite <!--del_lnk--> Fish diseases.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14571.jpg.htm" title="The main tank at Osaka Aquarium houses a whale shark"><img alt="The main tank at Osaka Aquarium houses a whale shark" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:03-05-JPN012.jpg" src="../../images/233/23308.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14571.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The main tank at <!--del_lnk--> Osaka Aquarium houses a <a href="../../wp/w/Whale_shark.htm" title="Whale shark">whale shark</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="History_and_development" name="History_and_development"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History and development</span></h2>
<p><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h3>
<p>The word aquarium itself is taken directly from the latin <i>aqua</i>, meaning water, with the suffix <i>-rium</i>, meaning "place" or "building".<p><a id="Ancient_practices" name="Ancient_practices"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ancient practices</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23309.jpg.htm" title="Koi have been kept in decorative ponds for centuries in China and Japan."><img alt="Koi have been kept in decorative ponds for centuries in China and Japan." height="161" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Goldfish2.cropped.jpg" src="../../images/233/23309.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23309.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Koi have been kept in decorative ponds for centuries in <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">China</a> and <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The keeping of fish in confined or artificial environments is a practice with deep roots in history. Ancient <a href="../../wp/s/Sumer.htm" title="Sumer">Sumerians</a> were known to keep wild-caught fish in <a href="../../wp/p/Pond.htm" title="Pond">ponds</a>, before preparing them for meals. In <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, <!--del_lnk--> selective breeding of <!--del_lnk--> carp into today's popular <!--del_lnk--> koi and <a href="../../wp/g/Goldfish.htm" title="Goldfish">goldfish</a> is believed to have begun over 2,000 years ago. Depictions of the sacred fish of <a href="../../wp/o/Oxyrhynchus.htm" title="Oxyrhynchus">Oxyrhynchus</a> kept in captivity in rectangular temple pools have been found in <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian</a> art. Many other cultures also have a history of keeping fish for both functional and decorative purposes. The Chinese brought goldfish indoors during the <!--del_lnk--> Song dynasty to enjoy them in large ceramic vessels.<p><a id="Glass_enclosures" name="Glass_enclosures"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Glass enclosures</span></h3>
<p>The concept of an aquarium, designed for the observation of fish in an enclosed, transparent tank to be kept indoors, emerged more recently. However, it is difficult to pinpoint the exact date of this development. In 1665 the diarist <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Pepys recorded seeing in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> "a fine rarity, of fishes kept in a glass of water, that will live so forever, and finely marked they are, being foreign." The fish observed by Pepys were likely to have been the <!--del_lnk--> paradise fish, <i>Macropodus opercularis</i>, a familiar garden fish in <a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> (Canton), China, where the <a href="../../wp/b/British_East_India_Company.htm" title="British East India Company">East India Company</a> was then trading. In the 18th century, the <a href="../../wp/b/Biology.htm" title="Biology">biologist</a> <!--del_lnk--> Abraham Trembley kept <!--del_lnk--> hydra found in the garden canals of the Bentinck residence 'Sorgvliet' in the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, in large cylindrical glass vessels for study. The concept of keeping aquatic life in glass containers, then, dates to at latest this period.<p><a id="Popularization" name="Popularization"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Popularization</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23310.jpg.htm" title="South East Asian fish in the aquarium at Bristol Zoo, Bristol, England. The tank is about 2 meters (6 feet) high."><img alt="South East Asian fish in the aquarium at Bristol Zoo, Bristol, England. The tank is about 2 meters (6 feet) high." height="189" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bristol.zoo.aquarium.arp.jpg" src="../../images/233/23310.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23310.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> South East Asian fish in the aquarium at Bristol Zoo, Bristol, England. The tank is about 2 meters (6 feet) high.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The keeping of fish in an aquarium first became a popular hobby in <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Britain</a> only after ornate aquaria in cast-iron frames were featured at the <a href="../../wp/t/The_Great_Exhibition.htm" title="The Great Exhibition">Great Exhibition</a> of 1851. The framed-glass aquarium was a specialized version of the glazed <!--del_lnk--> Wardian case developed for British horticulturists in the 1830s to protect exotic plants on long sea voyages. (One feature of some 19th century aquaria that would prove curious to hobbyists today was the use of a metal base panel so that the aquarium water could be heated by flame.) <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germans</a> rivaled the British in their interest, and by the turn of the century <a href="../../wp/h/Hamburg.htm" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> became the <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> port of entry for many newly seen species. Aquaria became more widely popular as houses became almost universally electrified after <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>. With <a href="../../wp/e/Electricity.htm" title="Electricity">electricity</a> great improvements were made in aquarium technology, allowing artificial lighting as well as the aeration, filtration, and heating of the water. Popularization was also assisted by the availability of air freight, which allowed a much wider variety of fish to be successfully imported from distant regions of origin that consequently attracted new hobbyists.<p>There are currently estimated to be about 60 million aquarium hobbyists worldwide, and many more aquaria kept by them. The hobby has the strongest following in Europe, <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>. In the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, a large minority (40%) of aquarists maintain two or more tanks at any one time.<p><a id="Function_and_design" name="Function_and_design"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Function and design</span></h2>
<p>From the outdoor ponds and glass jars of antiquity, modern aquaria have evolved into a wide range of specialized systems. Aquaria can vary in size from a small bowl large enough for a single small fish, to the huge public aquaria that can simulate entire marine <!--del_lnk--> ecosystems. The most successful aquaria, as judged by the long-term survivability of its inhabitants, carefully emulate the natural environments that their residents would occupy in the wild.<p>Freshwater aquaria remain the most popular due to their lower cost and easier maintenance, but <!--del_lnk--> marine (saltwater) aquaria have gained cachet as dedicated enthusiasts prove it is possible to preserve these challenging environments.<p><a id="Design" name="Design"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Design</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:258px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23311.png.htm" title="Filtration system in a typical aquarium: (1) Intake. (2) Mechanical filtration. (3) Chemical filtration. (4) Biological filtration medium. (5) Outflow to tank."><img alt="Filtration system in a typical aquarium: (1) Intake. (2) Mechanical filtration. (3) Chemical filtration. (4) Biological filtration medium. (5) Outflow to tank." height="305" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aquarium.png" src="../../images/233/23311.png" width="256" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23311.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Filtration system in a typical aquarium: (1) Intake. (2) Mechanical filtration. (3) Chemical filtration. (4) Biological filtration medium. (5) Outflow to tank.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The common freshwater aquarium maintained by a home aquarist typically includes a filtration system, an artificial lighting system, air pumps, and a heater. In addition, some freshwater tanks (and most saltwater tanks) use powerheads to increase water circulation.<p>Combined biological and mechanical filtration systems are now common; these are designed to remove potentially dangerous build up of nitrogenous wastes and <!--del_lnk--> phosphates dissolved in the water, as well as particulate matter. Filtration systems are the most complexly engineered component of most home aquaria, and various designs are used. Most systems use pumps to remove a small portion of the tank's water to an external pathway where filtration occurs; the filtered water is then returned to the aquarium. <!--del_lnk--> Protein skimmers, filtration devices that remove <a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" title="Protein">proteins</a> and other waste from the water, not only work in Marine aqauriums but also work in nutrient rich environments, but are made popular through the use of the Berlin System.<p>Air pumps are employed to adequately oxygenate (or in the case of a heavily planted aquarium, provide carbon dioxide to) the water. These devices, once universal, are now somewhat less commonly used as some newer filtration systems create enough surface agitation to supply adequate gas exchange at the surface. Aquarium heaters are designed to act as <!--del_lnk--> thermostats to regulate water temperature at a level designated by the aquarist when the prevailing temperature of air surrounding the aquarium is below the desired water temperature. Coolers are also available for use in cold water aquaria or in parts of the world where the ambient room temperature is above the desired tank temperature.<p>An aquarium's physical characteristics form another aspect of aquarium design. Size, lighting conditions, density of floating and rooted plants, placement of <!--del_lnk--> bogwood, creation of caves or overhangs, type of <!--del_lnk--> substrate, and other factors (including an aquarium's positioning within a room) can all affect the behaviour and survivability of tank inhabitants.<p>The combined function of these elements is to maintain appropriate water quality and characteristics suitable for the aquarium's residents.<p><a id="Classifications" name="Classifications"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Classifications</span></h3>
<p>Aquaria can be classified by several variables that determine the type of aquatic life that can be suitably housed. The conditions and characteristics of the water contained in an aquarium are the most important classification criteria, as most aquatic life will not survive even limited exposure to unsuitable water conditions. The size of an aquarium also limits the aquarist in what types of ecosystems he can reproduce, species selection, and biological loading.<p><a id="Water_conditions" name="Water_conditions"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Water conditions</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23312.jpg.htm" title="A saltwater aquarium"><img alt="A saltwater aquarium" height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aquarium-Monaco1.jpeg" src="../../images/233/23312.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23312.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A saltwater aquarium</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> solute content of water is perhaps the most important aspect of water conditions, as <!--del_lnk--> total dissolved solids and other constituents can dramatically impact basic water chemistry, and therefore how organisms are able to interact with their environment. Salt content, or <!--del_lnk--> salinity, is the most basic classification of water conditions. An aquarium may have <a href="../../wp/f/Fresh_water.htm" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a> (a salt level of < 0.5 PPT), simulating a lake or river environment; <!--del_lnk--> brackish water (a salt level of 0.5 to 30 PPT), simulating environments lying between fresh and salt, such as <!--del_lnk--> estuaries; and salt water or <!--del_lnk--> sea water (a salt level of 30 to 40 PPT), simulating an ocean or sea environment. Rarely, even higher salt concentrations are maintained in specialized tanks for raising brine organisms.<p>Several other water characteristics result from dissolved contents of the water, and are important to the proper simulation of natural environments. The <!--del_lnk--> pH of the water is a measure of the degree to which it is <!--del_lnk--> alkaline or <!--del_lnk--> acidic. Saltwater is typically alkaline, while the pH of fresh water varies more. Hardness measures overall dissolved mineral content; <!--del_lnk--> hard or soft water may be preferred. <!--del_lnk--> Dissolved organic content and dissolved gases content are also important factors.<p>Home aquarists typically use modified tap water supplied through their local <!--del_lnk--> water supply network to fill their tanks. For freshwater aquaria, additives formulated to remove <a href="../../wp/c/Chlorine.htm" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> or <!--del_lnk--> chloramine (used to <!--del_lnk--> disinfect drinking water supplies for human consumption) are often all that is needed to make the water ready for aquarium use.<p>Brackish or saltwater aquaria require the addition of a mixture of salts and other minerals, which are commercially available for this purpose.<p>More sophisticated aquarists may make other modifications to their base water source to modify the water's alkalinity, hardness, or dissolved content of organics and gases, before adding it to their aquaria. There are two processes used for that: <!--del_lnk--> deionization or <!--del_lnk--> reverse osmosis. In contrast, public aquaria with large water needs often locate themselves near a natural water source (such as a river, lake, or ocean) in order to have easy access to a large volume of water that does not require much further treatment.<p><a id="Secondary_water_characteristics" name="Secondary_water_characteristics"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Secondary water characteristics</span></h4>
<p>Secondary water characteristics are also important to the success of an aquarium. The <!--del_lnk--> temperature of the water forms the basis of one of the two most basic aquarium classifications: <a href="../../wp/t/Tropics.htm" title="Tropics">tropical</a> vs. <!--del_lnk--> cold water. Most fish and plant species tolerate only a limited range of water temperatures: Tropical or warm water aquaria, with an average temperature of about 25 °C (77 °F), are much more common, and <!--del_lnk--> tropical fish are among the most popular aquarium denizens. Cold water aquaria are those with temperatures below what would be considered tropical; a variety of fish are better suited to this cooler environment.<p>Water movement can also be important in accurately simulating a natural ecosystem. Aquarists may prefer anything from still water up to swift simulated <!--del_lnk--> currents in an aquarium, depending on the conditions best suited for the aquarium's inhabitants.<p>Water temperature can be regulated with a combined <!--del_lnk--> thermometer/heater unit (or, more rarely, with a cooling unit), while water movement can be controlled through the use of powerheads and careful design of internal water flow (such as location of filtration system points of inflow and outflow).<p><a id="Size" name="Size"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Size</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23313.jpg.htm" title="A planted freshwater aquarium."><img alt="A planted freshwater aquarium." height="209" longdesc="/wiki/Image:58g_aquascape.jpg" src="../../images/233/23313.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23313.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A planted freshwater aquarium.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>An aquarium can range from a small, unadorned glass bowl containing less than a litre of water – although generally unsuited for most fish - to immense tanks built in public aquaria which are limited only by engineering constraints and can house entire ecosystems as large as <!--del_lnk--> kelp forests or species of large <a href="../../wp/s/Shark.htm" title="Shark">sharks</a>. In general, larger aquarium systems are typically recommended to hobbyists due to their resistance to rapid fluctuations of temperature and <!--del_lnk--> pH, allowing for greater system stability.<p>Aquaria kept in homes by hobbyists can be as small as 3 U.S. gallons (11 L). This size is widely considered the smallest practical system with filtration and other basic systems; indeed, the local government of <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, has recently taken the step of banning traditional goldfish bowls as inhumane. Practical limitations, most notably the <!--del_lnk--> weight (fresh water weighs about 8.3 pounds per U.S. gallon (1 kg/L), and salt water is even denser) and internal <!--del_lnk--> water pressure (requiring thick, strong glass siding) of a large aquarium, keep most home aquaria to a maximum of around 1 m³ (300 U.S. gallons). However, some dedicated aquarists have been known to construct custom aquaria of up to several thousand U.S. gallons (several cubic meters), at great effort and expense.<p>Public aquaria designed for exhibition of large species or environments can be dramatically larger than any home aquarium. The <!--del_lnk--> Shedd Aquarium features an individual aquarium of two million U.S. gallons (19,000 m³), as well as two others of 400,000 U.S. gallons (1,500 m³). The <!--del_lnk--> Monterey Bay Aquarium has an <!--del_lnk--> acrylic viewing window into their largest tank. At 56 feet long by 17 feet high (17 by 5 m), it used to be the largest window in the world and is over 13 inches (330 mm) thick. The <!--del_lnk--> Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium is the world's second largest aquarium and part of the Ocean Expo Park (see <!--del_lnk--> Expo '75) located in Motobu, Okinawa. Its main tank, which holds 7,500 cubic meters of water, features the world's largest acrylic panel measuring 8.2 meters by 22.5 meters with a thickness of 60 centimeters. The size of public aquaria are usually limited by cost considerations.<p><a id="Species_selection" name="Species_selection"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Species selection</span></h3>
<p>Several theories on species selection circulate within the community of hobby aquarists. Perhaps the most popular of these is the division of aquaria into either a <i>community</i> or <i>aggressive</i> tank type. Community tanks house several species that are not aggressive toward each other. This is the most common type of hobby aquarium kept today. Aggressive tanks, in contrast, house a limited number of species that can be aggressive toward other fish, or are able to withstand aggression well. In both of these tank types, the aquarium cohabitants may or may not originate from the same geographic region, but generally tolerate similar water conditions. In addition to the fish, <a href="../../wp/i/Invertebrate.htm" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>, <!--del_lnk--> aquatic plants, and decorations or "<!--del_lnk--> aquarium furniture" (all of which may or may not be natural neighbors of any of the fish) are typically added to these tank types.<p><i>Species</i> or <i>specimen</i> tanks usually only house one fish species, along with plants, perhaps found in the fishes' natural environment and decorations simulating a true ecosystem. These tanks are often used for <!--del_lnk--> killifish, livebearers, <!--del_lnk--> cichlids etc. They can be simple as bare bottom with a few necessities or a complex planted aquarium. Some tanks of this sort are used simply to house adults for breeding. Such tanks are common in fishrooms, where people keep many tanks at home.<p><i>Ecotype</i> or <i>ecotope</i> aquaria attempt to simulate a specific ecosystem found in the natural world, bringing together fish, invertebrate species, and plants found in that ecosystem in a tank with water conditions and decorations designed to simulate their natural environment. These ecotype aquaria might be considered the most sophisticated hobby aquaria; indeed, reputable public aquaria all use this approach in their exhibits whenever possible. This approach best simulates the experience of observing an aquarium's inhabitants in the wild, and also usually serves as the healthiest possible artificial environment for the tank's occupants.<p><a id="Species_selection_for_saltwater_aquaria" name="Species_selection_for_saltwater_aquaria"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Species selection for saltwater aquaria</span></h4>
<p>In addition to the types above, a special category of saltwater aquaria is the <!--del_lnk--> reef aquarium. These aquaria attempt to simulate the complex reef ecosystems found in warm, tropical oceans around the world. These aquaria focus on the rich diversity of invertebrate life in these environments, and typically include only a limited number of small fish. Techniques of maintaining <!--del_lnk--> sea anemones, some <!--del_lnk--> corals, <!--del_lnk--> live rock, <!--del_lnk--> mollusks, and <a href="../../wp/c/Crustacean.htm" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, developed since the 1980s, have made the recreations of a reef ecosystem possible. Reef aquaria are widely considered the most difficult and demanding of the common hobbyist aquarium types, requiring the most expertise in addition to the most specialized equipment (and corresponding high cost).<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ecology</span></h2>
<p>Ideal aquarium <a href="../../wp/e/Ecology.htm" title="Ecology">ecology</a> reproduces the balance found in nature in the closed system of an aquarium. In practice it is virtually impossible to maintain a perfect balance. As an example, a balanced <!--del_lnk--> predator-prey relationship is nearly impossible to maintain in even the largest of aquaria. Typically an aquarium keeper must take steps to maintain balance in the small ecosystem contained in his aquarium.<p>Approximate balance is facilitated by large volumes of water. Any event that perturbs the system pushes an aquarium away from equilibrium; the more water that is contained in a tank, the easier such a <!--del_lnk--> systemic shock is to absorb, as the effects of that event are diluted. For example, the death of the only fish in a three U.S. gallon tank (11 L) causes dramatic changes in the system, while the death of that same fish in a 100 U.S. gallon (400 L) tank with many other fish in it represents only a minor change in the balance of the tank. For this reason, hobbyists often favour larger tanks when possible, as they are more stable systems requiring less intensive attention to the maintenance of equilibrium.<p><a id="Nitrogen_cycle" name="Nitrogen_cycle"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nitrogen cycle</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23316.png.htm" title="The nitrogen cycle in an aquarium."><img alt="The nitrogen cycle in an aquarium." height="190" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aquarium_Nitrogen_Cycle.png" src="../../images/233/23316.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23316.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The nitrogen cycle in an aquarium.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Of primary concern to the aquarist is management of the biological <!--del_lnk--> waste produced by an aquarium's inhabitants. Fish, invertebrates, <a href="../../wp/f/Fungus.htm" title="Fungus">fungi</a>, and some bacteria excrete <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen.htm" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> waste in the form of <a href="../../wp/a/Ammonia.htm" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> (which may convert to <!--del_lnk--> ammonium, depending on water chemistry) which must then pass through the <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen_cycle.htm" title="Nitrogen cycle">nitrogen cycle</a>. Ammonia is also produced through the <!--del_lnk--> decomposition of plant and animal matter, including <!--del_lnk--> fecal matter and other <!--del_lnk--> detritus. Nitrogen waste products become <!--del_lnk--> toxic to fish and other aquarium inhabitants at high concentrations.<p>A well-balanced tank contains organisms that are able to <!--del_lnk--> metabolize the waste products of other aquarium residents. The nitrogen waste produced in a tank is metabolized in aquaria by a type of <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a> known as <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrification.htm" title="Nitrification">nitrifiers</a> (genus Nitrosomonas). Nitrifying bacteria capture ammonia from the water and metabolize it to produce <!--del_lnk--> nitrite. Nitrite is also highly toxic to fish in high concentrations. Another type of bacteria, genus Nitrospira, converts nitrite into <!--del_lnk--> nitrate, a less toxic substance to aquarium inhabitants. (<!--del_lnk--> Nitrobacter bacteria were previously believed to fill this role, and continue to be found in commercially available products sold as kits to "jump start" the nitrogen cycle in an aquarium. While biologically they could theoretically fill the same niche as Nitrospira, it has recently been found that Nitrobacter are not present in detectable levels in established aquaria, while Nitrospira are plentiful.) This process is known in the aquarium hobby as the nitrogen cycle.<p>In addition to bacteria, aquatic plants also eliminate nitrogen waste by metabolizing ammonia and nitrate. When plants metabolize nitrogen compounds, they remove nitrogen from the water by using it to build <!--del_lnk--> biomass. However, this is only temporary, as the plants release nitrogen back into the water when older leaves die off and decompose.<p>Although informally called the <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen_cycle.htm" title="Nitrogen cycle">nitrogen cycle</a> by hobbyists, it is in fact only a portion of a true cycle: nitrogen must be added to the system (usually through food provided to the tank inhabitants), and nitrates accumulate in the water at the end of the process, or become bound in the biomass of plants. This accumulation of nitrates in home aquaria requires the aquarium keeper to remove water that is high in nitrates, or remove plants which have grown from the nitrates.<p>Aquaria kept by hobbyists often do not have the requisite populations of bacteria needed to detoxify nitrogen waste from tank inhabitants. This problem is most often addressed through two <!--del_lnk--> filtration solutions: <!--del_lnk--> Activated carbon filters absorb nitrogen compounds and other <!--del_lnk--> toxins from the water, while biological filters provide a medium specially designed for <!--del_lnk--> colonization by the desired nitrifying bacteria.<p>New aquariums often have problems associated with the nitrogen cycle due to insufficient number of beneficial bacteria. Therefore new tanks have to be "matured" before stocking them with fish. There are two basic approaches to this: the <i>fishless cycle</i> and the <i>silent cycle</i>.<p>No fish are kept in a tank undergoing a fishless cycle. Instead, small amounts of ammonia are added to the tank to feed the bacteria being cultured. During this process, <a href="../../wp/a/Ammonia.htm" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, <!--del_lnk--> nitrite, and <!--del_lnk--> nitrate levels are tested to monitor progress. The silent cycle is basically nothing more than densely stocking the aquarium with fast-growing aquatic <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plants</a> and relying on them to consume the <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen.htm" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, allowing the necessary bacterial populations time to develope. According to anecdotal reports of aquarists specializing in planted tanks, the plants can consume nitrogenous waste so efficiently that the spikes in ammonia and nitrite levels normally seen in more traditional cycling methods are greatly reduced, if they are detectable at all.<p>The largest bacterial populations in a tank are found in the filter. Therefore efficient filtration is vital. A vigorous cleaning of the filter is sometimes enough to seriously disturb the biological balance of an aquarium.<p><a id="Other_nutrient_cycles" name="Other_nutrient_cycles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other nutrient cycles</span></h3>
<p>Nitrogen is not the only nutrient that cycles through an aquarium. Dissolved oxygen enters the system at the surface water-air interface or through the actions of an air pump. Carbon dioxide escapes the system into the air. The phosphate cycle is an important, although often overlooked, nutrient cycle. Sulfur, iron, and micronutrients also cycle through the system, entering as food and exiting as waste. Appropriate handling of the nitrogen cycle, along with supplying an adequately balanced food supply and considered biological loading, is usually enough to keep these other nutrient cycles in approximate equilibrium.<p><a id="Biological_loading" name="Biological_loading"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Biological loading</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23317.jpg.htm" title="19 Liter Aquarium, seems to be overcrowded"><img alt="19 Liter Aquarium, seems to be overcrowded" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Small_aquarium.jpg" src="../../images/233/23317.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23317.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 19 Liter Aquarium, seems to be overcrowded</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Biological loading is a measure of the burden placed on the aquarium ecosystem by its living inhabitants. High biological loading in an aquarium represents a more complicated tank ecology, which in turn means that equilibrium is easier to perturb. In addition, there are several fundamental constraints on biological loading based on the size of an aquarium. The <!--del_lnk--> surface area of water exposed to air limits <!--del_lnk--> dissolved oxygen intake by the tank. The capacity of nitrifying bacteria is limited by the physical space they have available to colonize. Physically, only a limited size and number of plants and animals can be fit into an aquarium while still providing room for movement.<p>In order to prevent biological overloading of the system, aquarists have developed a number of <!--del_lnk--> rules of thumb. Perhaps the most popular of these is the "7mm per liter of water" which dictates that the sum in cm of the lengths of all fish kept in an aquarium (excluding tail length) should not exceed the capacity of the tank measured in Liters (one inch of fish per U.S. gallon). This rule is usually applied to the expected mature size of the fish, in order to not stunt growth by overcrowding, which can be unhealthy for the fish. (Note that this rule of thumb breaks down for thick bodied fishes like some catfish, and aggressive fish like most <!--del_lnk--> Cichlids.) For <a href="../../wp/g/Goldfish.htm" title="Goldfish">goldfish</a> and other high-waste fish, many aquarists recommend doubling the space allowance to one inch of fish per every two gallons and others even debate the usefulness of the "inch per gallon" rule because it fails to consider other important issues such as fish temperament, activity, compatibility with other tank mates(i.e. two male bettas shouldn't be kept together) dimensions of aquarium, and the filtration capabilities of the aquarium. The safest method of determining the stocking limits and compatibility is to talk to an experienced aquarist or group of aquarists at a local organization or a dedicated online forum.<p>The true maximum or ideal biological loading of a system is very difficult to calculate, even on a theoretical level. To do so, the variables for waste production rate, <!--del_lnk--> nitrification efficiency, gas exchange rate at the water surface, and many others would need to be determined. In practice this is a very complicated and difficult task, and so most aquarists use rules of thumb combined with a <!--del_lnk--> trial and error approach to reach an appropriate level of biological loading.<p><a id="Public_aquaria" name="Public_aquaria"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Public aquaria</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23318.jpg.htm" title="A 335,000 U.S. gallon (1.3 million liter) aquarium at the Monterey Bay Aquarium in California displaying a simulated kelp forest ecosystem"><img alt="A 335,000 U.S. gallon (1.3 million liter) aquarium at the Monterey Bay Aquarium in California displaying a simulated kelp forest ecosystem" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KelpAquarium.jpg" src="../../images/233/23318.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23318.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A 335,000 U.S. gallon (1.3 million liter) aquarium at the <!--del_lnk--> Monterey Bay Aquarium in California displaying a simulated <!--del_lnk--> kelp forest ecosystem</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Public aquaria are facilities open to the public for viewing of aquatic species in aquaria. Most public aquaria feature a number of smaller tanks, as well as one or more tanks greater in size than could be kept by any home aquarist. The largest tanks hold millions of U.S. gallons of water and can house large species, including <a href="../../wp/d/Dolphin.htm" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Shark.htm" title="Shark">sharks</a> or <!--del_lnk--> beluga whales. Aquatic and semiaquatic animals, including <a href="../../wp/o/Otter.htm" title="Otter">otters</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Penguin.htm" title="Penguin">penguins</a>, may also be kept by public aquaria.<p>Operationally, a public aquarium is similar in many ways to a <!--del_lnk--> zoo or <!--del_lnk--> museum. A good aquarium will have special exhibits to entice repeat visitors, in addition to its permanent collection. A few have their own version of a "petting zoo"; for instance, the <!--del_lnk--> Monterey Bay Aquarium has a shallow tank filled with common types of <!--del_lnk--> rays, and one can reach in to feel their leathery skins as they pass by.<p>Also as with zoos, aquaria usually have specialized research staff who study the habits and biology of their specimens. In recent years, the large aquaria have been attempting to acquire and raise various species of open-ocean fish, and even jellyfish (or sea-jellies, <!--del_lnk--> cnidaria), a difficult task since these creatures have never before encountered solid surfaces like the walls of a tank, and do not have the <!--del_lnk--> instincts to turn aside from the walls instead of running into them.<p>The first public aquarium opened in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>'s <a href="../../wp/r/Regent%2527s_Park.htm" title="Regent's Park">Regent's Park</a> in 1853. <!--del_lnk--> P.T. Barnum quickly followed with the first American aquarium, opened on <!--del_lnk--> Broadway in <!--del_lnk--> New York. Following early examples of Detroit, New York, <a href="../../wp/p/Philadelphia.htm" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/San_Francisco%252C_California.htm" title="San Francisco, California">San Francisco</a>, many major cities now have public aquaria.<p>Most public aquaria are located close to the <a href="../../wp/o/Ocean.htm" title="Ocean">ocean</a>, for a steady supply of natural seawater. An inland pioneer was <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago's</a> <!--del_lnk--> Shedd Aquarium that received seawater shipped by rail in special tank cars. The early (1911) <!--del_lnk--> Philadelphia Aquarium, built in the city's disused <!--del_lnk--> water works, ironically had to switch to treated city water when the nearby river became too contaminated. Similarly, the recently opened <!--del_lnk--> Georgia Aquarium filled its tanks with fresh water from the city water system and salinated its salt water exhibits using the same commercial salt and mineral additives available to home aquarists.<p>In January 1985 Kelly Tarlton began construction of the first aquarium to include a large transparent <!--del_lnk--> acrylic tunnel in <!--del_lnk--> Auckland, New Zealand, a task that took 10 months and cost NZ$3 million. The 110-meter tunnel was built from one-tonne slabs of German sheet plastic that were shaped locally in an oven. A moving walkway now transports visitors through, and groups of school children occasionally hold sleepovers there beneath the swimming sharks and rays.<p>Top public aquaria are often affiliated with important oceanographic research institutions or conduct their own research programs, and usually (though not always) specialize in species and ecosystems that can be found in local waters.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Glass', 'Water', 'Plant', 'Animal', 'Fish', 'Invertebrate', 'Reptile', 'England', 'Fresh water', 'Organism', 'Ecology', 'Nitrogen cycle', 'Bacteria', 'Whale shark', "People's Republic of China", 'Japan', 'Sumer', 'Pond', 'China', 'Goldfish', 'Oxyrhynchus', 'Ancient Egypt', 'London', 'Guangzhou', 'British East India Company', 'Biology', 'Netherlands', 'Great Britain', 'The Great Exhibition', 'Germany', 'Hamburg', 'Europe', 'World War I', 'Electricity', 'Asia', 'North America', 'United States', 'Protein', 'Fresh water', 'Chlorine', 'Tropics', 'Shark', 'Rome', 'Italy', 'Invertebrate', 'Crustacean', 'Ecology', 'Fungus', 'Nitrogen', 'Ammonia', 'Nitrogen cycle', 'Bacterium', 'Nitrification', 'Nitrogen cycle', 'Ammonia', 'Plant', 'Nitrogen', 'Goldfish', 'Dolphin', 'Shark', 'Otter', 'Penguin', 'London', "Regent's Park", 'Philadelphia', 'San Francisco, California', 'Ocean', 'Chicago'] |
Arab-Israeli_conflict | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" />
<meta content="Arab-Israeli conflict,Cold War,Arab-Israeli Conflict,Cold War,Arab-Israeli Conflict,1888,1920 Palestine riots,1929 Palestine riots,1936-1939 Arab revolt in Palestine,1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine,1947 Jerusalem riots" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Arab-Israeli conflict</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">/*<![CDATA[*/
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false;
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Arab-Israeli_conflict";
var wgTitle = "Arab-Israeli conflict";
var wgAction = "view";
var wgArticleId = "7960202";
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserGroups = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
var wgBreakFrames = false;
var wgCurRevisionId = "129977574";
/*]]>*/</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Arab-Israeli_conflict">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Arab-Israeli conflict</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Citizenship.Conflict_and_Peace.htm">Conflict and Peace</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; text-align: left; font-size: 95%;">
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><strong class="selflink">Arab-Israeli conflict</strong></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 90%; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; line-height: 1.25em;"><a class="image" href="../../images/187/18739.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="160" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arab_Israeli_Conflict_6.png" src="../../images/187/18739.png" width="300" /></a><br /> Israel and members of the <a href="../../wp/a/Arab_League.htm" title="Arab League">Arab League</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="font-size:80%; background-color:#f0f0f0;">
<td><span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#99CC33; color:#99CC33;"> </span> Arab League</span></td>
<td><span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#99CCFF; color:#99CCFF;"> </span> Israel</span></td>
</tr>
<tr style="font-size:80%; background-color:#f0f0f0;">
<td><span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#669933; color:#669933;"> </span> Have been at war with Israel</span></td>
<td><span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#CC0000; color:#CC0000;"> </span> Gaza Strip and West Bank</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table class="infobox" style="margin: 0; cellpadding: 0; padding: 0; border: 0;" width="100%">
<tr>
<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Date</th>
<td>Early <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a>-present</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Location</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Greater Middle East</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Result</th>
<td>Ongoing</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Combatants</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%">
<center>
<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/187/18741.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="63" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_League_of_Arab_States.svg" src="../../images/187/18741.png" width="125" /></a><br /><a href="../../wp/a/Arab_League.htm" title="Arab League">Arab nations</a></center>
</td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%">
<center><span style="display:inline;"><span style="display:table-cell; border:1px solid #ddd;"><a class="image" href="../../images/187/18742.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="87" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Israel.svg" src="../../images/187/18742.png" width="120" /></a></span></span> <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a></center>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">
<center>
<div style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: left; font-size: 125%;"><b>Arab-Israeli conflict series</b></div>
<div style="text-align: left; font-size: 120%;">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> History of the Arab-Israeli conflict<li><!--del_lnk--> Views of the Arab-Israeli conflict<li><!--del_lnk--> International law and the Arab-Israeli conflict<li><!--del_lnk--> Arab-Israeli conflict facts, figures, and statistics</ul>
</div>
<div style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: left; font-size: 125%;"><b>Participants</b></div>
<div style="text-align: center; font-size: 120%;">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Israeli-Palestinian conflict · <!--del_lnk--> Israel-Lebanon conflict · <!--del_lnk--> Arab League · <!--del_lnk--> Soviet Union / <!--del_lnk--> Russia · <!--del_lnk--> Israel and the United Nations · <!--del_lnk--> Iran-Israel relations · <!--del_lnk--> Israel-United States relations · <!--del_lnk--> Boycott of Israel</div>
<div style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: left; font-size: 125%;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Peace treaties and proposals</b></div>
<div style="text-align: center; font-size: 120%;">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Israel-Egypt · <!--del_lnk--> Israel-Jordan</div>
</center>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; text-align: left; font-size: 95%;">
<tr>
<th style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><strong class="selflink">Arab-Israeli conflict</strong></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Riots (1920) – <!--del_lnk--> Jaffa riots (1921) – <!--del_lnk--> Riots (1929) – <!--del_lnk--> Arab revolt (1936–1939) – <!--del_lnk--> Arab-Israeli War (1948–1949) – <!--del_lnk--> Suez Crisis (1956) – <!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War (1967) – <!--del_lnk--> War of Attrition (1968–1970) – <a href="../../wp/y/Yom_Kippur_War.htm" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War (1973)</a> – <!--del_lnk--> South Lebanon conflict (1978) – <!--del_lnk--> Lebanon War (1982) – <!--del_lnk--> South Lebanon conflict (1982–2000) – <!--del_lnk--> First Intifada (1987–1991) – <!--del_lnk--> Gulf War (1990–1991) – <!--del_lnk--> Second Intifada (2000–ongoing) – <!--del_lnk--> Lebanon War (2006)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
<br /> The <b>Arab-Israeli conflict</b> (<a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" xml:lang="ar">الصراع العربي الإسرائيلي</span>, <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" xml:lang="he">הסכסוך הישראלי ערבי</span>) spans about a century of political tensions and open hostilities. It involves the establishment of the modern <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">State of Israel</a>, as well as the establishment and independence of several <!--del_lnk--> Arab countries at the same time, and the relationship between the Arab nations and Israel (see related <!--del_lnk--> Israeli-Palestinian conflict).<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script>
<p><a id="Scope_of_the_conflict" name="Scope_of_the_conflict"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Scope of the conflict</span></h2>
<p>Some uses of the term <i><a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> conflict</i> refer to this matter; however, the region has been host to other conflicts not involving Israel (see <!--del_lnk--> List of conflicts in the Middle East).<p>Despite involving a relatively small land area and number of casualties, the conflict has been the focus of worldwide media and diplomatic attention for decades. Many countries, individuals and non-governmental organizations elsewhere in the world feel involved in this conflict for reasons such as cultural and religious ties with <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Arab culture, <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> or <!--del_lnk--> Jewish culture, or for ideological, <a href="../../wp/h/Human_rights.htm" title="Human rights">human rights</a>, strategic or financial reasons.<p>Because Israel is a democracy with a free press, the media have access to the conflict which also increases media coverage. Some consider the Arab-Israeli conflict a part of (or a precursor to) a wider <!--del_lnk--> clash of civilizations between the <!--del_lnk--> Western World and the <!--del_lnk--> Arab or <!--del_lnk--> Muslim world. Others claim that the religious dimension is a relatively new matter in this conflict. This conflict has engendered animosities igniting numerous attacks on and by supporters (or perceived supporters) of opposing sides in countries throughout the world.<p><a id="History_of_the_conflict" name="History_of_the_conflict"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">History of the conflict</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><a id="Beginning-1948" name="Beginning-1948"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Beginning-1948</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Jewish immigration into the <!--del_lnk--> Land of Israel/<!--del_lnk--> Palestine under the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman rule</a> and later under <!--del_lnk--> British mandate increased tensions between the Jewish population and the Arab population in the region.<p>By the end of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the conflict became a major international issue. The <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> were determined to initiate a <!--del_lnk--> two-state solution. The <!--del_lnk--> UN mandated partition was put into effect in 1948, but was rejected by the Palestinians and many Arab states.<p>Israel <!--del_lnk--> declared its independence on <!--del_lnk--> May 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1948. Almost immediately, <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Transjordan, and <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> declared war on the nascent nation. By the conclusion of the <!--del_lnk--> 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Israel had greatly expanded its borders, and signed <!--del_lnk--> ceasefire agreements with all its Arab neighbors.<p><a name="1949-June_11.2C_1967"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">1949-June 11, 1967</span></h3>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1949, Egypt closed the <!--del_lnk--> Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, and blockaded the <!--del_lnk--> Gulf of Aqaba, in contradiction to the terms of the <!--del_lnk--> Constantinople Convention of <!--del_lnk--> 1888. Many argued that this action also constituted a violation of the <!--del_lnk--> Rhodes armistice agreement. On <!--del_lnk--> July 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1956, Egypt nationalized the <!--del_lnk--> Suez Canal Company, and closed the canal to Israeli shipping.<p>Israel responded on <!--del_lnk--> October 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1956, by invading the <!--del_lnk--> Sinai Peninsula with British and <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> support. During the <!--del_lnk--> Suez Canal Crisis, Israel captured the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula. The <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> soon pressured it into a ceasefire, which secured open shipping in the region, complete Israeli withdrawal from Egyptian territory, and the total demilitarization of the Sinai. The <!--del_lnk--> United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) was deployed to oversee said demilitarization.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1967, Egypt expelled UNEF observers, and deployed 100,000 soldiers in the Sinai Peninsula. It then closed the straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, catapulting the region back to the pre-1956 status quo. On <!--del_lnk--> May 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1967, Jordan entered into the mutual defense pact between Egypt and Syria. President Nasser declared: "Our basic objective is the destruction of Israel. The Arab people want to fight."<p>In response, on <!--del_lnk--> June 5 Israel sent almost all of its planes on a <!--del_lnk--> preemptive mission in Egypt. The <!--del_lnk--> Israeli Air Force (AIF) destroyed most of the surprised <!--del_lnk--> Egyptian Air Force, then turned east to pulverize the Jordanian, Syrian and Iraqi air forces. This strike was the crucial element in Israel's victory in the <!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War.<p><a id="June_12.2C_1967-1973" name="June_12.2C_1967-1973"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">June 12, 1967-1973</span></h3>
<p>In the summer of 1967, Arab leaders met in Khartoum in response to the war, to discuss the Arab position toward Israel. They reached consensus that there should be:<ul>
<li>No recognition of the State of Israel.<li>No peace with Israel.<li>No negotiations with Israel.</ul>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1969, Egypt initiated the <!--del_lnk--> War of Attrition, with the goal of exhausting Israel into surrendering the Sinai Peninsula. The war ended following Nasser's death in <!--del_lnk--> 1970.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> October 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1973, Syria and Egypt attacked Israel on <!--del_lnk--> Yom Kippur, overwhelming the surprised Israeli military. The <a href="../../wp/y/Yom_Kippur_War.htm" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a> accomodated <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">indirect confrontation</a> between the US and the Soviet Union. When Israel had turned the tide of war, the USSR threatened military intervention. The United States, wary of <!--del_lnk--> nuclear war, secured a ceasefire on <!--del_lnk--> October 25.<p><a name="1974-2000"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">1974-2000</span></h3>
<dl>
<dt>Egypt</dl>
<p>Following the <!--del_lnk--> Camp David Accords of the late <!--del_lnk--> 1970s, Israel and Egypt signed a <!--del_lnk--> peace treaty in <!--del_lnk--> March, <!--del_lnk--> 1979. Under its terms, the Sinai Peninsula returned to Egyptian hands, and the Gaza Strip remained under Israeli control, to be included in a future <!--del_lnk--> Palestinian state.<dl>
<dt>Jordan</dl>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> October, <!--del_lnk--> 1994, Israel and Jordan signed a <!--del_lnk--> peace agreement, which stipulated mutual cooperation, an end of hostilities, and a resolution of other unsorted issues.<dl>
<dt>Iraq</dl>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> June, <!--del_lnk--> 1981, Israel successfully attacked and destroyed newly built Iraqi nuclear facilities in <!--del_lnk--> Operation Opera.<p>During the <!--del_lnk--> Gulf War, Iraq fired 39 missiles into Israel, in the hopes of uniting the Arab world against the coalition which sought to liberate Kuwait. At the behest of the United States, Israel did not respond to this attack in order to prevent a greater outbreak of war.<dl>
<dt>Lebanon</dl>
<p>In 1970, following an extended <!--del_lnk--> civil war, King Hussein expelled the PLO from Jordan. The PLO resettled in Lebanon, whence it staged raids into Israel. In <!--del_lnk--> 1981, Syria, allied with the PLO, positioned missiles in Lebanon. In <!--del_lnk--> June, <!--del_lnk--> 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon. Within two months, the PLO agreed to withdraw thence.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> March, <!--del_lnk--> 1983, Israel and Lebanon signed a ceasefire agreement. However, Syria pressured President <!--del_lnk--> Amin Gemayel into nullifying the truce in <!--del_lnk--> March, <!--del_lnk--> 1984. By <!--del_lnk--> 1985, Israeli forces had mostly withdrawn from Lebanon, and Israel completed its withdrawal in <!--del_lnk--> May <!--del_lnk--> 2000, leaving behind a power vacuum which Syria and <!--del_lnk--> Hezbollah soon filled. <dl>
<dt>Palestinians</dl>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1987, the <!--del_lnk--> First Intifada began. The PLO was excluded from negotiations to resolve it until it recognized Israel and renounced terrorism the following year. In <!--del_lnk--> 1993, Israel and the PLO signed the <!--del_lnk--> Oslo Accords, and their <i>Declaration of Principles</i>, which, together with the <!--del_lnk--> Road map for peace, have been loosely used as the guidelines for Israeli-Palestinian relations since. <p><a name="2000-present"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">2000-present</span></h3>
<p>As a response to the <!--del_lnk--> al-Aqsa Intifada,in which hundreds of Israeli civilians were killed, Israel raided terrorist facilities in major urban centers in the <a href="../../wp/w/West_Bank.htm" title="West Bank">West Bank</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 2002. Violence again swept through the region. Israeli Prime Minister <a href="../../wp/a/Ariel_Sharon.htm" title="Ariel Sharon">Ariel Sharon</a> began a policy of unilateral withdrawal from the Gaza Strip in <!--del_lnk--> 2003. This policy was fully implemented in <!--del_lnk--> August, <!--del_lnk--> 2005.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> July, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Hezbollah fighters attacked an Israeli convoy, kidnapping two soldiers and killing eight others, and setting off the <!--del_lnk--> 2006 Lebanon War. A UN-sponsored ceasefire went into effect on <!--del_lnk--> August 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, officially ending the conflict.<p>
<br /> Some has argued that the charge of antisemitism is being misused as a way to silence critisism of Israel. After <a href="../../wp/j/Jimmy_Carter.htm" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> published his book <i><!--del_lnk--> Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid</i> he was labelled an antisemite.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab-Israeli_conflict"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Arab League', '20th century', 'Arab League', 'Israel', 'Yom Kippur War', 'Arabic language', 'Hebrew language', 'Israel', 'Middle East', 'Islam', 'Christianity', 'Judaism', 'Human rights', 'Ottoman Empire', 'World War II', 'United Nations', 'United States', 'Soviet Union', 'Egypt', 'Lebanon', 'Syria', 'Iraq', 'France', 'United States', 'United Nations', 'Yom Kippur War', 'Cold War', 'West Bank', 'Ariel Sharon', 'Jimmy Carter'] |
Arab_League | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Arab League,Arab League,1945,1946,1953,1956,1958,1961,1962,1971,1973" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Arab League</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Arab_League";
var wgTitle = "Arab League";
var wgArticleId = 52625;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Arab_League">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Arab League</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Citizenship.Politics_and_government.htm">Politics and government</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="4" class="infobox" style="width: 300px; border-collapse:collapse; font-size: 95%;">
<caption style="font-size: larger;"><big><big><b>Arab League</b></big></big></caption>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/187/18741.png.htm" title="Flag of the Arab League"><img alt="Flag of the Arab League" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_League_of_Arab_States.svg" src="../../images/3/383.png" width="225" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Flag of the Arab League</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2" style="background: #fff;"><a class="image" href="../../images/3/384.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="99" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arab_League-Map-WS.PNG" src="../../images/3/384.png" width="225" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Formation of League of Arab States</b></td>
<td>
<br /> March 22, 1945 (<small><!--del_lnk--> Alexandria Protocol</small>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Member <!--del_lnk--> states</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 22</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Official language</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Arabic</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Arab League headquarters</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, Egypt (<a href="../../wp/t/Tunis.htm" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, Tunisia 1979-1989)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Council</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Arab Parliament</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Nabih Berri</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Official Website</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> http://Arableagueonline.org/</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>Arab League</b> or <b>League of Arab States</b> (<a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span dir="rtl" lang="ar" style="white-space: nowrap;" xml:lang="ar">جامعة الدول العربية</span>‎), is an organization of predominately <!--del_lnk--> Arab states (compare <!--del_lnk--> Arab world). Headquartered in <a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, the League's charter states that the League shall co-ordinate economic affairs, including commercial relations; communications; cultural affairs; nationality, passports, and visas; social affairs; and health affairs. The Charter of the Arab League also forbids member states from resorting to force against each other.<p>Seven states formed the Arab League on March 22, 1945, defining its main goals as to:<dl>
<dd><i>Serve the common good of all Arab countries, ensure better conditions for all Arab countries, guarantee the future of all Arab countries and fulfill the hopes and expectations of all Arab countries.</i></dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/385.gif.htm" title="Arab League members, Western Sahara in Darker Green"><img alt="Arab League members, Western Sahara in Darker Green" height="171" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LAS-Map.GIF" src="../../images/3/385.gif" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/3/385.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Arab League members, <a href="../../wp/w/Western_Sahara.htm" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a> in Darker Green</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Membership" name="Membership"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Membership</span></h2>
<p>The current members of the Arab League <!--del_lnk--> and the date of their admission:<ul>
<li><a class="image" href="../../images/72/7234.png.htm" title="Flag of Egypt"><img alt="Flag of Egypt" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Egypt.svg" src="../../images/3/386.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> - <!--del_lnk--> March 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1945 (Founder)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/3/387.png.htm" title="Flag of Iraq"><img alt="Flag of Iraq" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Iraq.svg" src="../../images/3/387.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> - <!--del_lnk--> March 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1945 (Founder)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/72/7232.png.htm" title="Flag of Jordan"><img alt="Flag of Jordan" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Jordan.svg" src="../../images/3/388.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> - <!--del_lnk--> March 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1945 (Founder) (entered when still using the name "<!--del_lnk--> Transjordan")<li><a class="image" href="../../images/6/615.png.htm" title="Flag of Lebanon"><img alt="Flag of Lebanon" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Lebanon.svg" src="../../images/3/389.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> - <!--del_lnk--> March 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1945 (Founder)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/3/390.png.htm" title="Flag of Saudi Arabia"><img alt="Flag of Saudi Arabia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg" src="../../images/3/390.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> - <!--del_lnk--> March 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1945 (Founder)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/41/4115.png.htm" title="Flag of Syria"><img alt="Flag of Syria" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Syria.svg" src="../../images/3/391.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a> - <!--del_lnk--> March 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1945 (Founder)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/187/18743.png.htm" title="Flag of Yemen"><img alt="Flag of Yemen" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Yemen.svg" src="../../images/3/392.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/y/Yemen.htm" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> - <!--del_lnk--> May 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1945 (Founder)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/3/393.png.htm" title="Flag of Libya"><img alt="Flag of Libya" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Libya.svg" src="../../images/3/393.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/l/Libya.htm" title="Libya">Libya</a> - <!--del_lnk--> March 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1953<sup>1</sup><li><a class="image" href="../../images/3/394.png.htm" title="Flag of Sudan"><img alt="Flag of Sudan" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Sudan.svg" src="../../images/3/394.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> - <!--del_lnk--> January 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1956<li><a class="image" href="../../images/3/395.png.htm" title="Flag of Morocco"><img alt="Flag of Morocco" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Morocco.svg" src="../../images/3/395.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> - <!--del_lnk--> October 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1958<li><a class="image" href="../../images/3/396.png.htm" title="Flag of Tunisia"><img alt="Flag of Tunisia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Tunisia.svg" src="../../images/3/396.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/t/Tunisia.htm" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> - <!--del_lnk--> October 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1958<li><a class="image" href="../../images/3/397.png.htm" title="Flag of Kuwait"><img alt="Flag of Kuwait" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Kuwait.svg" src="../../images/3/397.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> - <!--del_lnk--> July 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1961<li><a class="image" href="../../images/3/398.png.htm" title="Flag of Algeria"><img alt="Flag of Algeria" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Algeria_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/3/398.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> - <!--del_lnk--> August 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1962<li><a class="image" href="../../images/0/12.png.htm" title="Flag of United Arab Emirates"><img alt="Flag of United Arab Emirates" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg" src="../../images/0/12.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_Arab_Emirates.htm" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> - <!--del_lnk--> June 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1971<li><a class="image" href="../../images/3/399.png.htm" title="Flag of Bahrain"><img alt="Flag of Bahrain" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Bahrain_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/3/399.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Bahrain.htm" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> - <!--del_lnk--> September 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1971<li><a class="image" href="../../images/56/5654.png.htm" title="Flag of Qatar"><img alt="Flag of Qatar" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Qatar_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/4/400.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/q/Qatar.htm" title="Qatar">Qatar</a> - <!--del_lnk--> September 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1971<li><a class="image" href="../../images/4/401.png.htm" title="Flag of Oman"><img alt="Flag of Oman" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Oman_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/4/401.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/o/Oman.htm" title="Oman">Oman</a> - <!--del_lnk--> September 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1971<li><a class="image" href="../../images/4/402.png.htm" title="Flag of Mauritania"><img alt="Flag of Mauritania" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Mauritania.svg" src="../../images/4/402.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> - <!--del_lnk--> November 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1973<li><a class="image" href="../../images/4/403.png.htm" title="Flag of Somalia"><img alt="Flag of Somalia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Somalia.svg" src="../../images/4/403.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> - <!--del_lnk--> February 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1974<li><a class="image" href="../../images/11/1149.png.htm" title="Flag of Palestine"><img alt="Flag of Palestine" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Palestine.svg" src="../../images/4/404.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> State of Palestine - succeeding to the position held by the <!--del_lnk--> Palestine Liberation Organization since <!--del_lnk--> September 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1976<li><a class="image" href="../../images/4/405.png.htm" title="Flag of Djibouti"><img alt="Flag of Djibouti" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Djibouti.svg" src="../../images/4/405.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/d/Djibouti.htm" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> - <!--del_lnk--> April 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1977<li><a class="image" href="../../images/4/406.png.htm" title="Flag of Comoros"><img alt="Flag of Comoros" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Comoros.svg" src="../../images/4/406.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Comoros.htm" title="Comoros">Comoros</a> - <!--del_lnk--> November 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1993</ul>
<p>In January 2003, <a class="image" href="../../images/4/407.png.htm" title="Flag of Eritrea"><img alt="Flag of Eritrea" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Eritrea.svg" src="../../images/4/407.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/e/Eritrea.htm" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> joined the Arab League as an observer.<p><a id="Comparisons_with_other_organizations" name="Comparisons_with_other_organizations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Comparisons with other organizations</span></h2>
<p>The Arab League resembles the <!--del_lnk--> Organization of American States, the <!--del_lnk--> Council of Europe, and the <a href="../../wp/a/African_Union.htm" title="African Union">African Union</a>, in that it has primarily political aims; one can regard each of these organizations as a regional version of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>. However, its membership is based on culture rather than geographical location (which is the basis for membership of the other organizations cited above). In this respect the Arab League may bring to mind organizations such as the <!--del_lnk--> Latin Union or the <!--del_lnk--> Nordic Council.<p>The Arab League differs notably from some other regional organizations such as the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>, in that it has not achieved any significant degree of regional integration and the organization itself has no direct relations with the citizens of its member states.<p>All Arab League members are also members of the <!--del_lnk--> Organisation of the Islamic Conference. In turn, the memberships of the smaller <!--del_lnk--> GCC and <!--del_lnk--> Arab Maghreb Union organizations are subsets of that of the Arab League.<p><a id="Administration" name="Administration"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administration</span></h2>
<div style="clear: both">
</div>
<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="border-collapse:collapse;" width="65%">
<caption><b>Secretaries-General of the Arab League</b></caption>
<tr style="background-color:#e9e9e9">
<th>Name</th>
<th>Nationality</th>
<th>Appointed</th>
<th>Left Office</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam</td>
<td>Egypt</td>
<td>1945</td>
<td>1952</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Abdul Khlek Hassouna</td>
<td>Egypt</td>
<td>1952</td>
<td>1972</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mahmoud Riad</td>
<td>Egypt</td>
<td>1972</td>
<td>1979</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chedli Klibi</td>
<td>Tunisia</td>
<td>1979</td>
<td>1990</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Dr. <!--del_lnk--> Ahmad Esmat Abd al Meguid</td>
<td>Egypt</td>
<td>1991</td>
<td>2001</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Amr Moussa</td>
<td>Egypt</td>
<td>2001</td>
<td>present</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Timeline" name="Timeline"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Timeline</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>1942: The <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> promotes the idea of an Arab League in an attempt to win over Arabs as allies in war against <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>.<li>1944: Official representatives from Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, North Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Transjordan (Jordan and Palestine) meet in <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria, Egypt, and agree to form the League of Arab States.<li>1945: Arab states sign the Arab League Pact, formally inaugurating the League.<li>1945: Arab league member states declare a boycott of Jewish businesses in Palestine (continued after the establishment of Israel as the <!--del_lnk--> Arab League boycott).<li>1946: Arab League members sign the Cultural Treaty.<li>1948: Arab League members declare war on <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a>.<li>1950: League members sign the Joint Defence and Economic Cooperation Treaty.<li>1953: Members establish the Economic and Social Council; Libya joins the Arab League.<li>1956: Sudan joins the Arab League.<li>1958: Morocco and Tunisia join the Arab League; The United Nations recognizes the League and designates it as the UN's organisation for education, science and culture in the Arab region.<li>1961: Kuwait joins the Arab League.<li>1962: Algeria joins the Arab League.<li>1964: The first summit convenes in Cairo; the <!--del_lnk--> Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALESCO) forms; a second league summit that autumn welcomes the establishment of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).<li>1967: South Yemen joins the Arab League.<li>1971: Oman, Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates join the Arab League.<li>1973: Mauritania joins the Arab League.<li>1974: Somalia and Palestine (represented by the PLO) join the Arab League.<li>1976: Arab League summit in Cairo authorises the formation and deployment of an Arab peacekeeping force, mainly Syrian, in Lebanon.<li>1977: Djibouti joins the Arab League.<li>1979: The League suspends Egypt's membership in the wake of President <!--del_lnk--> Anwar Sadat's visit to <a href="../../wp/j/Jerusalem.htm" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> and of Egypt's peace agreement with Israel; the Arab League moves its headquarters to <a href="../../wp/t/Tunis.htm" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>.<li>1987: The Arab League unanimously endorses a statement on Iraq's defense of its legitimate rights in its dispute with <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a>.<li>1989: The League re-admits Egypt as a member; the League's headquarters returns to Cairo.<li>1990 (May): A summit meeting in <a href="../../wp/b/Baghdad.htm" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> criticizes Western efforts to prevent Iraq from developing advanced weapons technology.<li>1990 (August): At an emergency summit, 12 out of the 20 states present condemn the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait; unified Yemen joins the Arab League.<li>1993: Comoros joins the Arab League.<li>1994: The Arab League condemns the <!--del_lnk--> Gulf Cooperation Council's decision to end the secondary and tertiary trade embargo against Israel, insisting that only <i>the Council of the Arab League</i> can make such a policy change, and member states can not act independently on such matters.<li>1996: The Arab League Council determines that Iraq, Syria and <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> should share the waters of the <a href="../../wp/e/Euphrates.htm" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Tigris.htm" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> rivers equitably between them. (This followed complaints by Syria and Iraq that extensive construction work in southern Turkey had started to restrict their water-supply.)<li>1998: The Arab League Secretary-General condemns the use or threat of force against Iraq; Arab League interior and justice ministers sign an agreement to strengthen cooperation against <a href="../../wp/t/Terrorism.htm" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a>; the Arab League denounces bomb attacks against <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a> embassies in <a href="../../wp/k/Kenya.htm" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Tanzania.htm" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> and U.S. missile strikes against <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>.<li>2002: <!--del_lnk--> Arab Peace Initiative. During an annual <!--del_lnk--> summit in Beirut in March, the Arab League proposes full normalization of relations with <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> in exchange for Israeli withdrawal to the 1967 <!--del_lnk--> internationally recognized borders, implying Israeli evacuation of the <a href="../../wp/w/West_Bank.htm" title="West Bank">West Bank</a>, the <a href="../../wp/g/Gaza_Strip.htm" title="Gaza Strip">Gaza Strip</a>, <!--del_lnk--> east Jerusalem, the <!--del_lnk--> Golan Heights and the return of all Palestinian refugees and their descendants to Israel.<li>2002: Libyan leader <!--del_lnk--> Moammar Gadhafi threatens to withdraw from the League, because of "Arab incapacity" in resolving the crises between the United States and Iraq and the <!--del_lnk--> Israeli-Palestinian conflict.<li>2003: The League votes 21-1 in favour of a resolution demanding the immediate and unconditional removal of U.S. and British <!--del_lnk--> soldiers from Iraq. (Kuwait casts the lone dissenting vote.)<li>2006: Arab League Members decide to break the sanctions against the Palestinian Government of <!--del_lnk--> Hamas, by letting its <!--del_lnk--> banks function inside the Gaza Strip, in response to a widely condemned massacre in <!--del_lnk--> Beit Hanun, by Israeli Forces.</ul>
<p><a id="Arab_League_Summits" name="Arab_League_Summits"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Arab League Summits</span></h2>
<ol>
<li>Cairo, Egypt: 13-17 Jan. 1964.<li>Alexandria, Egypt: 5-11 Sep. 1964.<li>Al-Daralbidia (Casablanca), Morocco : 13-17 Sep. 1965.<li>Al-Kortom (Khartoum), Sudan: 29 Aug. 1967.<li>Al-Rabat, Morocco: 21-23 Dec. 1969.<li>Cairo, Egypt (first emergency summit): 21-27 Sep. 1970<li>Algiers, Algeria: 26-28 Nov. 1973.<li>Al-Rabat, Morocco: 29 Oct. 1974.<li>Al-Reiad (Riyadh), Saudi Arabia (2nd emergency summit): 17-28 Oct. 1976.<li>Cairo, Egypt: 25-26 Oct. 1976.<li>Baghdad, Iraq: 2-5 Nov. 1978.<li>Tunis, Tunisia: 20-22 Nov. 1979.<li>Amman, Jordan: 21-22 Nov. 1980.<li>Fes, Morocco: 6-9 Sep. 1982.<li>Al-Daralbidia (Casablanca), Morocco (3rd emergency summit): 7-9 Sep. 1985<li>Amman, Jordan (4th emergency summit): 8-12 Nov. 1987.<li>Algiers, Algeria (5th emergency summit): 7-9 Jun. 1988.<li>Al-Daralbidia (Casablanca), Morocco (6th emergency summit): 23-26 Jun. 1989.<li>Baghdad, Iraq (7th emergency summit): 28-30 Mar. 1990.<li>Cairo, Egypt (8th emergency summit): 9-10 Aug. 1990<li>Cairo, Egypt (9th emergency summit): 22-23 Jun. 1996.<li>Cairo, Egypt (10th emergency summit): 21-22 Oct. 2000.<li>Amman, Jordan: 27-28 Mar. 2001.<li>Beirut, Lebanon: 27-28 Mar. 2002.<li>Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt: 1 Mar. 2003.<li>Tunis, Tunisia: 22-23 May. 2004.<li>Algiers, Algeria: 22-23 Mar. 2005.<li>Khartoum, Sudan: 28-30 Mar. 2006.<li>In 2007 the summit will be held in Cairo, Egypt.</ol>
<ul>
<li>Summit number 12 in Fes, Morocco occurred in two stages: <ul>
<li>On <!--del_lnk--> 25 November <!--del_lnk--> 1981: The meeting ended without agreeing on the document and Egypt not shared in it. It is considered the shortest summit, only lasting 5 hours.<li>On 6-<!--del_lnk--> 9 September <!--del_lnk--> 1982.</ul>
<li>There are two summits other than the aforementioned, but they are not added to the system of Arab League summits: <ul>
<li>Anshas, Egypt: 28-<!--del_lnk--> 29 May <!--del_lnk--> 1946.<li>Beirut, Lebanon: <!--del_lnk--> 13-<!--del_lnk--> 15 November <!--del_lnk--> 1956.</ul>
</ul>
<p><a id="Organization" name="Organization"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Organization</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Secretary General of the League of Arab States<li>Deputy Secretary General of the Arab League<li><!--del_lnk--> The Council of the Arab League<li><!--del_lnk--> Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development (AFESD)<li><!--del_lnk--> Technical Committees<li><!--del_lnk--> Arab Air Carriers Organization<li><!--del_lnk--> Specialized Ministerial Councils<li><!--del_lnk--> Arab Specialized Organizations<li><!--del_lnk--> Arab Unions<li><!--del_lnk--> Joint Arab-Foreign Chambers Of Commerce<li>Missions<li>General Secretariat Departments<li>General Secretariat Sub Departments</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_League"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Cairo', 'Tunis', 'Sudan', 'Arabic language', 'Cairo', 'Egypt', 'Western Sahara', 'Egypt', 'Iraq', 'Jordan', 'Lebanon', 'Saudi Arabia', 'Syria', 'Yemen', 'Libya', 'Sudan', 'Morocco', 'Tunisia', 'Kuwait', 'Algeria', 'United Arab Emirates', 'Bahrain', 'Qatar', 'Oman', 'Mauritania', 'Somalia', 'Djibouti', 'Comoros', 'Eritrea', 'African Union', 'United Nations', 'European Union', 'United Kingdom', 'Germany', 'Israel', 'Jerusalem', 'Tunis', 'Iran', 'Baghdad', 'Turkey', 'Euphrates', 'Tigris', 'Terrorism', 'United States', 'Kenya', 'Tanzania', 'Afghanistan', 'Sudan', 'Israel', 'West Bank', 'Gaza Strip'] |
Arabic_language | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Arabic language,6th century,786,Academy of the Arabic Language,Accusative case,African Union,Afro-Asiatic languages,Al-Andalus,Alchemy,Alcohol,Algebra" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Arabic language</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Arabic_language";
var wgTitle = "Arabic language";
var wgArticleId = 803;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Arabic_language">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Arabic language</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Languages.htm">Languages</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox bordered" style="width:270px;">
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="text-align: center; font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: yellow;">Arabic<br /> العربية <i><span class="Arabic Unicode" lang="ar-Latn" style="white-space: nowrap; text-decoration: none" title="DIN 31635 Arabic transliteration" xml:lang="ar-Latn">al-‘arabiyyah</span></i> </th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="vertical-align: middle; padding-left: 0.5em;"><b>al-‘Arabiyyah</b> in written Arabic (<!--del_lnk--> Kufic script):</td>
<td colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/4/409.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arabic_Text.png" src="../../images/4/409.png" width="200" /></a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;">Pronunciation:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/alˌʕa.raˈbij.ja/</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;">Spoken in:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bahrain.htm" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Libya.htm" title="Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Oman.htm" title="Oman">Oman</a>, <a href="../../wp/q/Qatar.htm" title="Qatar">Qatar</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Tunisia.htm" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Arab_Emirates.htm" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Palestinian_territories.htm" title="Palestinian territories">Palestinian territories</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Western_Sahara.htm" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a> (<!--del_lnk--> SADR), <a href="../../wp/y/Yemen.htm" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> by a majority, and in many other countries, such as <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a>, as a <!--del_lnk--> minority language; it is also the <!--del_lnk--> liturgical language of <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="top; padding-left: 0.5em;">Region:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> Arab world</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;">Total speakers:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;">Approximately 270 million (206 million according to <!--del_lnk--> Ethnologue, native speakers of all dialects 1998 est.); 323 million (population of <!--del_lnk--> Arab countries, <!--del_lnk--> CIA World Factbook 2006 est.), excluding Arab minorities in other countries and bilingual speakers </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> Ranking:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;">5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> Language family:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Afro-Asiatic<br /><span style="font-size:66%;"> </span><!--del_lnk--> Semitic<br /><span style="font-size:66%;"> </span><!--del_lnk--> West Semitic<br /><span style="font-size:66%;"> </span><!--del_lnk--> Central Semitic<br /><span style="font-size:66%;"> </span><b>Arabic</b> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> Writing system:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> Arabic alphabet </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="text-align: center; color: black; background-color: yellow;">Official status</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;">Official language of:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bahrain.htm" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Comoros.htm" title="Comoros">Comoros</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Chad.htm" title="Chad">Chad</a>, <a href="../../wp/d/Djibouti.htm" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Eritrea.htm" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Libya.htm" title="Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Oman.htm" title="Oman">Oman</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Palestinian Authority, <a href="../../wp/q/Qatar.htm" title="Qatar">Qatar</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Western_Sahara.htm" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a> (<!--del_lnk--> SADR), <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Tunisia.htm" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Arab_Emirates.htm" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>, <a href="../../wp/y/Yemen.htm" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>; <p>
<br /> A <!--del_lnk--> national language of: <a href="../../wp/m/Mali.htm" title="Mali">Mali</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Senegal.htm" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Hassaniya), <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>.<br /> International organizations: <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Arab_League.htm" title="Arab League">Arab League</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Organization of Islamic Conference, <a href="../../wp/a/African_Union.htm" title="African Union">African Union</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> Regulated by:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>: <!--del_lnk--> Academy of the Arabic Language</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="text-align: center; color: black; background-color: yellow;">Language codes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> ISO 639-1:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><tt>ar</tt></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> ISO 639-2:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><tt>ara</tt></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> ISO/FDIS 639-3:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><tt><!--del_lnk--> ara</tt> — Arabic (generic)<br /><i>see <!--del_lnk--> varieties of Arabic for the individual codes</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="boilerplate metadata" colspan="3" style="padding: 0.5em;"><small><b>Note</b>: This page may contain <!--del_lnk--> IPA <!--del_lnk--> phonetic symbols in <!--del_lnk--> Unicode. See <!--del_lnk--> IPA chart for English for an <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>-<span class="Unicode">​</span>based pronunciation key.</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>Arabic language</b> (<b><span lang="ar" xml:lang="ar">اللغة العربية</span></b> <span class="Arabic Unicode" lang="ar-Latn" style="white-space: nowrap; text-decoration: none" title="DIN 31635 Arabic transliteration" xml:lang="ar-Latn">al-luġah al-ʿarabiyyah</span>), or simply <b>Arabic</b> (<b><span lang="ar" xml:lang="ar">عربي</span></b> <span class="Arabic Unicode" lang="ar-Latn" style="white-space: nowrap; text-decoration: none" title="DIN 31635 Arabic transliteration" xml:lang="ar-Latn">ʿarabī</span>), is the largest member of the <!--del_lnk--> Semitic branch of the <!--del_lnk--> Afro-Asiatic <!--del_lnk--> language family (classification: South Central Semitic) and is closely related to <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Amharic and <!--del_lnk--> Aramaic. It is spoken throughout the <!--del_lnk--> Arab world and is widely studied and known throughout the <!--del_lnk--> Islamic world. <!--del_lnk--> Classical Arabic has been a <!--del_lnk--> literary language since at least the <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th century</a> and is the <!--del_lnk--> liturgical language of <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a>. Because of its liturgical role, Arabic has lent many words to other Islamic languages, akin to the role <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> has in Western European languages. During the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> Arabic was also a major vehicle of culture, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy, with the result that many European languages have also borrowed numerous words from it. The <!--del_lnk--> Arabic script is written from <!--del_lnk--> right to left.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Literary_and_Modern_Standard_Arabic" name="Literary_and_Modern_Standard_Arabic"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Literary and Modern Standard Arabic</span></h2>
<p>The term "Arabic" may refer either to <!--del_lnk--> literary Arabic (<i><span class="Unicode">fuṣḥā</span></i>) or to the many localized <!--del_lnk--> varieties of Arabic commonly called "colloquial Arabic." Arabs consider literary Arabic as the standard language and tend to view everything else as mere dialects. Literary Arabic (<b><span lang="ar" xml:lang="ar">اللغة العربية الفصحى</span></b> <!--del_lnk--> translit: al-lughatu’l-‘arabiyyatu’l-fu<span class="Arabic Unicode" lang="ar-Latn" style="white-space: nowrap; text-decoration: none" title="DIN 31635 Arabic transliteration" xml:lang="ar-Latn">ṣḥ</span>ā "the most eloquent Arabic language"), refers both to the language of present-day media across <a href="../../wp/n/North_Africa.htm" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and to the language of the <a href="../../wp/q/Qur%2527an.htm" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>. (The expression <i>media</i> here includes most television and radio, and practically all written matter, including all books, newspapers, magazines, documents of every kind, and reading primers for small children.) <!--del_lnk--> "Colloquial" or "dialectal" Arabic refers to the many national or regional varieties derived from Classical Arabic, spoken daily across <a href="../../wp/n/North_Africa.htm" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, which constitute the everyday spoken language. These sometimes differ enough to be mutually incomprehensible. These dialects are not typically written, although a certain amount of literature (particularly plays and poetry) exists in many of them. They are often used to varying degrees in informal spoken media, such as <!--del_lnk--> soap operas and <!--del_lnk--> talk shows. Literary Arabic or classical Arabic is the official language of all Arab countries and is the only form of Arabic taught in schools at all stages.<p>The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of <!--del_lnk--> diglossia–the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their local dialect and their school-taught literary Arabic (to an equal or lesser degree). This diglossic situation facilitates <!--del_lnk--> code switching in which a speaker switches back and forth unaware between the two varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. In instances in which Arabs of different nationalities engage in conversation only to find their dialects mutually unintelligible (e.g. a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), both should be able to code switch into Literary Arabic for the sake of communication.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:343px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/410.png.htm" title="This image shows where Arabic is the only official language (green) and where Arabic is one of the official languages (blue)."><img alt="This image shows where Arabic is the only official language (green) and where Arabic is one of the official languages (blue)." height="243" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arabic_speaking_world.png" src="../../images/4/410.png" width="341" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/410.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> This image shows where Arabic is the only official language (green) and where Arabic is one of the official languages (blue).</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Like other languages, literary Arabic continues to evolve and one can distinguish <!--del_lnk--> Classical Arabic (especially from the pre-Islamic to the Abbasid period, including Qur'anic Arabic) and <!--del_lnk--> Modern Standard Arabic as used today. Classical Arabic is considered normative; modern authors attempt (with varying degrees of success) to follow the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by Classical grammarians (such as <!--del_lnk--> Sibawayh), and to use the vocabulary defined in Classical dictionaries (such as the Lisan al-Arab.) However, the exigencies of modernity have led to the adoption of numerous terms which would have been mysterious to a Classical author, whether taken from other languages (eg فيلم <i>film</i>) or coined from existing lexical resources (eg هاتف <i>hātif</i> "telephone" < "caller"). Structural influence from foreign languages or from the colloquials has also affected Modern Standard Arabic: for example, MSA texts sometimes use the format "X, X, X, and X" when listing things, whereas Classical Arabic prefers "X and X and X and X", and subject-initial sentences are significantly more common in MSA than in Classical Arabic. For these reasons, Modern Standard Arabic is generally treated separately in non-Arab sources.<p><a id="The_influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages" name="The_influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The influence of Arabic on other languages</span></h2>
<p>In common with other European languages, many <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> words are derived from Arabic, often through other European languages, especially <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Italian. Among them every-day vocabulary like "<a href="../../wp/s/Sugar.htm" title="Sugar">sugar</a>" (<i>sukkar</i>), "<a href="../../wp/c/Cotton.htm" title="Cotton">cotton</a>" (<i><span class="Unicode">quṭn</span></i>) or "magazine" (<i><!--del_lnk--> <span class="Arabic Unicode" lang="ar-Latn" style="white-space: nowrap; text-decoration: none" title="DIN 31635 Arabic transliteration" xml:lang="ar-Latn">maḫāzin</span></i>). More recognizable are words like "<a href="../../wp/a/Algebra.htm" title="Algebra">algebra</a>", "<a href="../../wp/a/Alcohol.htm" title="Alcohol">alcohol</a>", "<a href="../../wp/a/Alchemy.htm" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>", "<!--del_lnk--> alkali" and "<!--del_lnk--> zenith" (see <!--del_lnk--> list of English words of Arabic origin).<p>The influence of Arabic has been most profound in those countries dominated by Islam or Islamic power. Arabic is a major source of vocabulary for languages as diverse as <a href="../../wp/b/Berber_languages.htm" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Kurdish, <!--del_lnk--> Persian, <!--del_lnk--> Swahili, <!--del_lnk--> Urdu, <a href="../../wp/h/Hindi.htm" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> (especially the spoken variety), <!--del_lnk--> Turkish, <!--del_lnk--> Malay, and <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesian_language.htm" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a>, as well as other languages in countries where these languages are spoken. For example the Arabic word for <i>book</i> /kita:b/ is used in all the languages listed, apart from Malay and Indonesian (where it specifically means "religious book").<p>The terms borrowed range from religious terminology (like Berber <span class="Unicode"><i>taẓallit</i></span> "prayer" < <!--del_lnk--> salat), academic terms (like <!--del_lnk--> Uyghur <i>mentiq</i> "logic"), economic items (like English "sugar") to <!--del_lnk--> placeholders (like Spanish <i>fulano</i> "so and so") and everyday conjunctions (like Urdu <i>lekin</i> "but".) Most Berber varieties (such as <!--del_lnk--> Kabyle), along with Swahili, borrow some numbers from Arabic. Most religious terms used by Muslims around the world are direct borrowings from Arabic, such as <i>salat</i> 'prayer' and <i>imam</i> 'prayer leader'. In languages not directly in contact with the Arab world, Arabic loanwords are often mediated by other languages rather than being transferred directly from Arabic; for example, most Arabic loanwords in Urdu entered through Persian, and many older Arabic loanwords in <!--del_lnk--> Hausa were borrowed from <!--del_lnk--> Kanuri.<p>Between the 9th and the 15th centuries <a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> acquired about 1000 words from Arabic by influence of <!--del_lnk--> Moorish Iberia. They are often recognizable by the initial Arabic article <i>a</i>(<i>l</i>)<i>-</i>, and include many common words such as <i>aldeia</i> "village" from <i>التجارية</i> <i>aldaya</i>, <i>alface</i> "lettuce" from <i>الخس</i> <i>alkhass</i>, <i>armazém</i> "warehouse" from <i>المخزن</i> <i>almahazan</i>, and <i>azeite</i> "olive oil" from <i>زيت</i> <i>azzait</i>. From Arabic came also the grammatically peculiar word <!--del_lnk--> <i>oxalá</i> "God willing".<p><a id="Arabic_and_Islam" name="Arabic_and_Islam"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Arabic and Islam</span></h2>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/q/Qur%2527an.htm" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> is expressed in Arabic and traditionally <!--del_lnk--> Muslims deem it impossible to translate in a way that would adequately reflect its exact meaning—indeed, until recently, some schools of thought maintained that it should not be translated at all. A <!--del_lnk--> list of Islamic terms in Arabic covers those terms which are used by all Muslims, whatever their mother tongue. While Arabic is strongly associated with <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a> (and is the language of <!--del_lnk--> salah, prayer), it is also spoken by <!--del_lnk--> Arab Christians, <!--del_lnk--> Mizrahi <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jews</a>, and smaller sects such as Iraqi <!--del_lnk--> Mandaeans.<p>A majority of the world's <!--del_lnk--> Muslims do not speak Arabic, but only know some fixed phrases of the language, such as those used in Islamic prayer, without necessarily knowing their meaning. However, learning Arabic is an essential part of the curriculum for anyone attempting to become an Islamic religious scholar.<p><a id="Dialects_and_descendants" name="Dialects_and_descendants"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Dialects and descendants</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>"Colloquial Arabic" is a collective term for the spoken languages or dialects of people throughout the Arab world, which, as mentioned, differ radically from the <!--del_lnk--> literary language. The main dialectal division is between the North African dialects and those of the Middle East, followed by that between sedentary dialects and the much more conservative <!--del_lnk--> Bedouin dialects. Speakers of some of these dialects are unable to converse with speakers of another dialect of Arabic; in particular, while Middle Easterners can generally understand one another, they often have trouble understanding North Africans (although the converse is not true, due to the popularity of Middle Eastern—especially Egyptian—films and other media).<p>One factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas, which have typically provided a significant number of new words, and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order; however, a much more significant factor for most dialects is, as among <!--del_lnk--> Romance languages, retention (or change of meaning) of different classical forms. Thus Iraqi <i>aku</i>, Levantine <i>fīh</i>, and North African <i>kayən</i> all mean "there is", and all come from classical Arabic forms (<i>yakūn</i>, <i>fīhi</i>, <i>kā'in</i> respectively), but now sound very different.<p>The major groups are:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Egyptian Arabic مصري : Spoken by about 46 million people in Egypt and perhaps the most widely understood variety, thanks to the popularity of Egyptian-made films and TV shows<li><!--del_lnk--> Maghreb Arabic مغربي (<!--del_lnk--> Algerian Arabic, <!--del_lnk--> Moroccan Arabic, <!--del_lnk--> Tunisian Arabic, <!--del_lnk--> Maltese and western Libyan) The Moroccan and Algerian dialects are each spoken by about 20 million people.<li><!--del_lnk--> Levantine Arabic شامي (Western <!--del_lnk--> Syrian, <!--del_lnk--> Lebanese, <!--del_lnk--> Palestinian, western Jordanian and <!--del_lnk--> Cypriot Maronite Arabic)<li><!--del_lnk--> Iraqi Arabic عراقي (and <!--del_lnk--> Khuzestani Arabic) - with significant differences between the more Arabian-like <i>gilit</i>-dialects of the south and the more conservative <i>qeltu</i>-dialects of the northern cities<li><!--del_lnk--> East Arabian Arabic (Eastern Saudi Arabia, Western Iraq, Eastern Syrian , Jordanian and parts of Oman)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gulf Arabic or Khaleeji (Arabic script: خليجي) (Bahrain, Saudi Eastern Province, Kuwait, UAE, Qatar, and Oman)</ul>
<p>Other varieties include:<ul>
<li><span class="Unicode"><!--del_lnk--> Ḥassānīya</span> (in Mauritania and western Sahara)<li><!--del_lnk--> Andalusi Arabic (extinct, but important role in literary history)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sudanese Arabic (with a <!--del_lnk--> dialect continuum into Chad)<li><!--del_lnk--> Hijazi Arabic حجازي (west coast of Saudi Arabia, Northern Saudi Arabia, eastern Jordan, Western Iraq)<li><!--del_lnk--> Najdi Arabic نجدي (Najd region of central Saudi Arabia)<li><!--del_lnk--> Yemeni Arabic يمني (Yemen to southern Saudi Arabia)</ul>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Maltese, which is spoken on the Mediterranean island of <a href="../../wp/m/Malta.htm" title="Malta">Malta</a>, is the only one to have established itself as a fully separate language, with independent literary norms. It falls within the Maghreb Arabic group, although numerous sound changes have rendered it phonologically different from its nearest relative, Tunisian Arabic. It also contains a number of <!--del_lnk--> Italian and English borrowings.<p><a id="Sounds" name="Sounds"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sounds</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The phonemes below reflect the pronunciation of Standard Arabic.<p><a id="Vowels" name="Vowels"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Vowels</span></h3>
<p>Arabic has three vowels, with their long forms, plus two diphthongs: <i>a</i> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɛ̈]</span> (open <i>e</i> as in English <i>bed</i>, but centralised), <i>i</i> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɪ]</span>, <i>u</i> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ʊ]</span>; <i>ā</i> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[æː]</span>, <i>ī</i> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[iː]</span>, <i>ū</i> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[uː]</span>; <i>ai</i> (<i>ay</i>) <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɛ̈ɪ]</span>, <i>au</i> (<i>aw</i>) <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɛ̈ʊ]</span>. <!--del_lnk--> Allophonically, after <!--del_lnk--> velarized consonants (see following), the vowel <i>a</i> is pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɑ]</span>, <i>ā</i> as <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɑː]</span> (thus also after <i>r</i>), <i>ai</i> as <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɑɪ]</span> and <i>au</i> as <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɑʊ]</span>.<p><a id="Consonants" name="Consonants"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Consonants</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;">
<caption><b>Standard Arabic consonant phonemes</b></caption>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </th>
<th rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Bilabial</th>
<th rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Inter-dental</th>
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Dental (incl. alveolar)</th>
<th rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Post-<br /> alveolar</th>
<th rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Palatal</th>
<th rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Velar</th>
<th rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Uvular</th>
<th rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Pharyn-<br /> geal</th>
<th rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Glottal</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;"> plain </th>
<th style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;"><!--del_lnk--> emphatic</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Plosive</th>
<th style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;"><!--del_lnk--> voiceless</th>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">t̪</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">t̪ˁ</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">k</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">q</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ʔ</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;"><!--del_lnk--> voiced</th>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">b</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">d̪</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">d̪ˁ</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">dʒ</span>¹</td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Fricative</th>
<th style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;"><!--del_lnk--> voiceless</th>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">f</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">θ</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">s</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">sˁ</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ʃ</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">x</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ħ</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">h</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;"><!--del_lnk--> voiced</th>
<td> </td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ð</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">z</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ðˁ</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ɣ</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ʕ</span></td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Nasal</th>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">m</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">n</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td rowspan="2"> </td>
<td rowspan="2"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Lateral</th>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">l</span> ²</td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Trill</th>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">r</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Approximant</th>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">w</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">j</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>See <!--del_lnk--> Arabic alphabet for explanations on the <!--del_lnk--> IPA phonetic symbols found in this chart.<ol>
<li><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[dʒ]</span> is pronounced as <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɡ]</span> by some speakers. This is especially characteristic of the Egyptian and southern Yemeni dialects. In many parts of North Africa and in the <!--del_lnk--> Levant, it is pronounced as <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ʒ]</span>.<li><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/l/</span> is pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[lˁ]</span> only in <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ʔalːɑːh/</span>, the name of God, i.e. <a href="../../wp/a/Allah.htm" title="Allah">Allah</a>, when the word follows <i>a</i>, <i>ā</i>, <i>u</i> or <i>ū</i> (after <i>i</i> or <i>ī</i> it is unvelarised: <i>bismi l-lāh</i> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/bɪsmɪlːæːh/</span>).<li><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ʕ/</span> is usually a phonetic <!--del_lnk--> approximant.<li>In many varieties, <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ħ, ʕ/</span> are actually <!--del_lnk--> epiglottal <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ʜ, ʢ]</span> (despite what is reported in many earlier works).</ol>
<p>The consonants traditionally termed "emphatic" <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/tˁ, dˁ, sˁ, ðˁ/</span> are either <!--del_lnk--> velarized <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[tˠ, dˠ, sˠ, ðˠ]</span> or <!--del_lnk--> pharyngealised <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[tˁ, dˁ, sˁ, ðˁ]</span>. In some transcription systems, emphasis is shown by capitalizing the letter e.g. <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/dˁ/</span> is written ‹D›; in others the letter is underlined or has a dot below it e.g. ‹<span class="Unicode">ḍ</span>›.<p>Vowels and consonants can be (phonologically) short or long. Long (geminate) consonants are normally written doubled in Latin transcription (i.e. bb, dd, etc.), reflecting the presence of the Arabic diacritic mark shaddah, which marks lengthened consonants. Such consonants are held twice as long as short consonants. This consonant lengthening is phonemically contrastive: e.g. <i>qabala</i> "he received" and <i>qabbala</i> "he kissed".<p><a id="Syllable_structure" name="Syllable_structure"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Syllable structure</span></h3>
<p>Arabic has two kinds of syllables: open syllables (CV) and (CVV) - and closed syllables (CVC), (CVVC) and (CVCC). Every syllable begins with a consonant - or else a consonant is borrowed from a previous word through elision – especially in the case of the definite article THE, <i>al</i> (used when starting an utterance) or <i>_l</i> (when following a word), e.g. <i>baytu –l mudiir</i> “house (of) the director”, which becomes <i>bay-tul-mu-diir</i> when divided syllabically. By itself, "the director" would be pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/al mudiːr/</span>.<p><a id="Stress" name="Stress"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Stress</span></h3>
<p>Although word stress is not phonemically contrastive in Standard Arabic, it does bear a strong relationship to vowel length and syllable shape, and correct word stress aids intelligibility. In general, "heavy" syllables attract stress (i.e. syllables of longer duration - a closed syllable or a syllable with a long vowel). In a word with a syllable with one long vowel, the long vowel attracts the stress (e.g. <i>ki-'taab</i> and <i>‘kaa-tib</i>). In a word with two long vowels, the second long vowel attracts stress (e.g.<i>ma-kaa-'tiib</i>). In a word with a "heavy" syllable where two consonants occur together or the same consonant is doubled, the (last) heavy syllable attracts stress (e.g. <i>ya-ma-’niyy</i>, <i>ka-'tabt</i>, <i>ka-‘tab-na</i>, ma-‘jal-lah, <i>‘mad-ra-sah</i>, <i>yur-‘sil-na</i>). This last rule trumps the first two: <i>ja-zaa-<span class="Unicode">ʔ</span>i-‘riyy</i>. Otherwise, word stress typically falls on the first syllable: <i>‘ya-man</i>, <i>‘ka-ta-bat</i>, etc. The Cairo (<!--del_lnk--> Egyptian Arabic) dialect, however, has some idiosyncrasies in that a heavy syllable may not carry stress more than two syllables from the end of a word, so that <i>mad-‘ra-sah</i> carries the stress on the second-to-last syllable, as does <i>qaa-‘hi-rah</i>.<p><a id="Dialectal_variations" name="Dialectal_variations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Dialectal variations</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>In some dialects, there may be more or fewer phonemes than those listed in the chart above. For example, non-Arabic <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[v]</span> is used in the Maghreb dialects as well in the written language mostly for foreign names. Semitic <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[p]</span> became <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[f]</span> extremely early on in Arabic before it was written down; a few modern Arabic dialects, such as Iraqi (influenced by <!--del_lnk--> Persian) distinguish between <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[p]</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[b]</span>.<p>Interdental fricatives (<span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[θ]</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ð]</span>) are rendered as stops <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[t]</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[d]</span> in some dialects (such as Levantine, Egyptian, and much of the Maghreb); some of these dialects render them as <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[s]</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[z]</span> in "learned" words from the Standard language. Early in the expansion of Arabic, the separate emphatic phonemes <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[dˁ]</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ðˁ]</span> coallesced into a single phoneme, becoming one or the other. Predictably, dialects without interdental fricatives use <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[dˁ]</span> exclusively, while those with such fricatives use <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ðˁ]</span>. Again, in "learned" words from the Standard language, <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ðˁ]</span> is rendered as <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[zˁ]</span> (in the Middle East) or <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[dˁ]</span> (in North Africa) in dialects without interdental fricatives.<p>Another key distinguishing mark of Arabic dialects is how they render Standard <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[q]</span> (a voiceless uvular stop). It retains its original pronunciation in widely scattered regions such as Yemen, Morocco, and urban areas of the <a href="../../wp/m/Maghreb.htm" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>. But it is rendered as a voiced velar stop <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɡ]</span> in Gulf Arabic, Iraqi Arabic, Upper Egypt, much of the <a href="../../wp/m/Maghreb.htm" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>, and less urban parts of the Levant (e.g. Jordan); as a voiced uvular constrictive <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ʁ]</span> in Sudanese Arabic; and as a <!--del_lnk--> glottal stop <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ʔ]</span> in several prestige dialects, such as those spoken in Cairo, Beirut and Damascus. Additionally, confessional differences may sometimes be distinguished: in the case of <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[q]</span>, some traditionally Christian villages in rural areas of the Levant render the sound as <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[k]</span>, as do Shia Bahrainis. Thus, Arabs instantly give away their geographical (and class) origin by their pronunciation of a word such as <i>qamar</i> "moon": <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[qamar]</span>, <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɡamar]</span>, <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ʁamar]</span>, <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ʔamar]</span> or <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[kamar]</span>.<p><a id="Grammar" name="Grammar"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Grammar</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Arabic has three grammatical <!--del_lnk--> cases roughly corresponding to: <!--del_lnk--> nominative, <!--del_lnk--> genitive and <!--del_lnk--> accusative, and three numbers: singular, dual and plural. Arabic has two <!--del_lnk--> genders, expressed by pronominal, verbal and adjectival agreement. Numerals may agree with the same or different gender depending on the number's amount.<p>As in many other Semitic languages, Arabic verb formation is based on a (usually) <!--del_lnk--> triconsonantal <!--del_lnk--> root, which is not a word in itself but contains the semantic core. The consonants <b><span class="Arabic Unicode" lang="ar-Latn" style="white-space: nowrap; text-decoration: none" title="DIN 31635 Arabic transliteration" xml:lang="ar-Latn">k-t-b</span></b>, for example, indicate 'write', <b><span class="Arabic Unicode" lang="ar-Latn" style="white-space: nowrap; text-decoration: none" title="DIN 31635 Arabic transliteration" xml:lang="ar-Latn">q-r-ʾ</span></b> indicate 'read', <b><span class="Arabic Unicode" lang="ar-Latn" style="white-space: nowrap; text-decoration: none" title="DIN 31635 Arabic transliteration" xml:lang="ar-Latn">ʾ-k-l</span></b> indicate 'eat' etc.; Words are formed by supplying the root with a vowel structure and with affixes. Traditionally, Arabic grammarians have used the root <b><span class="Arabic Unicode" lang="ar-Latn" style="white-space: nowrap; text-decoration: none" title="DIN 31635 Arabic transliteration" xml:lang="ar-Latn">f-ʿ-l</span></b> 'do' as a template to discuss word formation. The personal forms a verb can take correspond to the forms of the pronouns, except that in the 3rd person dual, gender is differentiated, yielding paradigms of 13 forms.<p>Arabic has two verbal voices, active and passive. The passive voice is expressed by a change in vocalization and is normally not expressed in unvocalized writing.<p><a id="Writing_system" name="Writing_system"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Writing system</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The Arabic alphabet derives from the <!--del_lnk--> Aramaic script (<!--del_lnk--> Nabataean), to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of <!--del_lnk--> Coptic or <!--del_lnk--> Cyrillic script to <!--del_lnk--> Greek script. Traditionally, there were several differences between the Western (North African) and Middle Eastern version of the alphabet—in particular, the <i>fa</i> and <i>qaf</i> had a dot underneath and a single dot above respectively in the <a href="../../wp/m/Maghreb.htm" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>, and the order of the letters was slightly different (at least when they were used as numerals). However, the old Maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the Maghreb itself, and remains in use mainly in the Quranic schools (<!--del_lnk--> zaouias) of West Africa. Arabic, like other <!--del_lnk--> Semitic languages, is written from right to left.<p><a id="Calligraphy" name="Calligraphy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Calligraphy</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>After the definitive fixing of the Arabic script around <!--del_lnk--> 786, by <!--del_lnk--> Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi, many styles were developed, both for the writing down of the Qur'an and other books, and for inscriptions on monuments as decoration.<p>Arabic calligraphy has not fallen out of use as in the Western world, and is still considered by Arabs as a major art form; calligraphers are held in great esteem. Being cursive by nature, unlike the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_alphabet.htm" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>, Arabic script is used to write down a <!--del_lnk--> verse of the Qur'an, a <!--del_lnk--> Hadith, or simply a <!--del_lnk--> proverb, in a spectacular composition. The composition is often abstract, but sometimes the writing is shaped into an actual form such as that of an animal. Two of the current masters of the genre are <!--del_lnk--> Hassan Massoudy and <!--del_lnk--> Khaled Al Saa’i.<p><a id="Transliteration" name="Transliteration"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Transliteration</span></h3>
<p>There are a number of different standards of <!--del_lnk--> Arabic transliteration: methods of accurately and efficiently representing Arabic with the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_alphabet.htm" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>. The more scientific standards allow the reader to recreate the exact word using the <!--del_lnk--> Arabic alphabet. However, these systems are heavily reliant on <!--del_lnk--> diacritical marks such as "š" for the English <i>sh</i> sound. At first sight, this may be difficult to recognize. Less scientific systems often use <!--del_lnk--> digraphs (like <i>sh</i> and <i>kh</i>), which are usually more simple to read, but sacrifice the definiteness of the scientific systems. In some cases, the <i>sh</i> or <i>kh</i> sounds can be represented by italicizing or underlining them -- that way, they can be distinguished from separate <i>s</i> and <i>h</i> sounds or <i>k</i> and <i>h</i> sounds, respectively. (Compare <i>gashouse</i> to <i>gash</i>.)<p>The system used by the US military, <!--del_lnk--> Standard Arabic Technical Transliteration System or SATTS, solves some of these issues, as well as the need for special characters by representing each Arabic letter with a unique symbol in the ASCII range to provide a one-to-one mapping from Arabic to ASCII and back. This system, while facilitating typing on English keyboards, presents its own ambiguities and disadvantages.<p>During the last few decades and especially since the 1990s, Western-invented text communication technologies have become prevalent in the <!--del_lnk--> Arab world, such as <!--del_lnk--> personal computers, the <a href="../../wp/w/World_Wide_Web.htm" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>, <!--del_lnk--> email, <!--del_lnk--> Bulletin board systems, <!--del_lnk--> IRC, <!--del_lnk--> instant messaging and <!--del_lnk--> mobile phone text messaging. Most of these technologies originally had the ability to communicate using the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_alphabet.htm" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> only, and some of them still do not have the <!--del_lnk--> Arabic alphabet as an optional feature. As a result, Arabic speaking users communicated in these technologies by transliterating the Arabic text using the Latin script, sometime known as <!--del_lnk--> IM Arabic.<p>To handle those Arabic letters that cannot be accurately represented using the Latin script, numerals and other characters were appropriated. For example, the numeral "3" may be used to represent the Arabic letter "ع", <i>ayn</i>. There is no universal name for this type of transliteration, but some have named it <!--del_lnk--> Arabic Chat Alphabet. Other systems of transliteration exist, such as using dots or capitalization to represent the "emphatic" counterparts of certain consonants. For instance, using capitalization, the letter "د", or <i>daal</i>, may be represented by <b>d</b>. Its emphatic counterpart, "ض", may be written as <b>D</b>.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Algeria', 'Bahrain', 'Egypt', 'Iraq', 'Jordan', 'Kuwait', 'Lebanon', 'Libya', 'Mauritania', 'Morocco', 'Oman', 'Qatar', 'Saudi Arabia', 'Sudan', 'Syria', 'Tunisia', 'United Arab Emirates', 'Palestinian territories', 'Western Sahara', 'Yemen', 'Israel', 'Iran', 'Islam', 'Algeria', 'Bahrain', 'Comoros', 'Chad', 'Djibouti', 'Egypt', 'Eritrea', 'Iraq', 'Israel', 'Jordan', 'Kuwait', 'Lebanon', 'Libya', 'Mauritania', 'Morocco', 'Oman', 'Qatar', 'Western Sahara', 'Saudi Arabia', 'Sudan', 'Syria', 'Tunisia', 'United Arab Emirates', 'Yemen', 'Mali', 'Senegal', 'Somalia', 'United Nations', 'Arab League', 'African Union', 'Egypt', 'English language', 'Hebrew language', '6th century', 'Islam', 'Latin', 'Middle Ages', 'North Africa', 'Middle East', "Qur'an", 'North Africa', 'Middle East', 'English language', 'Spanish language', 'Sugar', 'Cotton', 'Algebra', 'Alcohol', 'Alchemy', 'Berber languages', 'Hindi', 'Indonesian language', 'Portuguese language', "Qur'an", 'Islam', 'Jew', 'Malta', 'Allah', 'Maghreb', 'Maghreb', 'Maghreb', 'Latin alphabet', 'Latin alphabet', 'World Wide Web', 'Latin alphabet'] |
Arable_land | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Arable land,Agriculture,Amazon River,Aran Islands,CIA Factbook,Calcium,Carthage,Crop (agriculture),Desalination,Dorset,Dust bowl" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Arable land</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Arable_land";
var wgTitle = "Arable land";
var wgArticleId = 903;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Arable_land">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Arable land</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Food_and_agriculture.htm">Food and agriculture</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/415.jpg.htm" title="Modern arable agriculture typically uses large fields like this one in Dorset, England."><img alt="Modern arable agriculture typically uses large fields like this one in Dorset, England." height="137" longdesc="/wiki/Image:040719_172_dorset_marnhull.jpg" src="../../images/4/415.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/415.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Modern arable agriculture typically uses large <!--del_lnk--> fields like this one in <a href="../../wp/d/Dorset.htm" title="Dorset">Dorset</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/416.png.htm" title="Percentage of arable land by country, from CIA figures"><img alt="Percentage of arable land by country, from CIA figures" height="83" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arable_land_percent_world.png" src="../../images/4/416.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/416.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Percentage of arable land by country, from <!--del_lnk--> CIA figures</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In <a href="../../wp/g/Geography.htm" title="Geography">geography</a>, <b>arable land</b> (from <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>arare</i>, to <!--del_lnk--> plough) is a form of <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> <!--del_lnk--> land use, meaning <a href="../../wp/l/Land_%2528economics%2529.htm" title="Land (economics)">land</a> that can be used for growing <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">crops</a>.<p>Of the earth's 57 million square miles (148,000,000 km²) of land, approximately 12 million square miles (31,000,000 km²) are arable; however, arable land is being lost at the rate of over 100,000 km² (38,610 square miles) per year.<p>Most of the arable land on earth is around the largest rivers on earth; for example, the <a href="../../wp/n/Nile.htm" title="Nile">Nile</a> River, the <a href="../../wp/t/Tigris.htm" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Euphrates.htm" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> Rivers, the <a href="../../wp/y/Yellow_River.htm" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a>, the <a href="../../wp/a/Amazon_River.htm" title="Amazon River">Amazon River</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Ganges and the <a href="../../wp/r/Rhine.htm" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> River. These rivers flood regularly, overspilling their banks. When the flood is over, the rivers recede, leaving behind rich <!--del_lnk--> silt. This silt is excellent fertilizer for <!--del_lnk--> crops. Even if the land is overfarmed, and all the <!--del_lnk--> nutrients are depleted from the soil, the land renews its fertility when the next flood comes. Thus, <!--del_lnk--> flood control projects such as <!--del_lnk--> levees may increase human comfort, but cause substantial adverse impact to the quantity and quality of arable land.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Unarable_land" name="Unarable_land"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Unarable land</span></h2>
<p>On unarable land, farming is not possible. Unarable land usually has at least one of the following defiencies: no source of fresh water; too hot (desert); too cold (arctic); too rocky; too mountainous; too salty; too rainy; too snowy; too polluted; or too nutrient poor. Clouds may block the sunlight plants need for <a href="../../wp/p/Photosynthesis.htm" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> (making sunlight into food), reducing productivity. Plants can starve without light. <!--del_lnk--> Starvation and <!--del_lnk--> nomadism often exists on marginally arable land. Unarable land is sometimes called 'wastes', 'badlands', 'worthless' or 'no man's land'.<p>In rare cases, unarable land can be converted into arable land. New arable land makes more food, and can reduce <!--del_lnk--> starvation. This outcome also makes a country more <!--del_lnk--> self-sufficient and politically independent, because food importation is reduced. Making unarable land arable often involves digging new irrigation canals and new wells, aquaducts, <!--del_lnk--> desalination plants, planting trees for shade in the desert, <!--del_lnk--> hydroponics, fertilizer, nitrogen fertilizer, <!--del_lnk--> pesticides, <!--del_lnk--> reverse osmosis water processors, <!--del_lnk--> PET film insulation or other insulation against heat and cold, digging ditches and hills for protection against the wind, and greenhouses with internal light and heat for protection against the cold outside and to provide light in cloudy areas. This process is often extremely expensive.<p>Some examples of infertile <b>unarable</b> land being turned into fertile <b>arable</b> land are:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Aran Islands: This island off the west coast of Ireland, (not to be confused with the <!--del_lnk--> Isle of Arran in <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Firth of Clyde), was unarable because it was too rocky. The people covered the island with a shallow layer of seaweed and sand from the ocean. This made it arable. Today, crops are grown there.<li><a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a>: Israel was mostly unarable desert until <!--del_lnk--> desalination plants were built on the coast. The plants turn salt water into fresh water for farming, drinking, and washing. They created their own large fresh water source.</ul>
<p>Some examples of fertile <b>arable</b> land being turned into infertile <b>unarable</b> land are:<ul>
<li>Droughts like the '<!--del_lnk--> dust bowl' of the <!--del_lnk--> Great Depression in the U.S. turned farmland into desert.<li><a href="../../wp/r/Rainforest.htm" title="Rainforest">Rainforest</a> Deforestation: The fertile tropical forests turn into infertile desert land. For example, <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>'s central highland plateau has become virtually totally barren (about ten percent of the country), as a result of <!--del_lnk--> slash-and-burn deforestation, an element of <!--del_lnk--> shifting cultivation practised by many natives.<li><!--del_lnk--> Romans' destruction of <!--del_lnk--> Carthage: At the end of the <!--del_lnk--> Punic Wars, legend has it that the victorious Romans <!--del_lnk--> sowed the earth with salt, to symbolize total victory. The Roman symbol meant that Carthage would never grow back - their civilization ended. <!--del_lnk--> (Whether this actually happened is debatable due to the logistics involved. Salt was very valuable and was used as money at the time, and it would have taken a lot of salt to ruin the whole area.) Crops won't generally grow in highly saline soil. This is why salt water from the ocean can't be used to water crops.<li>Each year more arable land is lost to desertification and <!--del_lnk--> erosion from human industrial activities. Improper irrigation of farm land can wick the <a href="../../wp/s/Sodium.htm" title="Sodium">sodium</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Calcium.htm" title="Calcium">calcium</a>, and <a href="../../wp/m/Magnesium.htm" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> from the soil and water to the surface. This process steadily concentrates salt in the root zone, decreasing productivity for crops that are not salt-tolerant.<li><!--del_lnk--> Urban sprawl: In the United States, about 2.2 million acres (8,900 km²) of land was added to urban areas between 1992 and 2002, much of it farm land now paved.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arable_land"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Dorset', 'England', 'Geography', 'Latin', 'Agriculture', 'Land (economics)', 'Agriculture', 'Nile', 'Tigris', 'Euphrates', 'Yellow River', 'Amazon River', 'Rhine', 'Photosynthesis', 'Scotland', 'Israel', 'Rainforest', 'Madagascar', 'Sodium', 'Calcium', 'Magnesium'] |
Aradia,_or_the_Gospel_of_the_Witches | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches,1897,Amulet,Ancient Rome,Anthropology,Aradia (goddess),Argument from ignorance,Cain,Charge of the Goddess,Charles Godfrey Leland,Christianity" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Aradia,_or_the_Gospel_of_the_Witches";
var wgTitle = "Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches";
var wgArticleId = 2893507;
var wgCurRevisionId = 88305402;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Aradia_or_the_Gospel_of_the_Witches">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.General_Literature.htm">General Literature</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/219/21931.jpg.htm" title="Title page of the original edition of Aradia."><img alt="Title page of the original edition of Aradia." height="282" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aradia-title-page.jpg" src="../../images/219/21931.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/219/21931.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Title page of the original edition of <i>Aradia</i>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><i><b>Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches</b></i> is a 1899 book by <!--del_lnk--> Charles Godfrey Leland. The book is an attempt to portray the beliefs and <!--del_lnk--> rituals of an underground religious <!--del_lnk--> witchcraft tradition in <!--del_lnk--> Tuscany that had survived for centuries until Leland's claimed discovery of its existence in the 1890s. Scholars have disputed the veracity of this claim. Still, the book has become one of the foundational texts of <!--del_lnk--> Wicca and <!--del_lnk--> Neo-paganism.<p>The text is a composite. Some of it is Leland's translation into <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> of an original <!--del_lnk--> Italian <!--del_lnk--> manuscript, the <i>Vangelo</i> (gospel). Leland reported receiving the manuscript from his primary informant on Italian witchcraft beliefs, a woman Leland called "Maddalena". The rest of the material comes from Leland's research on Italian <a href="../../wp/f/Folklore.htm" title="Folklore">folklore</a> and traditions, including other related material from Maddalena. Leland had been informed of the <i>Vangelo'</i>s existence in 1886, but it took Maddalena eleven years to provide him with a copy. After translating and editing the material, it took another two years for the book to be published. Its fifteen chapters portray the origins, beliefs, rituals and spells of an <!--del_lnk--> Italian <!--del_lnk--> pagan witchcraft tradition. The central figure of that religion is the <!--del_lnk--> goddess <!--del_lnk--> Aradia who came to Earth to teach the practice of witchcraft to oppressed peasants in order for them to oppose their <!--del_lnk--> feudal oppressors and the <!--del_lnk--> Christian church.<p>Leland's work remained obscure until the 1950s, when other theories about, and claims of, "pagan witchcraft" survivals began to be widely discussed. <i>Aradia</i> began to be examined within the wider context of such claims. Scholars are divided, with some dismissing Leland's assertion regarding the origins of the manuscript, and others arguing for its authenticity as a unique documentation of folk beliefs. Along with increased scholarly attention, <i>Aradia</i> came to play a special role in the history of <!--del_lnk--> Gardnerian Wicca and its offshoots, being used as evidence that Pagan witchcraft survivals existed in Europe, and because a passage from the book's first chapter was used as a part of the religion's <!--del_lnk--> liturgy. After the increase in interest in the text, it became widely available through numerous reprints from a variety of publishers, including a 1999 critical edition with a new translation by Mario and Dina Pazzaglini.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Origins" name="Origins"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origins</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/796.jpg.htm" title=""Maddalena" as a young fortune-teller."><img alt=""Maddalena" as a young fortune-teller." height="254" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Maddalena_of_Florence.jpg" src="../../images/7/796.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/796.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> "Maddalena" as a young <!--del_lnk--> fortune-teller.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Charles Godfrey Leland was an American author and folklorist, and spent much of the 1890s in <!--del_lnk--> Florence researching Italian folklore. <i>Aradia</i> was one of the products of Leland's research. While Leland's name is the one principally associated with <i>Aradia</i>, the manuscript that makes up the bulk of it is attributed to the research of an Italian woman that Leland and Leland's biographer, his niece Elizabeth Robbins Pennell, refer to as "Maddalena". According to folklorist Roma Lister, a contemporary and friend of Leland's, Maddalena's real name was Margherita, and she was a "<!--del_lnk--> witch" from Florence who claimed a family lineage from the <!--del_lnk--> Etruscans and knowledge of ancient rituals. Maddalena, in correspondence with Leland, signed as "Maddalena Talenti".<p>Leland reports meeting Maddalena in 1886, and she became the primary source for his Italian folklore collecting for several years. Leland describes her as belonging to a vanishing tradition of sorcery. He writes that "by long practice [she] has perfectly learned... just what I want, and how to extract it from those of her kind." He received several hundred pages worth of material from her, which was incorporated into his books <i>Etruscan Roman Remains in Popular Tradition</i>, <i>Legends of Florence Collected From the People</i>, and eventually <i>Aradia</i>. Leland wrote that he had "learned that there was in existence a manuscript setting forth the doctrines of Italian witchcraft" in 1886, and had urged Maddalena to find it. Eleven years later, on <!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1897, Leland received the <i>Vangelo</i> by post. The manuscript was written in Maddalena's handwriting. Leland understood it to be an authentic document of the "Old Religion" of the witches, but explains that he did not know if the text came from written or oral sources. Maddalena's correspondence with Leland indicated that she was intending to marry and emigrate to the United States, and the <i>Vangelo</i> was the last material Leland received from her.<p>Leland's translation and editing was completed in early 1897 and submitted to David Nutt for publication. Two years passed, until Leland wrote requesting the return of the manuscript in order to submit it to a different publishing house. This request spurred Nutt to accept the book, and it was published July 1899 in a small print run. Wiccan author <!--del_lnk--> Raymond Buckland claims to have been the first to reprint the book in 1968 through his "Buckland Museum of Witchcraft" press, but a British reprint was made by "Wiccens"[<i><!--del_lnk--> sic</i>] Charles "Rex Nemorensis" and Mary Cardell in the early 1960s. Since then the text has been repeatedly reprinted by a variety of different publishers, including as a 1998 retranslation by Mario and Dina Pazzaglini with essays and commentary.<p><a id="Contents" name="Contents"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Contents</span></h2>
<p>Afer the eleven year search, Leland writes that he was unsurprised by the contents of the <i>Vangelo</i>. It was largely what he was expecting, with the exception that he did not predict passages in "prose-poetry". "I also believe that in this Gospel of the Witches", comments Leland in the appendix, "we have a trustworthy outline at least of the doctrine and rites observed at [the <!--del_lnk--> witches' Sabbat]. They adored forbidden deities and practised forbidden deeds, inspired as much by <!--del_lnk--> rebellion against Society as by their own passions."<p>Leland's final draft was a slim volume. He organised the material to be included into fifteen chapters, added a brief preface and an appendix. The published version also included footnotes and, in many places, the original Italian that Leland had translated. Most of the content of Leland's <i>Aradia</i> is made up of <!--del_lnk--> spells, blessings and rituals, but the text also contains stories and <a href="../../wp/m/Mythology.htm" title="Mythology">myths</a> which suggest influences from both the ancient <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_mythology.htm" title="Roman mythology">Roman religion</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholicism. Major characters in the myths include <!--del_lnk--> the Roman goddess Diana, a <!--del_lnk--> sun god called <!--del_lnk--> Lucifer, the Biblical <!--del_lnk--> Cain as a <!--del_lnk--> lunar figure, and the <!--del_lnk--> messianic <!--del_lnk--> Aradia. The witchcraft of "The Gospel of the Witches" is both a method for casting spells and an anti-hierarchical "counter-religion" to the Catholic church.<p><a id="Themes" name="Themes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Themes</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/798.jpg.htm" title="François Boucher's nude Diana Leaving Her Bath. The goddess is wearing a crescent moon crown."><img alt="François Boucher's nude Diana Leaving Her Bath. The goddess is wearing a crescent moon crown." height="132" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Fran%C3%A7ois_Boucher_005.jpg" src="../../images/7/798.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/798.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> François Boucher's nude <i>Diana Leaving Her Bath</i>. The goddess is wearing a crescent moon crown.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Entire chapters of Aradia are devoted to rituals and magic spells. These include enchantments to win love (Chapter VI), a conjuration to perform when finding a stone with a hole or a round stone in order to turn it into an <!--del_lnk--> amulet for Diana's favour (Chapter IV) and the consecration of a ritual feast for Diana, Aradia and Cain (Chapter II). The narrative material makes up less of the text, and is composed of short stories and legends about who the birth of the witchcraft religion and the actions of their gods. Leland summarises the mythic material in the book in its appendix, writing "Diana is Queen of the Witches; an associate of <!--del_lnk--> Herodias (Aradia) in her relations to sorcery; that she bore a child to <!--del_lnk--> her brother the Sun (here Lucifer); that as a <!--del_lnk--> moon-goddess she is in some relation to Cain, who dwells as prisoner in the moon, and that the witches of old were people oppressed by <!--del_lnk--> feudal lands, the former revenging themselves in every way, and holding orgies to Diana which the Church represented as being the worship of <!--del_lnk--> Satan". Diana is not only the witches' goddess, but is presented as the <!--del_lnk--> primordial creatrix in Chapter III, dividing herself into darkness and light. After giving birth to Lucifer, Diana seduces him while in the form of a cat, eventually giving birth to Aradia, their daughter. Diana demonstrates the power of her witchcraft by creating "the heavens, the stars and the rain", becoming "Queen of the Witches". Chapter I presents the original witches as slaves that escaped from their masters, beginning new lives as "thieves and evil folk". Diana sends her daughter Aradia to them to teach these former serfs witchcraft, the power of which they can use to "destroy the evil race (of oppressors)". Aradia's students thus became the first witches, who would then continue the worship of Diana. Leland was struck by this <!--del_lnk--> cosmogeny: "In all other Scriptures of all races, it is the male... who creates the universe; in Witch Sorcery it is the female who is the primitive principle".<p><a id="Structure" name="Structure"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Structure</span></h3>
<p><i>Aradia</i> is composed of fifteen chapters, the first ten of which are presented as being Leland's translation of the <i>Vangelo</i> <!--del_lnk--> manuscript given to him by Maddalena. This section, while predominantly made up of spells and rituals, is also the source of most of the myths and <!--del_lnk--> folktales contained in the text. At the end of Chapter I is the text in which Aradia gives instructions to her followers on how to practice witchcraft.<p>The first ten chapters are not entirely a direct translation of the <i>Vangelo</i>; Leland offers his own commentary and notes on a number of passages, and Chapter VII is Leland's incorporation of other Italian folklore material. <!--del_lnk--> Medievalist Robert Mathiesen contends that the <i>Vangelo</i> manuscript actually represents even less of <i>Aradia</i>, arguing that only chapters I, II and the first half of Chapter IV match Leland's description of the manuscript's contents, and suggests that the other material came from different texts collected by Leland through Maddalena.<p>The remaining five chapters are clearly identified in the text as representing other material Leland believed to be relevant to the <i>Vangelo</i>, acquired during his research into Italian witchcraft, and especially while working on his <i>Etruscan Roman Remains</i> and <i>Legends of Florence</i>. The themes in these additional chapters vary in some details from the first ten, and Leland included them partly to "[confirm] the fact that the worship of Diana existed for a long time contemporary with <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>". Chapter XV, for example, gives an <!--del_lnk--> incantation to <!--del_lnk--> Laverna, through the use of a deck of <!--del_lnk--> playing cards. Leland explains its inclusion by a note that Diana, as portrayed in <i>Aradia</i>, is worshipped by outlaws, and Laverna was the Roman goddess of thievery. Other examples of Leland's thoughts about the text are given in the book's preface, appendix, and numerous footnotes.<p>In several places Leland provides the Italian he was translating. According to Mario Pazzaglini, author of the 1999 translation, the Italian contains misspellings, missing words and grammatical errors, and is in a standarised Italian rather than the local dialect one might expect. Pazzaglini concludes that <i>Aradia</i> represents material translated from dialect to basic <!--del_lnk--> Italian and then into English, creating a summary of texts, some of which were mis-recorded. Leland himself called the text a "collection of ceremonies, "cantrips," incantations, and traditions" and described it as an attempt to gather material, "valuable and curious remains of <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Latin</a> or Etruscan lore" that he feared would be lost. There is no cohesive narrative even in the sections that Leland attributes to the <i>Vangelo</i>. This lack of cohesion, or "inconsistency", is an argument for the text's authenticity, according to religious scholar Chas Clifton,standardized because the text shows no signs of being "massaged... for future book buyers."<p><a id="Claims_questioned" name="Claims_questioned"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Claims questioned</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/8/800.jpg.htm" title="Charles Godfrey Leland wrote journalism, comedy and books on folklore and linguistics. Aradia has proved the most controversial."><img alt="Charles Godfrey Leland wrote journalism, comedy and books on folklore and linguistics. Aradia has proved the most controversial." height="340" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Charles_Godfrey_Leland_portrait.jpg" src="../../images/8/800.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/8/800.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Charles Godfrey Leland wrote journalism, comedy and books on folklore and linguistics. <i>Aradia</i> has proved the most controversial.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Leland's writings show no doubt that "the witches even yet form a fragmentary secret society or sect, that they call it that of the Old Religion, and that there are in the <!--del_lnk--> Romagna entire villages in which the people are completely heathen". Accepting this, Leland supposed that "the existence of a religion supposes a Scripture, and in this case it may be admitted, almost without severe verification, that the Evangel of the Witches is really a very old work [...] in all probability the translation of some early or later Latin work."<p>Leland's claim that the manuscript was genuine, or even that he received such a manuscript, has been called into question. After the 1921 publication of <!--del_lnk--> Margaret Murray's <i>The Witch-cult in Western Europe</i>, which hypothesised that the European <!--del_lnk--> witch trials were actually a persecution of a Pagan religious survival, American sensationalist author Theda Kenyon's 1929 book, <i>Witches Still Live</i>, connected Murray's thesis with the witchcraft religion in <i>Aradia</i>. Arguments against Murray's thesis would eventually include arguments against Leland. Witchcraft scholar <!--del_lnk--> Jeffrey Russell devoted some of his 1980 book <i>A History of Witchcraft: Sorcerers, Heretics and Pagans</i> to arguing against the claims in <i>Aradia</i>, Murray's thesis, and <!--del_lnk--> Jules Michelet's 1862 <i>La Sorcière</i>, which also theorised that witchcraft represented an underground religion. Historian Elliot Rose's <i>A Razor for a Goat</i> dismissed <i>Aradia</i> as a collection of incantations unsuccessfully attempting to portray a religion. In his <i>Triumph of the Moon</i>, historian <!--del_lnk--> Ronald Hutton summarises the controversy as having three possible extremes:<ol>
<li>The <i>Vangelo</i> manuscript represents a genuine text from an otherwise undiscovered religion.<li>Maddalena wrote the text, either with or without Leland's assistance, possibly drawing from her own background with folklore or witchcraft.<li>The entire document was forged by Leland.</ol>
<p>Hutton himself is a sceptic, not only of the existence of the religion that <i>Aradia</i> claims to represent, but also of the existence of Maddalena, arguing that it is more likely that Leland created the entire story than that Leland could be so easily "duped" by an Italian fortune-teller. Clifton takes exception to Hutton's position, writing that it amounts to an accusation of "serious literary fraud" made by an "<!--del_lnk--> argument from absence"; one of Hutton's main objections is that <i>Aradia</i> is unlike anything found in <a href="../../wp/m/Medieval_literature.htm" title="Medieval literature">medieval literature</a>.<p>Mathiesen also dismisses this "option three", arguing that while Leland's English drafts for the book were heavily edited and revised in the process of writing, the Italian sections, in contrast, were almost untouched except for corrections of "precisely the sort that a proofreader would make as he compared his copy to the original". This leads Mathiesen to conclude that Leland was working from an extant Italian language original that he describes as "authentic, but not representative" of any larger folk tradition. <a href="../../wp/a/Anthropology.htm" title="Anthropology">Anthropologist</a> Sabina Magliocco examines the "option one" possibility, that Leland's manuscript represented a folk tradition involving Diana and the <!--del_lnk--> Cult of Herodias, in her article <i>Who Was Aradia? The History and Development of a Legend</i>. Magliocco writes that <i>Aradia</i> "may represent a 19th century version of [the legend of the Cult of Herodias] that incorporated later materials influenced by medieval diabolism: the presence of "Lucifero," the Christian devil; the practice of sorcery; the naked dances under the full moon."<p><a id="Influence_on_Wicca_and_Neopaganism" name="Influence_on_Wicca_and_Neopaganism"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Influence on Wicca and Neopaganism</span></h2>
<p>Magliocco calls <i>Aradia</i> "the first real text of the 20th century Witchcraft revival", and it is repeatedly cited as being profoundly influential on the development of Wicca and Neopaganism. The text apparently corroborates the thesis of Margaret Murray that <!--del_lnk--> early modern and <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">renaissance</a> witchcraft represented a survival of ancient Pagan beliefs, and after <!--del_lnk--> Gerald Gardner's claim to have encountered religious witchcraft in 20th century <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, the works of Michelet, Murray and Leland helped support at least the possibility that such a survival could exist.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Charge of the Goddess, an important piece of liturgy used in Wiccan rituals, was inspired by the Aradia's speech in the first chapter of the book. Parts of the speech appeared in an early version of Gardnerian Wicca ritual. According to <!--del_lnk--> Doreen Valiente, one of Gardner's priestesses, Gardner was surprised by Valiente's recognising the material as having come from Leland's book. Valiente subsequently rewrote the passage in both prose and verse, retaining the "traditional" <i>Aradia</i> lines. Some <!--del_lnk--> Wiccan traditions use the name "Aradia", or Diana, to refer to the Goddess or Queen of the Witches, and Hutton writes that the earliest Gardnerian rituals used the name Airdia, a "garbled" form of Aradia. Hutton further suggests that the reason that Wicca includes <!--del_lnk--> skyclad practice, or ritual nudity, is because of a line spoken by Aradia:<dl>
<dd>"And as the sign that ye are truly free,<br />
<dd>Ye shall be naked in your rites, both men<br />
<dd>And women also: this shall last until<br />
<dd>The last of your oppressors shall be dead;"</dl>
<p>Accepting <i>Aradia</i> as the source of this practice, Robert Chartowich points to the 1998 Pazzaglini translation of these lines, which read "Men and Women / You will all be naked, until / Yet he shall be dead, the last / Of your oppressors is dead." Chartowich argues that the ritual nudity of Wicca was based upon Leland's mistranslation of these lines by incorporating the clause "in your rites".<p>The reception of <i>Aradia</i> amongst Neopagans has not been entirely positive. Clifton suggests that modern claims of revealing an Italian Pagan witchcraft tradition, for example those of <!--del_lnk--> Leo Martello, and <!--del_lnk--> Raven Grimassi of <!--del_lnk--> Stregheria, must be "match[ed] against", and compared with the claims in <i>Aradia</i>. Clifton further suggests that a lack of comfort with <i>Aradia</i> may be due to an "insecurity" within Neopaganism about the movement's claim to authenticity as a religious revival. Valiente offers another explanation; that the identification of Lucifer as the God of the witches in <i>Aradia</i> was "too strong meat" for Wiccans who were used to the gentler, romantic Paganism of Gerald Gardner and were especially quick to reject any relationship between witchcraft and <!--del_lnk--> Satanism.<p>Clifton writes that <i>Aradia</i> was especially influential for leaders of the Wiccan religious movement in the 1950s and 1960s, but that the book no longer appears on the "reading lists" given by members to newcomers, nor is it extensively cited in more recent Neopagan books. The new translation of the book released in 1998 was introduced by Wiccan author <!--del_lnk--> Stewart Farrar, who affirms the importance of <i>Aradia</i>, writing that "Leland's gifted research into a 'dying' tradition has made a significant contribution to a living and growing one."<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aradia%2C_or_the_Gospel_of_the_Witches"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['English language', 'Folklore', 'Mythology', 'Roman mythology', 'Christianity', 'Ancient Rome', 'Medieval literature', 'Anthropology', 'Renaissance', 'England'] |
Aral_Sea | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Aral Sea,1000 km³,1989,1 E10 m²,2003,2004,2005,2006,Amu Darya,Anthrax,Aral" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Aral Sea</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Aral_Sea";
var wgTitle = "Aral Sea";
var wgArticleId = 68915;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Aral_Sea">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Aral Sea</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.General_Geography.htm">General Geography</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox" style="width: 250px; font-size: 90%;">
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="font-size: larger; background-color: #CEDEFF;">Aral Sea</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height: 1.2; border-bottom: 1px solid #CEDEFF;">
<div style="border: 1px solid #CEDEFF;"><a class="image" href="../../images/159/15978.png.htm" title="Aral Sea - Map: lake boundaries c. 1960, countries at least partially in the watershed are in yellow."><img alt="Aral Sea - Map: lake boundaries c. 1960, countries at least partially in the watershed are in yellow." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aral_map.png" src="../../images/159/15978.png" width="240" /></a></div>
<center>Map: lake boundaries c. 1960, countries at least partially in the watershed are in yellow.</center>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Location</b></td>
<td>Central Asia</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Coordinates</b></td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">45°0′0″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">59°56′50″E</span></span><span class="plainlinksneverexpand" id="coordinates"><!--del_lnk--> Coordinates: <!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">45°0′0″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">59°56′50″E</span></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Lake type</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> endorheic</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Primary sources</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Amu Darya, <!--del_lnk--> Syr Darya</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Surface area</b></td>
<td>28,687 km² (1998), 68,000 km² (1960)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>Aral Sea</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Kazakh: Арал Теңізі (Aral Tengizi), <!--del_lnk--> Uzbek: <span lang="uz" xml:lang="uz">Orol dengizi</span>) is a <!--del_lnk--> landlocked <!--del_lnk--> endorheic <a href="../../wp/s/Sea.htm" title="Sea">sea</a> in <!--del_lnk--> Central Asia; it lies between <a href="../../wp/k/Kazakhstan.htm" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> in the north and <!--del_lnk--> Karakalpakstan, an autonomous region of <a href="../../wp/u/Uzbekistan.htm" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>, in the south. Since the 1960s the Aral Sea has been shrinking, as the rivers that feed it (the <!--del_lnk--> Amu Darya and the <!--del_lnk--> Syr Darya) were diverted by the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> for irrigation. The Aral Sea is heavily <!--del_lnk--> polluted, largely as the result of weapons testing, industrial projects, and fertilizer runoff before and after the breakup of the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Ecological_problems" name="Ecological_problems"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ecological problems</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15979.jpg.htm" title="The Aral Sea, in 2003, had shrunk to well under half of the area it had covered fifty years before."><img alt="The Aral Sea, in 2003, had shrunk to well under half of the area it had covered fifty years before." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AralSea.A2003283.0705.500m.jpg" src="../../images/159/15979.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15979.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Aral Sea, in 2003, had shrunk to well under half of the area it had covered fifty years before.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The major ecological problem is that diversion of the <!--del_lnk--> Amu Darya and <!--del_lnk--> Syr Darya rivers for <a href="../../wp/i/Irrigation.htm" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> has shrunk the Aral Sea dramatically; the Aral Sea has been drying up for about 40 years. This has brought about a number of ecological and economic problems for the sea and the surrounding area.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15980.jpg.htm" title="Aral Sea from space, August 1964"><img alt="Aral Sea from space, August 1964" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AralSeaAug1964-keyhole.jpg" src="../../images/159/15980.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15980.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aral Sea from space, August 1964</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15981.jpg.htm" title="Aral Sea from space, August 1985"><img alt="Aral Sea from space, August 1985" height="178" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aral_sea_1985_from_STS.jpg" src="../../images/159/15981.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15981.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aral Sea from space, August 1985</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Soviet Union decided in 1918 that the two rivers that fed the Aral Sea, the Amu Darya in the south and the Syr Darya in the northeast, would be diverted to try to irrigate the desert, in order to grow rice, melons, cereal, and also, <a href="../../wp/c/Cotton.htm" title="Cotton">cotton</a>; this was part of the Soviet plan for cotton, or "white gold", to become a major <!--del_lnk--> export. (This did eventually end up becoming the case, and today Uzbekistan is one of the world's biggest exporters of cotton.)<p>The irrigation <a href="../../wp/c/Canal.htm" title="Canal">canals</a> began to be built on a large scale in the 1930s. Many of the irrigation canals were poorly built, letting water leak out or evaporate; from the <!--del_lnk--> Qaraqum Canal, the largest in Central Asia, perhaps 30–70% of the water went to waste. Today only 12% of Uzbekistan's irrigation canal length is waterproofed.<p>By 1960, somewhere between 20 and 50 cubic kilometers of water were going each year to the land instead of the sea. Thus, most of the sea's water supply had now been diverted, and in the 1960s the Aral Sea began to shrink. From 1961 to 1970, the Aral's sea level fell at an average of 20 cm a year; in the 1970s, the average rate nearly tripled to 50–60 cm per year, and by the 1980s it continued to drop, now with a mean of 80–90 cm each year. Even seeing this, the rate of water usage for irrigation continued to increase: the amount of water taken from the rivers doubled between 1960 and 1980; cotton production nearly doubled in the same period.<p>The disappearance of the lake was no surprise to the Soviets; they expected it to happen long before. The Soviet Union apparently considered the Aral to be "nature's error", and a Soviet engineer said in 1968 that "it is obvious to everyone that the evaporation of the Aral Sea is inevitable".<p>Human Impacts are that the people who are living around the area are drinking the water and getting sick off it because the salt level is too high for them to drink.<p><a id="Current_situation" name="Current_situation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Current situation</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15982.jpg.htm" title="Comparison of the North Aral Sea before (below) and after (above) the construction of Dike Kokaral."><img alt="Comparison of the North Aral Sea before (below) and after (above) the construction of Dike Kokaral." height="235" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AralSea_ComparisonApr2005-06.jpg" src="../../images/159/15982.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15982.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Comparison of the North Aral Sea before (below) and after (above) the construction of <!--del_lnk--> Dike Kokaral.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15983.jpg.htm" title="Abandoned ship near Aral, Kazakhstan"><img alt="Abandoned ship near Aral, Kazakhstan" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AralShip.jpg" src="../../images/159/15983.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15983.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Abandoned ship near <!--del_lnk--> Aral, <a href="../../wp/k/Kazakhstan.htm" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15984.jpg.htm" title="A former harbor in the city of Aral, Kazakhstan"><img alt="A former harbor in the city of Aral, Kazakhstan" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AralskHarbor.jpg" src="../../images/159/15984.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15984.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A former harbour in the city of <!--del_lnk--> Aral, <a href="../../wp/k/Kazakhstan.htm" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The sea's surface area has shrunk by approximately 60%, and its volume by almost 80%. In 1960, the Aral Sea was the world's fourth-largest lake, with an area of approximately <!--del_lnk--> 68,000 km² and a volume of <!--del_lnk--> 1100 km³; by 1998, it had dropped to 28,687 km², and eighth-largest. Over the same time period its <!--del_lnk--> salinity has increased from about 10 g/l to about 45 g/l. As of <!--del_lnk--> 2004, the Aral Sea's surface area was only 17,160 km², 25% of its original size, and still contracting.<p>Even the recently discovered inflow of submarine groundwater discharge into the Aral Sea will not in itself be able to stop the desiccation. This inflow of about 4 billion cubic metres per year is larger than previously estimated. This groundwater would originate in the <!--del_lnk--> Pamirs and <!--del_lnk--> Tian Shan mountains and seek its way through geological layers to a fracture zone at the bottom of the Aral Sea.<p>In 1987, the continuing shrinkage split the lake into two separate bodies of water, the <!--del_lnk--> North Aral Sea and the <!--del_lnk--> South Aral Sea; an artificial channel was dug to connect them, but that connection was gone by 1999 as the two seas continued to shrink. In 2003, the South Aral further divided into eastern and western basins; the evaporation of the North Aral has since been partially reversed.<p>Work is being done to restore in part the North Aral Sea. Irrigation works on the Syr Darya have been repaired and improved to increase its water flow, and in October 2003, the Kazakh government announced a plan to build a concrete dam (<!--del_lnk--> Dike Kokaral) separating the two halves of the Aral Sea. Work on this dam was completed in August 2005; since then the water level of the North Aral has risen, and its salinity has decreased. As of 2006, some recovery of sea level has been recorded, sooner than expected. "The dam has caused the small Aral's sea level to rise swiftly to 125 feet, from a low of less than 98 feet, with 138 considered the level of viability." Economically significant stocks of fish have even been returned, and observers who had written off the North Aral Sea as an environmental catastrophe will be surprised by unexpected reports that in 2006 its returning waters already were partly reviving the fishing industry and producing a catch for export as far as Ukraine. The restoration reportedly gave rise to long absent rain clouds and possible microclimate changes, bringing tentative hope to an agricultural sector swallowed by a regional dustbowl, and some expansion of the shrunken sea. "The sea, which had receded almost 100 km south of the port-city of Aralsk, is now a mere 25 km away."<p>The South Aral Sea, which lies largely in poorer Uzbekistan, was largely abandoned to its fate, but the project in the North Aral has brought at least faint glimmers of hope: "In addition to restoring water levels in the Northern Sea, a sluice in the dike is periodically opened, allowing excess water to flow into the largely dried-up Southern Aral Sea." Discussions are underway to possibly recreate a channel between the somewhat improved North and the desiccated South, along with ambitious but uncertain wetland restoration plans throughout the region. As it has dried, the South Aral has left behind vast salt plains, producing <!--del_lnk--> dust storms, and making regional winters colder and summers hotter. Attempts to mitigate these effects include planting vegetation in the newly exposed seabed.<p>As of summer 2003, the South Aral Sea was vanishing faster than predicted. In the deepest parts of the sea, the bottom waters are saltier than the top, and not mixing. Thus, only the top of the sea is heated in the summer, and it evaporates faster than would otherwise be expected. Based on the recent data, the western part of the South Aral Sea is expected to be gone within 15 years; the eastern part could last indefinitely.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem of the Aral Sea and the <!--del_lnk--> river deltas feeding into it has been nearly destroyed, not least because of the much higher salinity. The receding sea has left huge plains covered with <a href="../../wp/s/Salt.htm" title="Salt">salt</a> and toxic chemicals, which are picked up and carried away by the wind as toxic dust and spread to the surrounding area. The land around the Aral Sea is heavily polluted and the people living in the area are suffering from a lack of fresh water and other health problems, including high rates of certain forms of <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a> and <!--del_lnk--> lung diseases, just to name a few. Crops in the region are destroyed by salt being deposited onto the land. The town of <!--del_lnk--> Moynaq in Uzbekistan had a thriving <!--del_lnk--> harbour and <!--del_lnk--> fishing industry that employed approximately 60,000 people; now the town lies miles from the shore. Fishing boats lie scattered on the dry land that was once covered by water, many have been there for 20 years. The only significant fishing company left in the area has its fish shipped from the <a href="../../wp/b/Baltic_Sea.htm" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>, thousands of kilometres away.<p>The tragedy of Aral coast was portrayed in "<i>Psy</i>" ("Dogs"), a <!--del_lnk--> motion picture by Dmitriy Svetozarov (<!--del_lnk--> USSR, <!--del_lnk--> 1989). The film was shot on location in the actual <!--del_lnk--> ghost town, showing scenes of abandoned buildings and scattered vessels.<p><a id="Possible_solutions" name="Possible_solutions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Possible solutions</span></h3>
<p>Many different solutions to the different problems have been suggested over the years, ranging in feasibility and cost. These include:<ul>
<li>Improving the quality of <a href="../../wp/i/Irrigation.htm" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> canals;<li>Installing <!--del_lnk--> desalination plants;<li>Charging farmers to use the water from the rivers;<li>Using alternative <a href="../../wp/c/Cotton.htm" title="Cotton">cotton</a> species, which require less water;<li>Melting <a href="../../wp/g/Glacier.htm" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> Pamirs, and moving the water to refill the Aral-a short term solution with long term negative effects for future water supply provided by the glaciers;<li>Using fewer chemicals on the cotton<li>Redirecting water from the <a href="../../wp/v/Volga_River.htm" title="Volga River">Volga</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Ob and <!--del_lnk--> Irtysh rivers. This would restore the Aral Sea to its former size in 20-30 years at a cost of $30-50 billion. </ul>
<p>In January 1994, the countries of <a href="../../wp/k/Kazakhstan.htm" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/Uzbekistan.htm" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Turkmenistan.htm" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Tajikistan.htm" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a> and <a href="../../wp/k/Kyrgyzstan.htm" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a> signed a deal to pledge 1% of their budgets to helping the sea recover. By 2006, the World Bank's restoration projects especially in the North Aral were giving rise to some unexpected, tentative relief in what had been an extremely pessimistic picture.<p><a id="Bioweapons_facility_on_the_Vozrozhdeniya_Island" name="Bioweapons_facility_on_the_Vozrozhdeniya_Island"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bioweapons facility on the Vozrozhdeniya Island</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>In 1948, a top-secret <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> <!--del_lnk--> bioweapons laboratory was established on the island in the middle of the Aral Sea (now <!--del_lnk--> disputed territory between <a href="../../wp/k/Kazakhstan.htm" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> and <a href="../../wp/u/Uzbekistan.htm" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>). The exact history, functions and current status of this facility have not yet been disclosed. The base was abandoned in 1992 following the disintegration of the <!--del_lnk--> Soviet Army. Scientific expeditions (including <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a>) proved that this had been a site for production, testing and later dumping of <!--del_lnk--> pathogenic weapons. In 2002, through a project organized by the United States and with Uzbekistan assistance, 10 anthrax burial sites were decontaminated. According to the Kazakh Scientific Centre for Quarantine and Zoonotic Infections, all burial sites of <!--del_lnk--> anthrax were decontaminated. <p><a id="Development_of_the_Aral_Sea" name="Development_of_the_Aral_Sea"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Development of the Aral Sea</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Ergash Shaismatov, the Deputy <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister of Uzbekistan, announced on <!--del_lnk--> August 30, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 that the <!--del_lnk--> Uzbek government and an international consortium consisting of state-run <!--del_lnk--> Uzbekneftegaz, LUKoil Overseas, <!--del_lnk--> Petronas, <!--del_lnk--> Korea National Oil Corporation, and <!--del_lnk--> China National Petroleum Corporation signed a production sharing agreement to explore and develop oil and gas fields in the <strong class="selflink">Aral Sea</strong>, saying, “The Aral Sea is largely unknown, but it holds a lot of promise in terms of finding oil and gas. There is risk of course but we believe in the success of this unique project." The consortium was created in September 2005.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aral_Sea"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Sea', 'Kazakhstan', 'Uzbekistan', 'Soviet Union', 'Soviet Union', 'Irrigation', 'Cotton', 'Canal', 'Kazakhstan', 'Kazakhstan', 'Salt', 'Cancer', 'Baltic Sea', 'Irrigation', 'Cotton', 'Glacier', 'Volga River', 'Kazakhstan', 'Uzbekistan', 'Turkmenistan', 'Tajikistan', 'Kyrgyzstan', 'Soviet Union', 'Kazakhstan', 'Uzbekistan', 'United States'] |
Arcadia_(play) | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" />
<meta content="Arcadia (play),1809,18th century,1989,1993,2006,2007,Academia,Alan Mitchell,Algorithms,April 13" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Arcadia (play)</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">/*<![CDATA[*/
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false;
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Arcadia_(play)";
var wgTitle = "Arcadia (play)";
var wgAction = "view";
var wgArticleId = "58379";
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserGroups = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
var wgBreakFrames = false;
var wgCurRevisionId = "128841550";
/*]]>*/</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Arcadia_play">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Arcadia (play)</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Theatre.htm">Theatre</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
</div>
<p><i><b>Arcadia</b></i> is a <!--del_lnk--> 1993 play by <!--del_lnk--> Tom Stoppard concerning the relationship between past and present and between order and disorder and the certainty of knowledge.<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script>
<p><a id="Synopsis" name="Synopsis"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Synopsis</span></h2>
<div class="notice spoiler" id="spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div>
<p><i>Arcadia</i> is set in Sidley Park, an English <!--del_lnk--> country house in the years <!--del_lnk--> 1809 and <!--del_lnk--> 1989 alternately, juxtaposing the activities of two modern scholars and the house's current residents with the lives of those who lived there 180 years earlier.<p>In 1809, Thomasina Coverly, the daughter of the house, is a precocious teenager with ideas about mathematics well ahead of her time. She studies with her tutor, Septimus Hodge, a friend of <!--del_lnk--> Lord Byron, who is an unseen guest in the house. In 1989, a writer and an academic converge on the house: Hannah Jarvis, the writer, is investigating a hermit who once lived on the grounds; Bernard Nightingale, a professor of literature, is investigating a mysterious chapter in the life of Byron. As their investigations unfold, helped by Valentine Coverly, a post-graduate student in mathematics, the truth about what happened in 1809 is gradually revealed.<p>The play's set features a large table, which is used by the characters in both 1809 and 1989. Props are not removed when the play switches time period, so that the books, coffee mugs, quill pens, portfolios, and laptop computers of 1809 and 1989 appear alongside each other in a blurring of past and present.<p><a id="Themes" name="Themes"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Themes</span></h2>
<p><i>Arcadia</i> explores the nature of evidence and truth in the context of modern ideas about <a href="../../wp/h/History.htm" title="History">history</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Physics.htm" title="Physics">physics</a>. It shows how the clues left by the past are interpreted by scholars. The play refers to a wide array of subjects, including <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Physics.htm" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Thermodynamics.htm" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, computer <!--del_lnk--> algorithms, <!--del_lnk--> fractals, <!--del_lnk--> population dynamics, <!--del_lnk--> chaos theory vs. <!--del_lnk--> determinism (especially in the context of love and death), <!--del_lnk--> classics, <!--del_lnk--> landscape design, <a href="../../wp/r/Romanticism.htm" title="Romanticism">romanticism</a> vs. <!--del_lnk--> classicism, <!--del_lnk--> English literature (particularly <a href="../../wp/p/Poetry.htm" title="Poetry">poetry</a>), <!--del_lnk--> Byron, <a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th century</a> <!--del_lnk--> periodicals, modern <!--del_lnk--> academia, and even South Pacific <a href="../../wp/b/Botany.htm" title="Botany">botany</a>. These are the concrete topics of conversation; the more abstract philosophical resonances veer off into <!--del_lnk--> epistemology, <!--del_lnk--> nihilism, the origins of <!--del_lnk--> lust, and <!--del_lnk--> madness.<p>The title refers to the pastoral ideal of <!--del_lnk--> Arcadia and to the <i><!--del_lnk--> memento mori</i> spoken by Death: "<!--del_lnk--> Et in Arcadia ego" ("Even in Arcadia, I").<p><a id="Productions_and_responses" name="Productions_and_responses"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Productions and responses</span></h2>
<p><i>Arcadia</i> first opened at the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_National_Theatre.htm" title="Royal National Theatre">Royal National Theatre</a> in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> on <!--del_lnk--> April 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1993, and has played at many theatres since. It impressed the critics: The <i><!--del_lnk--> Daily Telegraph'</i>s critic wrote "I have never left a new play more convinced that I'd just witnessed a masterpiece." It won the 1993 <!--del_lnk--> Olivier Award for Best Play and the 1995 New York <!--del_lnk--> Drama Critics Award.<p>The original 1993 production was directed by <!--del_lnk--> Trevor Nunn and featured <!--del_lnk--> Rufus Sewell as Septimus Hodge, <!--del_lnk--> Felicity Kendal (Stoppard's then lover) as Hannah Jarvis, <!--del_lnk--> Bill Nighy as Bernard Nightingale, <!--del_lnk--> Emma Fielding as Thomasina Coverly, <!--del_lnk--> Alan Mitchell as Jellaby, <!--del_lnk--> Derek Hutchinson as Ezra Chater, <!--del_lnk--> Sidney Livingston as Richard Noakes, <!--del_lnk--> Harriet Walter as Lady Croom, <!--del_lnk--> Graham Sinclair as Captain Brice, <!--del_lnk--> Harriet Harrison as Chloe Coverly, <!--del_lnk--> Timothy Matthews as Augustus Coverly and Gus Coverly, and <!--del_lnk--> Samuel West as Valentine Coverly.<p>The first New York production opened in March 1995 at the <!--del_lnk--> Vivian Beaumont Theatre. It was again directed by <!--del_lnk--> Trevor Nunn, but the entire cast changed. It starred <!--del_lnk--> Billy Crudup as Septimus, <!--del_lnk--> Blair Brown as Hannah, <!--del_lnk--> Victor Garber as Bernard, <!--del_lnk--> Robert Sean Leonard as Valentine, and <!--del_lnk--> Jennifer Dundas as Thomasina. This production was the Broadway debut of <!--del_lnk--> Paul Giamatti, who played Ezra Chater. The other actors were <!--del_lnk--> Lisa Banes (Lady Croom), Richard Clarke (Jellaby), John Griffin (Gus/Augustus), Peter Maloney (Noakes), David Manis (Captain Brice, RN), and <!--del_lnk--> Haviland Morris (Chloe). This production was nominated for the 1995 <!--del_lnk--> Tony Award for Best Play, but lost to Terrence McNally's <i><!--del_lnk--> Love! Valour! Compassion!</i>. Jennifer Dundas and Lisa Banes had already played daughter and mother once before, in <i><!--del_lnk--> The Hotel New Hampshire</i>.<p><a id="The_best_science_book_ever_written" name="The_best_science_book_ever_written"></a><h5><span class="mw-headline">The best science book ever written</span></h5>
<p>At London’s <!--del_lnk--> Royal Institution on <!--del_lnk--> 19 October <!--del_lnk--> 2006 <i>Arcadia</i> was voted onto the shortlist at an event to identify “the best science book ever written”. The winner was <i>The Periodic Table</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Primo Levi.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcadia_%28play%29"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['History', 'Mathematics', 'Physics', 'Mathematics', 'Physics', 'Thermodynamics', 'Romanticism', 'Poetry', '18th century', 'Botany', 'Royal National Theatre', 'London'] |
Archaeoastronomy | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Archaeoastronomy,Accuracy and precision,Achilles,Agriculture,Alexander Thom,Alexandria,Amazon Rainforest,Amerindian,Amun-Re,Analogy,Andes" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Archaeoastronomy</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Archaeoastronomy";
var wgTitle = "Archaeoastronomy";
var wgArticleId = 2864;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Archaeoastronomy">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Archaeoastronomy</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/127/12718.jpg.htm" title="The sun rising over Stonehenge at the 2005 Summer Solstice."><img alt="The sun rising over Stonehenge at the 2005 Summer Solstice." height="174" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Summer_Solstice_Sunrise_over_Stonehenge_2005.jpg" src="../../images/165/16598.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/127/12718.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The sun rising over <a href="../../wp/s/Stonehenge.htm" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a> at the 2005 Summer <!--del_lnk--> Solstice.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>Archaeoastronomy</b> (also spelled <b>Archeoastronomy</b>) is the study of ancient or traditional <a href="../../wp/a/Astronomy.htm" title="Astronomy">astronomies</a> in their cultural context, utilising <a href="../../wp/a/Archaeology.htm" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Anthropology.htm" title="Anthropology">anthropological</a> evidence. The anthropological study of astronomical practices in contemporary societies is often called ethnoastronomy, although there is no consensus as to whether ethnoastronomy is a separate discipline or is a part of archaeoastronomy. Archaeoastronomy is also closely associated with <!--del_lnk--> historical astronomy, the use of historical records of heavenly events to answer astronomical problems and the <!--del_lnk--> history of astronomy, which uses written records to evaluate past astronomical traditions.<p>It is most frequently mentioned with astronomical claims regarding <!--del_lnk--> Stonehenge or the <!--del_lnk--> pyramids of Egypt.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="History_of_archaeoastronomy" name="History_of_archaeoastronomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History of archaeoastronomy</span></h2>
<p>Archaeoastronomy is almost as old as archaeology itself. Heinrich Nissen was arguably the first archaeoastronomer, publishing <i>Das Templum: Antiquarische Untersuchungen</i> in 1869. Other researchers followed. The astronomer <!--del_lnk--> Norman Lockyer was active at the end of the <!--del_lnk--> nineteenth century and the start of the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="Twentieth century">twentieth</a>. His studies included an examinations of Egyptian temples in <i>The Dawn of Astronomy</i> in 1894 and of Stonehenge published as <i>Stonehenge and Other British Stone Monuments Astronomically Considered</i> in 1906. The archaeologist <!--del_lnk--> Francis Penrose published extensively in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</i> on the astronomical alignment of <!--del_lnk--> Greek temples in the <!--del_lnk--> Mediterranean in the same period. Archaeoastronomy was, for a while, a respectable subject. The first issue of the archaeological journal <!--del_lnk--> Antiquity includes an article on archaeoastronomical research.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16599.jpg.htm" title="Early archaeoastronomy began by surveying alignments of Megalithic stones in the British Isles and sites like Auglish in Co.Derry in an attempt to find statistical patterns"><img alt="Early archaeoastronomy began by surveying alignments of Megalithic stones in the British Isles and sites like Auglish in Co.Derry in an attempt to find statistical patterns" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Auglish.jpg" src="../../images/165/16599.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/165/16599.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Early archaeoastronomy began by surveying alignments of Megalithic stones in the British Isles and sites like <!--del_lnk--> Auglish in Co.<!--del_lnk--> Derry in an attempt to find statistical patterns</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> interest in archaeoastronomy waned until the 1960s when the astronomer <!--del_lnk--> Gerald Hawkins proposed that Stonehenge was a <!--del_lnk--> Neolithic computer. Around the same time the engineer <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Thom published his survey results of <!--del_lnk--> megalithic sites also proposed widespread practice of accurate astronomy in the British Isles. The claims of Hawkins were largely dismissed. However, Thom's analysis continued to pose a problem. A re-evaluation of Thom's fieldwork by Clive Ruggles attempted to show that his claims of high accuracy astronomy were not fully supported by the evidence. Nevertheless there was evidence of widespread interest in astronomy associated with megalithic sites. The response from most archaeologists was tepid. Only one, Euan MacKie, recognised that Thom's theories needed to be tested and he excavated at the Kintraw standing stone site in Argyllshire in 1970 and 1971 to check whether the latter's prediction of an observation platform on the hill slope above the stone was correct. There was an artificial platform there and this apparent verification of Thom's long alignment hypothesis (Kintraw was diagnosed as an accurate winter solstice site) led him to check Thom's geometrical theories at the Cultoon stone circle in Islay, also with a positive result. MacKie therefore broadly accepted Thom’s conclusions and published new prehistories of Britain.. Until the early 1980s – with the exception just mentioned – most archaeoastronomical research in the United Kingdom was concerned with establishing the existence of astronomical alignments in prehistoric sites by <!--del_lnk--> statistical means rather than the social practice of astronomy in ancient times.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16600.jpg.htm" title="It has been proposed that Maya sites such as Uxmal were built in accordance with astronomical alignments"><img alt="It has been proposed that Maya sites such as Uxmal were built in accordance with astronomical alignments" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Uxmal01-panorama.jpg" src="../../images/166/16600.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16600.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> It has been proposed that <a href="../../wp/m/Maya_civilization.htm" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a> sites such as <!--del_lnk--> Uxmal were built in accordance with astronomical alignments</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> New World, anthropologists began to more fully consider the role of astronomy in <!--del_lnk--> Amerindian societies. This approach had access to sources that the <!--del_lnk--> prehistory of Europe lacks such as <!--del_lnk--> ethnographies and the <a href="../../wp/h/History.htm" title="History">historical</a> records of the early <!--del_lnk--> colonisers. This allowed New World archaeoastronomers to make claims for motives which in the Old World would have been mere speculation. The concentration on historical data led to some claims of high accuracy comparatively weak when compared to the statistically led investigations in Europe.<p>This came to a head at a meeting sponsored by the <!--del_lnk--> IAU in <a href="../../wp/o/Oxford.htm" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> in 1981. The <!--del_lnk--> methodologies and research questions of the participants were considered so different that the conference proceedings were published as two volumes. Nevertheless the conference was considered a success in bringing researchers together and Oxford conferences have continued every four or five years at locations around the world. The subsequent conferences have resulted in a move to more interdisciplinary approaches with researchers aiming to combine the contextuality of archaeological research, which broadly describes the state of archaeoastronomy today. Rather than merely establishing the existence of ancient astronomies archaeoastronomers seek to explain why people would have an interest in the night sky.<p><a id="Methodology" name="Methodology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Methodology</span></h2>
<p>Because of the wide variety of evidence, which can include artefacts as well as sites there is no <i>one</i> way practise archaeoastronomy. Despite this it is accepted that Archaeoastronomy is not a discipline that sits in isolation. Because Archaeoastronomy is an interdisciplinary field, whatever is being investigated should make sense both archaeologically and astronomically. Studies are more likely to be considered sound if they use theoretical tools found in Archaeology like <!--del_lnk--> analogy and <!--del_lnk--> homology and if they can demonstrate an understanding of <!--del_lnk--> accuracy and precision found in Astronomy.<p><a id="Artefactual_analysis" name="Artefactual_analysis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Artefactual analysis</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16601.jpg.htm" title="The Antikythera mechanism (main fragment)"><img alt="The Antikythera mechanism (main fragment)" height="178" longdesc="/wiki/Image:NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg" src="../../images/166/16601.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16601.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Antikythera mechanism (main fragment)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In the case of artefacts such as the <!--del_lnk--> Sky Disc of Nebra, alleged to be a bronze age artefact depicting the cosmos, the analysis would be similar to typical <!--del_lnk--> post-excavation analysis as used in other sub-disciplines in archaeology. An artefact is examined and attempts are made to draw analogies with historical or ethnographical records of other peoples. The more parallels that can be found, the more likely an explanation is to be accepted by other archaeologists.<p>Another well-known artefact with an astronomical use is the <!--del_lnk--> Antikythera mechanism. In this case analysis of the artefact, and reference to the description of similar devices described by Cicero, would indicate a plausible use for the device. The argument is bolstered by the presence of symbols on the mechanism, allowing the disc to be read.<p><a id="Symbolic_analysis" name="Symbolic_analysis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Symbolic analysis</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16602.jpg.htm" title="Diagram showing the location of the sun daggers on the petroglyph on various days"><img alt="Diagram showing the location of the sun daggers on the petroglyph on various days" height="547" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Fajadadiagram.JPG" src="../../images/166/16602.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16602.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Diagram showing the location of the sun daggers on the petroglyph on various days</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In some cases the use of an artefact may be known, but its meaning may not be fully understood. In such cases an examination of the symbolism on the artefact may be necessary.<p>A mundane example is the presence of <!--del_lnk--> astrological symbols found on some shoes and sandals from the Roman Empire. The use of shoes and sandals is well known, but Carol van Driel-Murray has proposed that astrological symbols etched onto sandals gave the footwear spiritual or medicinal meanings. This is supported through citation of other known uses of astrological symbols and their connection to medical practice and with the historical records of the time.<p>More problematic are some <!--del_lnk--> petroglyphs. Symbols on rock are one such class of symbol which are occasionally argued to posses astronomical meanings. An example is the Sun Dagger of <!--del_lnk--> Fajada Butte which is a glint of sunlight passing over a spiral petroglyph. The location of the dagger on the petroglyph varies throughout the year. At the solstices a dagger can be seen either through the heart of the spiral or to either side of it. It is proposed that this petroglyph was created to mark these events. If no ethnographic nor historical data are found which can support this assertion then acceptance of the idea relies upon the reader's own belief as to whether or not there are enough petroglyph sites in North America that such a correlation could occur by chance. It is helpful when petroglyphs are associated with existing peoples. This allows ethnoastronomers to question informants as to the meaning of such symbols.<p><a id="Alignment_analysis" name="Alignment_analysis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Alignment analysis</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16603.jpg.htm" title="The Sun rising behind the Heel Stone at Stonehenge"><img alt="The Sun rising behind the Heel Stone at Stonehenge" height="137" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sun_behind_the_Heel_Stone.jpg" src="../../images/166/16603.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16603.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Sun rising behind the Heel Stone at Stonehenge</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The most public image of archaeoastronomy is the practice of alignment analysis. This is the study of the orientation of structures and calculating the direction in which they face. In the case of Stonehenge it is well known to face the rising midsummer sun. In the case of the pyramids of Egypt they face north, probably to face the circumpolar stars.<p>The use of alignment analysis may vary depending upon the researcher. As a coarse stereotype archaeoastronomers from an historical background tend to have an idea which is then tested by examining structures for alignments. Astronomically-minded archaeoastronomers may analyze large numbers of sites and attempt to find statistical patterns. This approach was particularly employed in early papers by pioneers in the field such as <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Thom who conducted extensive fieldwork at megalithic sites and concluded many sites were situated to observe the moon. In this instance the aim was to prove that there is an astronomical problem which requires an historical explanation. This latter approach continues to an extent in some modern research but it has comparatively little direct impact on mainstream archaeology.<p>One reason the statistically-led approach has proven unpopular with archaeologists and anthropologists was stated by the anthropologist Keith Kintigh:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="20">
<div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Archaeoastronomy"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Archaeoastronomy"><img alt="Archaeoastronomy" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div>
</td>
<td>In light of the fact that archaeoastronomers bring considerable energy and expertise to their efforts, what accounts for archaeologists' indifference? <p>I think the principal reason is that archaeologists see archaeoastronomers as answering questions that, from a social scientific standpoint, no one is asking. To put it bluntly, in many cases it doesn't matter much to the progress of anthropology whether a particular archaeoastronomical claim is right or wrong because the information doesn't inform the current interpretive questions."</td>
<td valign="bottom" width="20">
<div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Archaeoastronomy"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Archaeoastronomy"><img alt="Archaeoastronomy" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Recent statistically led research has tended to be more discriminating, choosing archaeologically associated sites and where possible referring back to historical or ethnographic records to place the findings in a social context.<p>An alignment calculated by measuring the <!--del_lnk--> azimuth, the angle from north, of the structure and the altitude of the horizon it faces. The azimuth is usually measured using a <!--del_lnk--> theodolite or a <!--del_lnk--> compass. A compass is easier to use, though the deviation of the Earth's magnetic field from true north, known as its <!--del_lnk--> magnetic declination must be taken into account. Compasses are also unreliable in areas prone to magnetic interference, such as sites being supported by scaffolding. Additionally a compass can only measure the azimuth to a precision of a half a degree.<p>A thedolite can be considerably more accurate if used correctly, but it is also considerably more difficult to use correctly. There is no inherent way to align a theodolite with North and so the scale has to be <!--del_lnk--> calibrated using astronomical observation, usually the position of the Sun. Because the position of celestial bodies changes with the time of day due to the Earth's rotation, the time of these calibration observations must be accurately known, else there will be a systematic error in the measurements. If one is measuring buildings which were unlikely to be orientated by their builders to within fractions of a degree then a thedolite can be more trouble than it is worth. Horizon altitudes can be measured with a theodolite or a <!--del_lnk--> clinometer.<p><a id="Recreating_the_ancient_sky" name="Recreating_the_ancient_sky"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Recreating the ancient sky</span></h2>
<p>Once the researcher has data to test, it is often necessary to attempt to recreate ancient sky conditions to place the data in its historical environment.<p><a id="Declination" name="Declination"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Declination</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16604.jpg.htm" title="A time lapse photo showing the stars rotating around the celestial pole."><img alt="A time lapse photo showing the stars rotating around the celestial pole." height="207" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Circumpolar_stars.jpg" src="../../images/166/16604.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16604.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A time lapse photo showing the stars rotating around the celestial pole.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>To calculate what astronomical features a structure faced a coordinate system is needed. The stars provide such a system. If you were to go outside on a clear night you would observe the stars spinning around the celestial pole. This point is +90º if you are watching the North Celestial Pole or -90º if you are observing the Southern Celestial Pole. The concentric circles the stars trace out are lines of celestial latitude, known as <i>declination</i>. The point on the horizon due East, if the horizon is flat is the celestial equation which has a declination of 0º. The visible declinations vary depending where you are on the globe. Only an observer on the North Pole of Earth would be unable to see any stars from the Southern Celestial Hemisphere at night (see diagram below). Once a declination has been found for the point on the horizon that a building faces it is then possible to say if a specific body can be seen in that direction.<div class="center">
<div class="thumb tnone">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16605.jpg.htm" title="Diagram of the visible portions of sky at varying latitudes."><img alt="Diagram of the visible portions of sky at varying latitudes." height="62" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Decdiag600.jpg" src="../../images/166/16605.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16605.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Diagram of the visible portions of sky at varying latitudes.</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Solar_positioning" name="Solar_positioning"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Solar positioning</span></h3>
<p>While the stars are fixed to their declinations the Sun is not. The rising point of the Sun varies throughout the year. It swings between two limits marked by the solstices a bit like a <!--del_lnk--> pendulum, slowing as it reaches the extremes, but passing rapidly through the mid-point. If an archaeoastronomer can calculate from the azimuth and horizon height that a site was built to view a declination of +23.5º then he need not wait until June 21 to confirm the site does indeed face the summer solstice. For more information see <!--del_lnk--> History of solar observation.<p><a id="Lunar_positioning" name="Lunar_positioning"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lunar positioning</span></h3>
<p>The Moon's appearance is considerably more complex. Its motion, like the Sun, is between two limits - known as <i>luna</i>stices rather than <i>sol</i>stices. However its travel between lunastices is considerably faster. It takes a <!--del_lnk--> sidereal month to complete its cycle rather than the year long trek of the Sun. This is further complicated as the lunastices marking the limits of the Moon's movement move on <!--del_lnk--> an 18.6 year cycle. For slightly over nine years the extreme limits of the moon are outside the range of sunrise. For the remaining half of the cycle the Moon never exceeds the limits of the range of sunrise. However, much lunar observation was concerned with the <i><!--del_lnk--> phase</i> of the Moon. The cycle from one <!--del_lnk--> New Moon to the next runs on an entirely different cycle, the <!--del_lnk--> Synodic month. Thus when examining sites for lunar significance the data can appear sparse due the extremely variable nature of the moon. See <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a> for more details.<p><a id="Stellar_positioning" name="Stellar_positioning"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Stellar positioning</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16606.jpg.htm" title="Precessional movement."><img alt="Precessional movement." height="205" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Earth_precession.jpg" src="../../images/166/16606.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16606.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Precessional movement.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Finally there is often a need to correct for the apparent movement of the stars. On the timescale of human civilisation the stars have maintained the same position relative to each other. Each night they appear to rotate around the celestial poles due to the Earth's rotation about its axis. However the Earth spins rather like a <!--del_lnk--> spinning top. Not only does the Earth rotate, it wobbles. The Earth's axis takes around 25700 years to complete one full wobble. The effect to the archaeoastronomer is that stars did not rise over the horizon in the past in the same places as they do today. Nor did the stars rotate around <!--del_lnk--> Polaris as they do now. In the case of the <a href="../../wp/e/Egyptian_pyramids.htm" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a>, it has been shown they were aligned towards <!--del_lnk--> Thuban, a faint star in the constellation of <!--del_lnk--> Draco. The effect can be substanstial over relatively short lengths of time, historically speaking. For instance a person born on December 25 in Roman times would have been born under the astrological sign of <!--del_lnk--> Capricorn. In the modern period a person born on the same date is now a <!--del_lnk--> Sagittarian due to the precession of the equinoxes. <a id="Transient_phenomena" name="Transient_phenomena"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Transient phenomena</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/33/3354.jpg.htm" title="Halley's Comet depicted on the Bayeux tapestry"><img alt="Halley's Comet depicted on the Bayeux tapestry" height="260" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tapestry_of_bayeux10.jpg" src="../../images/166/16607.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/33/3354.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Halley's Comet depicted on the <!--del_lnk--> Bayeux tapestry</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Additionally there are often transient phenomena, events which do not happen on an annual cycle. Most predictable are events like <!--del_lnk--> eclipses. In the case of <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_eclipse.htm" title="Solar eclipse">solar eclipses</a> these can be used to date events in the past. A solar eclipse mentioned by <a href="../../wp/h/Herodotus.htm" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> enables us to date a battle between the <!--del_lnk--> Medes and the <!--del_lnk--> Lydians, which following the eclipse failed to happen, to May 28, 585 BC. Other easily calculated events are <!--del_lnk--> supernovae whose remains are visible to astronomers and therefore their positions and magnitude can be accurately calculated.<p>Some <a href="../../wp/c/Comet.htm" title="Comet">comets</a> are predictable, most famously <!--del_lnk--> Halley's Comet. Yet as a class of object they remain unpredictable and can appear at any time. Some have extremely lengthy <!--del_lnk--> orbital periods which means their past appearances and returns cannot be predicted. Others may have only ever passed through the solar system once and so are inherently unpredictable.<p><a href="../../wp/m/Meteor_shower.htm" title="Meteor shower">Meteor showers</a> should be predictable, but the <a href="../../wp/m/Meteor.htm" title="Meteor">meteors</a> are cometary debris and so require calculations of orbits which are currently impossible to complete. Other events noted by ancients include <!--del_lnk--> aurorae, <!--del_lnk--> sun dogs and <a href="../../wp/r/Rainbow.htm" title="Rainbow">rainbows</a> all of which are as impossible to predict as the ancient weather, but nevertheless may have been considered important phenomena.<p><a id="Major_topics_of_archaeoastronomical_research" name="Major_topics_of_archaeoastronomical_research"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Major topics of archaeoastronomical research</span></h2>
<p><a id="The_use_of_calendars" name="The_use_of_calendars"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The use of calendars</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16608.jpg.htm" title="Aztec Stone of the Sun replica in El Paso, Texas, cast from the original to be found in the National Museum of Anthropology and History. A religious artefact showing how the Mexica people thought about time."><img alt="Aztec Stone of the Sun replica in El Paso, Texas, cast from the original to be found in the National Museum of Anthropology and History. A religious artefact showing how the Mexica people thought about time." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AztecSunStoneReplica.jpg" src="../../images/166/16608.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16608.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/a/Aztec.htm" title="Aztec">Aztec</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> Stone of the Sun</i> replica in <!--del_lnk--> El Paso, Texas, cast from the original to be found in the <!--del_lnk--> National Museum of Anthropology and History. A religious artefact showing how the <!--del_lnk--> Mexica people thought about time.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>A common justification for the need for astronomy is the need to develop an accurate <!--del_lnk--> calendar for <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> reasons. Ancient texts like <!--del_lnk--> Hesiod’s Works and Days, an ancient farming manual, would appear to contradict this. Instead astronomical observations are used in combination with <a href="../../wp/e/Ecology.htm" title="Ecology">ecological</a> signs, such as <a href="../../wp/b/Bird_migration.htm" title="Bird migration">bird migrations</a> to determine the seasons. Ethnoastronomical work with the <!--del_lnk--> Mursi of <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> shows that haphazard astronomy continued until recent times in some parts of the world. All the same, calendars appear to be an almost universal phenomenon in societies as they provide tools for the regulation of communal activities.<p>An example of a non-agricultural calendar is the Mayan Tzolkin which is a cycle of 260 days. This count is based on an earlier calendar and is found throughout Mesoamerica. This formed part of a more comprehensive Maya Calendar which combined a series of astronomical observations and ritual cycles.<p>Other peculiar calendars include ancient <!--del_lnk--> Greek calendars. These were nominally <!--del_lnk--> lunar, starting with the <!--del_lnk--> New Moon. In reality the calendar could paused or days skipped with confused citizens inscribing dates by both the civic calendar and <i>ton theoi</i>, by the <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">moon</a>. The lack of any universal calendar for ancient Greece suggests that coordination of panhellenic events such as <!--del_lnk--> games or rituals could be difficult and that astronomical symbolism may have been used as a politically neutral form of timekeeping.<p><a id="Myth_and_cosmology" name="Myth_and_cosmology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Myth and cosmology</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16609.jpg.htm" title="The constellation Argo Navis drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690."><img alt="The constellation Argo Navis drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690." height="203" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Argo-hevelius.jpg" src="../../images/166/16609.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16609.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The constellation <!--del_lnk--> Argo Navis drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Another motive for studying the <!--del_lnk--> sky is to understand and explain the <a href="../../wp/u/Universe.htm" title="Universe">universe</a>. In pre-scientific times <a href="../../wp/m/Mythology.htm" title="Mythology">myth</a> was a tool for achieving this and the explanations, while not <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">scientific</a>, are <!--del_lnk--> cosmologies.<p>The <a href="../../wp/i/Inca_Empire.htm" title="Inca">Incas</a> arranged their empire to demonstrate their cosmology. The capital, <!--del_lnk--> Cusco, was at the centre of the empire and connected to it by means of ceques, conceptually straight lines radiating out from the centre. These ceques connected the centre of the empire to the four <i>suyus</i>, which were regions defined by their direction from Cusco. The notion of a quartered cosmos is common across the <a href="../../wp/a/Andes.htm" title="Andes">Andes</a>. Gary Urton, who has conducted fieldwork in the Andean villagers of Misminay, has connected this quartering with the appearance of the <a href="../../wp/m/Milky_Way.htm" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> in the night sky. In one season it will bisect the sky and in another bisect it in a <!--del_lnk--> perpendicular fashion.<p>The importance of observing cosmological factors is also seen on the other side of the world. The <!--del_lnk--> Forbidden City in <a href="../../wp/b/Beijing.htm" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> is laid out to follow cosmic order though rather than observing four directions the Chinese saw five, <!--del_lnk--> North, <!--del_lnk--> South, <!--del_lnk--> East, <!--del_lnk--> West and <!--del_lnk--> Centre. The Forbidden City occupied the centre of ancient Beijing. One approaches the Emperor from the south, thus placing him in front of the <!--del_lnk--> circumpolar stars. This creates the situation of the heavens revolving around the person of the Emperor. The Chinese cosmology is now better known through its export as <!--del_lnk--> Feng Shui.<p>There is also much information about how the universe was thought to work stored in the mythology of the <!--del_lnk--> constellations. The Barasana of the <a href="../../wp/a/Amazon_Rainforest.htm" title="Amazon Rainforest">Amazon</a> plan part of their annual cycle based on observation of the stars. When their constellation of the Caterpillar-Jaguar falls they prepare to catch the pupating caterpillars of the forest as they fall from the trees. This provides planning for food procurement at a time when hunger could otherwise be a problem.<p>A more well-known source of constellation myth are the texts of the Greeks and Romans. The origin of their constellations remains a matter of continuing and occasionally fractious debate.<p><a id="Displays_of_power" name="Displays_of_power"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Displays of power</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/198/19890.jpg.htm" title="The Intihuatana ("tie the sun") at Machu Picchu is believed to have been designed as an astronomic clock by the Incas, while some have speculated about the site's possible astrological role"><img alt="The Intihuatana ("tie the sun") at Machu Picchu is believed to have been designed as an astronomic clock by the Incas, while some have speculated about the site's possible astrological role" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Intihuatana_Solar_Clock.jpg" src="../../images/166/16610.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/198/19890.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Intihuatana ("tie the sun") at <a href="../../wp/m/Machu_Picchu.htm" title="Machu Picchu">Machu Picchu</a> is believed to have been designed as an astronomic clock by the Incas, while some have speculated about the site's possible <!--del_lnk--> astrological role</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The most common popular image of archaeoastronomy is the expression of hidden knowledge and power. By using stellar symbolism one can make claims of heavenly power.<p>By including celestial motifs in clothing it becomes possible for the wearer to make claims the power on Earth is drawn from above. It has been said that the Shield of <a href="../../wp/a/Achilles.htm" title="Achilles">Achilles</a> described by <a href="../../wp/h/Homer.htm" title="Homer">Homer</a> is also a catalogue of constellations. In North America shields depicted in <!--del_lnk--> Comanche <!--del_lnk--> petroglyphs appear to include Venus symbolism.<p><!--del_lnk--> Solsticial alignments also can be seen as displays of power. In Egypt the temple of <!--del_lnk--> Amun-Re at <!--del_lnk--> Karnak has been the subject of much study. Evaluation of the site, taking into account the change over time of the <!--del_lnk--> obliquity of the ecliptic show that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the midwinter sun. The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year.<p>In a later period the <!--del_lnk--> Serapeum in <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria was also said to have contained a <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">solar</a> alignment so that, on a specific sunrise, a shaft of light would pass across the lips of the statue of <!--del_lnk--> Serapis thus symbolising the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a> saluting the god.<p>The use of astronomy at <a href="../../wp/s/Stonehenge.htm" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a> continues to be a matter of vigorous discussion.<p><a id="Archaeoastronomical_organisations_and_publications" name="Archaeoastronomical_organisations_and_publications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Archaeoastronomical organisations and publications</span></h2>
<p>There are currently two academic organisations for scholars of archaeoastronomy. ISAAC—the International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture—was founded in 1995 and now sponsors the Oxford conferences and <i>Archaeoastronomy – the Journal of Astronomy in Culture</i>. SEAC—the Société Européenne pour l’Astronomie dans la Culture—is slightly older; it was created in 1992. SEAC holds annual conferences in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> and publishes refereed conference proceedings on an annual basis.<p>Additionally the <i>Journal for the History of Astronomy</i> publishes many archaeoastronomical papers. For twenty-seven volumes it also published an annual supplement <i>Archaeoastronomy</i>.<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Placemarks</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Ancient Monuments Placemarks, site coordinate spreadsheets, and calculators.</ul>
<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeoastronomy"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Stonehenge', 'Astronomy', 'Archaeology', 'Anthropology', 'Twentieth century', 'British Isles', 'Maya civilization', 'History', 'Oxford', 'Moon', 'Egyptian pyramids', 'Solar eclipse', 'Herodotus', 'Comet', 'Meteor shower', 'Meteor', 'Rainbow', 'Aztec', 'Agriculture', 'Ecology', 'Bird migration', 'Ethiopia', 'Moon', 'Universe', 'Mythology', 'Science', 'Inca', 'Andes', 'Milky Way', 'Beijing', 'Amazon Rainforest', 'Machu Picchu', 'Achilles', 'Homer', 'Sun', 'Sun', 'Stonehenge', 'Europe'] |
Archaeology | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Archaeology,Academia,Aerial survey,Aesthetic,Agriculture,Aircraft,Alexandria,Algonquian,Altamira (cave),American Anthropological Association,Ancient Greek" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Archaeology</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Archaeology";
var wgTitle = "Archaeology";
var wgArticleId = 570;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Archaeology">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Archaeology</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Archaeology.htm">Archaeology</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<p><b>Archaeology</b>, <b>archeology</b>, or <b>arch<span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">æ</span>ology</b> (from the <!--del_lnk--> Greek words <i>αρχαίος</i> = ancient and <i>λόγος</i> = word/speech/discourse) is the study of <!--del_lnk--> human <a href="../../wp/c/Culture.htm" title="Culture">cultures</a> through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including <a href="../../wp/a/Architecture.htm" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, <!--del_lnk--> artifacts, <!--del_lnk--> biofacts, human remains, and <!--del_lnk--> landscapes.<p>The goals of archaeology are to document and explain the origins and development of human <a href="../../wp/c/Culture.htm" title="Culture">culture</a>, understand <!--del_lnk--> culture history, chronicle <!--del_lnk--> cultural evolution, and study human <!--del_lnk--> behaviour and <a href="../../wp/e/Ecology.htm" title="Ecology">ecology</a>, for both <!--del_lnk--> prehistoric and <a href="../../wp/h/History.htm" title="History">historic</a> societies. It is considered in North America to be one of the four sub-fields of <a href="../../wp/a/Anthropology.htm" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16355.jpg.htm" title="Roman theater, Alexandria, Egypt"><img alt="Roman theater, Alexandria, Egypt" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:GD-EG-Alex-Th%C3%A9atre031.JPG" src="../../images/4/417.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/163/16355.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> <!--del_lnk--> theatre, <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria, <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Usage" name="Usage"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Usage</span></h2>
<p>As with words such as <!--del_lnk--> encyclop(a)edia and <!--del_lnk--> gyn(a)ecology, archaeology traditionally has an <i>ae</i> combination; however, unlike in many other words, the <i>ae</i> is still widely retained. Contrary to popular belief in other parts of the world, the spelling <i>archeology</i> is not predominant in <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> <!--del_lnk--> dictionaries, though it <i>is</i> the spelling used by the United States government organizations involved in the field. The traditional spelling, <i>archaeology</i>, continues to be the most common form in everyday writing throughout the world, including the U.S.A.<p><a id="Origins_and_definition" name="Origins_and_definition"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origins and definition</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/418.jpg.htm" title="Prehistoric cave paintings. Altamira, Spain"><img alt="Prehistoric cave paintings. Altamira, Spain" height="317" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Altamira-plafond.jpg" src="../../images/4/418.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/418.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Prehistoric <!--del_lnk--> cave paintings. <!--del_lnk--> Altamira, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Archaeology is the study of human culture using artifacts—material remains from humans in the past. In the <!--del_lnk--> Old World, archaeology has tended to focus on the study of physical remains, the methods used in recovering them and the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings in achieving the subject's goals. The discipline's roots in <!--del_lnk--> antiquarianism and the study of <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Ancient Greek provided it with a natural affinity with the field of <a href="../../wp/h/History.htm" title="History">history</a>. In the <!--del_lnk--> the United States and, increasingly, in other parts of the world, archaeology is more commonly devoted to the study of human <a href="../../wp/s/Society.htm" title="Society">societies</a> and is treated as one of the four subfields of <a href="../../wp/a/Anthropology.htm" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a>. The other subfields of <a href="../../wp/a/Anthropology.htm" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> supplement the findings of archaeology in a holistic manner. These subfields are <!--del_lnk--> cultural anthropology, which studies behavioural, symbolic, and material dimensions of culture; <a href="../../wp/l/Linguistics.htm" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, which studies language, including the origins of language and language groups; and <!--del_lnk--> physical anthropology, which includes the study of human evolution and physical and <a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">genetic</a> characteristics. Other disciplines also supplement archaeology, such as <a href="../../wp/p/Paleontology.htm" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>, <!--del_lnk--> paleozoology, <!--del_lnk--> paleoethnobotany, <!--del_lnk--> paleobotany, <a href="../../wp/g/Geography.htm" title="Geography">geography</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Geology.htm" title="Geology">geology</a>, <!--del_lnk--> art history, and <!--del_lnk--> classics. Archaeology has been described as a <!--del_lnk--> craft that enlists the <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">sciences</a> to illuminate the <a href="../../wp/h/Humanities.htm" title="Humanities">humanities</a>. The American archaeologist <!--del_lnk--> Walter Taylor asserted in his major work "A Study of Archeology" (1948, <!--del_lnk--> American Anthropological Association) that "Archaeology is neither history nor anthropology. As an autonomous discipline, it consists of a method and a set of specialised techniques for the gathering, or 'production' of cultural information".<p>Archaeology is an approach to understanding human culture through its material remains regardless of chronology. In <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, archaeologists have uncovered the long-lost layouts of medieval villages abandoned after the crises of the 14th century and the equally lost layouts of 17th century parterre gardens swept away by a change in fashion. In downtown <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> archaeologists have exhumed the 18th century remains of the Black burial ground. Traditional Archaeology is viewed as the study of pre-historical human cultures; that is cultures that existed before the development of <a href="../../wp/w/Writing.htm" title="Writing">writing</a> for that culture. <!--del_lnk--> Historical archaeology is the study of cultures with some form of <a href="../../wp/w/Writing.htm" title="Writing">writing</a>.<p>In the study of relatively recent cultures, which have been observed and studied by Western scholars, archaeology is closely allied with <!--del_lnk--> ethnography. This is the case in large parts of <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Oceania.htm" title="Oceania">Oceania</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Siberia, and other places where the study of archaeology mingles with the living traditions of the cultures being studied. <!--del_lnk--> Kennewick Man is an example of archaeology interacting with modern culture. In the study of cultures that were literate or had literate neighbours, <a href="../../wp/h/History.htm" title="History">history</a> and archaeology supplement one another for broader understanding of the complete cultural context, as at <a href="../../wp/h/Hadrian%2527s_Wall.htm" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a>.<p><a id="Importance_and_applicability" name="Importance_and_applicability"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Importance and applicability</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/12/1282.jpg.htm" title="Stonehenge, United Kingdom"><img alt="Stonehenge, United Kingdom" height="205" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Stonehenge_back_wide.jpg" src="../../images/4/419.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/12/1282.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/s/Stonehenge.htm" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Often archaeology provides the only means to learn of the existence and behaviors of people in the past. Many thousands of cultures and societies and millions of people have come and gone across the millennia of which there simply is little or no written record - no history - or for which written records may be misrepresentative or incomplete. <a href="../../wp/w/Writing.htm" title="Writing">Writing</a> as it is known and understood today did not exist anywhere in the world until about 5000 years ago, and only spread among a relatively small number of technologically advanced <a href="../../wp/c/Civilization.htm" title="Civilisation">civilisations</a>. In contrast <!--del_lnk--> <i>Homo sapiens</i> have existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of <!--del_lnk--> <i>Homo</i> for millions of years (see <!--del_lnk--> Human evolution). These <a href="../../wp/c/Civilization.htm" title="Civilisation">civilisations</a> are, not coincidentally, the best-known; they have been open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Even within a civilisation that is literate at some levels, many important human practices are not officially recorded. Any knowledge of the formative early years of human civilisation - the development of <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, cult practices of <!--del_lnk--> folk religion, the rise of the first <a href="../../wp/c/City.htm" title="City">cities</a> - must come from archaeology.<p>Even where written records do exist, they are invariably incomplete or biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the <!--del_lnk--> elite classes, such as the <!--del_lnk--> clergy or the <!--del_lnk--> bureaucracy of court or temple. The literacy even of an <!--del_lnk--> aristocracy has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the rest of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into <a href="../../wp/l/Library.htm" title="Library">libraries</a> and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of a limited range of individuals, usually only a fraction of the larger population. As such, written records cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record is nearer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own inaccuracies, such as <!--del_lnk--> sampling bias and <!--del_lnk--> differential preservation.<p>In addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political significance to descendants of the people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or simply strong <!--del_lnk--> aesthetic appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies.<p>This view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Raiders of the Lost Ark</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Mummy</i>, and <i><!--del_lnk--> King Solomon's Mines</i>. When such unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of <!--del_lnk--> pseudoscience are invariably levelled at their proponents (see Pseudoarchaeology, below). However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of the modern state of archaeology.<p><a id="Goals" name="Goals"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Goals</span></h2>
<p>There is still a tremendous emphasis in the practice of archaeology on field techniques and methodologies. These include the tasks of surveying areas in order to find new sites, excavating sites in order to unearth the cultural remains therein, and classification and preservation techniques in order to analyse and keep these remains. Every phase of this process can be a source of information.<p>The academic goals of archaeology are not universally agreed upon, and there are at least three broad, distinct theories of exactly what archaeological research should do. (These are beyond the scope of the present discussion, but are discussed below. See also <!--del_lnk--> Archaeological theory.) Nevertheless, there is much common ground.<p><a id="Academic_sub-disciplines" name="Academic_sub-disciplines"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Academic sub-disciplines</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>As with most <!--del_lnk--> academic disciplines, there are a very large number of <!--del_lnk--> archaeological sub-disciplines characterised by a specific method or type of material (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> lithic analysis, <!--del_lnk--> music, <!--del_lnk--> archaeobotany), geographical or chronological focus (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> Near Eastern archaeology, <!--del_lnk--> Medieval archaeology), other thematic concern (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> maritime archaeology, <!--del_lnk--> landscape archaeology, <!--del_lnk--> battlefield archaeology), or a specific <!--del_lnk--> archaeological culture or <a href="../../wp/c/Civilization.htm" title="Civilisation">civilisation</a> (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> Egyptology).<p><a id="Cultural_resources_management" name="Cultural_resources_management"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Field methods</span></h2>
<p><a id="Survey" name="Survey"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Survey</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/421.jpg.htm" title="Monte Alban archaeological site"><img alt="Monte Alban archaeological site" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Monte_Alb%C3%A1n_archeological_site%2C_Oaxaca.jpg" src="../../images/4/421.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/421.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Monte Alban archaeological site</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>A modern archaeological project often begins with a <!--del_lnk--> survey. <i>Regional survey</i> is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. <i>Site survey</i> is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and <!--del_lnk--> middens, within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods.<p>Survey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. <!--del_lnk--> Gordon Willey pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the <!--del_lnk--> Viru Valley of coastal <a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a>, and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later.<p>Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artifacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ <!--del_lnk--> sampling methods.) It avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as <!--del_lnk--> settlement patterns and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into <!--del_lnk--> maps, which may show surface features and/or artifact distribution.<p>The simplest survey technique is <i>surface survey</i>. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanised transport, to search for features or artifacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as <!--del_lnk--> augers, <!--del_lnk--> corers, and <!--del_lnk--> shovel test pits.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Aerial survey</i> is conducted using <!--del_lnk--> cameras attached to <a href="../../wp/a/Aircraft.htm" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>, <!--del_lnk--> balloons, or even <!--del_lnk--> kites. A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Ariel photographs are used to document the status of the archaeological dig. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">Plants</a> growing above a buried man made structure, such as a stone wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as <!--del_lnk--> middens) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening <a href="../../wp/c/Cereal.htm" title="Cereal">grain</a>, which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial photographs taken at different times of day will help show the outlines of structures by changes in shadows. Aerial survey also employs <!--del_lnk--> infrared, ground-penetrating <a href="../../wp/r/Radar.htm" title="Radar">radar</a> wavelengths, and <!--del_lnk--> thermography.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Archaeological geophysics</i> can be the most effective way to see beneath the ground. <!--del_lnk--> Magnetometers detect minute deviations in the <!--del_lnk--> Earth's magnetic field caused by <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> artifacts, <!--del_lnk--> kilns, some types of <!--del_lnk--> stone structures, and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the <!--del_lnk--> electrical resistivity of the soil are also widely used. Most soils are moist below the surface, which gives them a relatively low resistivity. Features such as hard-packed floors or concentrations of stone have a higher resistivity.<p>Although some archaeologists consider the use of <!--del_lnk--> metal detectors to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on <!--del_lnk--> English Civil War battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a nineteenth century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to the archaeological record where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the <!--del_lnk--> Portable Antiquities Scheme.<p>Regional survey in <!--del_lnk--> underwater archaeology uses geophysical or remote sensing devices such as marine magnetometer, <!--del_lnk--> side-scan sonar, or sub-bottom sonar.<p><a id="Excavation" name="Excavation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Excavation</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/422.jpg.htm" title="Archeological excavation which discovered prehistorical caves in Vill, Austria"><img alt="Archeological excavation which discovered prehistorical caves in Vill, Austria" height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vill_excavation.jpg" src="../../images/4/422.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/422.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Archeological excavation which discovered prehistorical caves in <!--del_lnk--> Vill, <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Archaeological excavation existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy, three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context.<p>Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their <!--del_lnk--> provenance or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see <!--del_lnk--> Primary Laws of Archaeology). Similarly, their <!--del_lnk--> association, or relationship with nearby objects and features, needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce what artefacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its <!--del_lnk--> stratigraphy; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct <a href="../../wp/c/Culture.htm" title="Culture">cultures</a>, artefacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures.<p>Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research. Also, as a destructive process, it carries <a href="../../wp/e/Ethics.htm" title="Ethics">ethical</a> concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. <!--del_lnk--> Sampling is even more important in excavation than in survey. It is common for large mechanical equipment, such as <!--del_lnk--> backhoes (<!--del_lnk--> JCBs), to be used in excavation, especially to remove the <!--del_lnk--> topsoil (<!--del_lnk--> overburden), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent.<p>The next task is to form a <!--del_lnk--> site plan and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the natural <!--del_lnk--> subsoil are normally excavated in portions in order to produce a visible <!--del_lnk--> archaeological section for recording. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in describing the <!--del_lnk--> context of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site.<p><a id="Post-excavation_analysis" name="Post-excavation_analysis"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Post-excavation analysis</span></h2>
<p>Once artifacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them, to gain as much data as possible. This process is known as post-excavation analysis, and is normally the most time-consuming part of the archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for the final excavation reports on major sites to take years to be published.<p>At its most basic, the artifacts found are cleaned, catalogued and compared to published collections, in order to classify them <!--del_lnk--> typologically and to identify other sites with similar artifact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through <!--del_lnk--> archaeological science, meaning that artifacts can be dated and their compositions examined. The bones, plants and pollen collected from a site can all be analysed (using the techniques of <!--del_lnk--> zooarchaeology, <!--del_lnk--> paleoethnobotany, and <!--del_lnk--> palynology), while any texts can usually be <!--del_lnk--> deciphered.<p>These techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known and therefore contribute greatly to the understanding of a site.<p><a id="History_of_archaeology" name="History_of_archaeology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History of archaeology</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/423.jpg.htm" title="Gilt-metal and jade-inlaid pot. Qianlong reign in the Qing dynasty of China (c. 1700)"><img alt="Gilt-metal and jade-inlaid pot. Qianlong reign in the Qing dynasty of China (c. 1700)" height="223" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jade_pot_from_the_Qing_Dynasty.jpg" src="../../images/4/423.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/423.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Gilt-metal and jade-inlaid pot. <!--del_lnk--> Qianlong reign in the <!--del_lnk--> Qing dynasty of <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> (c. 1700)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The history of archaeology has been one of increasing professionalisation, and the use of an increasing range of techniques, to obtain as much data on the site being examined as possible.<p>Excavations of ancient monuments and the collection of antiquities have been taking place for thousands of years, but these were mostly for the extraction of valuable or aesthetically pleasing artifacts.<p>It was only in the 19th century that the systematic study of the past through its physical remains began to be carried out. A notable early development was the founding in Rome in 1829, by <!--del_lnk--> Eduard Gerhard and others, of the Institute for Archaeological Correspondence (Instituto di corrispondenza archeologica or Institut für archäologisches Korrespondenz). Archaeological methods were developed by both interested amateurs and professionals, including <!--del_lnk--> Augustus Pitt Rivers and <!--del_lnk--> William Flinders Petrie.<p>This process was continued in the 20th century by such people as <!--del_lnk--> Mortimer Wheeler, whose highly disciplined approach to excavation greatly improved the quality of evidence that could be obtained.<p>During the 20th century, the development of <!--del_lnk--> urban archaeology and then <!--del_lnk--> rescue archaeology have been important factors, as has the development of <!--del_lnk--> archaeological science, which has greatly increased the amount of data that it is possible to obtain.<p><a id="Archaeological_theory" name="Archaeological_theory"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Archaeological theory</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>There is no single theory of archaeology, and even definitions are disputed. Until the mid-20th century and the introduction of technology, there was a general consensus that archaeology was closely related to both <a href="../../wp/h/History.htm" title="History">history</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Anthropology.htm" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>. The first major phase in the history of archaeological theory is commonly referred to as <b><!--del_lnk--> cultural, or culture, history</b>, which was developed during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<p>In the 1960s, a number of young, primarily American archaeologists, such as <!--del_lnk--> Lewis Binford, rebelled against the paradigms of cultural history. They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more "scientific" and "anthropological", with <!--del_lnk--> hypothesis testing and the <!--del_lnk--> scientific method very important parts of what became known as <b><!--del_lnk--> processual archaeology</b>.<p>In the 1980s, a new movement arose led by the British archaeologists <!--del_lnk--> Michael Shanks, <!--del_lnk--> Christopher Tilley, <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Miller, and <!--del_lnk--> Ian Hodder. It questioned processualism's appeals to science and impartiality and emphasised the importance of relativism, becoming known as <b><!--del_lnk--> post-processual archaeology</b>. However, this approach has been criticised by processualists as lacking scientific rigour. The validity of both processualism and post-processualism is still under debate.<p>Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">neo-Darwinian evolutionary thought</a>, <!--del_lnk--> phenomenology, <!--del_lnk--> postmodernism, <!--del_lnk--> agency theory, <!--del_lnk--> cognitive science, <!--del_lnk--> Functionalism, <!--del_lnk--> gender-based and <!--del_lnk--> Feminist archaeology, and <!--del_lnk--> Systems theory.<p><a id="Public_archaeology" name="Public_archaeology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Public archaeology</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/424.jpg.htm" title="Largest archaeology site in the Middle East. Bet She'an, Israel"><img alt="Largest archaeology site in the Middle East. Bet She'an, Israel" height="155" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beit_shean1.jpg" src="../../images/4/424.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/424.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Largest archaeology site in the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Bet She'an, <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities. Such pursuits continue to fascinate the public, portrayed in books (such as <i><!--del_lnk--> King Solomon's Mines</i>) and films (such as <i><!--del_lnk--> The Mummy</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Raiders of the Lost Ark</i>).<p>Much thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as <!--del_lnk--> Copán and the <!--del_lnk--> Valley of the Kings, but the stuff of modern archaeology is not so reliably sensational. In addition, archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in modern <!--del_lnk--> survey, <!--del_lnk--> excavation, and <!--del_lnk--> data processing techniques. Some archaeologists refer to such portrayals as "<!--del_lnk--> pseudoarchaeology".<p>Nevertheless, archaeology has profited from its portrayal in the mainstream media. Many practitioners point to the childhood excitement of <!--del_lnk--> Indiana Jones films and <!--del_lnk--> Tomb Raider games as the inspiration for them to enter the field. Archaeologists are also very much reliant on public support, the question of exactly who they are doing their work for is often discussed. Without a strong public interest in the subject, often sparked by significant finds and celebrity archaeologists, it would be a great deal harder for archaeologists to gain the political and financial support they require.<p>In the UK, popular archaeology programmes such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Time Team</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Meet the Ancestors</i> have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest. Where possible, archaeologists now make more provision for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did, and many local archaeological organisations operate within the <!--del_lnk--> Community archaeology framework to expand public involvement in smaller-scale, more local projects. However, the move towards being more professional has meant that volunteer places are now often relegated to unskilled labour, and even this is less freely available than before. Developer-funded excavation necessitates a well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately, observing the necessary <!--del_lnk--> health and safety and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern <!--del_lnk--> building site with tight deadlines. Certain charities and <!--del_lnk--> local government bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project. There is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial <!--del_lnk--> training excavations and archaeological holiday tours.<p>Archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies, which is one reason why <!--del_lnk--> Community archaeology projects are starting to become more common. Anyone looking to get involved in the field without having to pay to do so should contact a local group.<p><a id="Pseudoarchaeology" name="Pseudoarchaeology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pseudoarchaeology</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Pseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work (discussed above), as well as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of <!--del_lnk--> processual archaeology, or the specific critiques of it contained in <!--del_lnk--> post-processualism.<p>An example of this type is the writing of <!--del_lnk--> Erich von Däniken. His <i><!--del_lnk--> Chariots of the Gods</i> (1968), together with many subsequent lesser-known works, expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilisation on Earth and more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilisations. This theory, known as <!--del_lnk--> palaeocontact theory, is not exclusively Däniken's nor did the idea originate with him. Works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well-established theories on the basis of limited evidence, and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind.<p><a id="Looting" name="Looting"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Looting</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/425.jpg.htm" title="Stela Stela of a king named Adad-Nirari. Object stolen from the Iraq National Museum in the looting in connection with the Iraq war of 2003."><img alt="Stela Stela of a king named Adad-Nirari. Object stolen from the Iraq National Museum in the looting in connection with the Iraq war of 2003." height="366" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Adad-Nirari_stela.jpg" src="../../images/4/425.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/425.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Stela Stela of a king named Adad-Nirari. Object stolen from the Iraq National Museum in the looting in connection with the <!--del_lnk--> Iraq war of 2003.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Looting of archaeological sites by people in search of <!--del_lnk--> hoards of buried treasure is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian <!--del_lnk--> pharaohs were looted in antiquity. The advent of archaeology has made ancient sites objects of great scientific and public interest, but it has also attracted unwelcome attention to the works of past peoples. A brisk commercial demand for artifacts encourages looting and the <!--del_lnk--> illicit antiquities trade, which smuggles items abroad to private collectors. Looters damage the integrity of a historic site, deny archaeologists valuable information that would be learnt from excavation, and are often deemed to be robbing local people of their heritage.<p>The popular consciousness often associates looting with poor <!--del_lnk--> Third World countries. Many are former homes to many well-known ancient civilizations but lack the financial resources or political will to protect even the most significant sites. Certainly, the high prices that intact objects can command relative to a poor farmer's income make looting a tempting financial proposition for some local people. However, looting has taken its toll in places as rich and populous as the United States and Western Europe as well. Abandoned towns of the ancient <!--del_lnk--> Sinagua people of <!--del_lnk--> Arizona, clearly visible in the desert landscape, have been destroyed in large numbers by treasure hunters. Sites in more densely populated areas farther east have also been looted. Where looting is proscribed by law it takes place under cover of night, with the <!--del_lnk--> metal detector a common instrument used to identify profitable places to dig.<p><a id="Public_outreach" name="Public_outreach"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Public outreach</span></h3>
<p>Motivated by a desire to halt <b>looting</b>, curb <b>pseudoarchaeology</b>, and to secure greater public funding and appreciation for their work, archaeologists are mounting <b>public-outreach campaigns</b>. <!--del_lnk--> They seek to stop looting by informing prospective artifact collectors of the provenance of these goods, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting and the danger that it poses to science and their own heritage. Common methods of public outreach include press releases and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation.<p>The final audience for archaeologists' work is the public and it is increasingly realised that their work is ultimately being done to benefit and inform them. The putative social benefits of local heritage awareness are also being promoted with initiatives to increase civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects and better interpretation and presentation of existing sites.<p><a id="Descendant_peoples" name="Descendant_peoples"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Descendant peoples</span></h3>
<p>In the United States, examples such as the case of <!--del_lnk--> Kennewick Man have illustrated the tensions between <!--del_lnk--> Native Americans and archaeologists which can be summarised as a conflict between a need to remain respectful towards burials sacred sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artifacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present. To an archaeologist, the past is long-gone and must be reconstructed through its material remains; to indigenous peoples, it is often still alive.<p>As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the <!--del_lnk--> Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of <!--del_lnk--> indigenous peoples likely to be descended from those under study.<p>Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites in order to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study.<p>While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession.<p><a id="Repatriation" name="Repatriation"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Repatriation</span></h4>
<p>A new trend in the heated controversy between <!--del_lnk--> First Nations groups and scientists is the <!--del_lnk--> repatriation of native <!--del_lnk--> artifacts to the original descendants. An example of this occurred June 21, 2005, when a community members and elders from a number of the 10 <!--del_lnk--> Algonquian nations in the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottawa.htm" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a> area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation in <!--del_lnk--> Kanawagi, Quebec, to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods — some dating back 6,000 years.<p>The ceremony marked the end of a journey spanning thousands of years and many miles. The remains and artifacts, including <!--del_lnk--> beads, <!--del_lnk--> tools and <!--del_lnk--> weapons, were originally excavated from various sites in the <!--del_lnk--> Ottawa Valley, including <!--del_lnk--> Morrison and the <!--del_lnk--> Allumette Islands. They had been part of the <!--del_lnk--> Canadian Museum of Civilization’s research collection for decades, some since the late 1800s. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional <!--del_lnk--> redcedar and <!--del_lnk--> birchbark boxes lined with redcedar chips, <!--del_lnk--> muskrat and <!--del_lnk--> beaver pelts.<p>Now, an inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 90 boxes of various sizes are buried. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Culture', 'Architecture', 'Culture', 'Ecology', 'History', 'Anthropology', 'Ancient Rome', 'Egypt', 'United States', 'Spain', 'Latin', 'History', 'Society', 'Anthropology', 'Anthropology', 'Linguistics', 'Genetics', 'Paleontology', 'Geography', 'Geology', 'Science', 'Humanities', 'England', 'New York City', 'Writing', 'Writing', 'North America', 'Oceania', 'History', "Hadrian's Wall", 'Stonehenge', 'United Kingdom', 'Writing', 'Civilisation', 'Civilisation', 'Agriculture', 'City', 'Library', 'Civilisation', 'Peru', 'Aircraft', 'Plant', 'Cereal', 'Radar', 'Iron', 'Austria', 'Culture', 'Ethics', 'China', 'History', 'Anthropology', 'Evolution', 'Middle East', 'Israel', 'Ottawa'] |
Archaeopteryx | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Archaeopteryx,19th century,Airfoil,Alula,Ancient Greek,Animal,Archaeopterygiformes,Astragalus,Aves,Barb (feather),Barbule" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Archaeopteryx</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Archaeopteryx";
var wgTitle = "Archaeopteryx";
var wgArticleId = 2995;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Archaeopteryx">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Archaeopteryx</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Birds.htm">Birds</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: Pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><i><b>Archaeopteryx</b></i><br />
<center><small>Fossil range: <!--del_lnk--> Late Jurassic</small></center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/39/3997.jpg.htm" title="A model of Archaeopteryx lithographica on display at the Oxford University Museum"><img alt="A model of Archaeopteryx lithographica on display at the Oxford University Museum" height="182" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Archaeopteryx-model.jpg" src="../../images/4/426.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>A model of <i>Archaeopteryx lithographica</i><br /> on display at the <!--del_lnk--> Oxford University Museum</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: Pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Aves<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Archaeopterygiformes<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><b>Archaeopterygidae</b><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Huxley, 1871</small></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Archaeopteryx</b></i><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>A. lithographica</b></i></span><br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="Pink">
<th>
<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><i><b>Archaeopteryx lithographica</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Meyer, 1861</small></td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center; background:Pink;">
<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Synonyms</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<p><i>see text</i></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><i><b>Archaeopteryx</b></i> (from <!--del_lnk--> Ancient Greek αρχαιος <i>archaios</i> meaning 'ancient' and πτερυξ <i>pteryx</i> meaning 'feather' or 'wing'; pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ɑː(ɹ)kiːˈɒptəˌɹɪks/</span>), from the late <a href="../../wp/j/Jurassic.htm" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> <!--del_lnk--> Period (<!--del_lnk--> Kimmeridgian stage, 155-150 million years ago) of what is now <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, is the earliest and most primitive known <!--del_lnk--> avian. <i>Archaeopteryx</i> was similar in size and shape to a <a href="../../wp/m/Magpie.htm" title="Magpie">magpie</a>, with broad, rounded wings and a long tail. Its <a href="../../wp/f/Feather.htm" title="Feather">feathers</a> resembled those of modern birds but <i>Archaeopteryx</i> was rather different from any bird known today, in that it had jaws lined with sharp teeth, three 'fingers' ending in curved <!--del_lnk--> claws and a long bony tail. In 1862, the description of the first intact specimen of <i>Archaeopteryx</i>, just two years after <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Darwin.htm" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> published <i><a href="../../wp/t/The_Origin_of_Species.htm" title="The Origin of Species">The Origin of Species</a></i>, set off a firestorm of debate about <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolution</a> and the role of <!--del_lnk--> transitional fossils that endures to this day.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Archaeopteryx_and_the_origins_of_birds" name="Archaeopteryx_and_the_origins_of_birds"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline"><i>Archaeopteryx</i> and the origins of birds</span></h2>
<p>In the 1970s, <!--del_lnk--> John Ostrom argued that the birds evolved from <a href="../../wp/t/Theropoda.htm" title="Theropoda">theropod dinosaurs</a> (see <!--del_lnk--> Dinosaur-bird connection). <i>Archaeopteryx</i> provides a critical piece of this argument, as it preserves a number of avian features (a wishbone, flight feathers, wings, a partially reversed first toe) and a number of dinosaur and theropod features (for instance, a long ascending process of the <!--del_lnk--> astragalus, <!--del_lnk--> interdental plates, an <!--del_lnk--> obturator process of the <!--del_lnk--> ischium, and long chevrons in the tail). In particular, Ostrom found that <i>Archaeopteryx</i> was remarkably similar to the theropod family <!--del_lnk--> Dromaeosauridae. Further research on dinosaurs from the Gobi Desert and China has since provided more evidence of a link between <i>Archaeopteryx</i> and the dinosaurs, such as Chinese <!--del_lnk--> feathered dinosaurs.<p><i>Archaeopteryx</i> is probably close to the ancestry of modern birds - it shows most of the features one would expect in an ancestral bird - but it may not be the direct ancestor of living birds, and it is arguable how much divergence was already present in the early birds at its time.<p><a id="Plumage" name="Plumage"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Plumage</span></h2>
<p><i>Archaeopteryx</i> specimens were most notable for their well-developed <!--del_lnk--> remiges. These are markedly asymmetrical and show the structure of flight feathers of modern birds, with vanes given stability by a <!--del_lnk--> barb-<!--del_lnk--> barbule-barbicel arrangement. The tail feathers are less asymmetrical, again in line with the situation in modern birds, and also have firm vanes. The <!--del_lnk--> thumb did not bear a separately movable tuft of stiff feathers (<!--del_lnk--> alula) yet.<p>Body plumage is less well documented, and only properly researched in the well-preserved Berlin specimen. Thus, as more than one species seems to be involved, the following does not necessarily hold true for all of them. In the Berlin specimen, there are "trousers" of well-developed feathers on the legs; some of these feathers seem to have a basic contour feather structure but are somewhat decomposed (i.e., lack barbicels as in <!--del_lnk--> ratites: Christiansen & Bonde, 2004), but at least in part they are firm and thus capable of supporting flight (Longrich, 2006).<p>There was a patch of <!--del_lnk--> pennaceous feathers running along the back which was quite similar to the contour feathers of the body plumage of modern birds in being symmetrical and firm (though not as stiff as the flight-related feathers). Apart from that, the feather traces in the Berlin specimen are limited to a sort of "proto-<!--del_lnk--> down" not dissimilar to that found in the dinosaur <i><!--del_lnk--> Sinosauropteryx</i>, being decomposed and fluffy, and possibly even appeared more like fur than like feathers in life (though not in their microscopic structure). These occur on the remainder of the body, as far as such structures are both preserved and not obliterated by preparation, and the lower neck (Christiansen & Bonde, 2004).<p>On the other hand, there is no indication of feathering on the upper neck and head; while these may conceivably have been nude as in many closely related feathered dinosaurs for which good specimens are available, this may still be an artifact of preservation: it appears that most <i>Archaeopteryx</i> specimens became embedded in <!--del_lnk--> anoxic sediment after drifting some time on their back in the sea - the head and neck and the tail are generally bent downwards which suggests that the specimens had just started to rot when they were embedded, with tendons and muscle relaxing so that the characteristic shape of the fossil specimens was achieved. This would mean that the skin was already softened and loose (further evidence is provided by the fact that in some specimens, the flight feathers were starting to detach at the point of embedding in the sediment), and in specimens moving along the ground in shallow water, this would cause the head and upper neck, but not the more firmly attached tail feathers to slough off (Elżanowski, 2002).<p>It must be mentioned that the feather, the initial specimen described, does not agree too well with the flight-related feathers of <i>Archaeopteryx</i>. It certainly is a remix of a contemporary species, but its size and proportions indicate that it probably belongs to an as of yet undiscovered species of primitive bird or possibly bird-like dinosaur. As the feather was the original <!--del_lnk--> type specimen, this has created quite some <!--del_lnk--> nomenclatorial confusion.<p><a id="Flight_ability" name="Flight_ability"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Flight ability</span></h2>
<p>The flight feathers of <i>Archaeopteryx</i> were highly asymmetrical, as in the wings of modern birds, and the tail feathers are rather broad. This implies that the wings and tail were used for lift generation, but it is unclear whether <i>Archaeopteryx</i> was simply a glider, or capable of flapping flight. The lack of a bony breastbone suggests that <i>Archaeopteryx</i> was not a very strong flier, but flight muscles might have attached to the thick, boomerang-shaped wishbone, the platelike <!--del_lnk--> coracoids, or perhaps to a <!--del_lnk--> cartilagenous <!--del_lnk--> sternum. The sideways orientation of the glenoid (shoulder) joint between <!--del_lnk--> scapula, <!--del_lnk--> coracoid and <!--del_lnk--> humerus - instead of the dorsally angled arrangement found in modern birds - suggests that <i>Archaeopteryx</i> was unable to lift its wings above its back, a requirement for the upstroke found in modern flapping flight. Thus, it seems likely that <i>Archaeopteryx</i> was indeed unable to use flapping flight as modern birds do, but it may well have utilized a downstroke-only flap-assisted gliding technique (Senter, 2006).<p><i>Archaeopteryx</i> wings were relatively large, which would have resulted in a low stall speed and reduced turning radius. The short and rounded shape of the wings would have increased drag, but could also have improved <i>Archaeopteryx'</i> ability to fly through cluttered environments such as trees and brush (similar wing shapes are seen in birds which fly through trees and brush, such as crows and pheasants). The presence of "hind wings", asymmetrical flight feathers stemming from the legs similar to those seen in dromaeosaurids such as <i><a href="../../wp/m/Microraptor.htm" title="Microraptor">Microraptor</a></i>, would also have added to the aerial mobility of <i>Archaeopteryx</i>. The first detailed study of the hind wings by Longrich (2006) suggested that the structures formed up to 12% of the total <!--del_lnk--> airfoil. Considering that it is not certain to what extent such feathers capable of supporting flight were present on the legs, this would have reduced stall speed by up to 6% and turning radius by up to 12%, in addition to the stall and turning radius reduction provided by the primary wing and tail feathers.<p>In 2004, scientists analyzing a detailed <!--del_lnk--> CT scan of <i>Archaeopteryx'</i>s <!--del_lnk--> braincase, concluded that its brain was significantly larger than that of most dinosaurs, indicating that it possessed the brain size necessary for flying. The overall brain anatomy was reconstructed using the scan. The reconstruction showed that the regions associated with vision took up nearly one-third of the brain. Other well-developed areas involved hearing and muscle coordination (Winter, 2004). The skull scan also revealed the structure of the inner ear. The structure more closely resembles that of modern birds than the inner ear of reptiles. These characteristics taken together suggest that <i>Archaeopteryx</i> had the keen sense of hearing, balance, spatial perception and coordination needed to fly (Alnso <i>et al.</i>, 2004).<p><i>Archaeopteryx</i> continues to play an important part in scientific debates about the origin and evolution of birds. Some scientists see <i>Archaeopteryx</i> as a semi-arboreal climbing animal, following the idea that birds evolved from tree-dwelling gliders (the "trees down" hypothesis for the evolution of flight proposed by <!--del_lnk--> O.C. Marsh). Other scientists see <i>Archaeopteryx</i> as running quickly along the ground, supporting the idea that birds evolved flight by running (the "ground up" hypothesis proposed by <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Wendell Williston). Still others suggest that <i>Archaeopteryx</i> might have been at home both in the trees and on the ground, like modern crows, and this latter view is what today is considered best-supported by morphological characters. Altogether, it appears that it was a species which was neither particularly specialized for running on the ground, nor for perching. Considering the current knowledge of flight-related morphology, a scenario as outlined by Elżanowski (2002), namely that <i>Archaeopteryx</i> used its wings mainly to escape <!--del_lnk--> predators by glides punctuated with shallow downstrokes to reach successively higher perches, and alternatively to cover longer distances by (mainly) gliding down from cliffs or treetops, appears quite reasonable.<p>Given that it is now well established that several lineages of theropods evolved feathers and flight independently, the question of how precisely the ancestors of <i>Archaeopteryx</i> became able to fly has lost dramatically in importance for the time being. Since it is quite likely that this species belongs to a lineage of birds unrelated to the <!--del_lnk--> Neornithes (the Jurassic ancestor of which remains unknown), how exactly flying ability was gained in <i>Archaeopteryx</i> may be a moot point, having little bearing on how this happened in the ancestors of modern birds.<p><a id="Taxonomy" name="Taxonomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Taxonomy</span></h2>
<p>The relationships of the specimens are problematic. Most specimens have been given their own species at one point or another. The Berlin specimen has been referred to <i>Archaeornis siemensii</i>, the Eichstätt specimen to <i>Jurapteryx recurva</i>, the Munich specimen to <i>Archaeopteryx bavarica</i> and the Solnhofen specimen was referred to <i>Wellnhoferia grandis</i>.<p>Recently, it has been argued that all the specimens belong to the same species (<i><!--del_lnk--> New Scientist</i>, 17 April 2004, p.17). However, significant differences exist among the specimens. In particular, the Munich, Eichstätt, Solnhofen and Thermopolis specimens differ from the London, Berlin, and Haarlem specimens in being smaller or much larger, having different finger proportions, having more slender snouts, lined with forward-pointing teeth and possible presence of a sternum. These differences are as large as or larger than the differences seen today between adults of different bird species. However, it is also possible that these differences could be explained by different ages of the living birds.<p><a id="Fossils" name="Fossils"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Fossils</span></h2>
<p>Over the years, ten specimens of <i>Archaeopteryx</i> have been found. All of the fossils come from the <!--del_lnk--> limestone deposits near <!--del_lnk--> Solnhofen, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>. <!--del_lnk--> <ol>
<li><b>The feather:</b> Discovered in 1860 near <!--del_lnk--> Solnhofen, Germany, and described in 1861 by <!--del_lnk--> Hermann von Meyer. Currently located at the <!--del_lnk--> Humbolt Museum für Naturkunde in <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>. This is generally referred to <i>Archaeopteryx</i> and was the initial <!--del_lnk--> holotype, but whether it actually is a feather of this species or another, as yet undiscovered, proto-bird is unknown. There are some indications it is indeed not from the same animal as most of the skeletons (the "typical" <i>A. lithographica</i>) (Griffiths, 1996). <div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/427.jpg.htm" title="The London Archaeopteryx, 1863, detail, note the feathers"><img alt="The London Archaeopteryx, 1863, detail, note the feathers" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SArchaeopteryxLondon.jpg" src="../../images/4/427.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/427.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The London Archaeopteryx, 1863, detail, note the feathers</div>
</div>
</div>
<li><b>London Specimen</b> (BMNH 37001): Discovered in 1861 near <!--del_lnk--> Langenaltheim, Germany and described in 1863 by <!--del_lnk--> Richard Owen as <i>Archaeopteryx macrura</i>, assuming it did not belong to the same species as the feather. Currently located at the <!--del_lnk--> British Museum of Natural History in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, it is missing its head. <div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/428.jpg.htm" title="The Berlin Archaeopteryx, 1881"><img alt="The Berlin Archaeopteryx, 1881" height="303" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SArchaeopteryxBerlin2.jpg" src="../../images/4/428.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/428.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Berlin Archaeopteryx, 1881</div>
</div>
</div> In a subsequent edition of his <i><!--del_lnk--> Origin of Species</i> (chap. 10, pp.335-336), <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Darwin.htm" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> acclaimed Owen's discovery as <!--del_lnk--> linking lizard-like <a href="../../wp/r/Reptile.htm" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> with modern <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">birds</a>.<li><b>Berlin Specimen</b> (HMN 1880): Discovered in 1876 or 1877 on the <!--del_lnk--> Blumenberg near <!--del_lnk--> Eichstätt, Germany, by Jakob Niemeyer. He exchanged this precious <a href="../../wp/f/Fossil.htm" title="Fossil">fossil</a> for a cow, with Johann Dörr. It was described in 1884 by <!--del_lnk--> Wilhelm Dames. Currently Located at the Humbolt Museum für Naturkunde, it is the best specimen, and the first with a complete head. Once classified as a new species, <i>A. siemensii</i>, but a recent evaluation supports the <i>A. siemensii</i> species definition [Elzanowski, 2002].<li><b>Maxberg Specimen</b> (S5): Discovered in 1956 or 1958 near Langenaltheim and described in 1959 by <!--del_lnk--> Heller. Currently missing, though it was once exhibited at the <!--del_lnk--> Maxberg Museum in Solnhofen. It belonged to <!--del_lnk--> Eduard Opitsch, who loaned it to the museum. After his death in 1991, the specimen was discovered to be missing and may have been stolen or sold. It is composed of a torso.<li><b>Haarlem Specimen</b> (TM 6428, also known as the <i>Teyler Specimen</i>): Discovered in 1855 near <!--del_lnk--> Riedenburg, Germany and described as a <i><!--del_lnk--> Pterodactylus crassipes</i> in 1875 by von Meyer, it was reclassified in 1970 by <!--del_lnk--> John Ostrom. Currently located at the <!--del_lnk--> Teyler Museum in <!--del_lnk--> Haarlem, the Netherlands. It was the very first specimen, despite the classification error.<li><b>Eichstätt Specimen</b> (JM 2257): Discovered in 1951 or 1955 near <!--del_lnk--> Workerszell, Germany and described by <!--del_lnk--> Peter Wellnhofer in 1974. Currently located at the <!--del_lnk--> Jura Museum in <!--del_lnk--> Eichstätt, Germany. It is the smallest specimen and has the second best head. Possibly a separate genus, <i>Jurapteryx recurva</i> or species <i>A. recurva</i>.<li><b>Solnhofen Specimen</b> (BSP 1999): Discovered in the 1960s near <!--del_lnk--> Eichstätt, Germany and described in 1988 by Wellnhofer. Currently located at the <!--del_lnk--> Bürgermeister-Müller-Museum in Solnhofen. It was originally classified as a <i><a href="../../wp/c/Compsognathus.htm" title="Compsognathus">Compsognathus</a></i> by an amateur collector. It is the largest specimen known and may belong to a separate genus and species, <i><!--del_lnk--> Wellnhoferia grandis</i>.<li><b>Munich Specimen</b> (S6, formerly known as the <i>Solnhofen-Aktien-Verein Specimen</i>): <div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/429.jpg.htm" title="The Munich Specimen"><img alt="The Munich Specimen" height="140" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Archaeopteryx_bavarica_Detail.jpg" src="../../images/4/429.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/429.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <i>Munich Specimen</i></div>
</div>
</div> Discovered in 1991 near Langenaltheim and described in 1993 by Wellnhofer. Currently located at the <!--del_lnk--> Paläontologische Museum München in <a href="../../wp/m/Munich.htm" title="Munich">Munich</a>. What was initially believed to be a bony <!--del_lnk--> sternum turned out to be part of the <!--del_lnk--> coracoid (Wellnhofer & Tischlinger, 2004), but a <!--del_lnk--> cartilainous sternum may have been present. May be a new species, <i>A. bavarica</i>.<li><b>Bürgermeister-Müller Specimen</b>: A ninth, fragmentary specimen, was discovered in 1997. A further fragmentary fossil was found in 2004. It is kept at the Bürgermeister-Müller Museum.<li><b>Thermopolis Specimen</b> Discovered in Germany. Long in a private collection, described in 2005 by Mayr, Pohl, and Peters. Donated to the <!--del_lnk--> Wyoming Dinosaur Centre in <!--del_lnk--> Thermopolis, Wyoming, it has the best-preserved head and feet. The "Thermopolis" specimen, was described in the December 2, 2005 <i>Science</i> journal article as "A well-preserved Archaeopteryx specimen with theropod features", shows that the <i>Archaeopteryx</i> lacked a reversed toe—a universal feature of birds—limiting its ability to perch in trees and implying a terrestrial lifestyle. This has been interpreted as evidence of <a href="../../wp/t/Theropoda.htm" title="Theropoda">theropod</a> ancestry. The specimen also has a hyperextendible second toe. "Until now, the feature was thought to belong only to the species' close relatives, the <!--del_lnk--> deinonychosaurs." <!--del_lnk--> </ol>
<p><a id="Synonyms" name="Synonyms"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Synonyms</span></h3>
<p>The synonymy of <i>A. lithographica</i> is extremely confused. Dozens of names have been published for the handful of specimens, most of which are simply spelling errors (<i>lapsus</i>). Originally, the name <i>A. lithographica</i> only referred to the single feather described by von Meyer. Swinton (1960) proposed that the name <i>Archaeopteryx lithographica</i> be officially transferred from the feather to the London specimen. The ICZN did suppress the plethora of alternative names initially proposed for the first skeleton specimens (ICZN, 1961), which mainly resulted from the acrimonious dispute between von Meyer and his opponent <!--del_lnk--> Johann Andreas Wagner (whose <i>Griphosaurus</i> - "enigmatic lizard" - was a vitriolic sneer at von Meyer's <i>Archaeopteryx</i>). In addition, descriptions of <i>Archaeopteryx</i> fossils as <a href="../../wp/p/Pterosaur.htm" title="Pterosaur">pterosaurs</a> before their true nature was realized were also suppressed (ICZN, 1977).<p>If two names are given, the first denotes the original describer of the "species", the second the author on whom the given name combination is based. As always in <!--del_lnk--> zoological nomenclature, putting an author's name in parentheses denotes that the <!--del_lnk--> taxon was originally described in a different genus.<ul>
<li><i>Pterodactylus crassipes</i> Meyer, 1857 <small>[suppressed in favour of <i>A. lithographica</i> 1977 per ICZN Opinion 1070]</small><li><i>Rhamphorhynchus crassipes</i> (Meyer, 1857) (as <i>Pterodactylus (Rhamphorhynchus) crassipes</i>) <small>[suppressed in favour of <i>A. lithographica</i> 1977 per ICZN Opinion 1070]</small><li><i><b>Archaeopteryx lithographica</b></i> Meyer, 1861 <small>[nomen conservandum]</small><li><i>Scaphognathus crassipes</i> (Meyer, 1857) Wagner, 1861 <small>[suppressed in favour of <i>A. lithographica</i> 1977 per ICZN Opinion 1070]</small><li><i>Archaeopterix lithographica</i> Anon., 1861 <small>[<i>lapsus</i>]</small><li><i>Griphosaurus problematicus</i> Wagner, 1861 <small>[<i>nomen oblitum</i> 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607]</small><li><i>Griphornis longicaudatus</i> Woodward, 1862 <small>[<i>nomen oblitum</i> 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607]</small><li><i>Griphosaurus longicaudatum</i> (Woodward, 1862) <small>[<i>lapsus</i>]</small><li><i>Griphosaurus longicaudatus</i> (Owen, 1862) <small>[<i>nomen oblitum</i> 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607]</small><li><i>Archaeopteryx macrura</i> Owen, 1862 <small>[<i>nomen oblitum</i> 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607]</small><li><i>Archaeopterix macrura</i> Owen, 1862 <small>[<i>lapsus</i>]</small><li><i>Archaeopterix macrurus</i> Egerton, 1862 <small>[<i>lapsus</i>]</small><li><i>Archeopteryx macrurus</i> Owen, 1863 <small>[unjustified emendation]</small><li><i>Archaeopteryx macroura</i> Vogt, 1879 <small>[<i>lapsus</i>]</small><li><i>Archaeopteryx siemensii</i> Dames, 1897<li><i>Archaeopteryx siemensi</i> Dames, 1897 <small>[<i>lapsus</i>]</small><li><i>Archaeornis siemensii</i> (Dames, 1897) Petronievics, 1917<li><i>Archaeopteryx oweni</i> Petronievics, 1917 <small>[<i>nomen oblitum</i> 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607]</small><li><i>Gryphornis longicaudatus</i> Lambrecht, 1933 <small>[<i>lapsus</i>]</small><li><i>Gryphosaurus problematicus</i> Lambrecht, 1933 <small>[<i>lapsus</i>]</small><li><i>Archaeopteryx macrourus</i> Owen, 1862 <i>fide</i> Lambrecht, 1933 <small>[<i>lapsus</i>]</small><li><i>Archaeornis siemensi</i> (Dames, 1897) <i>fide</i> Lambrecht, 1933? <small>[<i>lapsus</i>]</small><li><i>Archeopteryx macrura</i> Ostrom, 1970 <small>[<i>lapsus</i>]</small><li><i>Archaeopteryx crassipes</i> (Meyer, 1857) Ostrom, 1972 <small>[suppressed in favour of <i>A. lithographica</i> 1977 per ICZN Opinion 1070]</small><li><i>Archaeopterix lithographica</i> di Gregorio, 1984 <small>[<i>lapsus</i>]</small><li><i>Archaeopteryx recurva</i> Howgate, 1984<li><i>Jurapteryx recurva</i> (Howgate, 1984) Howgate, 1985<li><i>Archaeopteryx bavarica</i> Wellnhofer, 1993<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Wellnhoferia grandis</i> Elżanowski, 2001</ul>
<p>The last 4 taxa may be valid genera and species.<p><i>"Archaeopteryx" vicensensis</i> (Anon. <i>fide</i> Lambrecht, 1933) is a <i><!--del_lnk--> nomen nudum</i> for what appears to be an undescribed pterosaur.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeopteryx"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Jurassic', 'Germany', 'Magpie', 'Feather', 'Charles Darwin', 'The Origin of Species', 'Evolution', 'Theropoda', 'Microraptor', 'Germany', 'Berlin', 'London', 'Charles Darwin', 'Reptile', 'Bird', 'Fossil', 'Compsognathus', 'Munich', 'Theropoda', 'Pterosaur'] |
Archbishop_of_Canterbury | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Archbishop of Canterbury,Anglicanism,Anglicanism,1071,1119,16th Century,1867,1920,19th century,2003,597" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Archbishop of Canterbury</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Archbishop_of_Canterbury";
var wgTitle = "Archbishop of Canterbury";
var wgArticleId = 2345;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Archbishop_of_Canterbury">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Archbishop of Canterbury</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Religious_figures_and_leaders.htm">Religious figures and leaders</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table cellspacing="3px" class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align:center;">
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><small>Part of the series on</small><br /><font size="4"><b><a href="../../wp/a/Anglicanism.htm" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></b></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/2/246.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Canterbury_cathedral.jpg" src="../../images/2/250.jpg" width="150" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size:11px"><b><a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Communion.htm" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Communion</a></b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="font-size:11px; background:#ccccff">Background</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size:11px">
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a><br /><a href="../../wp/e/English_Reformation.htm" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a><br /><a href="../../wp/a/Apostolic_Succession.htm" title="Apostolic Succession">Apostolic Succession</a><br /><a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholicism</a><br /><a href="../../wp/e/Episcopal_polity.htm" title="Episcopal polity">Episcopal polity</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="font-size:11px; background:#ccccff">People</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size:11px">
<p><a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Cranmer.htm" title="Thomas Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a><br /><a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Richard Hooker<br /><a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> John Wesley<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="font-size:11px; background:#ccccff">Instruments of Unity</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size:11px">
<p><strong class="selflink">Archbishop of Canterbury</strong><br /><!--del_lnk--> Lambeth Conferences<br /><!--del_lnk--> Anglican Consultative Council<br /><!--del_lnk--> Primates' Meeting<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="font-size:11px; background:#ccccff">Liturgy and Worship</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size:11px">
<p><a href="../../wp/b/Book_of_Common_Prayer.htm" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> High Church · <!--del_lnk--> Low Church<br /><!--del_lnk--> Broad Church<br /><!--del_lnk--> Oxford Movement<br /><!--del_lnk--> Thirty-Nine Articles<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ministry<br /><!--del_lnk--> Saints in Anglicanism</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>Archbishop of Canterbury</b> is the head of the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> and of the worldwide <a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Communion.htm" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Communion</a>. He is the direct successor of <!--del_lnk--> St Augustine, the first Archbishop from AD 597 to 605. The present incumbent is <a href="../../wp/r/Rowan_Williams.htm" title="Rowan Williams">Rowan Williams</a>.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Present_roles_and_status" name="Present_roles_and_status"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Present roles and status</span></h2>
<p>Today the archbishop fills four main roles:<ol>
<li>he is the diocesan <!--del_lnk--> bishop of the <!--del_lnk--> Diocese of Canterbury, which covers the east of the County of <!--del_lnk--> Kent and extreme north-east <!--del_lnk--> Surrey. Founded in <!--del_lnk--> 597, it is the oldest <!--del_lnk--> bishopric in the English church.<li>he is the <!--del_lnk--> metropolitan archbishop of the <!--del_lnk--> Province of Canterbury, which covers the southern two-thirds of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>.<li>as <b><!--del_lnk--> Primate of All England</b>, he is the chief <i>religious</i> figure in the Church of England (the <a href="../../wp/b/British_monarchy.htm" title="British monarchy">British sovereign</a> is the "<!--del_lnk--> Supreme governor" of the church). Power in the church is not highly centralised, so the archbishop (along with his "junior" colleague the <!--del_lnk--> Archbishop of York) must usually lead through persuasion. He plays an important part in national ceremonies such as <!--del_lnk--> coronations; thanks to his high public profile, his opinions are often in demand by the <!--del_lnk--> news media.<li>as symbolic head of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop is recognized as <i>primus inter pares</i> ("first among equals") of all <!--del_lnk--> Anglican <!--del_lnk--> primates. Since <!--del_lnk--> 1867 he has convened more or less decennial meetings of worldwide Anglican bishops, the <!--del_lnk--> Lambeth Conferences.</ol>
<p>The Archbishop's main residence is <!--del_lnk--> Lambeth Palace in the <!--del_lnk--> London Borough of Lambeth. He also has lodgings in the Old Palace, <a href="../../wp/c/Canterbury.htm" title="Canterbury">Canterbury</a>, located beside <a href="../../wp/c/Canterbury_Cathedral.htm" title="Canterbury Cathedral">Canterbury Cathedral</a>, where his <!--del_lnk--> cathedra sits.<p>As holder of one of the "five great sees" (along with those of <!--del_lnk--> York, <!--del_lnk--> London, <!--del_lnk--> Durham and <!--del_lnk--> Winchester), the Archbishop of Canterbury is <i>ex officio</i> one of the <!--del_lnk--> Lords Spiritual of the <a href="../../wp/h/House_of_Lords.htm" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a>. He is one of the highest-ranking men in England, ranking directly below the Royal Family.<p>Since <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a> broke with <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a> the Archbishops of Canterbury have been selected by the English (latterly British) monarch. Today the choice is made in the name of the Sovereign by the prime minister, from a shortlist of two selected by an ad-hoc committee called the <!--del_lnk--> Crown Nominations Commission. As the current archbishop, the Most Reverend and Right Honourable <a href="../../wp/r/Rowan_Williams.htm" title="Rowan Williams">Dr Rowan Douglas Williams</a>, the 104th Lord Archbishop of Canterbury and Primate of All England was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on <!--del_lnk--> 27 February <!--del_lnk--> 2003; he signs himself <i>Rowan Cantuar</i>. He was previously <!--del_lnk--> Archbishop of Wales and <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of Monmouth.<p><a id="Additional_roles" name="Additional_roles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Additional roles</span></h3>
<p>In addition to his religious roles, the Archbishop also holds a number of other positions <i><!--del_lnk--> ex officio</i>. Amongst there are:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Visitor for the <!--del_lnk--> University of Kent (whose main campus is located at <a href="../../wp/c/Canterbury.htm" title="Canterbury">Canterbury</a>)</ul>
<p><a id="Origins" name="Origins"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origins</span></h2>
<p>Records suggest that the Roman Britons had three Archbishops, seated in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, <a href="../../wp/y/York.htm" title="York">York</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Caerleon, an ancient city of South Wales. However, in the fifth and sixth centuries the country was overrun by the pagan <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxons. Of the kingdoms they set up there, <!--del_lnk--> Kent had the closest ties to European trade and culture.<p>The first Archbishop of Canterbury was Saint <!--del_lnk--> Augustine who arrived in <!--del_lnk--> Kent in <!--del_lnk--> 597, sent by <a href="../../wp/p/Pope.htm" title="Pope">Pope</a> <!--del_lnk--> Gregory the Great on a mission to the English. He was accepted by King <!--del_lnk--> Ethelbert, on his conversion to Christianity, about the year <!--del_lnk--> 598. Since then the Archbishops of Canterbury have been referred to as occupying the Chair of St <!--del_lnk--> Augustine<p>Before the break with Papal authority in the <!--del_lnk--> 16th Century, the Church of England was an integral part of the continental Western European Church. Since the break, the Church of England, an established national church, still considers itself part of the broader Western Catholic tradition as well as being the "mother church" of the worldwide Anglican Communion, though no longer in communion with the See of Rome.<p><a id="Province_and_Diocese" name="Province_and_Diocese"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Province and Diocese</span></h2>
<p>The Archbishop of Canterbury exercises metropolitical (or supervisory) jurisdiction over the <!--del_lnk--> Province of Canterbury, which encompasses thirty of the forty-four dioceses of the Church of England. (The remaining fourteen dioceses, in northern England, fall within the Province of York.) Formerly, the four dioceses of Wales were also under the Province of Canterbury; in <!--del_lnk--> 1920, however, the Welsh dioceses transferred from the established Church of England to the disestablished <!--del_lnk--> Church in Wales.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/431.png.htm" title="View of Canterbury Cathedral from the north west circa 1890-1900."><img alt="View of Canterbury Cathedral from the north west circa 1890-1900." height="257" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CanterburyCathedral.png" src="../../images/4/431.png" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/431.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> View of <a href="../../wp/c/Canterbury_Cathedral.htm" title="Canterbury Cathedral">Canterbury Cathedral</a> from the north west circa 1890-1900.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Archbishop of Canterbury has a ceremonial provincial <i>curia</i>, or court, consisting of some of the senior bishops of his province. The Bishop of London—the most senior cleric of the Church with the exception of the two Archbishops—serves as Canterbury's Provincial <!--del_lnk--> Dean, the Bishop of Winchester as <!--del_lnk--> Chancellor, the <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of Lincoln as Vice-Chancellor, the <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of Salisbury as <!--del_lnk--> Precentor, the <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of Worcestor as <!--del_lnk--> Chaplain and the <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of Rochester as <!--del_lnk--> Cross-Bearer.<p>The question of whether the Archbishop of Canterbury or the Archbishop of York should take precedence was once a cause of a long struggle. The dispute was temporarily resolved in <!--del_lnk--> 1071 after <!--del_lnk--> Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, and <!--del_lnk--> Thomas of Bayeux, Archbishop of York, submitted the matter to the <a href="../../wp/p/Pope.htm" title="Pope">Pope</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Pope Alexander II decided that Canterbury was to have precedence, and that future Archbishops of York would have to be consecrated by, and swear allegiance to, the Archbishop of Canterbury.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1119, however, the Archbishop-Elect of York, <!--del_lnk--> Thurstan, refused to acknowledge the pre-eminence of Canterbury. As a consequence, the Archbishop of Canterbury, <!--del_lnk--> Ralph d'Escures, refused to consecrate him. When Thurstan appealed to Rome, <!--del_lnk--> Pope Callixtus II not only personally consecrated him, but also issued a <!--del_lnk--> papal bull repudiating the supremacy of Canterbury. The matter was finally settled by <!--del_lnk--> Pope Innocent VI during the fourteenth century. Under Pope Innocent's arrangement, which lasts to this day, the Archbishop of Canterbury would be recognised as superior to the Archbishop of York. The former would be acknowledged as "Primate of All England", and the latter as "Primate of England". The pre-eminence of the Archbishop of Canterbury is acknowledged by an Act of Parliament passed during the reign of Henry VIII.<p>The Archbishop of Canterbury also has a precedence of honour over the other archbishops of the Anglican Communion. He is recognised as <i>primus inter pares</i>, or first amongst equals. The Archbishop of Canterbury, however, does not exercise any direct authority in the provinces outside England.<p>The Archbishop at the present time has four suffragan bishops. One of these, the <!--del_lnk--> Suffragan Bishop of Dover, is given the additional title of "Bishop in Canterbury" and empowered to act almost as if he were the diocesan bishop of the <!--del_lnk--> Diocese of Canterbury, since the Archbishop is so frequently away fulfilling national and international duties. The Suffragan Bishop of Maidstone is a second assistant working in the diocese. The suffragan bishops of Ebbsfleet and Richborough, on the other hand, are <!--del_lnk--> provincial episcopal visitors for the whole Province of Canterbury, licensed by the Archbishop as "flying bishops" to visit parishes throughout the province who are uncomfortable with the ministrations of their local bishop who has participated in the ordination of women.<p><a id="Style_and_privileges" name="Style_and_privileges"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Style and privileges</span></h2>
<p>Both the Archbishops of Canterbury and York are styled "The Most Reverend"; retired Archbishops as "The Right Reverend". Archbishops are, by convention, appointed to the <a href="../../wp/p/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Privy Council of the United Kingdom">Privy Council</a>, and may therefore also use "<!--del_lnk--> The Right Honourable" for life (unless they are later removed from the Council). In formal documents, the Archbishop of Canterbury is referred to as "The Most Reverend Father in God, <!--del_lnk--> Forenames, by Divine Providence Lord Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of All England and Metropolitan". In debates in the House of Lords, the Archbishop is referred to as "The Most Reverend Primate, the Archbishop of Canterbury". "The Right Honourable" is not used in either instance. He may also be formally addressed as "Your Grace" - or, more often these days, simply as "Archbishop", "Father" or (in the current instance) "Dr Williams".<p>The surname of the Archbishop of Canterbury is not used in formal documents; only the forenames and see are mentioned. The Archbishop is legally permitted to sign his name as "Cantuar" (from the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> for Canterbury). He shares the right to use only a title in the signature with the Archbishop of York, other bishops, and Peers of the Realm.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> order of precedence, the Archbishop of Canterbury is ranked above all individuals in the realm, with the exception of the Sovereign and members of the Royal Family. Immediately below him is the <!--del_lnk--> Lord Chancellor, and then the Archbishop of York.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/432.jpg.htm" title="The Archbishop of Canterbury's official London residence is Lambeth Palace, photographed looking east across the River Thames."><img alt="The Archbishop of Canterbury's official London residence is Lambeth Palace, photographed looking east across the River Thames." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lambeth_Palace_London_240404.jpg" src="../../images/4/432.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/432.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Archbishop of Canterbury's official <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> residence is <!--del_lnk--> Lambeth Palace, photographed looking east across the <a href="../../wp/r/River_Thames.htm" title="River Thames">River Thames</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Archbishop of Canterbury's official residence in London is <!--del_lnk--> Lambeth Palace. Until the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>, the Archbishops also had major residences at <!--del_lnk--> Croydon Palace and <!--del_lnk--> Addington Palace. There are also the ruins of a Palace at <!--del_lnk--> Otford.<p>The following Archbishops have died at Lambeth: Wittlesey, in 1375; Kemp, 1453; Dean, 1504; all buried in Canterbury Cathedral: Cardinal Pole, the last Roman Catholic archbishop, 1558, after lying in state here 40 days was buried at Canterbury; Parker, 1575, buried in Lambeth Chapel; Whitgift, 1604, buried at Croydon; Bancroft, 1610, buried at Lambeth; Juxon, 1663, buried in the chapel of St. John's College, Oxford; Sheldon, 1667, buried at Croydon; Tillotson, 1694, buried in the church of St. Laurence Jewry, London; Tennison, 1715; and Potter, 1747, both buried at Croydon; Seeker, 1768; Cornwallis, 1783, and Moore, 1805, all buried at Lambeth. Of the mediæval archbishops, in 1381 Simon of Sudbury fell a victim to <!--del_lnk--> Wat Tyler and his followers when they attacked Lambeth Palace.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Anglicanism', 'Anglican Communion', 'Christianity', 'English Reformation', 'Apostolic Succession', 'Roman Catholic Church', 'Episcopal polity', 'Thomas Cranmer', 'Henry VIII of England', 'Elizabeth I of England', 'Book of Common Prayer', 'Church of England', 'Anglican Communion', 'Rowan Williams', 'England', 'British monarchy', 'Canterbury', 'Canterbury Cathedral', 'House of Lords', 'Henry VIII of England', 'Rome', 'Rowan Williams', 'Canterbury', 'London', 'York', 'Pope', 'Canterbury Cathedral', 'Pope', 'Privy Council of the United Kingdom', 'Latin', 'London', 'River Thames', '19th century'] |
Archimedes | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Archimedes,16th century,17th century,1900,2006,212 BC,287 BC,Alexandria,Ancient Greece,Antikythera mechanism,Arabic language" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Archimedes</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Archimedes";
var wgTitle = "Archimedes";
var wgArticleId = 1844;
var wgCurRevisionId = 92520139;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Archimedes">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Archimedes</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Mathematicians.htm">Mathematicians</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table cellpadding="2" class="infobox" style="border-color: #B0C4DE; width:26em; font-size: 85%">
<tr>
<th align="center" bgcolor="#B0C4DE" colspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #B0C4DE; font-size: 125%;">Classical Greek philosophy<br /><small>Ancient philosophy</small></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="178" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Archimedes.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /></span></div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Name:</th>
<td>Archimedes of Syracuse (Greek: Ἀρχιμήδης)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Birth:</th>
<td><i>c</i>. <!--del_lnk--> 287 BC (<!--del_lnk--> Syracuse, Sicily, ancient <!--del_lnk--> Magna Graecia)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Death:</th>
<td><i>c</i>. <!--del_lnk--> 212 BC (Syracuse)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">School/tradition:</th>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Archimedes</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Greek: <span class="polytonic" lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχιμήδης</span>; <i>c</i>. <!--del_lnk--> 287 BC – <!--del_lnk--> 212 BC) was a <!--del_lnk--> Hellenistic <!--del_lnk--> mathematician, <!--del_lnk--> physicist, <!--del_lnk--> engineer, <!--del_lnk--> astronomer, and <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, born on the seaport colony of <!--del_lnk--> Syracuse, <!--del_lnk--> Magna Graecia, what is now <!--del_lnk--> Sicily. Many consider him one of the greatest, if not the greatest, mathematicians in <!--del_lnk--> antiquity. <a href="../../wp/c/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.htm" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a>, himself frequently called the most influential mathematician of all time, modestly claimed that Archimedes was one of the three epoch-making mathematicians (the others being <a href="../../wp/i/Isaac_Newton.htm" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Ferdinand Eisenstein). Apart from his fundamental theoretical contributions to maths, Archimedes also shaped the fields of physics and practical engineering, and has been called "the greatest scientist ever".<p>He was a relative of the Hiero monarchy, which was the ruling family of Syracuse, a seaport kingdom. King <!--del_lnk--> Hiero II, who was said to be Archimedes's uncle, commissioned him to design and fabricate a new class of ships for his navy, which were crucial for the preservation of the ruling class in Syracuse. Hiero had promised large caches of grain to the Romans in the north in return for peace. Faced with war when unable to present the promised amount, Hiero commissioned Archimedes to develop a large luxury/supply/war barge in order to serve the changing requirements of his navy. It is rumored that the Archimedes Screw was actually an invention of happenstance, as he needed a tool to remove bilge water. The ship, named <i>Syracusia</i>, after its nation, was huge, and its construction caused stupor in the Greek world.<p>He is credited with many inventions and discoveries, some of which we still use today, like his <!--del_lnk--> Archimedes screw. He was famous for his compound pulley, a system of pulleys used to lift heavy loads such as ships. He made several war machines for his patron and friend King Hiero II. He did a lot of work in geometry, which included finding the surface areas and volumes of solids accurately. The work that has made Archimedes famous is his theory of floating bodies. He laid down the laws of flotation and developed the famous <!--del_lnk--> Archimedes' principle.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Discoveries_and_inventions" name="Discoveries_and_inventions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discoveries and inventions</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/434.jpg.htm" title="The Archimedes' screw lifts water to higher levels for irrigation."><img alt="The Archimedes' screw lifts water to higher levels for irrigation." height="124" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Archimedes%27_screw.jpg" src="../../images/4/434.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/434.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Archimedes' screw lifts water to higher levels for irrigation.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Archimedes became a very popular figure as a result of his involvement in the defense of <!--del_lnk--> Syracuse against the <!--del_lnk--> Roman <a href="../../wp/s/Siege.htm" title="Siege">siege</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> Second Punic War. He is reputed to have held the Romans at bay with war machines of his own design, to have been able to move a full-size ship complete with crew and cargo by pulling a single rope<!--del_lnk--> , and to have <!--del_lnk--> discovered the principles of <!--del_lnk--> density and <!--del_lnk--> buoyancy, also known as <!--del_lnk--> Archimedes' principle, while taking a bath. The story goes that he then took to the streets without any clothing, being so elated with his discovery that he forgot to dress, crying "<!--del_lnk--> Eureka!" ("I have found it!"). He has also been credited with the possible invention of the <!--del_lnk--> odometer during the <!--del_lnk--> First Punic War. One of his inventions used for military defense of Syracuse against the invading Romans was the <!--del_lnk--> claw of Archimedes.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/435.gif.htm" title="A diagram showing how Archimedes may have enabled the defenders of Syracuse to aim their mirrors at approaching ships"><img alt="A diagram showing how Archimedes may have enabled the defenders of Syracuse to aim their mirrors at approaching ships" height="159" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DeathRayDiagram.gif" src="../../images/4/435.gif" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/435.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A diagram showing how Archimedes may have enabled the defenders of Syracuse to aim their mirrors at approaching ships</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>It is said that he prevented one Roman attack on Syracuse by using a large array of <!--del_lnk--> mirrors (speculated to have been highly polished shields) to reflect sunlight onto the attacking ships causing them to catch fire. This popular legend, dubbed the "Archimedes's death ray", has been tested many times since the Renaissance and often discredited as it seemed the ships would have had to have been virtually motionless and very close to shore for them to ignite, an unlikely scenario during a battle. A group at the <!--del_lnk--> MIT have performed their own tests and concluded that the mirror weapon was a possibility <!--del_lnk--> , although later tests of their system showed it to be ineffective in conditions that more closely matched the described siege <!--del_lnk--> . The television show <!--del_lnk--> Mythbusters also took on the challenge of recreating the weapon and concluded that while it was possible to light a ship on fire, it would have to be stationary at a specified distance during the hottest part of a very bright, hot day, and would require several hundred troops carefully aiming mirrors while under attack. These unlikely conditions combined with the availability of other simpler methods, such as <!--del_lnk--> ballistae with flaming bolts, led the team to believe that the heat ray was far too impractical to be used, and probably just a myth.<p>It can be argued that even if the reflections didn't induce fire, they still could have confused, and temporarily blinded the ship crews, making it hard for them to aim and steer. Making them hot and sweaty before primary battle may have also tired them faster. The effectiveness may have simply been exaggerated.<p>Archimedes also has been credited with improving accuracy, range and power of the <!--del_lnk--> catapult.<p>Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier during the sack of Syracuse during the <!--del_lnk--> Second Punic War, despite orders from the Roman general <!--del_lnk--> Marcellus that he was not to be harmed. The Greeks said that he was killed while drawing an equation in the sand; engrossed in his diagram and impatient with being interrupted, he is said to have muttered his <!--del_lnk--> famous last words before being slain by an enraged Roman soldier: Μη μου τους κύκλους τάραττε ("Don't disturb my circles"). The phrase is often given in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> as "<i>Noli turbare circulos meos</i>" but there is no direct evidence that Archimedes ever uttered these words. This story was sometimes told to contrast the Greek high-mindedness with Roman ham-handedness; however, it should be noted that Archimedes designed the siege engines that devastated a substantial Roman invasion force, so his death may have been out of retribution <!--del_lnk--> .<p>In creativity and insight, Archimedes exceeded any other European mathematician prior to the European <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. In a civilization with an awkward numeral system and a language in which "a myriad" (literally "ten thousand") meant "infinity", he invented a positional numeral system and used it to write numbers up to 10<sup>64</sup>. He devised a <!--del_lnk--> heuristic method based on <a href="../../wp/s/Statistics.htm" title="Statistics">statistics</a> to do private calculations that we would classify today as <!--del_lnk--> integral calculus, but then presented rigorous <a href="../../wp/g/Geometry.htm" title="Geometry">geometric</a> proofs for his results. To what extent he actually had a correct version of integral calculus is debatable. He proved that the <!--del_lnk--> ratio of a <!--del_lnk--> circle's <!--del_lnk--> circumference to its <!--del_lnk--> diameter is the same as the ratio of the circle's area to the <!--del_lnk--> square of the <!--del_lnk--> radius. He did not call this ratio <a href="../../wp/p/Pi.htm" title="Pi">p</a> but he gave a procedure to approximate it to arbitrary accuracy and gave an approximation of it as between 3 + 10/71 (approximately 3.1408) and 3 + 1/7 (approximately 3.1429). He was the first <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> mathematician to introduce <!--del_lnk--> mechanical curves (those traced by a moving point) as legitimate objects of study. He proved that the area enclosed by a <!--del_lnk--> parabola and a straight line is 4/3 the area of a <!--del_lnk--> triangle with equal base and height. (See the illustration below. The "base" is any <!--del_lnk--> secant line, not necessarily <!--del_lnk--> orthogonal to the parabola's <!--del_lnk--> axis; "the same base" means the same "horizontal" component of the length of the base; "horizontal" means orthogonal to the axis. "Height" means the length of the segment parallel to the axis from the <!--del_lnk--> vertex to the base. The vertex must be so placed that the two horizontal distances mentioned in the illustration are equal.)<div style="float:right;padding:5px;text-align:center"><a class="image" href="../../images/4/437.png.htm" title="Image:Parabola-and-inscribed_triangle.png"><img alt="Image:Parabola-and-inscribed_triangle.png" height="331" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Parabola-and-inscribed_triangle.png" src="../../images/4/437.png" width="242" /></a><br />
</div>
<p>In the process, he calculated the earliest known example of a <!--del_lnk--> geometric progression summed to infinity with the <!--del_lnk--> ratio 1/4:<dl>
<dd><img alt="\sum_{n=0}^\infty 4^{-n} = 1 + 4^{-1} + 4^{-2} + 4^{-3} + \cdots = {4\over 3} \; ." class="tex" src="../../images/133/13384.png" /></dl>
<p>If the first term in this series is the area of the triangle in the <!--del_lnk--> illustration then the second is the sum of the areas of two triangles whose bases are the two smaller secant lines in the illustration, and so on. Archimedes also gave a quite different proof of nearly the same <!--del_lnk--> proposition by a method using <!--del_lnk--> infinitesimals (see "<!--del_lnk--> Archimedes' use of infinitesimals").<p>He proved that the <!--del_lnk--> area and volume of the <a href="../../wp/s/Sphere.htm" title="Sphere">sphere</a> are in the same ratio to the area and volume of a circumscribed straight <!--del_lnk--> cylinder, a result he was so proud of that he made it his <!--del_lnk--> epitaph.<p>Archimedes is probably also the first <!--del_lnk--> mathematical physicist on record, and the best before <a href="../../wp/g/Galileo_Galilei.htm" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Isaac_Newton.htm" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>. He invented the field of <!--del_lnk--> statics, enunciated the law of the <!--del_lnk--> lever, the law of <!--del_lnk--> equilibrium of <!--del_lnk--> fluids, and the law of <!--del_lnk--> buoyancy. He famously discovered the latter when he was asked to determine whether a wreath (often incorrectly reported as a crown -- a crown could have been melted down to determine its composition, whereas a wreath was sacred) had been made of pure gold, or gold adulterated with silver; he realized that the rise in the water level when it was immersed would be equal to the volume of the wreath, and the decrease in the weight of the wreath would be in proportion; he could then compare those with the values of an equal weight of pure gold. He was the first to identify the concept of <!--del_lnk--> centre of gravity, and he found the centers of gravity of various geometric figures, assuming uniform <!--del_lnk--> density in their interiors, including <!--del_lnk--> triangles, <!--del_lnk--> paraboloids, and <a href="../../wp/s/Sphere.htm" title="Sphere">hemispheres</a>. Using only <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> <a href="../../wp/g/Geometry.htm" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, he also gave the equilibrium positions of floating sections of paraboloids as a function of their height, a feat that would be taxing to a modern physicist using <a href="../../wp/c/Calculus.htm" title="Calculus">calculus</a>.<p>Apart from general physics, he was also an <!--del_lnk--> astronomer, and <!--del_lnk--> Cicero writes that the Roman <!--del_lnk--> consul <!--del_lnk--> Marcellus brought two devices back to <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a> from the ransacked city of Syracuse. One device mapped the <!--del_lnk--> sky on a sphere and the other predicted the motions of the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">sun</a> and the <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">moon</a> and the <a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" title="Planet">planets</a> (i.e., an <!--del_lnk--> orrery). He credits <!--del_lnk--> Thales and <!--del_lnk--> Eudoxus for constructing these devices. For some time this was assumed to be a legend of doubtful nature, but the discovery of the <!--del_lnk--> Antikythera mechanism has changed the view of this issue, and it is indeed probable that Archimedes possessed and constructed such devices. <!--del_lnk--> Pappus of <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria writes that Archimedes had written a practical book on the construction of such spheres entitled <i><!--del_lnk--> On Sphere-Making</i>.<p>Archimedes's works were not widely recognized, even in <!--del_lnk--> antiquity. He and his contemporaries probably constitute the peak of Greek <!--del_lnk--> mathematical rigour. During the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> the mathematicians who could understand Archimedes's work were few and far between. Many of his works were lost when the <a href="../../wp/l/Library_of_Alexandria.htm" title="Library of Alexandria">library of Alexandria</a> was burnt (twice) and survived only in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> or <a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> <!--del_lnk--> translations. As a result, his <i><!--del_lnk--> mechanical method</i> was lost until around <!--del_lnk--> 1900, after the <!--del_lnk--> arithmetization of analysis had been carried out successfully. We can only speculate about the effect that the "method" would have had on the development of <a href="../../wp/c/Calculus.htm" title="Calculus">calculus</a> had it been known in the <a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th</a> to the <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a> centuries.<p>
<br />
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Philosopher', 'Carl Friedrich Gauss', 'Isaac Newton', 'Siege', 'Latin', 'Renaissance', 'Statistics', 'Geometry', 'Pi', 'Ancient Greece', 'Sphere', 'Galileo Galilei', 'Isaac Newton', 'Sphere', 'Ancient Greece', 'Geometry', 'Calculus', 'Rome', 'Sun', 'Moon', 'Planet', 'Middle Ages', 'Library of Alexandria', 'Latin', 'Arabic language', 'Calculus', '16th century', '17th century'] |
Architecture | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Architecture,Acropolis,Aesthetics,Aga Khan Award,Ancient Greece,Ancient Rome,Applied science,Architect,Architectural endoscopy,Architectural engineering,Architectural history" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Architecture</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Architecture";
var wgTitle = "Architecture";
var wgArticleId = 903378;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Architecture">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Architecture</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Architecture.htm">Architecture</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/269/26942.jpg.htm" title="The Parthenon on top of the Acropolis, Athens, Greece"><img alt="The Parthenon on top of the Acropolis, Athens, Greece" height="185" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ac.parthenon5.jpg" src="../../images/4/439.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/269/26942.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <a href="../../wp/p/Parthenon.htm" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a> on top of the <!--del_lnk--> Acropolis, <a href="../../wp/a/Athens.htm" title="Athens">Athens</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>Architecture</b> (from <!--del_lnk--> Latin, <i>architectura</i> and ultimately from <!--del_lnk--> Greek, αρχιτεκτων, "a master builder", from αρχι- "chief, leader" and τεκτων, "builder, carpenter")<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_etymology"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> is the <a href="../../wp/a/Art.htm" title="Art">art</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">science</a> of <!--del_lnk--> designing <!--del_lnk--> buildings and <!--del_lnk--> structures.<p>A wider definition would include within its scope also the design of the total built environment, from the macrolevel of <!--del_lnk--> town planning, <!--del_lnk--> urban design, and <!--del_lnk--> landscape architecture to the microlevel of creating <!--del_lnk--> furniture. Architectural design usually must address both feasibility and <!--del_lnk--> cost for the <!--del_lnk--> builder, as well as function and <a href="../../wp/a/Aesthetics.htm" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a> for the <!--del_lnk--> user.<p>Planned architecture often <!--del_lnk--> manipulates <!--del_lnk--> space, <!--del_lnk--> volume, <!--del_lnk--> texture, <a href="../../wp/l/Light.htm" title="Light">light</a>, <!--del_lnk--> shadow, or abstract elements in order to achieve pleasing <a href="../../wp/a/Aesthetics.htm" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>. This distinguishes it from <!--del_lnk--> applied science or <a href="../../wp/e/Engineering.htm" title="Engineering">engineering</a>, which usually concentrate more on the functional and feasibility aspects of the design of constructions or structures.<p>In the field of building architecture, the skills demanded of an architect range from the more complex, such as for a <!--del_lnk--> hospital or a <!--del_lnk--> stadium, to the apparently simpler, such as planning <!--del_lnk--> residential houses. Many architectural works may be seen also as cultural and political <!--del_lnk--> symbols, and/or works of art. The role of the architect, though changing, has been central to the successful (and sometimes less than successful) design and implementation of pleasingly built <!--del_lnk--> environments in which people live.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:162px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/440.jpg.htm" title="Table of architecture, Cyclopaedia, 1728"><img alt="Table of architecture, Cyclopaedia, 1728" height="171" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Table_of_architecture%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_1728%2C_volume_1.jpg" src="../../images/4/440.jpg" width="160" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/440.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Table of architecture, <i><!--del_lnk--> Cyclopaedia</i>, 1728</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Scope" name="Scope"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Scope</span></h2>
<p>According to the very earliest surviving work on the subject, <!--del_lnk--> Vitruvius' <i><!--del_lnk--> De architectura</i>, good buildings satisfy three core principles: <i>Firmness</i>, <i>Commodity</i>, and <i>Delight</i><span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_elements"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>; architecture can be said to be a balance and coordination among these three elements, with none overpowering the others. A modern-day definition sees architecture as addressing aesthetic, structural, and functional considerations. However, looked at another way, function itself is seen as encompassing all criteria, including aesthetic, psychological, and cultural ones.<p>Most modern-day definitions of "good buildings" recognize that because architecture does not exist in a vacuum architectural form cannot be merely a compilation of historical precedent, functional necessities, and socially aware concerns, but must also be a transcendent synthesis of all of the former and a creation of worth in and of itself. As Nunzia Rodanini stated<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_elements"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>, “Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences…Through its own particular way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that, in and of itself, it will promote social development…To restrict the meaning of (architecture) formalism to art for art’s sake is not only reactionary; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality”.<p>Architecture is an <!--del_lnk--> interdisciplinary field, drawing upon <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">science</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Art.htm" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Technology.htm" title="Technology">technology</a>, <!--del_lnk--> social sciences, <a href="../../wp/p/Politics.htm" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="../../wp/h/History.htm" title="History">history</a>, and <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>. Vitruvius states: <i>"Architecture is a science, arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning: by the help of which a judgement is formed of those works which are the result of other arts."</i> He adds that an architect should be well versed in fields such as <a href="../../wp/m/Music.htm" title="Music">music</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Astronomy.htm" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>. <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a> is a particular favourite; in fact the approach of an <!--del_lnk--> architect to their subject is often called their philosophy. <!--del_lnk--> Rationalism, <a href="../../wp/e/Empiricism.htm" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, <!--del_lnk--> structuralism, <!--del_lnk--> poststructuralism, and <!--del_lnk--> phenomenology are some topics from philosophy that have influenced architecture.<p>In modern usage, architecture is the <a href="../../wp/a/Art.htm" title="Art">art</a> and <!--del_lnk--> discipline of creating an actual, or inferring an implied or apparent plan of any complex object or <!--del_lnk--> system. The term can be used to connote the <i>implied architecture</i> of abstract things such as <a href="../../wp/m/Music.htm" title="Music">music</a> or <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, the <i>apparent architecture</i> of natural things, such as <a href="../../wp/g/Geology.htm" title="Geology">geological</a> formations or the <!--del_lnk--> structure of biological cells, or explicitly <i>planned architectures</i> of human-made things such as <!--del_lnk--> software, <a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" title="Computers">computers</a>, <!--del_lnk--> enterprises, and <!--del_lnk--> databases, in addition to buildings. In every usage, an architecture may be seen as a <i>subjective <!--del_lnk--> mapping</i> from a human perspective (that of the <i>user</i> in the case of abstract or physical artifacts) to the <!--del_lnk--> elements or <!--del_lnk--> components of some kind of <!--del_lnk--> structure or system, which preserves the relationships among the elements or components.<p>Integrally speaking, architecture is a culmination and synthesis of all art forms, uniting <a href="../../wp/s/Sculpture.htm" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Painting.htm" title="Painting">painting</a>, and engraving as well as drama, music and dance, working in cooperation through the common ideal of awakening us to our individual freedom and task in life. The architecture literally defines a coherent and integrated community, and how this in turn affects social unity and harmony.<p><a id="Architecture_and_buildings" name="Architecture_and_buildings"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Architecture and buildings</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/441.jpg.htm" title="Transamerica Pyramid, San Francisco"><img alt="Transamerica Pyramid, San Francisco" height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Transamerica_Tower.JPG" src="../../images/4/441.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/441.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Transamerica Pyramid, <a href="../../wp/s/San_Francisco%252C_California.htm" title="San Francisco, California">San Francisco</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/442.jpg.htm" title="Saint Basil's Cathedral, Moscow, the most famous representation of Eastern Europe's Domes."><img alt="Saint Basil's Cathedral, Moscow, the most famous representation of Eastern Europe's Domes." height="227" longdesc="/wiki/Image:St_Basils_Cathedral-500px.jpg" src="../../images/4/442.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/442.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Saint Basil's Cathedral, <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, the most famous representation of Eastern Europe's Domes.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The difference between architecture and building is a subject that has engaged the attention of many. According to <!--del_lnk--> Nikolaus Pevsner, <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> historian of the early twentieth century, "A bicycle shed is a building, <!--del_lnk--> Lincoln Cathedral is a piece of architecture." This distinction, however, is not a clear one, and contemporary scholarship is showing that all buildings, cathedrals and bicycle sheds alike, are part of a single continuum that characterizes the built world.<p>Architecture is also the art of designing the built environment. Buildings, landscaping, and street designs may be used to impart both functional as well as aesthetic character to a project. Siding and roofing materials and colors may be used to enhance or blend buildings with the environment. Building features such as cornices, gables, entrances, fenestrations and textures may be used to soften or enhance portions of a building. Landscaping may be used to create privacy and block direct views from or to a site and enhance buildings with colorful plants and trees. Street side features such as decorative lighting, benches, meandering walkways, and <!--del_lnk--> bicycle lanes may enhance a site for passersby, pedestrians, and cyclists.<p><a id="Architectural_history" name="Architectural_history"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Architectural history</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Architecture first <!--del_lnk--> evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available <!--del_lnk--> building materials and attendant skills). Prehistoric and primitive architecture . As humans progressed and knowledge began to be formalised through oral traditions and practices, architecture evolved into a <!--del_lnk--> craft. Here there is first a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed <!--del_lnk--> Vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/114/11435.jpg.htm" title="The Colosseum, Rome, Italy is an example of Roman architecture."><img alt="The Colosseum, Rome, Italy is an example of Roman architecture." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Colosseum-2003-07-09.jpg" src="../../images/4/443.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/114/11435.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Colosseum, <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> is an example of Roman architecture.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Early human settlements were essentially <!--del_lnk--> rural. As surplus of production began to occur, rural societies transformed into <!--del_lnk--> urban ones and cities began to evolve. In many ancient civilizations such as the Egyptians' and Mesopotamians' architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the <!--del_lnk--> supernatural, while in other ancient cultures such as <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> architecture and <!--del_lnk--> urban planning was used to exemplify the power of the state.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/444.jpg.htm" title="Badshahi Masjid, Lahore, Pakistan"><img alt="Badshahi Masjid, Lahore, Pakistan" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Badshahi_Mosque_July_1_2005_pic32_by_Ali_Imran.jpg" src="../../images/4/444.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/444.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Badshahi Masjid, <!--del_lnk--> Lahore, <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>However, the architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilisations such as the <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> and the <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> evolved from more civic ideas and new building types emerged. Architectural styles developed and texts on architecture began to be written. These became canons to be followed in important works, especially religious architecture. Some examples of canons are the works of Vitruvius, the Kaogongji of ancient <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Vaastu Shastra in ancient <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>. In <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> Classical and <!--del_lnk--> Medieval periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individual architects who remained anonymous. <a href="../../wp/g/Guild.htm" title="Guild">Guilds</a> were formed by craftsmen to organise their trade. Over time the complexity of buildings and their types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals, and recreational facilities emerged.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/445.jpg.htm" title="Virupaksha Temple, Hampi, India"><img alt="Virupaksha Temple, Hampi, India" height="236" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hampi1.jpg" src="../../images/4/445.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/445.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Virupaksha Temple, <!--del_lnk--> Hampi, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Islamic architecture has a long and complex history beginning in the seventh century <!--del_lnk--> CE. Examples can be found throughout the countries that are, or were, Islamic - from <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> to <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>. Other examples can be found in areas where Muslims are a minority. Islamic architecture includes mosques, madrasas, caravansarais, palaces, and mausolea of this large region.<p>With the <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects - <a href="../../wp/m/Michelangelo.htm" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Brunelleschi, <a href="../../wp/l/Leonardo_da_Vinci.htm" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> - and the cult of the individual had begun. But there was no dividing line between <!--del_lnk--> artist, <!--del_lnk--> architect and <!--del_lnk--> engineer, or any of the related vocations. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.<p>With the consolidation of knowledge in scientific fields such as <a href="../../wp/e/Engineering.htm" title="Engineering">engineering</a> and the rise of new materials and technology, the architect began to lose ground on the technical aspects of building. He therefore cornered for himself another playing field - that of <a href="../../wp/a/Aesthetics.htm" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>. There was the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes. In the 19th century <!--del_lnk--> Ecole des Beaux Arts in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, the training was toward producing quick sketch schemes involving beautiful drawings without much emphasis on context..<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23329.jpg.htm" title="The palace of Versailles in France is largest palace in europe and served as the model for european royal residences for over 100 years."><img alt="The palace of Versailles in France is largest palace in europe and served as the model for european royal residences for over 100 years." height="127" longdesc="/wiki/Image:VersaillesCourHonneur.jpg" src="../../images/4/446.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/233/23329.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> palace of Versailles in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> is largest palace in europe and served as the model for european royal residences for over 100 years.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Meanwhile, the <a href="../../wp/i/Industrial_Revolution.htm" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> laid open the door for mass consumption and aesthetics started becoming a criterion even for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/447.jpg.htm" title="Bauhaus building, Dessau, Germany"><img alt="Bauhaus building, Dessau, Germany" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bauhaus.JPG" src="../../images/4/447.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/447.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Bauhaus building, <!--del_lnk--> Dessau, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the twentieth century gave rise to many new lines of thought that in architecture served as precursors to <!--del_lnk--> Modern Architecture. Notable among these is the <!--del_lnk--> Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of <!--del_lnk--> industrial design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the <!--del_lnk--> Bauhaus school, founded in <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> in 1919, consciously rejected <a href="../../wp/h/History.htm" title="History">history</a> and looked at architecture as a synthesis of art, craft, and technology.<p>When Modern architecture was first practiced, it was an <!--del_lnk--> avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Modernist architects sought to reduce buildings to a pure form, removing historical references in favour of purely functional structures. The columns, arches, and gargoyles of Classical architecture were dubbed unnecessary. Buildings that flaunted their construction, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind traditional forms, were seen as beautiful in their own right. Architects such as <!--del_lnk--> Mies van der Rohe worked to reject virtually all that had come before, trading handcrafted details and sentimental historic forms for a machine-driven architectural geometry made possible by the <a href="../../wp/i/Industrial_Revolution.htm" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>.<p>Many people saw Modernism as dull or even ugly. As the founders of the <!--del_lnk--> International Style lost influence, <!--del_lnk--> Postmodernism developed as a reaction against the purity of Modernism. <!--del_lnk--> Robert Venturi's contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (a building in which the whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of this approach.<p>Another part of the profession, and also some non-architects, responded by going to what they considered the root of the problem. They felt that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to give a livable environment. The <!--del_lnk--> Design Methodology Movement involving people such as <!--del_lnk--> Chris Jones, <!--del_lnk--> Christopher Alexander started searching for more people-orientated designs. Extensive studies on areas such as behavioural, environmental, and social sciences were done and started informing the design process.<p>As many other concerns began to be recognised and complexity of buildings began to increase in terms of aspects such as services, architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary than ever. Architecture now required a team of professionals in its making, an architect being one among the many<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_sound"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>, sometimes the leader. This is the state of the profession today. However, individuality is still cherished and sought for in the design of buildings seen as cultural symbols - the museum or fine arts centre has become a showcase for new experiments in style: today one style, tomorrow maybe something else.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/34/3461.jpg.htm" title="Frank Lloyd Wright's Famous "Fallingwater""><img alt="Frank Lloyd Wright's Famous "Fallingwater"" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:FallingwaterWright.jpg" src="../../images/4/448.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/34/3461.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/f/Frank_Lloyd_Wright.htm" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a>'s Famous "<!--del_lnk--> Fallingwater"</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14435.jpg.htm" title="Modern architecture in Warsaw"><img alt="Modern architecture in Warsaw" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wawka2.jpg" src="../../images/4/449.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14435.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Modern architecture in <a href="../../wp/w/Warsaw.htm" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>
<br clear="all" />
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Parthenon', 'Athens', 'Greece', 'Art', 'Science', 'Aesthetics', 'Light', 'Aesthetics', 'Engineering', 'Mathematics', 'Science', 'Art', 'Technology', 'Politics', 'History', 'Philosophy', 'Music', 'Astronomy', 'Philosophy', 'Empiricism', 'Art', 'Music', 'Mathematics', 'Geology', 'Computers', 'Sculpture', 'Painting', 'San Francisco, California', 'Moscow', 'Europe', 'Rome', 'Italy', 'Iran', 'Pakistan', 'Ancient Greece', 'Ancient Rome', 'China', 'India', 'Europe', 'Guild', 'India', 'Morocco', 'Spain', 'Turkey', 'Iran', 'Pakistan', 'Renaissance', 'Michelangelo', 'Leonardo da Vinci', 'Engineering', 'Aesthetics', 'France', 'France', 'Industrial Revolution', 'Germany', 'Germany', 'History', 'Industrial Revolution', 'Frank Lloyd Wright', 'Warsaw'] |
Architecture_of_Windows_NT | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Architecture of Windows NT,16-bit,64-bit,Access control lists,Active Directory,Alpha blending,Asynchronous I/O,Bus,Class (computer science),Compaq,Computer hardware" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Architecture of Windows NT</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Architecture_of_Windows_NT";
var wgTitle = "Architecture of Windows NT";
var wgArticleId = 1942523;
var wgCurRevisionId = 92694449;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Architecture_of_Windows_NT">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Architecture of Windows NT</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.IT.Software.htm">Software</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="metadata topicon" id="featured-star" style="right:10px; display:none;">
<div style="position: relative; width: 14px; height: 14px; overflow: hidden">
<div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; font-size: 100px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 100px; z-index: 3"><!--del_lnk--> <span title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."> </span></div>
<div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; z-index: 2"><a class="image" href="../../images/0/24.png.htm" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a featured article. Click here for more information." height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LinkFA-star.png" src="../../images/0/24.png" width="14" /></a></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:277px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28484.png.htm" title="NT-based operating system family's architecture consists of two layers (user mode and kernel mode), with many different modules within both of these layers."><img alt="NT-based operating system family's architecture consists of two layers (user mode and kernel mode), with many different modules within both of these layers." height="353" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Windows_2000_architecture.svg" src="../../images/233/23320.png" width="275" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28484.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> NT-based operating system family's architecture consists of two layers (<!--del_lnk--> user mode and <!--del_lnk--> kernel mode), with many different modules within both of these layers.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a href="../../wp/w/Windows_Vista.htm" title="Windows Vista">Windows Vista</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Windows Server 2003, <a href="../../wp/w/Windows_XP.htm" title="Windows XP">Windows XP</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Windows_2000.htm" title="Windows 2000">Windows 2000</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Windows NT are all part of the <!--del_lnk--> Windows NT family (<!--del_lnk--> NT-based) of Microsoft operating systems. They are all <!--del_lnk--> preemptive, <!--del_lnk--> reentrant <!--del_lnk--> operating systems, which have been designed to work with either <!--del_lnk--> uniprocessor- or <!--del_lnk--> symmetrical multi processor (SMP)-based <!--del_lnk--> Intel <!--del_lnk--> x86 computers. To process <!--del_lnk--> input/output (I/O) requests it uses <!--del_lnk--> packet-driven I/O which utilises <!--del_lnk--> I/O request packets (IRPs) and <!--del_lnk--> asynchronous I/O. Starting with <a href="../../wp/w/Windows_XP.htm" title="Windows XP">Windows XP</a>, Microsoft began building in 64-bit support into their operating systems — before this their operating systems were based on a 32-bit model. The <b>architecture of Windows NT</b> is highly modular, and consists of two main layers: a <!--del_lnk--> user mode and a <!--del_lnk--> kernel mode. Programs and subsystems in user mode are limited in terms of what system resources they have access to, while the kernel mode has unrestricted access to the system memory and external devices. The <!--del_lnk--> kernels of the operating systems in this line are all known as <!--del_lnk--> hybrid kernels - although it is worth noting that this term is disputed, with the claim that the kernel is essentially a <!--del_lnk--> monolithic kernel that is structured somewhat like a <!--del_lnk--> microkernel. The architecture is comprised of a hybrid kernel, <!--del_lnk--> Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL), drivers, and <a href="#Executive" title="">Executive</a>, which all exist in kernel mode <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_MCSEWin2kServerArch"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>. The higher-level services are implemented by the <a href="#Executive" title="">executive</a>.<p>User mode in the Windows NT line is made of subsystems capable of passing I/O requests to the appropriate kernel mode <!--del_lnk--> software drivers by using the I/O manager. Two subsystems make up the user mode layer of Windows 2000: the Environment subsystem (runs applications written for many different types of operating systems), and the Integral subsystem (operates system specific functions on behalf of the environment subsystem). Kernel mode in Windows 2000 has full access to the hardware and system resources of the computer. The kernel mode stops user mode services and applications from accessing critical areas of the operating system that they should not have access to.<p>The Executive interfaces with all the user mode subsystems. It deals with I/O, object management, security and process management. The kernel sits between the <!--del_lnk--> Hardware Abstraction Layer and the Executive to provide <i>multiprocessor synchronization</i>, thread and interrupt scheduling and dispatching, and trap handling and exception dispatching. The kernel is also responsible for initialising device drivers at bootup. Kernel mode drivers exist in three levels: highest level drivers, intermediate drivers and low level drivers. <!--del_lnk--> Windows Driver Model (WDM) exists in the intermediate layer and was mainly designed to be binary and source compatible between <!--del_lnk--> Windows 98 and <a href="../../wp/w/Windows_2000.htm" title="Windows 2000">Windows 2000</a>. The lowest level drivers are either legacy <!--del_lnk--> Windows NT device drivers that control a device directly or can be a <!--del_lnk--> PnP hardware bus.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="User_mode" name="User_mode"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">User mode</span></h2>
<p>The user mode is made up of subsystems which can pass I/O requests to the appropriate kernel mode drivers via the I/O manager (which exists in kernel mode). Two subsystems make up the user mode layer of Windows 2000: the <i>Environment subsystem</i> and the <i>Integral subsystem</i>.<p>The environment subsystem was designed to run applications written for many different types of operating systems. None of the environment subsystems can directly access hardware, and must request access to memory resources through the Virtual Memory Manager that runs in kernel mode. Also, applications run at a lower priority than kernel mode processes. Currently, there are three main environment subsystems: the Win32 subsystem, an <!--del_lnk--> OS/2 subsystem and a <!--del_lnk--> POSIX subsystem.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Win32 environment subsystem can run 32-bit Windows applications. It contains the console as well as text window support, shutdown and hard-error handling for all other environment subsystems. It also supports <!--del_lnk--> Virtual DOS Machines (VDMs), which allow <!--del_lnk--> MS-DOS and <!--del_lnk--> 16-bit <!--del_lnk--> Windows 3.x (<!--del_lnk--> Win16) applications to run on Windows. There is a specific MS-DOS VDM which runs in its own address space and which emulates an <!--del_lnk--> Intel 80486 running MS-DOS 5. Win16 programs, however, run in a Win16 VDM. Each program, by default, runs in the same process, thus using the same address space, and the Win16 VDM gives each program its own <!--del_lnk--> thread to run on. However, Windows 2000 does allow users to run a Win16 program in a separate Win16 VDM, which allows the program to be preemptively multitasked as Windows 2000 will pre-empt the whole VDM process, which only contains one running application. The OS/2 environment subsystem supports 16-bit character-based OS/2 applications and emulates OS/2 1.x, but not 32-bit or graphical OS/2 applications as used with OS/2 2.x or later. The POSIX environment subsystem supports applications that are strictly written to either the POSIX.1 standard or the related <!--del_lnk--> ISO/<!--del_lnk--> IEC standards.<p>The integral subsystem looks after operating system specific functions on behalf of the environment subsystem. It consists of a <i>security subsystem</i>, a <i>workstation service</i> and a <i>server service</i>. The security subsystem deals with security tokens, grants or denies access to user accounts based on resource permissions, handles logon requests and initiates logon authentication, and determines which system resources need to be audited by Windows 2000. It also looks after <!--del_lnk--> Active Directory. The workstation service is an API to the network redirector, which provides the computer access to the network. The server service is an API that allows the computer to provide network services.<p><a id="Kernel_mode" name="Kernel_mode"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Kernel mode</span></h2>
<p>Windows 2000 <!--del_lnk--> kernel mode has full access to the hardware and system resources of the computer and runs code in a protected memory area. It controls access to scheduling, thread prioritisation, memory management and the interaction with hardware. The kernel mode stops user mode services and applications from accessing critical areas of the operating system that they should not have access to as user mode processes ask the kernel mode to perform such operations on its behalf.<p>Kernel mode consists of <i>executive services</i>, which is itself made up on many modules that do specific tasks, <i>kernel drivers</i>, a <i><!--del_lnk--> kernel</i> and a <i>Hardware Abstraction Layer</i>, or HAL.<p><a id="Executive" name="Executive"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Executive</span></h3>
<p>The Executive interfaces with all the user mode subsystems. It deals with I/O, object management, security and process management. It contains various components, including the <i>I/O Manager</i>, the <i>Security Reference Monitor</i>, the <i>Object Manager</i>, the <i>IPC Manager</i>, the <i>Virtual Memory Manager</i> (VMM), a <i>PnP Manager</i> and <i>Power Manager</i>, as well as a <i>Window Manager</i> which works in conjunction with the Windows <i><!--del_lnk--> Graphics Device Interface</i> (GDI). Each of these components exports a kernel-only support routine allows other components to communicate with one another. Grouped together, the components can be called <i>executive services</i>. No executive component has access to the internal routines of any other executive component.<p>The <b>object manager</b> is a special executive subsystem that all other executive subsystems must pass through to gain access to Windows 2000 resources — essentially making it a resource management infrastructure service. The object manager is used to reduce the duplication of object resource management functionality in other executive subsystems, which could potentially lead to bugs and make development of Windows 2000 harder <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_RussinovichObjectManager_Intro"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>. To the object manager, each resource is an object, whether that resource is a physical resource (such as a file system or peripheral) or a logical resource (such as a file). Each object has a structure or <i>object type</i> that the object manager must know about. When another executive subsystem requests the creation of an object, they send that request to the object manager which creates an empty object structure which the requesting executive subsystem then fills in <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_RussinovichObjectManager_ObjectTypes"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>. Object types define the object procedures and any data specific to the object. In this way, the object manager allows Windows 2000 to be an <!--del_lnk--> object oriented operating system, as object types can be thought of as <!--del_lnk--> classes that define <!--del_lnk--> objects.<p>Each instance of an object that is created stores its name, parameters that are passed to the object creation function, security attributes and a pointer to its object type. The object also contains an object close procedure and a reference count to tell the object manager how many other objects in the system reference that object and thereby determines whether the object can be destroyed when a close request is sent to it <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_RussinovichObjectManager_Objects"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>. Every object exists in a hierarchical object <!--del_lnk--> namespace.<p>Further executive subsystems are the following:<ul>
<li><b>I/O Manager:</b> allows devices to communicate with user-mode subsystems. It translates user-mode read and write commands in read or write IRPs which it passes to device drivers. It accepts <!--del_lnk--> file system I/O requests and translates them into device specific calls, and can incorporate low-level device drivers that directly manipulate hardware to either read input or write output. It also includes a cache manager to improve disk performance by caching read requests and write to the disk in the background<li><b>Security Reference Monitor (SRM):</b> the primary authority for enforcing the security rules of the security integral subsystem <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_Win2kResourceKitActiveDirectory"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>. It determines whether an object or resource can be accessed, via the use of <!--del_lnk--> access control lists (ACLs), which are themselves made up of access control entries (ACEs). ACEs contain a security identifier (SID) and a list of operations that the ACE gives a select group of trustees — a user account, group account, or logon session <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_MSDNTrusteeDefinition"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> — permission (allow, deny, or audit) to that resource. <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_SiyanSecurityReferenceMonitor"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_MSDNACEDefinition"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><li><b>IPC Manager:</b> short for <!--del_lnk--> Interprocess Communication Manager, this manages the communication between clients (the environment subsystem) and servers (components of the Executive). It can use two facilities: the <i>Local Procedure Call</i> (LPC) facility (clients and servers on the one computer) and the <i><!--del_lnk--> Remote Procedure Call</i> (RPC) facility (where clients and servers are situated on different computers. Microsoft has had significant security issues with the RPC facility <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_RPCVulnerabilities"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>.<li><b>Virtual Memory Manager:</b> manages <!--del_lnk--> virtual memory, allowing Windows 2000 to use the <!--del_lnk--> hard disk as a <!--del_lnk--> primary storage device (although strictly speaking it is <!--del_lnk--> secondary storage). It controls the <!--del_lnk--> paging of memory in and out of physical memory to disk storage.<li><b>Process Manager:</b> handles <!--del_lnk--> process and <!--del_lnk--> thread creation and termination<li><b>PnP Manager:</b> handles <!--del_lnk--> Plug and Play and supports device detection and installation at boot time. It also has the responsibility to stop and start devices on demand — sometimes this happens when a bus gains a new device and needs to have a device driver loaded to support that device. Both <!--del_lnk--> FireWire and <!--del_lnk--> USB are <!--del_lnk--> hot-swappable and require the services of the PnP Manager to load, stop and start devices. The PnP manager interfaces with the HAL, the rest of the executive (as necessary) and with device drivers.<li><b>Power Manager:</b> the power manager deals with power events and generates power IRPs. It coordinates these power events when several devices send a request to be turned off it determines the best way of doing this.<li>The display system has been moved from user mode into the kernel mode as a device driver contained in the file <i>Win32k.sys</i>. There are two components in this device driver — the Window Manager and the GDI: <ul>
<li><b>Window Manager:</b> responsible for drawing windows and menus. It controls the way that output is painted to the screen and handles input events (such as from the <!--del_lnk--> keyboard and <!--del_lnk--> mouse), then passes messages to the applications that need to receive this input<li><b>GDI:</b> the <!--del_lnk--> Graphics Device Interface is responsible for tasks such as drawing <!--del_lnk--> lines and <!--del_lnk--> curves, rendering <!--del_lnk--> fonts and handling <!--del_lnk--> palettes. Windows 2000 introduced native <!--del_lnk--> alpha blending into the GDI.</ul>
</ul>
<p><a id="Kernel_.26_kernel-mode_drivers" name="Kernel_.26_kernel-mode_drivers"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Kernel & kernel-mode drivers</span></h3>
<p>The kernel sits between the HAL and the Executive and provides multiprocessor synchronization, thread and interrupt scheduling and dispatching, and trap handling and exception dispatching. The kernel often interfaces with the process manager. <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_InsideWin2kChap2"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> The kernel is also responsible for initialising device drivers at bootup that are necessary to get the operating system up and running.<p>Windows 2000 uses kernel-mode <!--del_lnk--> device drivers to enable it to interact with <!--del_lnk--> hardware devices. Each of the drivers has well defined system routines and internal routines that it exports to the rest of the operating system. All devices are seen by user mode code as a file object in the I/O manager, though to the I/O manager itself the devices are seen as device objects, which it defines as either file, device or driver objects. Kernel mode drivers exist in three levels: highest level drivers, intermediate drivers and low level drivers. The highest level drivers, such as file system drivers for <!--del_lnk--> FAT and <!--del_lnk--> NTFS, rely on intermediate drivers. Intermediate drivers consist of function drivers — or main driver for a device — that are optionally sandwiched between lower and higher level filter drivers. The function driver then relies on a bus driver — or a driver that services a <!--del_lnk--> bus controller, adapter, or bridge — which can have an optional bus filter driver that sits between itself and the function driver. Intermediate drivers rely on the lowest level drivers to function. The <!--del_lnk--> Windows Driver Model (WDM) exists in the intermediate layer. The lowest level drivers are either legacy Windows NT device drivers that control a device directly or can be a PnP hardware bus. These lower level drivers directly control hardware and do not rely on any other drivers..<p><a id="Hardware_abstraction_layer" name="Hardware_abstraction_layer"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hardware abstraction layer</span></h3>
<p>The Windows 2000 <!--del_lnk--> Hardware Abstraction Layer, or HAL, is a layer between the physical hardware of the computer and the rest of the operating system. It was designed to hide differences in hardware and therefore provide a consistent platform on which applications may run. The HAL includes hardware specific code that controls I/O interfaces, <!--del_lnk--> interrupt controllers and multiple processors.<p>Windows 2000 was designed to support the <!--del_lnk--> 64-bit <!--del_lnk--> DEC Alpha. After <!--del_lnk--> Compaq announced they would discontinue support of the processor, Microsoft stopped releasing tests build of Windows 2000 for AXP to the public, stopping with beta 3. Development of Windows on the Alpha continued internally in order to continue to have a 64-bit architecture development model ready until the wider availability of the Intel <!--del_lnk--> Itanium <!--del_lnk--> IA-64 architecture. The HAL now only supports hardware that is compatible with the <!--del_lnk--> Intel <!--del_lnk--> x86 architecture.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Windows_NT"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Windows Vista', 'Windows XP', 'Windows 2000', 'Windows XP', 'Windows 2000'] |
Architecture_of_the_California_missions | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Architecture of the California missions,1906 San Francisco earthquake,1st century,2003,Adobe,Aggregate,Agriculture,Alder,Alta California,Altar,Animal" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Architecture of the California missions</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Architecture_of_the_California_missions";
var wgTitle = "Architecture of the California missions";
var wgArticleId = 1880990;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Architecture_of_the_California_missions">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Architecture of the California missions</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Architecture.htm">Architecture</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table cellpadding="1" style="float: right; border: 1px solid #800000; background: #fffafa; padding: 5px; font-size: 95%; margin: 0;">
<tr>
<td style="background: #deb887; text-align: center;"><b>Part of the</b><br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Spanish missions in California</b><br /><b>series</b> </td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/166/16611.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="60" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mission_San_Juan_Capistrano_postcard_1920.jpg" src="../../images/166/16611.jpg" width="100" /></a></td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<center> <strong class="selflink">Architecture of the California missions</strong> </center>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Mission Revival Style architecture</center>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<center><!--del_lnk--> California mission clash of cultures</center>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid #800000">
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
<br />
<p>The <b>Architecture of the California missions</b> was influenced by several factors, those being the limitations in the construction materials that were on hand, an overall lack of skilled labor, and a desire on the part of the founding priests to emulate notable structures in their Spanish homeland. And while no two mission complexes are alike, they all employed the same basic building style.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Site_selection_and_layout" name="Site_selection_and_layout"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Site selection and layout</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16612.jpg.htm" title="Mission San Luis Rey de Francia in Oceanside, California. This mission is architecturally distinctive because of the strong combination of Spanish, Moorish, and Mexican lines exhibited."><img alt="Mission San Luis Rey de Francia in Oceanside, California. This mission is architecturally distinctive because of the strong combination of Spanish, Moorish, and Mexican lines exhibited." height="203" longdesc="/wiki/Image:San_Luis_Rey_de_Francia.jpg" src="../../images/166/16612.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16612.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Mission San Luis Rey de Francia in <!--del_lnk--> Oceanside, California. This mission is architecturally distinctive because of the strong combination of <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spanish</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Moorish, and <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexican</a> lines exhibited.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Although the missions were considered temporary ventures by the Spanish <!--del_lnk--> hierarchy, the development of an individual settlement was not simply a matter of "priestly whim." The founding of a mission followed longstanding rules and procedures; the paperwork involved required months, sometimes years of correspondence, and demanded the attention of virtually every level of the bureaucracy. Once empowered to erect a mission in a given area, the men assigned to it chose a specific site that featured a good water supply, plenty of wood for fires and building material, and ample fields for grazing <!--del_lnk--> herds and raising <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">crops</a>. The padres blessed the site, and with the aid of their <!--del_lnk--> military escort fashioned temporary shelters out of tree limbs or driven stakes, roofed with <!--del_lnk--> thatch or <!--del_lnk--> reeds. It was these simple huts that would ultimately give way to the stone and adobe buildings which exist to this day.<p>The first priority when beginning a settlement was the location and construction of the <!--del_lnk--> church (<i>iglesia</i>). The majority of mission sanctuaries were oriented on a roughly east-west axis to take the best advantage of the sun's position for interior <!--del_lnk--> illumination; the exact alignment depended on the geographic features of the particular site. Once the spot for the church was selected, its position would be marked and the remainder of the mission complex would be laid out. The priests' quarters, <!--del_lnk--> refectory, <i>convento</i>, <!--del_lnk--> workshops, <!--del_lnk--> kitchens, soldiers' and servants' living quarters, storerooms, and other ancillary chambers were usually grouped around a walled, open court or <!--del_lnk--> patio (often in the form of <!--del_lnk--> quadrangle) inside which religious celebrations and other festive events often took place. The <i>cuadrángulo</i> was rarely a perfect square because the Fathers had no <!--del_lnk--> surveying instruments at their disposal and simply measured off all dimensions by foot. In the event of an attack by hostile forces the mission's inhabitants could take refuge within the quadrangle.<p>The basic, common elements found in all of the Alta California missions can be summarized as follows :<ul>
<li>Patio plan with garden or fountain;<li>Solid and massive walls, <!--del_lnk--> piers, and <!--del_lnk--> buttresses;<li>Arched corridors;<li>Curved, <!--del_lnk--> pedimented gables;<li>Terraced bell towers (with domes and lanterns) or bell walls (pierced bellfries);<li>Wide, projecting eaves;<li>Broad, undecorated wall surfaces; and<li>Low, sloping tile roofs.</ul>
<p>The Alta California missions as a whole do not incorporate the same variety or elaborateness of detail in their design exhibited in the structures erected by Spanish settlers in <!--del_lnk--> Arizona, <!--del_lnk--> Texas, and <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> during the same period; neverthless, they "<i>...stand as concrete reminders of Spanish occupation and admirable examples of buildings conceived in the style and manner appropriate to the country in which they were built.</i>" <p><a id="Building_materials" name="Building_materials"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Building materials</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16614.jpg.htm" title="The three-bell campanario ("bell wall") at Mission San Juan Bautista. Two of the bells were salvaged from the original chime, which was destoyed in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake."><img alt="The three-bell campanario ("bell wall") at Mission San Juan Bautista. Two of the bells were salvaged from the original chime, which was destoyed in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake." height="369" longdesc="/wiki/Image:San_Juan_Bautista_campanario.jpg" src="../../images/166/16614.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16614.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The three-bell <i>campanario</i> ("bell wall") at <!--del_lnk--> Mission San Juan Bautista. Two of the bells were salvaged from the original chime, which was destoyed in the <!--del_lnk--> 1906 San Francisco earthquake.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The scarcity of imported materials, together with a lack of skilled laborers, compelled the Fathers to employ simple building materials and methods in the construction of mission structures. Since importing the quantity of materials necessary for a large mission complex was impossible, the padres had to gather the materials they needed from the land around them. Five (5) basic materials were used in constructing the permanent mission structures: adobe, timber, stone, brick, and tile. <i><!--del_lnk--> Adobes</i> (mud bricks) were made from a combination of <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">earth</a> and <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a>, with <!--del_lnk--> chaff, <!--del_lnk--> straw, or <!--del_lnk--> manure added to bind the mixture together. Occasionally pieces of <!--del_lnk--> bricks or <!--del_lnk--> shells were placed in the mix to improve the cohesiveness. The <a href="../../wp/s/Soil.htm" title="Soil">soil</a> used may have been <a href="../../wp/c/Clay.htm" title="Clay">clay</a>, <!--del_lnk--> loam, or sandy or gravelly earth. The making of the bricks was a simple process, derived from methods originally developed in Spain and Mexico. A convenient, level spot was chosen near the intended building site and close to a suitable water supply (usually a <!--del_lnk--> spring or <!--del_lnk--> creek). The ground was dug up and soaked with water, whereupon bare-legged workers would stomp the wet earth and binders into a <!--del_lnk--> homogeneous consistency fit for carrying to, and placing in, the brick <!--del_lnk--> molds.<p>The mixture was compressed into the wooden <i>formas</i>, which were arranged in rows, and leveled by hand to the top of the frame. From time to time, a worker would leave an imprint of his hand or foot on the surface of a wet brick, or perhaps a literate workman would inscribe his name and the date on the face. When the forms were filled, the bricks were left in the sun to dry. Great care was taken to expose the bricks on all sides, in order to ensure uniform drying and prevent cracking. Once dry, the bricks were stacked in rows to await their use. California adobes measured 22 by 11 inches, were two to five inches thick, and weighed 20 to 40 pounds (9 to 18 kg), making them convenient to carry and easy to handle during the construction process.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16615.jpg.htm" title="Actual skulls and crossbones were often used to mark the entrances to Spanish cemeteries (campo santos). Here, at Mission Santa Barbara, stone carvings were substituted."><img alt="Actual skulls and crossbones were often used to mark the entrances to Spanish cemeteries (campo santos). Here, at Mission Santa Barbara, stone carvings were substituted." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cemetery_Entrance.jpg" src="../../images/166/16615.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16615.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Actual <!--del_lnk--> skulls and crossbones were often used to mark the entrances to Spanish cemeteries (<i>campo santos</i>). Here, at <!--del_lnk--> Mission Santa Barbara, stone carvings were substituted.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Facilities for <!--del_lnk--> milling <!--del_lnk--> lumber were almost non-existent: workers used stone <a href="../../wp/a/Axe.htm" title="Axe">axes</a> and crude <!--del_lnk--> saws to shape the <a href="../../wp/w/Wood.htm" title="Wood">wood</a>, and often used logs which only had their bark stripped from them. These methods gave mission structures their distinctive appearance. <!--del_lnk--> Timber was used to reinforce walls, as <i>vigas</i> (beams) to support roofs, and as forms for door and window openings and arches. Since most of the settlements were located in <!--del_lnk--> valleys or <!--del_lnk--> coastal plains almost totally devoid of suitably large <!--del_lnk--> trees, the padres were in most cases limited to <!--del_lnk--> pine, <!--del_lnk--> alder, <!--del_lnk--> poplar, <!--del_lnk--> cypress and <!--del_lnk--> juniper trees for use in their construction efforts. Indians used wooden <i>carrettas</i>, drawn by <!--del_lnk--> oxen, to haul timber from as much as forty miles away (as was the case at <!--del_lnk--> Mission San Miguel Arcángel). At <!--del_lnk--> Mission San Luis Rey, however, the ingenious Father Lasuén instructed his neophyte workers to float logs downriver from <!--del_lnk--> Palomar Mountain to the mission site. The lack of good-sized timber forced the men to design mission buildings that were long and narrow. For example, the widest inside dimensions of any of the mission buildings (at <!--del_lnk--> San Carlos, <!--del_lnk--> Santa Clara, and <!--del_lnk--> Santa Cruz) is 29 feet: the narrowest, at <!--del_lnk--> Mission Soledad, spans 16.2 feet. The longest structure, at <!--del_lnk--> Mission Santa Barbara, stretches 162.5 feet. <!--del_lnk--> Stone (<i>piedra</i>) was used as a construction material whenever possible. In the absence of skilled <!--del_lnk--> stonemasons, the inexperienced builders resorted to the use of <!--del_lnk--> sandstone; though easier to cut, it was as not weather-resistant as that which would have been used by skilled <!--del_lnk--> artisans. To bind the stones together, the priests and Indians followed the (Mexican) <!--del_lnk--> Pre-Columbian technique of using mud <!--del_lnk--> mortar, since mortar made from <!--del_lnk--> lime was unavailable to them. Colored stones and pebbles were added to the mud mixture, giving it "<i>a beautiful and interesting texture</i>." <div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16616.jpg.htm" title="The chapel at Mission San Gabriel Arcángel was designed by Father Antonio Cruzado who hailed from Córdoba, Spain which accounts for the Mission's strong Moorish influence."><img alt="The chapel at Mission San Gabriel Arcángel was designed by Father Antonio Cruzado who hailed from Córdoba, Spain which accounts for the Mission's strong Moorish influence." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mission_San_Gabriel_4-15-05_6611.JPG" src="../../images/166/16616.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16616.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The chapel at <!--del_lnk--> Mission San Gabriel Arcángel was designed by Father Antonio Cruzado who hailed from <!--del_lnk--> Córdoba, Spain which accounts for the Mission's strong <!--del_lnk--> Moorish influence.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><i>Ladrillos</i> (conventional bricks) were manufactured in much the same manner as adobes, with one important difference: after forming and initial drying, the bricks were fired in outdoor <!--del_lnk--> kilns to ensure a much greater endurance than could be achieved through merely sun-drying them. Common bricks typically measured ten inches square and were two to three inches thick. Square <!--del_lnk--> paving bricks were equal in thickness to the common variety, but ranged from eleven to fifteen inches across. Many of the structures erected with this type of brick remained standing long after their adobe counterparts had been reduced to rubble.<p>The earliest structures had roofs of <!--del_lnk--> thatch or earth supported by flat poles. <i>Tejas</i> (<!--del_lnk--> roof <!--del_lnk--> tiles) were utilized in later construction (beginning around 1880) to replace the flammable thatch. The semicircular tiles consisted of <a href="../../wp/c/Clay.htm" title="Clay">clay</a> molded over a section of a log was which well-sanded to prevent the clay from sticking. According to the accounts of Father Estévan Tapís of Mission Santa Barbara, some thirty-two Native American males were required to make 500 tiles each day, while the women carried sand and straw to the pits. The mixture was first worked in pits under the hoofs of <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animals</a>, then placed on a flat board and fashioned to the correct thickness. Sheets of clay were then placed over the logs and cut the desired to size: they ranged in length from twenty to twenty-four inches, and tapered from five to ten inches in width. After trimming, the tiles were dried in the sun, then placed in <!--del_lnk--> ovens and burned until they took on a reddish-brown coloring. The quality of the tiles varied greatly among the missions due to differences in <a href="../../wp/s/Soil.htm" title="Soil">soil</a> types from one site to another. Legend has it that the first tiles were made at <!--del_lnk--> Mission San Luis Obispo, but Father <!--del_lnk--> Maynard Geiger (the Franciscan <!--del_lnk--> historian and <!--del_lnk--> biographer of Junípero Serra) claims that <!--del_lnk--> Mission San Antonio de Padua was actually the first to use them. Aside from their obvious advantage over <!--del_lnk--> straw roofs in terms of fire retardance, the impermeable surface also protected the adobe walls below from the damaging effects of <a href="../../wp/r/Rain.htm" title="Rain">rain</a>. The original tiles were secured with a dab of adobe and were held in place because of their shape, being tapered at the upper end so they could not slide off one another.<p><a id="Construction_methods" name="Construction_methods"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Construction methods</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16617.jpg.htm" title="An original exterior wall buttress at Mission San Miguel Arcángel, which suffered extensive earthquake damage on December 22, 2003. Sections of the plaster finish coat have sloughed off, exposing the adobes beneath to the elements."><img alt="An original exterior wall buttress at Mission San Miguel Arcángel, which suffered extensive earthquake damage on December 22, 2003. Sections of the plaster finish coat have sloughed off, exposing the adobes beneath to the elements." height="493" longdesc="/wiki/Image:San_Miguel_Arcangel_wall_buttress.jpg" src="../../images/166/16617.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16617.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An original exterior wall <!--del_lnk--> buttress at <!--del_lnk--> Mission San Miguel Arcángel, which suffered extensive earthquake damage on <!--del_lnk--> December 22, <!--del_lnk--> 2003. Sections of the plaster finish coat have sloughed off, exposing the adobes beneath to the elements.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The earliest projects had a layer of <!--del_lnk--> streambed stones arranged as a <!--del_lnk--> foundation, upon which the adobes were placed. Later, stone and masonry were used for foundation <!--del_lnk--> courses, which greatly added to the bearing capacity of the brickwork. Aside from superficial leveling, no other ground preparation was done before construction started. There is some evidence to indicate that the initial structures at some of the outposts were produced by setting wooden posts close together and filling the <!--del_lnk--> interstitial spaces with clay. At completion, the building would be covered with a thatched roof and wall surfaces would be coated with whitewash to keep the clay exterior from eroding. This type of construction is known as "<!--del_lnk--> wattle and daub" and eventually gave way to adobe, stone, or <i>ladrillos</i>. Even though many of the adobe structures were ultimately replaced with ones of piedra or brick, adobe was still employed extensively and was the principal material used in building the missions as there was an almost universal lack of readily-available stone. The adobes were laid in <!--del_lnk--> courses and <!--del_lnk--> cemented together with wet clay. Due to the low bearing strength of adobe and the lack of skilled brick masons (<i>albañils</i>), walls made of mud bricks had to be fairly thick. The width of a wall depended mostly on its height: low walls were commonly two feet thick, while the highest (up to thirty-five feet) required as much as six feet of material to support them.<p>Timbers were set into the upper courses of most walls to stiffen them. Massive exterior <!--del_lnk--> buttresses were also employed to fortify wall sections (see the photo at right), but this method of <!--del_lnk--> reinforcement required the inclusion of <!--del_lnk--> pilasters on the inside of the building to resist the <!--del_lnk--> lateral thrust of the buttresses and prevent the collapse of the wall. Pilasters and buttresses were often composed of more durable baked brick, even when the walls they supported were adobe. When the walls got too high for workers on the ground to reach the top, simple wood <!--del_lnk--> scaffolding was erected from whatever lumber was available. Many times posts were temporarily cemented into the walls to support <!--del_lnk--> catwalks. When the wall was completed, the posts were removed and the <!--del_lnk--> voids filled with adobe, or were sometimes sawed off flush with the surface of the wall.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16618.jpg.htm" title="A look inside the reconstructed (half-size) chapel at Mission Santa Cruz in December 2004. Note the exposed wood beams that comprise the roof structure."><img alt="A look inside the reconstructed (half-size) chapel at Mission Santa Cruz in December 2004. Note the exposed wood beams that comprise the roof structure." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mission_Santa_Cruz.jpg" src="../../images/166/16618.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16618.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A look inside the reconstructed (half-size) chapel at <!--del_lnk--> Mission Santa Cruz in December 2004. Note the exposed wood beams that comprise the roof structure.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Spaniards had various types of rudimentary <!--del_lnk--> hoists and <!--del_lnk--> cranes at their disposal for lifting materials to the men working on top of a structure. These <!--del_lnk--> machines were fashioned out of wood and rope, and were usually similar in configuration to a ship's <!--del_lnk--> rigging. In fact, <!--del_lnk--> sailors were often employed in mission construction to apply their knowledge of <!--del_lnk--> maritime rigging to the handling of loads. It is not apparent as to whether or not the padres used <!--del_lnk--> pulleys in their lifting <!--del_lnk--> devices, but these <!--del_lnk--> instruments nevertheless got the job done.Unless adobes were protected from the elements they would eventually dissolve into nothing more than heaps of mud. Most adobe walls, therefore, were either <!--del_lnk--> whitewashed or <!--del_lnk--> stuccoed inside and out. Whitewash was a mixture of lime and water which was brushed on the interior surfaces of partition walls; stucco was a longer-lasting, viscous blend of <!--del_lnk--> aggregate (in this case, sand) and whitewash, applied to the faces of load-bearing walls with a <i>paleta</i> (<!--del_lnk--> trowel). Usually the face of a wall that was to receive stucco would be scored so that the mixture would adhere better, or laborers would press bits of broken tile or small stones into the wet mortar to provide a varied surface for the stucco to cling to.<p>Once erection of the walls was completed, assembly of the <!--del_lnk--> roof could commence. The flat or <!--del_lnk--> gabled roofs were held up by square, evenly-spaced wood beams, which carried the weight of the roof and <!--del_lnk--> ceiling (if one was present). In the sanctuaries it was common for beams to be decorated with painted designs. Vigas rested on wood <!--del_lnk--> corbels, which were built into the walls and often projected on the outside of the building. When the <!--del_lnk--> rafters were in place a <!--del_lnk--> thatch of <i>tules</i> (brush) was woven over them for insulation, and were in turn covered with clay tiles. The tiles were cemented to the roof with mortar, clay, or <i>brea</i> (<!--del_lnk--> tar or <!--del_lnk--> bitumen). At some of the missions the padres were able to hire professional <!--del_lnk--> stonemasons to assist them in their endeavors; in 1797, for example, master mason <b>Isidoro Aguílar</b> was brought in from <!--del_lnk--> Culiacán, Mexico to supervise the building of a stone church at <!--del_lnk--> San Juan Capistrano. The church, constructed mostly of <!--del_lnk--> sandstone, featured a <!--del_lnk--> vaulted <!--del_lnk--> ceiling and seven <!--del_lnk--> domes. Indians had to gather thousands of stones from miles around for this venture, transporting them in carrettas or carrying them by hand. This structure, nicknamed "Serra's Church" once had a l20-foot-tall bell tower that was almost totally destroyed by <a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> in 1812.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16619.jpg.htm" title="Architectural historian Rexford Newcomb sketched this pair of doors, which display the Spanish "River of Life" pattern, at Mission San Fernando Rey de España in 1916."><img alt="Architectural historian Rexford Newcomb sketched this pair of doors, which display the Spanish "River of Life" pattern, at Mission San Fernando Rey de España in 1916." height="281" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1916_Rexford_Newcomb_sketch_--_Mission_San_Fernando_Rey_de_Espana.jpg" src="../../images/166/16619.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16619.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Architectural historian <!--del_lnk--> Rexford Newcomb sketched this pair of doors, which display the Spanish "River of Life" pattern, at <!--del_lnk--> Mission San Fernando Rey de España in 1916.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Arched <!--del_lnk--> door and <!--del_lnk--> window openings required the use of wood centering during erection, as did corridor <!--del_lnk--> arches and any type of vault or domed construction. Windows were kept small and to a minimum, and placed high on walls as a protective measure in case of Indian attack. A few of the missions had imported <a href="../../wp/g/Glass.htm" title="Glass">glass</a> window panes, but most made do with oiled <!--del_lnk--> skins stretched tightly across the openings. Windows were the only source of interior illumination at the missions, other than the <!--del_lnk--> tallow <!--del_lnk--> candles made in the outposts' workshops. Doors were made of wood cut into planks at the <i>carpintería</i>, and most often bore the Spanish "<b>River of Life</b>" pattern or other carved or painted designs. Carpenters used a <!--del_lnk--> ripsaw (or "pitsaw") to saw logs into thin boards, which were held together by ornate <!--del_lnk--> nails forged in the mission's <!--del_lnk--> blacksmith shop. Nails, especially long ones, were scarce throughout California, so large members (such as <!--del_lnk--> rafters or <!--del_lnk--> beams) which had to be fastened together were tied with <!--del_lnk--> rawhide strips. Connections of this type were common in <!--del_lnk--> post and lintel construction, such as that found over corridors. Aside from nails, blacksmiths fashioned <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> <!--del_lnk--> gates, <!--del_lnk--> crosses, <!--del_lnk--> tools, kitchen <!--del_lnk--> utensils, <!--del_lnk--> cannons for mission defense, and other objects needed by the mission community. Settlements had to rely on cargo ships and trade for their iron supplies as they did not have the capability to <a href="../../wp/m/Mining.htm" title="Mining">mine</a> and <!--del_lnk--> process iron ore.<p><a id="Architectural_elements" name="Architectural_elements"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Architectural elements</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16620.jpg.htm" title="A close-up view of the pediment situated above the chapel entrance at Mission Santa Barbara and its unique ornamental frieze."><img alt="A close-up view of the pediment situated above the chapel entrance at Mission Santa Barbara and its unique ornamental frieze." height="206" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Santa_Barbara_frieze_detail.jpg" src="../../images/166/16620.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16620.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A close-up view of the pediment situated above the chapel entrance at <!--del_lnk--> Mission Santa Barbara and its unique ornamental <!--del_lnk--> frieze.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Since they were not trained in building design, the padres could only try to emulate the architectural aspects of structures they remembered from their homeland. The missions exhibit a strong <!--del_lnk--> Roman influence in much of their design and construction techniques (as do many buildings in <i><!--del_lnk--> España</i>), particularly in arch and dome construction. At <!--del_lnk--> Mission Santa Barbara, founding Father Ripali even went so far as to consult the works of <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st century</a> <a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" title="Anno Domini">B.C.</a> Roman <!--del_lnk--> architect <!--del_lnk--> Vitruvius during the design phase of the project.<p>In addition to the domes, vaults, and arches, and the Roman building methods used to create them, the missions inherited several architectural features from mother Spain. One of the most important design elements of a mission was its church <!--del_lnk--> belfry, of which there were four distinct types: the basic belfry, the <i>espadaña</i>, the <i>campanile</i>, and the <i>campanario</i>. The basic belfry was merely a bell hanging from a beam which was supported by two upright posts. The belfry usually stood just to one side of the main entrance to the church. The second type, the <i>espadaña</i>, was a raised gable at the end of a church building, usually curved and decorated; it did not always contain bells, however, but was sometimes added to the building simply to give it a more impressive facade. The <i>campanile</i>, probably the most well-known bell support, was a large tower which held one or more bells; these were usually domed structures, and some even had lanterns atop them. The final method for hanging bells is the <i>campanario</i>, which consists of a wall with openings for the bells. Most walls were attached to the sanctuary building, save for the one at the <!--del_lnk--> Pala Asistencia which is a standalone structure. The <i>campanario</i> is unique in that it is native to <!--del_lnk--> Alta California.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16621.jpg.htm" title="A view looking down a typical exterior corridor at Mission San Fernando Rey de España."><img alt="A view looking down a typical exterior corridor at Mission San Fernando Rey de España." height="333" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Exterior_Corridor_at_San_Fernando_Rey_de_Espana.jpg" src="../../images/166/16621.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16621.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A view looking down a typical exterior corridor at <!--del_lnk--> Mission San Fernando Rey de España.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Other notable aspects of the missions were the long <!--del_lnk--> arcades (<i>corredors</i>) which flanked all interior and many exterior walls. The <!--del_lnk--> arches were Roman (half-round), while the <!--del_lnk--> pillars were usually square and made of baked brick, rather than adobe. The overhang created by the arcade had a dual function: it provided a comfortable, shady place to sit after a hard-day's work, and (more importantly) it kept rainfall away from the adobe walls. The mainstay of any mission complex was its <i>capilla</i> (<!--del_lnk--> chapel}. The design of chapels overall followed that of Christian churches in Europe, but tended to be comparatively long and narrow due to the size of lumber available along the California coast. Each church had a main section (the <!--del_lnk--> nave), a baptistry near the front entrance, a <!--del_lnk--> sanctuary (also called a <i>reredos</i>, where the <!--del_lnk--> altar was located), and a <!--del_lnk--> sacristy at the back of the church where the <!--del_lnk--> host and other materials were stored and where the priests readied themselves for <!--del_lnk--> mass. In some chapels, a stairway near the main entrance led up to a <!--del_lnk--> choir <!--del_lnk--> loft.<p>Decorations were usually copied from books and applied by native artists. The religious designs and paintings are said to "<i>show the flavor of the Spanish Era, mixed with the primitive touch of the Indian artists</i>." The impact that mission architecture has had on the modern buildings of California is readily apparent in the many <!--del_lnk--> civic, <!--del_lnk--> commercial, and <!--del_lnk--> residential structures which exhibit the tile roofs, arched door and window openings, and stuccoed walls that typify the "mission look." These elements are frequently included in the exterior finish of modern buildings in California and the <!--del_lnk--> Southwest, and are commonly referred to as <!--del_lnk--> Mission Revival Style architecture. The inclusion of these features in whole or part into otherwise ordinary commercial buildings has been met with varying levels of acceptance, and is regarded among some critics as "<i>mission impossible</i>," a phenomenon that is seen most brashly in the <!--del_lnk--> fast food emporiums of <!--del_lnk--> Taco Bell. When well-done, a mission style building will convey an impression of simplicity, permanence, and comfort, with coolness in the heat of the day and warmth in the cold of night (due to a phenomenon known as the <!--del_lnk--> thermal flywheel effect).<p><a id="Infrastructure" name="Infrastructure"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Infrastructure</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16622.jpg.htm" title="A replica of an olive press at Mission San Buenaventura."><img alt="A replica of an olive press at Mission San Buenaventura." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:San_Buenaventura.JPG" src="../../images/166/16622.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16622.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A replica of an olive press at <!--del_lnk--> Mission San Buenaventura.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>No study of the missions would be complete without some discussion of their extensive water supply systems. Stone <!--del_lnk--> aqueducts, sometimes spanning miles, brought fresh water from a <a href="../../wp/r/River.htm" title="River">river</a> or <!--del_lnk--> spring to the mission site. Baked clay <!--del_lnk--> pipes, joined together with lime mortar or bitumen, carried the water into <!--del_lnk--> reservoirs and gravity-fed <!--del_lnk--> fountains, and emptied into <!--del_lnk--> waterways where the force of the water would be used to turn grinding <!--del_lnk--> wheels, presses, and other simple <!--del_lnk--> machinery. Water brought to the mission proper would be used for <!--del_lnk--> cooking, <!--del_lnk--> cleaning, <a href="../../wp/i/Irrigation.htm" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> of crops, and <!--del_lnk--> drinking. Drinking water was allowed to trickle through alternate layers of <a href="../../wp/s/Sand.htm" title="Sand">sand</a> and <!--del_lnk--> charcoal to remove the impurities.<p><a id="Furniture" name="Furniture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Furniture</span></h2>
<p>Influenced by early mission furnishings, "mission oak" furniture bears some similarity to the related <!--del_lnk--> Arts and Crafts style furniture, using similar materials but without Arts and Crafts' emphasis on refinement of line and decoration. <!--del_lnk--> Oak is the typical material, finished with its natural golden appearance that will age to a rich medium brown colour. Components such as legs will often be straight, not tapered, and surfaces will be flat, rather than curved. Generous use of materials leads to heavy and solid furnishings, giving an impression of "groundedness", through simplicity, functionality and stability. Straightforward lines predominate, with little or no decoration, other than that which is incidental to function, such as forged iron hinges and latches. The leading designer of furnishings in this style during the Arts and Crafts movement was <!--del_lnk--> Gustav Stickley.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_the_California_missions"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Spain', 'Mexico', 'Agriculture', 'Mexico', 'Earth', 'Water', 'Soil', 'Clay', 'Axe', 'Wood', 'Clay', 'Animal', 'Soil', 'Rain', 'Earthquake', 'Glass', 'Iron', 'Mining', '1st century', 'Anno Domini', 'River', 'Irrigation', 'Sand'] |
Arctic | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="noindex,nofollow" name="robots" />
<meta content="Arctic,Regions of the world,Regions of the world,Continents of the world,2001,Africa,Alaska,Alert, Nunavut,Aleutian Islands,Americas,Anglo-America" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Arctic</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">/*<![CDATA[*/
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgCanonicalSpecialPageName = false;
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Arctic";
var wgTitle = "Arctic";
var wgAction = "view";
var wgArticleId = "36971";
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserGroups = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
var wgBreakFrames = false;
var wgCurRevisionId = "131741757";
/*]]>*/</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Arctic">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Arctic</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.General_Geography.htm">General Geography</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/703.png.htm" title="The red line indicates the 10°C isotherm in July, commonly used to define the Arctic region border"><img alt="The red line indicates the 10°C isotherm in July, commonly used to define the Arctic region border" class="thumbimage" height="251" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arctic.svg" src="../../images/7/703.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/703.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The red line indicates the 10°C isotherm in July, commonly used to define the Arctic region border</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/44/4426.jpg.htm" title="Satellite image of the Arctic surface"><img alt="Satellite image of the Arctic surface" class="thumbimage" height="192" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arctica_surface.jpg" src="../../images/44/4426.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/44/4426.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Satellite image of the Arctic surface</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <b>Arctic</b> is the <!--del_lnk--> region around the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> North Pole, opposite the <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctic</a> region around the <!--del_lnk--> South Pole. In the <!--del_lnk--> northern hemisphere, the Arctic includes the <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Ocean.htm" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a> (which overlies the North Pole) and parts of <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Greenland.htm" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> (a territory of <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>), <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Alaska), <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> and <a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a>. The word Arctic comes from the Greek word arktos, which means bear. This is due to the location of the constellation <!--del_lnk--> Ursa Major, the "Great Bear", above the Arctic region.<p>There are numerous definitions of the Arctic region. The boundary is generally considered to be north of the <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Circle.htm" title="Arctic Circle">Arctic Circle</a> (66° 33’N), which is the approximate limit of the <!--del_lnk--> midnight sun and the <!--del_lnk--> polar night. Other definitions are based on climate and ecology, such as the 10°C (50°F) July <!--del_lnk--> isotherm, which roughly corresponds to the <!--del_lnk--> tree line in most of the Arctic. Socially and politically, the Arctic region includes the northern territories of the eight Arctic states, including <!--del_lnk--> Lapland, although by natural science definitions much of this territory is considered <!--del_lnk--> subarctic.<p>The Arctic region consists of a vast <!--del_lnk--> ice-covered <a href="../../wp/o/Ocean.htm" title="Ocean">ocean</a> (which is sometimes considered to be a northern <a href="../../wp/s/Sea.htm" title="Sea">arm</a> of the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>) surrounded by treeless, frozen ground. Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, and human societies.<p>The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth's ecosystems. The cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions. In <a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" title="Global warming">climate change</a> research, the Arctic region is often considered an early warning system for the planet.<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script>
<p><a id="Nature" name="Nature"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Nature</span></h2>
<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h3>
<p>The Arctic's climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow. The Arctic's annual precipitation is low with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm (20 inches). High winds often stir up snow creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can be as low as -37°C (-34.6°F) and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately -68°C (-90.4°F). Coastal arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior areas.<p><a id="Plants" name="Plants"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Plants</span></h3>
<p>Since trees cannot grow in the climate, the vegetation of the Arctic tundra is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens and mosses, which are all comparatively close to the ground. As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas plants are at their metabolic limits, and small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy available for maintenance, growth and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease. In the warmest parts of the Arctic, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m (6 ft) in height; sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic much of the ground is bare, nonvascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses and forbs (like the arctic poppy).<p><a id="Animals" name="Animals"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Animals</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Polar bears have white fur so they can camouflage in the snow. This helps them to sneak up on seals when they’re hungry.<li>The <a href="../../wp/w/Wolverine.htm" title="Wolverine">wolverine</a> is part of the weasel family, and lives in holes in the ground. Though it is a small animal, it is very powerful.<li><!--del_lnk--> Arctic foxes are hard to spot in the snow because of their thick white fur. In the summer, their fur turns a brownish-grey colour.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Ptarmigan is a type of bird which nests in the snowy mountains, where they raise their young.<li><!--del_lnk--> Beluga means “white one” in Russian. Adults are white and the young are grey. This is so that the young can’t be seen easily by their predators. (Type of whale)<li>Some other animals include the <!--del_lnk--> Arctic Wolf, <!--del_lnk--> Ringed Seal, <!--del_lnk--> Lemmings, and the <!--del_lnk--> Arctic Hare.</ul>
<p><a id="Natural_resources" name="Natural_resources"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Paleo-History</span></h3>
<p>During the <a href="../../wp/c/Cretaceous.htm" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>, the Arctic still had seasonal snows, though only a light dusting and not enough to permanently hinder plant growth. Animals such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Chasmosaurus</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Hypacrosaurus</i>, <i><a href="../../wp/t/Troodon.htm" title="Troodon">Troodon</a></i>, and <i><!--del_lnk--> Edmontosaurus</i> may have all migrated north to take advantage of the summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer climes when the winter came. A similar situation may also have been found amongst dinosaurs that lived in Antarctic regions, such as <i><a href="../../wp/m/Muttaburrasaurus.htm" title="Muttaburrasaurus">Muttaburrasaurus</a></i> of Australia.<p><a id="International_cooperation_and_politics" name="International_cooperation_and_politics"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">International cooperation and politics</span></h2>
<p>The Arctic region is a focus of international political interest. International Arctic cooperation got underway on a broad scale well over ten years ago. The International Arctic Science Committee (IASC), hundreds of scientists and specialists of the Arctic Council, the Barents Council and its regional cooperation have compiled high quality information on the Arctic.<p><a id="Territorial_claims" name="Territorial_claims"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Territorial claims</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2001 <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> made an official submission into the <!--del_lnk--> UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf in accordance with the <!--del_lnk--> United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (article 76, paragraph 8). In the document it is proposed to establish new outer limits of the <!--del_lnk--> continental shelf of <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> beyond the previous <!--del_lnk--> 200 mile zone, but within the Russian Arctic sector. The territory claimed by Russia in the submission is a large portion of the Arctic, including the <!--del_lnk--> North Pole. One of the arguments was a statement, that the underwater <!--del_lnk--> Lomonosov Ridge and <!--del_lnk--> Mendeleev Ridge are extensions of the <!--del_lnk--> Eurasian continent. In 2002 the UN Commission neither rejected, nor accepted the Russian proposal, recommending to carry out additional research.<p>Canada (citing the Law of the Sea) claims control over the waterways throughout its 200-mile zone, which includes the <!--del_lnk--> Northwest Passage. This claim is not recognized by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>.<p><a id="A_strategic_military_region" name="A_strategic_military_region"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">A strategic military region</span></h3>
<p>Some countries claim the Arctic has never been under the political control of any nation, although some nations' militaries have attached a strategic importance to the region. Canada has an outpost in the region (<!--del_lnk--> Alert), and has long laid claim to much of the Arctic. Several recent excursions by the Canadian navy have taken place, with more planned to underline Canadian sovereignty in the region. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Arctic was often used by <!--del_lnk--> submarines to test new weapons, sonar equipment, and depth testing.<p>During the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, the Arctic region was extensively monitored by the <!--del_lnk--> United States military and NATO, since it was believed that the first warnings of a nuclear strike from the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> would have been indicated by <!--del_lnk--> ICBMs launched over the North Pole towards the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. The United States placed such importance on the region that two military decorations, the <!--del_lnk--> Arctic Service Ribbon and <!--del_lnk--> Coast Guard Arctic Service Medal, were established for military duty performed within the Arctic Circle.<p>In 2006, <!--del_lnk--> Envisat and <!--del_lnk--> EOS Aqua revealed a polar route connecting <!--del_lnk--> Spitzbergen and <!--del_lnk--> Siberia. <!--del_lnk--> Increased Russian activity has also been detected, though this can be attributed to the <!--del_lnk--> Chelyuskin <!--del_lnk--> icebreaker wreck expeditionary force. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Scientific_exploration" name="Scientific_exploration"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Scientific exploration</span></h3>
<p>Since 1937 the whole Arctic region was extensively explored by the <!--del_lnk--> Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations. Scientific settlements that were established on the <!--del_lnk--> drift ice were carried thousands of kilometers by the ice flow.<p><a id="Pollution" name="Pollution"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Pollution</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17060.jpg.htm" title="Long-range pollution pathways to the Arctic"><img alt="Long-range pollution pathways to the Arctic" class="thumbimage" height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Contamination_pathways_large.jpg" src="../../images/170/17060.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17060.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Long-range pollution pathways to the Arctic</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain ecologically difficult localized <a href="../../wp/p/Pollution.htm" title="Pollution">pollution</a> problems that present a serious threat to people’s health living around these pollution sources. Due to the prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fallout region for long-range transport <!--del_lnk--> pollutants, and in some places the concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. An example of this is the phenomenon of <!--del_lnk--> Arctic haze, which is commonly blamed on long-range pollutants.<p><a id="Effects_of_global_warming" name="Effects_of_global_warming"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Effects of <a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" title="Global warming">global warming</a></span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><a id="Arctic_Waters" name="Arctic_Waters"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Arctic Waters</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Ocean.htm" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Baffin Bay<li><!--del_lnk--> Beaufort Sea<li><!--del_lnk--> Barents Sea<li><!--del_lnk--> Bering Sea<li><!--del_lnk--> Bering Strait<li><!--del_lnk--> Chukchi Sea<li><!--del_lnk--> Davis Strait<li><!--del_lnk--> Denmark Strait<li><!--del_lnk--> East Siberian Sea<li><!--del_lnk--> Greenland Sea<li><a href="../../wp/h/Hudson_Bay.htm" title="Hudson Bay">Hudson Bay</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Kara Sea<li><!--del_lnk--> Laptev Sea<li><!--del_lnk--> Nares Strait<li><!--del_lnk--> Norwegian Sea</ul>
<p><a id="Arctic_Lands" name="Arctic_Lands"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Arctic Lands</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Alaska (<!--del_lnk--> USA)<li><!--del_lnk--> Aleutian Islands (<!--del_lnk--> USA)<li><a href="../../wp/b/Bj%25C3%25B8rn%25C3%25B8ya.htm" title="Bjørnøya">Bjørnøya</a> (<a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Canadian Arctic Archipelago<li><!--del_lnk--> Diomede Islands (<a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>/<!--del_lnk--> USA)<li><!--del_lnk--> Franz Josef Land (<a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Newfoundland and Labrador (<a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> New Siberian Islands (<a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Northwest Territories (<a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Novaya Zemlya (<a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Nunavik (northern <!--del_lnk--> Québec, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Nunavut (<a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Finnmark (<a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a>)<li><a href="../../wp/g/Greenland.htm" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> (<a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>)<li><a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a><li><a href="../../wp/j/Jan_Mayen.htm" title="Jan Mayen">Jan Mayen</a> (<a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Severnaya Zemlya (<a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Siberia (<a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>)<li><a href="../../wp/s/Svalbard.htm" title="Svalbard">Svalbard</a> (<a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Yukon (<a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Wrangel Island (<a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>)</ul>
<p><a id="The_Arctic_in_Popular_Culture" name="The_Arctic_in_Popular_Culture"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">The Arctic in Popular Culture</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><i>Raising the Past</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Jeremy Robinson<li><i>Ice Hunt</i> by <!--del_lnk--> James Rollins<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Deception Point</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Dan Brown</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Earth', 'Antarctica', 'Arctic Ocean', 'Canada', 'Greenland', 'Denmark', 'Russia', 'United States', 'Iceland', 'Norway', 'Sweden', 'Finland', 'Arctic Circle', 'Ocean', 'Sea', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Global warming', 'Wolverine', 'Cretaceous', 'Troodon', 'Muttaburrasaurus', 'Russia', 'Russia', 'United States', 'Cold War', 'Soviet Union', 'United States', 'Pollution', 'Global warming', 'Arctic Ocean', 'Hudson Bay', 'Bjørnøya', 'Norway', 'Russia', 'Russia', 'Canada', 'Russia', 'Canada', 'Russia', 'Canada', 'Canada', 'Norway', 'Greenland', 'Denmark', 'Iceland', 'Jan Mayen', 'Norway', 'Russia', 'Russia', 'Svalbard', 'Norway', 'Canada', 'Russia'] |
Arctic_Circle | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Arctic Circle,Alaska,Antarctic Circle,Arctic,Arctic Circle Restaurants,Atmospheric refraction,Axial tilt,Canada,Circle of latitude,Dalton Highway,December solstice" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Arctic Circle</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Arctic_Circle";
var wgTitle = "Arctic Circle";
var wgArticleId = 718;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Arctic_Circle">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Arctic Circle</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.General_Geography.htm">General Geography</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15985.jpg.htm" title="World map showing the Arctic Circle in red"><img alt="World map showing the Arctic Circle in red" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:World_map_with_arctic_circle.jpg" src="../../images/159/15985.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15985.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> World map showing the Arctic Circle in red</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15986.jpg.htm" title="A sign along the Dalton Highway marking the location of the Arctic Circle"><img alt="A sign along the Dalton Highway marking the location of the Arctic Circle" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arctic_Circle_sign.jpg" src="../../images/159/15986.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15986.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A sign along the <!--del_lnk--> Dalton Highway marking the location of the Arctic Circle</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <b>Arctic Circle</b> is one of the five major <!--del_lnk--> circles of latitude that mark maps of the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>. This is the parallel of <!--del_lnk--> latitude that (in 2000) runs 66<!--del_lnk--> ° 33′ 39″ (or 66.56083<!--del_lnk--> °) north of the <!--del_lnk--> Equator. Everything north of this circle is known as the <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic.htm" title="Arctic">Arctic</a>, and the zone just to the south of this circle is the <a href="../../wp/t/Temperate.htm" title="Temperate">Northern Temperate Zone</a>.<p>The Arctic Circle marks the southern extremity of the <!--del_lnk--> polar day (24 hour sunlit day) of the <!--del_lnk--> summer solstice in June and the <!--del_lnk--> polar night (24 hour sunless night) of the <!--del_lnk--> winter solstice in December. Within the Arctic Circle, the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a> is above the <!--del_lnk--> horizon for 24 continuous <!--del_lnk--> hours at least once per <!--del_lnk--> year, in conjunction with the Arctic's <!--del_lnk--> Summer Solstice - this is often referred to in local <!--del_lnk--> vernacular as <!--del_lnk--> midnight sun. Likewise, in conjunction with the Arctic’s <!--del_lnk--> Winter Solstice, the Arctic sun will be below the horizon for at least 24 continuous hours. (In fact, because of the <!--del_lnk--> atmospheric refraction and because the sun appears as a disk and not a point, part of the midnight sun may be seen at the night of the summer solstice up to about 50′ (90 km) south of the geometric arctic circle; similarly, at the day of the winter solstice part of the sun may be seen up to about 50′ north of the geometric arctic circle. This is true at sea level; these limits increase with elevation above sea level, however in mountainous regions there is often no direct view of the horizon.)<p>The position of the Arctic Circle is determined by the <!--del_lnk--> axial tilt (angle) of the polar axis of rotation of the Earth on the <!--del_lnk--> ecliptic. This angle is not constant, but has a complex motion determined by many cycles of short to very long periods. At 2000, its mean value was about 23°26′21″. Due to <!--del_lnk--> nutation the tilt oscillates over 9″ (about 280 <!--del_lnk--> m on the surface) over a period of 18.6 years. The main long-term cycle has a period of 41,000 years and an amplitude of about 0.68°, or 76 km on the surface. Currently the tilt is decreasing by about 0.47″ per year, so the Arctic Circle is moving north by about 15 m per year. Also see <!--del_lnk--> precession.<p>Countries which have significant territory within the Arctic Circle are:<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a><li><a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a><li><a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> (<a href="../../wp/g/Greenland.htm" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>)<li><a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Alaska)<li><a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a><li><a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a></ul>
<p>The country of <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> also has territory within the Arctic Circle, but less than 1 km². This area is on a few small islets, of which only <!--del_lnk--> Grímsey (which lies directly on the Arctic Circle) is inhabited.<p>There are very few people living above the Arctic Circle. The largest towns above the Arctic Circle are <!--del_lnk--> Murmansk (population 325,100) in Russia, and <!--del_lnk--> Norilsk (135,000) also in Russia. <!--del_lnk--> Tromsø in Norway has about 62,000 dwellers, whereas <!--del_lnk--> Rovaniemi in Finland has a bit less than 58,000 inhabitants.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Circle"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Earth', 'Arctic', 'Temperate', 'Sun', 'Russia', 'Canada', 'Denmark', 'Greenland', 'United States', 'Norway', 'Sweden', 'Finland', 'Iceland'] |
Arctic_Monkeys | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Arctic Monkeys,ArcticMonkeysIBetYouLookGoodOnTheDanceFloor.ogg,2003,2005,2006,2006 Brit Awards,ARIA Charts,Alex Turner (musician),Anti-social behaviour order,April 10,April 18" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Arctic Monkeys</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Arctic_Monkeys";
var wgTitle = "Arctic Monkeys";
var wgArticleId = 1720451;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Arctic_Monkeys">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Arctic Monkeys</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Music.Performers_and_composers.htm">Performers and composers</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox" style="width: 21em; font-size: 95%;">
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="text-align: center; background: #87cefa;"><big><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Arctic Monkeys logo" height="63" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arcticmonkeyslogo.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="150" />The Legends</big></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td colspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Arctic Monkeys, left to right: Alex Turner, Jamie Cook, Matt Helders and Nick O'Malley" height="154" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arctic-mon_72.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="220" /><br />
<div style="font-size: 90%; line-height: 15px;">Arctic Monkeys, left to right: <!--del_lnk--> Alex Turner, <!--del_lnk--> Jamie Cook, <!--del_lnk--> Matt Helders and <!--del_lnk--> Nick O'Malley</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: #87cefa;">Background information</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Origin</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/525.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_England_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/166/16626.png" width="25" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Sheffield.htm" title="Sheffield">Sheffield</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Genre(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Indie rock, <!--del_lnk--> Post-punk revival</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Years active</b></td>
<td colspan="2">2002–present</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-right: 1em;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Label(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> <b>Domino Records</b><br /> Publishing labels:<br /><a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>/<a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">US</a>: <!--del_lnk--> Domino<br /><a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">AUS</a>/<a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">NZ</a>: <!--del_lnk--> EMI<br /><a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>: Hostess</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Website</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Official website</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: #87cefa;">Members</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Alex Turner<br /><!--del_lnk--> Jamie Cook<br /><!--del_lnk--> Matt Helders<br /><!--del_lnk--> Nick O'Malley</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: #87cefa;">Former members</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Andy Nicholson<br /><!--del_lnk--> Glyn Jones, Daniel Hirst(he wishes)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Arctic Monkeys</b> are a four-piece <!--del_lnk--> indie rock/<!--del_lnk--> post-punk revival band from <!--del_lnk--> High Green, a suburb of <!--del_lnk--> Sheffield, England. Their first two singles, "<!--del_lnk--> I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor" and "<!--del_lnk--> When the Sun Goes Down", both went straight to <!--del_lnk--> number one in the <!--del_lnk--> UK Singles Chart. Originally established in 2002, the band currently consists of <!--del_lnk--> Alex Turner on lead vocals and guitar, <!--del_lnk--> Jamie Cook on rhythm guitar, <!--del_lnk--> Matt Helders on drums and backing vocals and <!--del_lnk--> Nick O'Malley on bass guitar, a position formerly held by <!--del_lnk--> Andy Nicholson.<p>Unlike many of their contemporaries, who were marketed and advertised extensively by <!--del_lnk--> record labels, Arctic Monkeys achieved their success through fan-made <!--del_lnk--> demo tapes and online <!--del_lnk--> file-sharing, culminating in fans singing along at gigs of songs which had never been officially released, leading media commentators to discuss the possibility of a sea change in the way in which new bands are promoted and marketed. The band resisted signing to a major record label, even banning <!--del_lnk--> talent scouts from gigs. Eventually, the band signed to <!--del_lnk--> independent record label <!--del_lnk--> Domino Records, releasing their debut album <i><!--del_lnk--> Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not</i>, which debuted straight at number one and broke the record for the largest first week sales of a debut album in UK history. The band subsequently won several major music prizes for the album, including the 2006 <!--del_lnk--> Mercury Prize, "Best New Act" at the <!--del_lnk--> 2006 Brit Awards and "Best New Band" and "Best British Band" at the <!--del_lnk--> <i>NME</i> Awards.<p>The overnight success of the band and the gritty, realistic nature of the lyrics of songs such as "When The Sun Goes Down" has led to the band being described as the "yardstick for all that is current and cool". Despite such recognition, the band remains notoriously media shy; they declined to appear on either <i><a href="../../wp/t/Top_of_the_Pops.htm" title="Top of the Pops">Top of the Pops</a></i> or <i><!--del_lnk--> CD:UK</i> after "I Bet You Look Good On The Dancefloor" reached number one, while journalists described their behaviour during a press conference following winning the Mercury Prize as "petulant" and "argumentative".<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Musical_style" name="Musical_style"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Musical style</span></h2>
<p>Arctic Monkeys are generally considered part of the <!--del_lnk--> indie rock scene alongside similar contemporary guitar bands such as <!--del_lnk--> The Libertines, <!--del_lnk--> The Futureheads and <!--del_lnk--> Franz Ferdinand. The lyrics of Arctic Monkeys songs often feature <!--del_lnk--> social realism and observations of <!--del_lnk--> working class life, as typified by "When The Sun Goes Down", described as a "witty, poignant song about <!--del_lnk--> prostitution in the <!--del_lnk--> Neepsend district of Sheffield", and "A Certain Romance", an attack on <!--del_lnk--> chav culture, which have led to comparisons with other acts, especially British rapper <!--del_lnk--> The Streets and older artists <!--del_lnk--> Morrissey and <!--del_lnk--> Jarvis Cocker, both of which are known for their combination of observational lyrics and humour.<p>The lead singer, <!--del_lnk--> Alex Turner, sings in a strong <!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire accent, typified by the contraction of "something" to "summat", the replacement of "everything" and "nothing" with "owt" (/aʊt/) and "nowt" (/naʊt/) and the use of <!--del_lnk--> Northern slang such as "mardy" for "grumpy, difficult, unpredictable". Their songs also include frequent references to <a href="../../wp/p/Popular_culture.htm" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a> both common and obscure; <i>Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not</i> includes references to <a href="../../wp/r/Romeo_and_Juliet.htm" title="Romeo and Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a>, "<!--del_lnk--> Rio" by <a href="../../wp/d/Duran_Duran.htm" title="Duran Duran">Duran Duran</a>, and Frank Spencer, from <!--del_lnk--> Some Mothers Do 'Ave 'Em, leading one journalist to describe than the band as having a "<!--del_lnk--> camp <!--del_lnk--> retro-futurist fascination" for 1980s popular culture.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Emergence:_2002_.E2.80.94_2005" name="Emergence:_2002_.E2.80.94_2005"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Emergence: 2002 — 2005</span></h3>
<p>In 2001, neighbours Alex Turner and Jamie Cook asked for instruments as a <!--del_lnk--> Christmas present and both received <!--del_lnk--> electric guitars. After teaching themselves to play, the pair formed a band with Turner's school friends Andy Nicholson and Matt Helders later in 2002. Nicholson already played <!--del_lnk--> bass, so Matt Helders ended up on <!--del_lnk--> drums — "that was all that were left...they all had guitars so I bought a drum kit after a bit." Although reports suggested they named themselves after Helders' uncle's (or even father's) band, Helders later admitted that these reports were untrue — "We made that up ‘cause we got so many people asking us that in the UK, so we just started making stories up", and that he just didn't have the heart to tell the original reporter he'd been lying. According to Helders, Jamie Cook came up with the name at school before the band existed, saying "He just always wanted to be in a band called Arctic Monkeys. Which is a cool name."<p>They began rehearsing at Yellow Arch Studios in <!--del_lnk--> Neepsend, and their first gig came on <!--del_lnk--> 13 June <!--del_lnk--> 2003 at <i>The Grapes</i> in Sheffield city-centre. After a few performances, they began to record demos and <!--del_lnk--> burn them onto CDs to give away at gigs. With a limited number of CDs available, fans began to <!--del_lnk--> rip the music back onto their computers and share it amongst themselves. The group did not mind, saying "we never made those demos to make money or anything. We were giving them away free anyway — that was a better way for people to hear them. And it made the gigs better, because people knew the words and came and sang along." They themselves took no responsibility for their music, admitting that they did not even know how to get their songs onto the <a href="../../wp/i/Internet.htm" title="Internet">Internet</a>. When asked about the popularity of the band's <!--del_lnk--> MySpace site in an interview with <i><!--del_lnk--> Prefix Magazine</i>, the band pointed out that they did not even know what MySpace was, and that the site had originally been created by their fans. "[When we went number one in England] we were on the news and radio about how MySpace has helped us. But that's just the perfect example of someone who doesn’t know what the fuck they’re talking about. We actually had no idea what it was."<p>In late 2004, they began to grow in popularity across the north of England, receiving attention from <!--del_lnk--> BBC Radio 1 and the British <!--del_lnk--> tabloid press. Mark Bull, a local amateur photographer, filmed the band's performances and made the <!--del_lnk--> music video to "<!--del_lnk--> Fake Tales of San Francisco", releasing it on his web-site, alongside the contents of <i><!--del_lnk--> Beneath the Boardwalk</i> — a collection of the band's songs which he named after a local music venue.<p>In May 2005, Arctic Monkeys released their first <!--del_lnk--> EP, <i><!--del_lnk--> Five Minutes with Arctic Monkeys</i>, featuring the songs "Fake Tales of San Francisco" and "From the Ritz to the Rubble". This release was limited to 1500 CDs and 2000 7" records, but was also available to download from the <!--del_lnk--> iTunes Music Store. Soon after, the band played at the Carling Stage of the <!--del_lnk--> Reading and Leeds Festivals, reserved for less known or unsigned bands. Their appearance was hyped by much of the music press and the band was received by an unusually large crowd for the billing they played. The critically acclaimed performance included spontaneous singalongs of tracks that were only available as demos on the Internet.<p><a id="Record_deals:_Mid_2005" name="Record_deals:_Mid_2005"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Record deals: Mid 2005</span></h3>
<p>The band resisted signing to a record label, refusing to change their songs to suit the industry — "Before the hysteria started, the labels would say, 'I like you, but I'm not sure about this bit, and that song could do with this changing...' We never listened." Their cynicism with the industry was such that record company scouts were refused guaranteed guest list entry for their gigs. The success of the strategy — "We've got this far without them — why should we let them in?" — was illustrated with a series of sell-out gigs across the UK. October 2005 saw them sell out the historic <!--del_lnk--> London Astoria, and Turner saw this as proof that they were justified to ignore the record companies, saying "Once it all kicked off, we didn't care anymore. In London, the kids were watching the band, and the record company were at the back watching the kids watching the band."<p>Eventually, they signed to <!--del_lnk--> Domino Records in June 2005. The temptation of money saw them almost sign for an undisclosed "other label", but the band were attracted by Domino owner Laurence Bell, who ran the label from his flat and only signed bands that he liked personally. The UK's <i><!--del_lnk--> Daily Star</i> tabloid newspaper reported that this was followed in October 2005 by a £1m publishing deal with <!--del_lnk--> EMI and a £725,000 contract with <!--del_lnk--> Epic for the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. Arctic Monkeys denied this on their website, dubbing the newspaper "The Daily Stir". However, Domino have licensed the <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australian</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> publishing rights to EMI and the <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> rights to independent label Hostess.<p><a id="Initial_releases:_October_2005_.E2.80.94_January_2006" name="Initial_releases:_October_2005_.E2.80.94_January_2006"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Initial releases: October 2005 — January 2006</span></h3>
<p>Their first single after signing to Domino Records, "<!--del_lnk--> I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor", was released on <!--del_lnk--> 17 October <!--del_lnk--> 2005 and went straight to #1 on the <!--del_lnk--> UK Singles Chart, selling 38,962 copies and beating <a href="../../wp/m/McFly_%2528band%2529.htm" title="McFly">McFly</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Robbie Williams in the process. Three days later, they made their first appearance on the cover of <i><!--del_lnk--> NME</i>. Their second single, "<!--del_lnk--> When the Sun Goes Down" (previously titled "Scummy"), was released on <!--del_lnk--> 16 January <!--del_lnk--> 2006 and also went straight to #1 on the UK Singles Chart, selling 38,922 copies and dethroning <!--del_lnk--> Shayne Ward. The band's success in reaching the #1 spot without marketing or advertising led some to suggest that it could signal a change in how new bands achieve recognition.<p>They finished recording their debut album at Chapel Studios in <!--del_lnk--> Lincolnshire during September 2005. Its name was confirmed as <i><!--del_lnk--> Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not</i> in early December, with release originally intended for <!--del_lnk--> 30 January 2006. Although early versions of many tracks were already freely available to download from the band's pre-label demo CDs, it was widely expected to be one of the biggest releases of 2006 with thousands of copies pre-ordered. On <!--del_lnk--> 5 January 2006, Domino announced the album's release would be brought forward one week to the <!--del_lnk--> 23 January claiming that this was "due to high demand". While the same thing was done with the release of <i><!--del_lnk--> Franz Ferdinand</i>, there has been continued speculation that the move came as a result of the album's leak and the impact of <!--del_lnk--> file sharing — a controversial suggestion given the part file-sharing played in establishing the band's fanbase.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not</i> became the fastest selling debut album in UK chart history, selling 363,735 copies in the first week. This smashed the previous record of 306,631 copies held by <!--del_lnk--> Hear’Say with their debut <i>Popstars</i>, and sold more copies on its first day alone — 118,501 — than the rest of the Top 20 albums combined.<p>The record was released a month later in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and sold 34,000 units in its first week, making it the second fastest selling for a debut indie album in America and debuting at #24 on the <i><!--del_lnk--> Billboard</i> album chart. US critics were more reserved about the band than their UK counterparts, and appeared unwilling to be drawn into the possibility of "yet another example of the UK's press over-hyping new bands". However, the band's June 2006 tour of North America received critical acclaim at each stop — the hype surrounding them "proven to exist for good reason".<p><a id="Nicholson_departure.3B_Mercury_Prize:_April_.E2.80.94_September_2006" name="Nicholson_departure.3B_Mercury_Prize:_April_.E2.80.94_September_2006"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nicholson departure; Mercury Prize: April — September 2006</span></h3>
<p>In a similar fashion to bands such as <a href="../../wp/o/Oasis_%2528band%2529.htm" title="Oasis (band)">Oasis</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/The_Smiths.htm" title="The Smiths">The Smiths</a>, Arctic Monkeys wasted no time in recording new material, and released a 5-track <!--del_lnk--> EP on <!--del_lnk--> 24 April 2006, entitled <i><!--del_lnk--> Who the Fuck Are Arctic Monkeys</i>, and was seen by critics as a swipe back at the snowballing hype surrounding the band. Due to its length, the EP was ineligible to chart as a UK single or album. Furthermore, the record's bad language has resulted in significantly less radio airplay than previous records, although this was not a reported concern — "since they made their name on the internet — and that got them a No.1 single and album — they don't care if they don't get radio play".<p>However, soon after the release of the EP in the UK, the band announced that bassist Andy Nicholson would not take part in the band's forthcoming <!--del_lnk--> North America tour due to "fatigue following an intensive period of touring". Upon their return to the UK, it was confirmed on the band's official website that Nicholson had indeed left the band. The statement, "We are sad to tell everyone that Andy is no longer with the band", also confirmed that Nick O'Malley — former bassist with Arctic Monkeys' fellow <a href="../../wp/s/Sheffield.htm" title="Sheffield">Sheffield</a> band, <!--del_lnk--> The Dodgems, who had drafted in as temporary bassist for the tour — would continue as bassist for the rest of their summer tour schedule. Shortly after, Nick O'Malley was confirmed as a full-time member and bassist of the band.<p>Arctic Monkeys first release without Nicholson, the single "<!--del_lnk--> Leave Before the Lights Come On", came on <!--del_lnk--> 14 August 2006. Turner suggested that "it feels very much like it could be on the album", and that the song was one of the last songs he wrote before their rise to fame. Although reaching #4 in the UK, the single became the band's first failure to reach #1 — leading to Turner referring to it as "the black sheep of the family" at the band's performance at the 2006 <!--del_lnk--> Reading Festival. The band were re-united at the <!--del_lnk--> Leeds Festival when Nicholson met up with his former band mates and his replacement bassist O'Malley; however only the original band members, minus Nicholson, were present at the award ceremony when <i><!--del_lnk--> Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not</i> won the <!--del_lnk--> 2006 Mercury Prize two weeks later.<p><a id="New_album" name="New_album"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">New album</span></h3>
<p>The band have revealed that they are well on their way to recording their second full album, having already penned at least 10 tracks. They have been writing new material since May 2005, and have stated their reluctance to "live off old records" for a long period of time. Jamie Cook suggested that their new album was to be recorded in August 2006, adding "I couldn’t see us being like <!--del_lnk--> Coldplay... You tour your album for three years and play the same fucking gig night after night... Some people might enjoy doing that, but we couldn’t."<p><a id="Criticism_and_controversy" name="Criticism_and_controversy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Criticism and controversy</span></h2>
<p>The band have received criticism, based largely around the media circus that has surrounded their rise. Critics described them as one in a long line of largely overhyped "<i><!--del_lnk--> NME</i> bands", while the release of the EP <i><!--del_lnk--> Who the Fuck Are Arctic Monkeys</i> just three months after their record-breaking debut album has been criticised by some, who have seen it as "<!--del_lnk--> money-grabbing" and "cashing in on their success". However, the band countered that they regularly release new music not to make money, but to avoid the "boredom" of "spending three years touring on one album".<p>The cover sleeve of <i><!--del_lnk--> Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not</i>, showing Chris McClure, a friend of the band, smoking a cigarette, was criticised by the head of the <!--del_lnk--> NHS in <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> for "reinforcing the idea that smoking is OK". The band's product manager denied the accusation, and in fact suggested the opposite — "You can see from the image smoking is not doing him the world of good".<p><a id="Television_appearances" name="Television_appearances"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Television appearances</span></h2>
<p>October 2005 saw the group's only UK television appearances, performing on <i><!--del_lnk--> Popworld</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 15 October), <i><!--del_lnk--> E4 Music</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Later with Jools Holland</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 28 October). Since these appearances, however, the band became notorious for refusing to play on any further TV shows. They have repeatedly turned down offers to play on the <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a>'s long running chart show, <i><a href="../../wp/t/Top_of_the_Pops.htm" title="Top of the Pops">Top of the Pops</a></i>, as well as <!--del_lnk--> ITV's <i><!--del_lnk--> CD:UK</i>. The first footage of the band's gigs was broadcast on <!--del_lnk--> MTV2's <i>Gonzo on Tour</i> on <!--del_lnk--> 12 November 2005, featuring footage from a recent gig in <a href="../../wp/l/Liverpool.htm" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>.<p>The band's refusal to attend the <!--del_lnk--> 2006 Brit Awards was originally seen as another snub to television, although a statement explained that it was in fact due to their prior commitments on the <!--del_lnk--> <i>NME</i> Awards tour. In their recorded acceptance speech for <b>Best British Breakthrough Act</b>, the band gained a "mystery fifth member" who did all the talking. Known for being camera-shy, it turned out that the band had recruited <!--del_lnk--> We Are Scientists frontman <!--del_lnk--> Keith Murray, a friend of the band, to accept the award for them, to just "confuse the audience".<p>Despite their hostility to appearances on UK television, the band made their biggest TV appearance when they appeared on <i><!--del_lnk--> Saturday Night Live</i> on <!--del_lnk--> 11 March <!--del_lnk--> 2006 to kick off their sold-out US tour. The performance included the songs "I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor" and "A Certain Romance", and saw the word "<!--del_lnk--> ASBO" printed on the <!--del_lnk--> bass drum. However, just before the <!--del_lnk--> guitar solo of "A Certain Romance", Turner castigated a yawning audience member, and Cook tossed his guitar at an amp at the end of the song.<p><a id="In_popular_culture" name="In_popular_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">In popular culture</span></h2>
<p>The popularity of the Arctic Monkeys in the UK, especially among young people, has led to politicians and journalists referencing the band in speeches and texts; <!--del_lnk--> Chancellor of the Exchequer <a href="../../wp/g/Gordon_Brown.htm" title="Gordon Brown">Gordon Brown</a> stated in an interview with <i><!--del_lnk--> New Woman</i> magazine that he listened to them every day, claiming "[they] really wake you up in the morning", although in a later interview was unable to name any of their songs. He went on to reference this in his speech at the <!--del_lnk--> 2006 Labour Party Conference about the risk of <a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" title="Global warming">global warming</a>, joking that he was "more interested in the future of the <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Circle.htm" title="Arctic Circle">Arctic Circle</a> than the future of the Arctic Monkeys". <!--del_lnk--> Liberal Democrat leader <!--del_lnk--> Menzies Campbell also referred to the band at the 2006 <a href="../../wp/l/Liberal_Democrats.htm" title="Liberal Democrats">Liberal Democrats</a> Party Conference, mistakenly claiming that they had sold more records than <a href="../../wp/t/The_Beatles.htm" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a>, a comment which led to much derision from the media.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> The Sun</i> newspaper claimed that <!--del_lnk--> Liverpool <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">footballer</a> <!--del_lnk--> Peter Crouch's <!--del_lnk--> goal celebration, a variation on the <!--del_lnk--> robot dance, was based on "dancing to electropop like a robot from 1984", a lyric from "I Bet You Look Good On The Dancefloor", quoting an insider as saying "He's a massive Arctic Monkeys fan. Believe me, he can't sing — so the dance is the next best thing".<p><a id="Discography" name="Discography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Albums" name="Albums"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Albums</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable" width="100%">
<tr>
<th width="15%"><b>Date of Release</b></th>
<th width="35%"><b>Title</b></th>
<th width="15%"><b>Label</b></th>
<th width="35%"><b>Chart peaks</b></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 23 January <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not</i></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Domino Records</td>
<td><b>#1</b> (<!--del_lnk--> UK, <!--del_lnk--> AUS, <!--del_lnk--> IRE); <b>#9</b> (<a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">JPN</a>); <b>#24</b> (<!--del_lnk--> US)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="EPs" name="EPs"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">EPs</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable" width="100%">
<tr>
<th width="15%"><b>Date of Release</b></th>
<th width="35%"><b>Title</b></th>
<th width="15%"><b>Label</b></th>
<th width="35%"><b>Chart peaks</b></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 30 May <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Five Minutes with Arctic Monkeys</i></td>
<td>Bang Bang Records</td>
<td>
<center><i>N/A</i></center>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 24 April <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Who the Fuck Are Arctic Monkeys</i></td>
<td>Domino Records</td>
<td><b>#36</b> (<!--del_lnk--> UK (download))</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Singles" name="Singles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Singles</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable" width="100%">
<tr>
<th width="15%"><b>Date of Release</b></th>
<th width="25%"><b>Title</b></th>
<th width="25%"><b>Album</b></th>
<th width="35%"><b>Chart peaks</b></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 17 October <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td>
<td>"<!--del_lnk--> I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor"</td>
<td><i>Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not</i></td>
<td><b>#1</b> (<!--del_lnk--> UK);<b>#12</b>(<!--del_lnk--> IRE); <b>#14</b> (<!--del_lnk--> NZ); <b>#18</b> (<!--del_lnk--> AUS)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 16 January <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td>
<td>"<!--del_lnk--> When the Sun Goes Down"</td>
<td><i>Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not</i></td>
<td><b>#1</b> (UK); <b>#26</b> (AUS)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 14 August <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td>
<td>"<!--del_lnk--> Leave Before the Lights Come On"</td>
<td>
<center><i>N/A</i></center>
</td>
<td><b>#4</b> (UK)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> TBA</td>
<td>"<!--del_lnk--> Fake Tales of San Francisco"</td>
<td><i>Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not</i></td>
<td>Unreleased</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Compilations" name="Compilations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Compilations</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable" width="100%">
<tr>
<th width="15%"><b>Date of Release</b></th>
<th width="35%"><b>Title</b></th>
<th width="15%"><b>Label</b></th>
<th width="35%"><b>Chart peaks</b></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<center><i>N/A</i></center>
</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Beneath the Boardwalk</i></td>
<td>
<center><i>N/A</i></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><i>N/A</i></center>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Films" name="Films"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Films</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable" width="100%">
<tr>
<th width="15%"><b>Date of Release</b></th>
<th width="35%"><b>Title</b></th>
<th width="15%"><b>Distributor</b></th>
<th width="35%"><b>Chart peaks</b></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 10 April <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Scummy Man</i></td>
<td>Domino Records</td>
<td>
<center><i>N/A</i></center>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Awards_and_achievements" name="Awards_and_achievements"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Awards and achievements</span></h2>
<p><a id="Band" name="Band"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Band</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> 2005 Muso Awards — Best New Act</b> — November 2005 <li><b><!--del_lnk--> 2006 Brit Awards — Best British Breakthrough Act</b> — February 2006<li><b><!--del_lnk--> 2006 <i>NME</i> Awards — Best New Band, Best British Band</b> — February 2006<li><b>2006 ESKY Music Awards</b> [from <!--del_lnk--> <i>Esquire</i>] — <b>Most Promising Phenoms</b> — April 2006<li><b>2006 Zlatna Koogla Awards</b> [Croatia] — <b>Best New International Act</b> — April 2006<li><b>Oye Awards</b> [Mexico] - <b>Best New International Artist</b> - October 2006<li><b><!--del_lnk--> <i>Q</i> Awards - People's Choice</b> - October 2006</ul>
<p><a id="Records" name="Records"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Records</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><b>"<!--del_lnk--> I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor":</b><ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> 2006 <i>NME</i> Awards — Best Track</b> — February 2006</ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><b><!--del_lnk--> Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not:</b></i><ul>
<li>fastest selling debut album in UK chart history.<li><i><b><!--del_lnk--> NME</b></i> — <b>5th greatest British album</b> — January 2006 <li><b><!--del_lnk--> 2006 Mercury Prize — Album of the Year</b> — September 2006<li><b><!--del_lnk--> <i>Q</i> Awards - Best Album</b> - October 2006</ul>
</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Monkeys"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Sheffield', 'England', 'United Kingdom', 'United States', 'Australia', 'New Zealand', 'Japan', 'Top of the Pops', 'Popular culture', 'Romeo and Juliet', 'Duran Duran', 'Internet', 'United States', 'Australia', 'New Zealand', 'Japan', 'McFly', 'United States', 'Oasis (band)', 'The Smiths', 'Sheffield', 'Scotland', 'BBC', 'Top of the Pops', 'Liverpool', 'Gordon Brown', 'Global warming', 'Arctic Circle', 'Liberal Democrats', 'The Beatles', 'Football (soccer)', 'Japan'] |
Arctic_Ocean | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Arctic Ocean,Septentrionalium Gerard Mercator 1595.jpg,Martin waldseemuller map 1507 m 2.jpg,1896,1969,1973,1982,Abyssal plain,Alaska,Albedo,Arctic" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Arctic Ocean</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Arctic_Ocean";
var wgTitle = "Arctic Ocean";
var wgArticleId = 712;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Arctic_Ocean">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Arctic Ocean</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.General_Geography.htm">General Geography</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox">
<tr>
<th style="background: #BFD7FF; padding:0 1em;"><b><a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth's</a> five <a href="../../wp/o/Ocean.htm" title="Ocean">oceans</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a><li><strong class="selflink">Arctic Ocean</strong><li><a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a><li><a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a><li><a href="../../wp/s/Southern_Ocean.htm" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a></ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/2/241.png.htm" title="Arctic Ocean"><img alt="Arctic Ocean" height="330" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arctic_Ocean.png" src="../../images/2/241.png" width="329" /></a></span></div>
<p>The <b>Arctic Ocean</b>, located mostly in the <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic.htm" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> <!--del_lnk--> north polar region, is the smallest of the world's five <a href="../../wp/o/Ocean.htm" title="Ocean">oceans</a> and the shallowest. Even though the <!--del_lnk--> International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, <a href="../../wp/o/Oceanography.htm" title="Oceanography">oceanographers</a> may call it <i>the Arctic Mediterranean Sea</i> or simply <i>the Arctic Sea</i>, classifying it as one of the <!--del_lnk--> mediterranean seas of the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>.<p>Much of the ocean is covered by <!--del_lnk--> sea ice, either during the colder months or year-round. Little marine life exists where the ocean surface is covered with ice throughout the year. The Arctic Ocean's <!--del_lnk--> temperature and <!--del_lnk--> salinity vary <a href="../../wp/s/Season.htm" title="Season">seasonally</a> as the ice cover melts and freezes; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major seas, due to low <!--del_lnk--> evaporation, as well as limited outflow to the world ocean with heavy freshwater inflow.<p>The greatest inflow of water comes from the Atlantic by way of the <!--del_lnk--> Norwegian Current, which then flows along the Eurasian coast. Water also enters from the Pacific via the Bering Strait. The <!--del_lnk--> East Greenland Current carries the major outflow. Ice covers most of the ocean surface year-round, causing subfreezing temperatures much of the time. The Arctic is a major source of very cold air that inevitably moves toward the <!--del_lnk--> equator, meeting with warmer air in the middle <!--del_lnk--> latitudes and causing <a href="../../wp/r/Rain.htm" title="Rain">rain</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Snow.htm" title="Snow">snow</a>. Marine life abounds in open areas, especially the more southerly waters. The ocean's major ports are the <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a> cities of <!--del_lnk--> Murmansk and <!--del_lnk--> Arkhangelsk. The Arctic Ocean is important as the shortest air route between the Pacific coast of North America and Europe overflies it.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<p>The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000 square km (5,440,000 mi²), slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. The coastline length is 45,389 kilometers (28,203 mi). Nearly landlocked, it is surrounded by the land masses of <!--del_lnk--> Eurasia, <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Greenland.htm" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, and several islands. It includes <!--del_lnk--> Baffin Bay, <!--del_lnk--> Barents Sea, <!--del_lnk--> Beaufort Sea, <!--del_lnk--> Chukchi Sea, <!--del_lnk--> East Siberian Sea, <!--del_lnk--> Greenland Sea, <a href="../../wp/h/Hudson_Bay.htm" title="Hudson Bay">Hudson Bay</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Hudson Strait, <!--del_lnk--> Kara Sea, <!--del_lnk--> Laptev Sea, <!--del_lnk--> White Sea and other tributary bodies of water. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the <!--del_lnk--> Bering Strait and to the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> through the Greenland Sea. Its geographic coordinates are: <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 90 _ 00 _ N _ 0 _ 00 _ E_ 90 ° 00 ′ N 0 ° 00 ′ E</span><p>An underwater <!--del_lnk--> mid-ocean ridge, the <!--del_lnk--> Lomonosov Ridge, divides the deep sea <!--del_lnk--> North Polar Basin into two basins: the <!--del_lnk--> Eurasian, or <!--del_lnk--> Nansen, Basin, (after <!--del_lnk--> Fridtjof Nansen) which is between 4,000 and 4,500 meters (13,000 and 15,000 ft) deep, and the <!--del_lnk--> North American, or <!--del_lnk--> Hyperborean, Basin, which is about 4,000 meters (13,000 ft) deep. The <!--del_lnk--> bathymetry of the ocean bottom is marked by <!--del_lnk--> fault-block ridges, <!--del_lnk--> plains of the abyssal zone, ocean deeps, and basins. The average depth of the Arctic Ocean is 1,038 meters (3,407 ft). <!--del_lnk--> . The deepest point is in the Eurasian Basin deepest point, at 5,450 meters (17,881 ft).<p>The Arctic Ocean contains a major chokepoint in the southern Chukchi Sea, which provides northern access to the <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> via the <!--del_lnk--> Bering Strait between North America and Russia. The Arctic Ocean also provides the shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia. There are several floating research stations in the Arctic, operated by the U.S. and Russia.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>For much of Western history, the geography of the North Polar regions remained largely unexplored and conjectural. <!--del_lnk--> Pytheas of Massalia recorded an account of a journey northward in 325 B.C. to a land he called "Ultima Thule," where the sun only set for three hours each day and the water was replaced by a congealed substance "on which one can neither walk nor sail." He was probably describing loose sea ice known today as "growlers" and "bergy bits." His "Thule" may have been Iceland, though the Faroe Islands have also been suggested.<p>Early cartographers were unsure whether to draw the region around the Pole as land (as in the map of <!--del_lnk--> Johannes Ruysch in 1507, or <!--del_lnk--> Gerardus Mercator's <!--del_lnk--> map of 1595) or water (as with <!--del_lnk--> Martin Waldseemüller's <a href="../../images/34/3437.jpg.htm" title="Image:Martin waldseemuller map 1507 m 2.jpg">world map of 1507</a>). The fervent desire of Europeans for a northern passage to "Cathay" (<a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>) caused water to win out, and by 1723 mapmakers such as <!--del_lnk--> Johann Homann featured an extensive "Oceanus Septentrionalis" at the northerm edge of their charts. The few expeditions to penetrate much beyond the Arctic Circle in this era added only small islands, such as <!--del_lnk--> Nova Zemlya (11th century) and <!--del_lnk--> Spitzbergen (1596), though since these were often surrounded by pack-ice their northern limits were not so clear. The makers of navigational charts, more conservative than some of the more fanciful cartographers, tended to leave the region blank, with only the bits of known coastline sketched in.<p>This lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In England and other European nations, the myth of an "Open Polar Sea" was long-lived and persistent. <!--del_lnk--> John Barrow, longtime Second Secretary of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> Admiralty, made this belief the cornerstone of his campaign of Arctic exploration from 1818 to 1845. In the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> in the 1850s and '60s, the explorers <!--del_lnk--> Elisha Kent Kane and <!--del_lnk--> Isaac Israel Hayes both claimed to have seen the shores of this elusive body of water. Even quite late in the century, the eminent authority <!--del_lnk--> Matthew Fontaine Maury included a description of the Open Polar Sea in his textbook The Physical Geography of the Sea (1883). Nevertheless, as all the explorers who trekked closer and closer to the pole reported, the Polar Ice Cap was ultimately quite thick, and persists year-round.<p><!--del_lnk--> Fridtjof Nansen was the first to make a naval crossing of the Arctic Ocean in <!--del_lnk--> 1896. The first surface crossing of the Arctic Ocean was led by <!--del_lnk--> Wally Herbert in <!--del_lnk--> 1969, in a dogsled expedition from <!--del_lnk--> Alaska to <a href="../../wp/s/Svalbard.htm" title="Svalbard">Svalbard</a> with air support.<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/107/10709.png.htm" title="Extent of the Arctic ice-pack in September, 1978-2002"><img alt="Extent of the Arctic ice-pack in September, 1978-2002" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:North_pole_september_ice-pack_1978-2002.png" src="../../images/159/15988.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/107/10709.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Extent of the Arctic ice-pack in September, 1978-2002</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/107/10710.png.htm" title="Extent of the Arctic ice-pack in February, 1978-2002"><img alt="Extent of the Arctic ice-pack in February, 1978-2002" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:North_pole_february_ice-pack_1978-2002.png" src="../../images/159/15989.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/107/10710.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Extent of the Arctic ice-pack in February, 1978-2002</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The ocean is contained in a <!--del_lnk--> polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges. Winters are characterized by continuous darkness, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers are characterized by continuous daylight, damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow.<p>There is considerable seasonal variation in how much <!--del_lnk--> pack ice covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of the ocean is also covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April — about 20 to 50 centimeters (8 to 20 in) over the frozen ocean.<p>The average temperature is approximately -2° celsius.<p><a id="Natural_resources" name="Natural_resources"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Natural hazards</span></h2>
<p>Ice islands occasionally break away from northern <!--del_lnk--> Ellesmere Island, and icebergs are formed from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada. <!--del_lnk--> Permafrost is found on most islands. The ocean is virtually ice locked from October to June, and ships are subject to superstructure icing from October to May.<p><a id="Plantlife" name="Plantlife"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Plantlife</span></h2>
<p>The Arctic Ocean has relatively little plantlife except for <!--del_lnk--> Phytoplankton. Phytoplankton are a crucial part of the ocean and there are massive amounts of them in the Arctic. This is because during summer, the sun is out day and night, thus enabling the phytoplankton to <a href="../../wp/p/Photosynthesis.htm" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesize</a> for long periods of time and reproduce quickly. Phytoplankton can also reproduce by splitting themselves. Nutrients from the gulfstream and currents wash into the ocean too, making it the ocean with the most diverse wildlife.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15990.jpg.htm" title="The Arctic Ocean is used by both marine mammals and nuclear submarines."><img alt="The Arctic Ocean is used by both marine mammals and nuclear submarines." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Polar_bears_near_north_pole.jpg" src="../../images/159/15990.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15990.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Arctic Ocean is used by both <!--del_lnk--> marine mammals and nuclear <!--del_lnk--> submarines.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Environmental_concerns" name="Environmental_concerns"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Environmental concerns</span></h2>
<p>Endangered marine species include <a href="../../wp/w/Walrus.htm" title="Walrus">walruses</a> and whales. The area has a fragile <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem which is slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage. The polar icepack is thinning, and there is a seasonal hole in <!--del_lnk--> ozone layer over the <!--del_lnk--> North Pole.<p>Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice will have an effect on the planet's <!--del_lnk--> albedo, thus possibly affecting <a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" title="Global warming">global warming</a>. Many scientists are presently concerned that warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh meltwater to enter the North Atlantic, possibly disrupting global <!--del_lnk--> ocean current patterns. Potentially severe changes in the Earth's climate might then ensue.<p><a id="Major_ports_and_harbors" name="Major_ports_and_harbors"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Major ports and harbors</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15991.png.htm" title="Arctic Ocean Seaports, Churchill, Inuvik, Prudhoe Bay, Barrow, Pevek, Tiksi, Dikson, Dudinka, Arkhangelsk, Murmansk"><img alt="Arctic Ocean Seaports, Churchill, Inuvik, Prudhoe Bay, Barrow, Pevek, Tiksi, Dikson, Dudinka, Arkhangelsk, Murmansk" height="403" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arctic_Ocean_Seaports.png" src="../../images/159/15991.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15991.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Arctic Ocean Seaports, Churchill, Inuvik, Prudhoe Bay, Barrow, Pevek, Tiksi, Dikson, Dudinka, Arkhangelsk, Murmansk</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Churchill, Manitoba, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Inuvik, Canada<li><!--del_lnk--> Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Barrow, Alaska, United States<li><!--del_lnk--> Pevek, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Tiksi, Russia<li><!--del_lnk--> Dikson, Russia<li><!--del_lnk--> Dudinka, Russia<li><!--del_lnk--> Murmansk, Russia<li><!--del_lnk--> Arkhangelsk, Russia<li><!--del_lnk--> Kirkenes, <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Vardø, Norway</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Earth', 'Ocean', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Indian Ocean', 'Pacific Ocean', 'Southern Ocean', 'Arctic', 'Ocean', 'Oceanography', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Season', 'Rain', 'Snow', 'Russia', 'United States', 'North America', 'Greenland', 'Hudson Bay', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Pacific Ocean', 'China', 'United Kingdom', 'United States', 'Svalbard', 'Photosynthesis', 'Walrus', 'Global warming', 'Canada', 'United States', 'Russia', 'Norway'] |
Arctic_Tern | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Arctic Tern,1763,1928,2006,AEWA,Aland Islands,Alderney,Altricial,Amphipod,Animal,Antarctic Tern" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Arctic Tern</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Arctic_Tern";
var wgTitle = "Arctic Tern";
var wgArticleId = 239413;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Arctic_Tern">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Arctic Tern</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Birds.htm">Birds</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Arctic Tern</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/17/1725.jpg.htm" title="Two Arctic Terns, one of which has just found a meal"><img alt="Two Arctic Terns, one of which has just found a meal" height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arctic_terns.jpg" src="../../images/166/16629.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Two Arctic Terns, one of which has just found a meal</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center; background:pink;">
<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="">
<div style="text-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /><br /><!--del_lnk--> Least Concern (LC)</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">Aves</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Charadriiformes<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sternidae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Sterna</i><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>S. paradisaea</b></i></span><br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><i><b>Sterna paradisaea</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Pontoppidan, <!--del_lnk--> 1763</small></td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/166/16630.png.htm" title="Breeding grounds (red), wintering grounds (blue) and migration routes (green)"><img alt="Breeding grounds (red), wintering grounds (blue) and migration routes (green)" height="136" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sterna_paradisaea_distr_mig.png" src="../../images/166/16630.png" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Breeding grounds (red), wintering grounds (blue) and migration routes (green)</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>Arctic Tern</b> (<i><b>Sterna paradisaea</b></i>) is a <!--del_lnk--> seabird of the <a href="../../wp/t/Tern.htm" title="Tern">tern</a> <!--del_lnk--> family <!--del_lnk--> Sternidae. This <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">bird</a> has a <!--del_lnk--> circumpolar distribution, breeding colonially in <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic.htm" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> and sub-Arctic regions of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> (as far south as <!--del_lnk--> Brittany and <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts). The <!--del_lnk--> species is strongly <a href="../../wp/b/Bird_migration.htm" title="Bird migration">migratory</a>, seeing two <a href="../../wp/s/Summer.htm" title="Summer">summers</a> each year as it migrates from its northern breeding grounds to the oceans around <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> and back each year. This is the longest regular migration by any known animal.<p>Arctic Terns are medium-sized birds, with a length of 33-39 <!--del_lnk--> centimetres (13-15 in) and a <!--del_lnk--> wingspan of 76-85 cm (26-30 in). They are mainly grey and white plumaged, with a red beak and feet, a black-nape and crown, and white cheeks.<p>The Arctic Tern is <!--del_lnk--> K-selected, caring for and aggressively defending a small number of young. Parents feed them <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a> for a considerable time, and help them fly south to winter.<p>Arctic Terns are long-lived birds, with many reaching twenty years of age. They eat mainly <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a> and small marine <a href="../../wp/i/Invertebrate.htm" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>. The species is abundant, with an estimated one million individuals. While the trend in the number of individuals in the species as a whole is not known, exploitation in the past has reduced this bird's numbers in the southern reaches of its range.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Distribution_and_migration" name="Distribution_and_migration"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Distribution and migration</span></h2>
<p>The Arctic Tern has a worldwide, circumpolar breeding distribution which is continuous; there are no recognized <!--del_lnk--> subspecies. It can be found in coastal regions in cooler temperate parts of <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Eurasia during the <!--del_lnk--> northern summer. While wintering during the <!--del_lnk--> southern summer, it can be found at sea, reaching the southern edge of the Antarctic ice. The area of the range of the species is approximately ten million square kilometers.<p>The Arctic Tern is famous for its <a href="../../wp/b/Bird_migration.htm" title="Bird migration">migration</a>; it flies from its Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic and back again each year. This 19,000 km (12,000 mi) journey ensures that this bird sees two summers per year and more daylight than any other creature on the planet. The average Arctic Tern in its life will travel a distance equal to going to the moon and back. One example of this bird's remarkable long-distance flying abilities involves an Arctic Tern <!--del_lnk--> ringed as an unfledged chick on the <!--del_lnk--> Farne Islands, <!--del_lnk--> Northumberland, <!--del_lnk--> UK in summer 1982, which reached <a href="../../wp/m/Melbourne.htm" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> in October 1982, a sea journey of over 22,000 km (14,000 mi) in just three months from fledging. Another example is that of a chick ringed in <!--del_lnk--> Labrador on <!--del_lnk--> 23 July <!--del_lnk--> 1928. It was found in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> four months later.<p>Arctic Terns usually migrate far offshore. Consequently, they are rarely seen from land outside the breeding season.<p><a id="Physical_description_and_taxonomy" name="Physical_description_and_taxonomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Physical description and taxonomy</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16631.jpg.htm" title="An Arctic Tern in Finland"><img alt="An Arctic Tern in Finland" height="160" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arctic_Tern_2006_06_08.JPG" src="../../images/166/16631.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16631.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An Arctic Tern in <a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Arctic Tern is medium-sized bird approximately 33-36 cm (13-15 in) from the tip of its beak to the tip of its tail. The wingspan is 76-85 cm. The weight is 86-127 g (3.0-4.5 oz). The <!--del_lnk--> beak is dark red, as are the short legs and webbed feet. Like most terns, the Arctic Tern has <!--del_lnk--> high aspect ratio wings and a tail with a deep fork.<p>The adult <!--del_lnk--> plumage is grey above, with a black nape and crown and white cheeks. The upperwings are pale grey, with the area near the wingtip being translucent. The tail is white, and the underparts pale grey. Both sexes are similar in appearance. The winter plumage is similar, but the crown is whiter and the bills are darker.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16632.jpg.htm" title="An Arctic Tern in flight with wings spread"><img alt="An Arctic Tern in flight with wings spread" height="125" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Havterne.jpg" src="../../images/166/16632.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16632.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An Arctic Tern in flight with wings spread</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Juveniles differ from adults in their black bill and legs, "scaly" appearing wings, and mantle with dark feather tips, dark carpal wing bar, and short tail streamers. During their first summer, juveniles also have a whiter forecrown.<p>The species has a variety of <!--del_lnk--> calls; the two most common being the <i>alarm call</i>, made when possible predators (such as humans or other <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammals</a>) enter the colonies, and the <i>advertising call</i>. The advertising call is social in nature, made when returning to the colony and during aggressive encounters between individuals. It is unique to each individual tern and as such it serves a similar role to the <!--del_lnk--> bird song of <!--del_lnk--> passerines, identifying individuals. Eight other calls have been described, from <i>begging calls</i> made by females during mating to <i>attack calls</i> made while swooping at intruders.<p>While the Arctic Tern is similar to the <a href="../../wp/c/Common_Tern.htm" title="Common Tern">Common</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Roseate Terns, its colouring, profile, and call are slightly different. Compared to the Common Tern, it has a longer tail and mono-coloured bill, while the main differences from the Roseate are its slightly darker colour and longer wings. The Arctic Tern's call is more nasal and rasping than that of the Common, and is easily distinguishable from that of the Roseate.<p>This bird's closest relatives are a group of South Polar species, the <!--del_lnk--> South American (<i>Sterna hirundinacea</i>), <!--del_lnk--> Kerguelen (<i>S. virgata</i>), and <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic (<i>S. vittata</i>) Terns. On the wintering grounds, the Arctic Tern can be distinguished from these relatives; the six-month difference in <!--del_lnk--> moult is the best clue here, with Arctic Terns being in winter <!--del_lnk--> plumage during the southern summer. The southern species also do not show darker wingtips in flight.<p><a id="Reproduction" name="Reproduction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reproduction</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/130/13091.jpg.htm" title="A nesting Arctic Tern at Farne Islands, Northumberland, England."><img alt="A nesting Arctic Tern at Farne Islands, Northumberland, England." height="112" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Smallarctern.jpg" src="../../images/166/16633.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/130/13091.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A nesting Arctic Tern at <!--del_lnk--> Farne Islands, <!--del_lnk--> Northumberland, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Arctic Terns mate for life, and in most cases, return to the same colony each year. Breeding begins around the third or fourth year. <!--del_lnk--> Courtship is elaborate, especially in birds nesting for the first time. Courtship begins with a so-called "high flight", where a female will chase the male to a high altitude and then slowly descend. This display is followed by "fish flights", where the male will offer fish to the female. Courtship on the ground involves strutting with a raised tail and lowered wings. After this, both birds will usually fly and circle each other.<p>Both sexes agree on a site for a nest, and both will defend the site. During this time, the male continues to feed the female. Mating occurs shortly after this. Breeding takes place in <!--del_lnk--> colonies on coasts, islands and occasionally inland on tundra near water. It often forms mixed flocks with the Common Tern. It lays from one to three <!--del_lnk--> eggs per clutch, most often two.<p>It is one of the most aggressive terns, fiercely defensive of its nest and young. It will attack humans and large predators, usually striking the top or back of the head. Although it is too small to cause serious injury, it is capable of drawing blood. Other birds can benefit from nesting in an area defended by Arctic Terns.<p>The nest is usually a depression in the ground, which may or may not be lined with bits of grass or similar materials. The eggs are mottled and camouflaged. Both sexes share incubation duties. The young hatch after 22-27 days and fledge after 21-24 days. If the parents are disturbed and flush from the nest frequently this has the effect of extending the incubation period to as long as 34 days.<p>When hatched, the chicks are <!--del_lnk--> downy. Neither <!--del_lnk--> altricial nor <!--del_lnk--> precocial, the chicks begin to move around and explore their surroundings within one to three days after hatching. Usually, they do not stray far from the nest. Chicks are brooded by the adults for the first ten days after hatching. Both parents care for hatchlings. Chick diets always include fish, and parents selectively bring larger prey items to chicks than they eat themselves. Males bring more food than females. Feeding by the parents lasts for roughly a month before being weaned off slowly. After fledging, the juveniles learn to feed themselves, including the difficult method of plunge-diving. They will fly south to winter with the help of their parents.<p>Arctic Terns trend towards <!--del_lnk--> K-selection; they are long-lived birds with few young raised each year compared to many land birds. The maximum recorded <!--del_lnk--> lifespan for the species is 34 years. A lifespan of twenty years may not be unusual, with a study in the Farne Islands estimating an annual survival rate of 82%.<p><a id="Ecology_and_behaviour" name="Ecology_and_behaviour"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ecology and behaviour</span></h2>
<p>The diet of the Arctic Tern varies depending on location and time, but is usually <a href="../../wp/c/Carnivore.htm" title="Carnivore">carnivorous</a>. In most cases, it eats small <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a> or marine <!--del_lnk--> crustaceans. Fish species comprise the most important part of the diet, and account for more of the biomass consumed than any other food. Prey species are immature (1-2 year old) shoaling species such as <!--del_lnk--> herring, <a href="../../wp/c/Cod.htm" title="Cod">cod</a>, <!--del_lnk--> sandlances, and <!--del_lnk--> capelin. Among the marine crustaceans eaten are <!--del_lnk--> amphipods, <!--del_lnk--> crabs and <a href="../../wp/k/Krill.htm" title="Krill">krill</a>. Sometimes, these birds also eat <!--del_lnk--> molluscs, marine worms, or <!--del_lnk--> berries, and on their northern breeding grounds, <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insects</a>.<p>Like all <i><!--del_lnk--> Sterna</i> terns, the Arctic Tern feeds by plunge-diving for fish, usually from the sea, though occasionally also fishing in coastal freshwater lagoons. It often dives from a "stepped-hover", in which it slowly flies into the wind at such a speed that it is stationary relative to the water. It will then dive and catch its prey, which it detects by sight.<p>Arctic Terns sometimes dip down to the surface of the water to catch prey close to the surface. They may also chase insects in the air when breeding. It is also thought that Arctic Terns may, in spite of their small size, occasionally engage in <!--del_lnk--> kleptoparasitism by swooping at birds so as to startle them into releasing their catches. Several species are targeted—conspecifics, other terns (like the <a href="../../wp/c/Common_Tern.htm" title="Common Tern">Common Tern</a>), and some <!--del_lnk--> auk and <!--del_lnk--> grebe species.<p>While nesting, Arctic Terns are vulnerable to predation by rats and other animals. Besides being a competitor for nesting sites, the larger <a href="../../wp/h/Herring_Gull.htm" title="Herring Gull">Herring Gull</a> steals eggs and hatchlings. Camouflaged eggs help prevent this, as do isolated nesting sites. While feeding, <!--del_lnk--> skuas, gulls, and other tern species will often harass the birds and steal their food. They often form mixed colonies with other terns, such as <a href="../../wp/c/Common_Tern.htm" title="Common Tern">Common</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Sandwich Terns.<p><a id="Conservation_status" name="Conservation_status"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Conservation status</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16634.jpg.htm" title="An Arctic Tern up close"><img alt="An Arctic Tern up close" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kuestenseeschwalbe-Kniepsand.jpg" src="../../images/166/16634.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16634.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An Arctic Tern up close</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Arctic Terns are considered threatened or species of concern in certain states. They are also among the species to which the <i><!--del_lnk--> Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds</i> applies. The species declined in <!--del_lnk--> New England in the late nineteenth-century due to hunting for the millinery trade. Exploitation continues today in western <a href="../../wp/g/Greenland.htm" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, where the species has declined greatly since 1950.<p>At the southern part of their range, the Arctic Tern has been declining in numbers. Much of this is due to shortages of food. However, most of these birds' range is extremely remote, with no apparent trend in the species as a whole.<p><!--del_lnk--> Birdlife International has considered the species to be at lower risk since 1988, believing that there are approximately one million individuals around the world.<p><a id="Appearances_on_stamps" name="Appearances_on_stamps"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Appearances on stamps</span></h2>
<p>The Arctic Tern has appeared on the <!--del_lnk--> postage stamps of several countries and dependent territories. Territories include the <!--del_lnk--> Aland Islands, <!--del_lnk--> Alderney, and <!--del_lnk--> Faeroe Islands. Countries include <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, and <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Tern"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Bird', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Tern', 'Bird', 'Arctic', 'Europe', 'Asia', 'North America', 'Bird migration', 'Summer', 'Antarctica', 'Fish', 'Fish', 'Invertebrate', 'North America', 'Bird migration', 'Melbourne', 'Australia', 'South Africa', 'Finland', 'Mammal', 'Common Tern', 'England', 'Carnivore', 'Fish', 'Cod', 'Krill', 'Insect', 'Common Tern', 'Herring Gull', 'Common Tern', 'Greenland', 'Canada', 'Finland', 'Iceland', 'Cuba'] |
Arecaceae | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Arecaceae,1688,Acid,Adaptive radiation,Africa,Alcoholic beverage,American Revolutionary War,Ancient Egypt,Ancient Greece,Ancient Rome,Andes" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Arecaceae</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Arecaceae";
var wgTitle = "Arecaceae";
var wgArticleId = 45715;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Arecaceae">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Arecaceae</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Plants.htm">Plants</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: lightgreen;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Arecaceae (palm family)</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/136/13623.jpg.htm" title="Coconut Palm Cocos nucifera"><img alt="Coconut Palm Cocos nucifera" height="404" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1859-Martinique.web.jpg" src="../../images/4/451.jpg" width="240" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Coconut Palm <i>Cocos nucifera</i></small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: lightgreen;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">Plantae</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Division:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliophyta<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Liliopsida<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Arecales<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><b>Arecaceae</b><br /><small>Schultz-Schultzenstein</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="lightgreen">
<th>
<center>Genera</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<p>Many; see <!--del_lnk--> list of Arecaceae genera</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Arecaceae</b> (sometimes known by the names <b>Palmae</b> or <b>Palmaceae</b>, although the latter name is taxonomically invalid.), the Palm Family, is a family of <!--del_lnk--> flowering plants belonging to the <!--del_lnk--> monocot order, <b>Arecales</b>. There are roughly 202 currently known <!--del_lnk--> genera with around 2600 <!--del_lnk--> species, most of which are restricted to <a href="../../wp/t/Tropics.htm" title="Tropics">tropical</a> or <!--del_lnk--> subtropical climates. Of all the families of plants, the Arecaceae is the most easily recognizable as distinct by most persons. Most palms are distinguished by their large, compound, <!--del_lnk--> evergreen <!--del_lnk--> leaves arranged at the top of an unbranched stem. However, many palms are exceptions to this statement, and palms in fact exhibit an enormous diversity in physical characteristics. As well as being morphologically diverse, palms also inhabit nearly every type of <!--del_lnk--> habitat within their range, from <a href="../../wp/r/Rainforest.htm" title="Rainforest">rainforests</a> to <a href="../../wp/d/Desert.htm" title="Desert">deserts</a>.<p>Palms are one of the most well-known and extensively cultivated plant families. They have had an important role to humans throughout much of history. Many common products and foods are derived from palms, and palms are also widely used in landscaping for their exotic appearance, making them one of the most economically important plants. In many historical cultures, palms were symbols for such ideas as victory, peace, and fertility. Today, palms remain a popular symbol for the tropics and <!--del_lnk--> vacations .<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Characteristics_and_evolution" name="Characteristics_and_evolution"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics and evolution</span></h2>
<p><a id="Range" name="Range"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Range</span></h3>
<p>The vast majority of palms live in the <a href="../../wp/t/Tropics.htm" title="Tropics">tropics</a>. Palms are abundant throughout the tropical regions around the world, and are present in almost every type of habitat in the tropics. Diversity is highest in wet, lowland tropical forests, especially in ecological "hotspots" such as <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, which has more endemic palms than the entire continental <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>. <a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> may have the highest number of palm species in one country .<p>It is estimated that only 130 palm species grow naturally beyond the tropics, most of which grow in the <!--del_lnk--> subtropics. The northernmost palm is <i><!--del_lnk--> Chamaerops humilis</i>, which reaches 44°N latitude in southern <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> where a <!--del_lnk--> mediterranean climate makes weather milder than other places as far north. The southernmost palm is the <i><!--del_lnk--> Rhopalostylis sapida</i>, which reaches 44°S on the <!--del_lnk--> Chatham Islands where an <!--del_lnk--> oceanic climate has a similar warming effect .<p><a id="Morphology_and_habitat" name="Morphology_and_habitat"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Morphology and habitat</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/452.jpg.htm" title="Washingtonia filifera grove in Palm Canyon, California"><img alt="Washingtonia filifera grove in Palm Canyon, California" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Washingtonia_filifera_in_Palm_Canyon.jpg" src="../../images/4/452.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/452.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i><!--del_lnk--> Washingtonia filifera</i> grove in <!--del_lnk--> Palm Canyon, <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The growth habit of palms is usually a straight, unbranched stem, and rarely a <!--del_lnk--> dichotomous branching stem or a creeping vine-like habit (<!--del_lnk--> liana) . They have large evergreen <!--del_lnk--> leaves that are either palmately ('fan-leaved') or pinnately ('feather-leaved') compound and spirally arranged at the top of the stem. The leaves have a tubular sheath at the base that usually splits open on one side at maturity . The <!--del_lnk--> inflorescence is a <!--del_lnk--> panicle or <!--del_lnk--> spike surrounded by one or more <!--del_lnk--> bracts or <!--del_lnk--> spathes that become woody at maturity. The <a href="../../wp/f/Flower.htm" title="Flower">flowers</a> are generally small and white, radially symmetric, and may be bisexual or unisexual. The sepals and petals usually number three each and may be distinct or joined at the base. The stamens generally number six, with filaments that may be separate, attached to each other, or attached to the pistil at the base. The <a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" title="Fruit">fruit</a> is usually a single-<a href="../../wp/s/Seed.htm" title="Seed">seeded</a> <!--del_lnk--> drupe , but some genera (e.g. <i><!--del_lnk--> Salacca</i>) may contain two or more seeds in each fruit.<p>Palms inhabit a variety of habitats. Over two-thirds of palms live in tropical forests, where some species grow tall enough to form part of the <!--del_lnk--> canopy and other shorter palms adapted to shade form part of the <!--del_lnk--> understory . Some species form pure stands in areas with poor drainage or regular flooding, including <i><!--del_lnk--> Raphia hookeri</i> which is common in coastal freshwater swamps in West Africa. Other palms live in tropical montane habitats above 1000 meters, such as those in the genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Ceroxylon</i> native to the <a href="../../wp/a/Andes.htm" title="Andes">Andes</a>. Palms may also live in grasslands and scrublands, usually associated with a water source, and in <a href="../../wp/d/Desert.htm" title="Desert">desert</a> <!--del_lnk--> oases such as the <!--del_lnk--> Date Palm. A few palms are adapted to extremely <!--del_lnk--> basic <!--del_lnk--> lime soils, while others are similarly adapted to very <!--del_lnk--> acidic <!--del_lnk--> serpentine soils .<p>Arecaceae is notable for having the individual trees with the largest seed, largest leaf, largest inflorescence, as well as the tallest individual monocot. The <!--del_lnk--> Coco de mer (<i>Lodoicea maldivica</i>) has the largest seeds of any plant, 40-50 centimeters in diameter and weighing 15-30 kilograms each. <!--del_lnk--> Raffia palms (<i>Raphia</i> spp.), with leaves up to 25 meters long and 3 meters wide, have the largest leaves of any plant. The <i><!--del_lnk--> Corypha</i> species have the largest inflorescence of any plant, up to 7.5 meters tall and containing millions of small flowers. <i><!--del_lnk--> Ceroxylon quindiuense</i>, <a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>'s national tree, is the tallest monocot in the world, reaching heights of 70 meters .<p><a id="Taxonomy" name="Taxonomy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Taxonomy</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/453.jpg.htm" title="A coconut palm."><img alt="A coconut palm." height="329" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Manila_dwarf_coconut_palm.jpg" src="../../images/4/453.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/453.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A coconut palm.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Palms are a <!--del_lnk--> monophyletic group of plants, meaning that the group consists of a common ancestor and all its descendants . Extensive taxonomic research on palms began with botanist H.E. Moore, who organized palms into fifteen major groups based mostly on general morphological characteristics. The following classification, proposed by N.W. Uhl and J. Dransfield in 1987, is a revision of Moore's classification that organizes palms into six subfamilies . A few general traits of each subfamily are listed.<p>Coryphoideae is the most diverse subfamily and is a <!--del_lnk--> paraphyletic group, meaning that all members of the group share a common ancestor but the group does not include all the ancestor's descendants. Most palms in this subfamily have palmately lobed leaves and solitary flowers with three, sometimes four <!--del_lnk--> carpels. The fruit normally develops from only one carpel. Subfamily Calamoideae includes the climbing palms such as rattans. The leaves are usually pinnate; derived characters (<!--del_lnk--> synapomorphies) include spines on various organs, organs specialized for climbing, an extension of the main stem of the leaf bearing reflexed spines, and overlapping scales covering the fruit and ovary. Subfamily Nypoideae contains only one genus and one species, <i>Nypa fruticans</i>, which has large pinnate leaves. The fruit is unusual in that it floats, and the stem is dichotomously branched, also unusual in palms. Subfamily Ceroxyloideae has small to medium-sized flowers that spirally arranged, with a <!--del_lnk--> gynoecium of three joined carpels. Arecoideae is the largest subfamily with six diverse tribes containing over 100 genera. All tribes have pinnate or bipinnate leaves and flowers arranged in groups of three, with a central pistillate and two staminate flowers. Phytelephantoideae is a <!--del_lnk--> monoecious subfamily. Members of this group have distinct <!--del_lnk--> monopodial flower clusters. Other distinct features include a gynoecium with five to ten joined carpels, and flowers with more than three parts per whorl. Fruits are multiseeded and have multiple parts .<p>Currently, few extensive phylogenetic studies of Arecaceae exist. In 1997, Baker et al. explored subfamily and tribe relationships using chloroplast <a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" title="DNA">DNA</a> from 60 genera from all subfamilies and tribes. The results strongly showed that Calamoideae is <!--del_lnk--> monophyletic, and that Ceroxyloideae and Coryphoideae are <!--del_lnk--> paraphyletic. The relationships of Arecoideae are uncertain but it is possibly related to Ceroxyloideae and Phytelephantoideae. However, hybridization has been observed among <i>Orbignya</i> and <i>Phoenix</i> species, and using chloroplast DNA in cladistic studies may produce inaccurate results due to maternal inheritance of the chloroplast DNA. Chemical and molecular data from non-organelle DNA, for example, could be more effective for studying palm phylogeny .<p><a id="Selected_genera" name="Selected_genera"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Selected genera</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:327px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/454.jpg.htm" title="The orange fruit on a palm tree."><img alt="The orange fruit on a palm tree." height="244" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Palm_tree.jpg" src="../../images/4/454.jpg" width="325" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/454.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The orange fruit on a palm tree.</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Areca</i> – <!--del_lnk--> Betel palm<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Bactris</i> – <!--del_lnk--> Pupunha<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Borassus</i> – Palmyra palm<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Calamus</i> – Rattan palm<li><i><a href="../../wp/c/Coconut.htm" title="Coconut">Cocos</a></i> – Coconut<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Copernicia</i> – <!--del_lnk--> Carnauba wax palm<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Elaeis</i> – Oil palm<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Euterpe</i> – Cabbage Heart palm, Açaí palm<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Jubaea</i> – Chilean Wine palm, Coquito palm<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Metroxylon</i> – Sago palm<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Phoenix</i> – Date palm<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Raphia</i> – Raffia palm<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Roystonea</i> – Royal palm<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Sabal</i> – Palmettos<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Salacca</i> – <!--del_lnk--> Salak<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Trachycarpus</i> – <!--del_lnk--> Windmill palm, <!--del_lnk--> Kumaon palm<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Washingtonia</i></ul>
<p>See <!--del_lnk--> list of Arecaceae genera for a complete listing of genera.<p><a id="Evolution" name="Evolution"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Evolution</span></h3>
<p>Arecaceae is the first modern family of monocots that is clearly represented in the fossil record. Palms first appear in the fossil record around 80 million years ago, during the late <a href="../../wp/c/Cretaceous.htm" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> Period. The first modern species, such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Nypa fruticans</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Acromia aculeata</i>, appeared 69-70 million years ago, confirmed by fossil <i>Nypa</i> pollen dated to 70 million years ago. Palms appear to have undergone an early period of <!--del_lnk--> adaptive radiation. By 60 million years ago, many of the modern, specialized genera of palms appeared and became widespread and common, much more widespread than their range today. Because palms separated from the <!--del_lnk--> monocots earlier than other families, they developed more intrafamilial specialization and diversity. By tracing back these diverse characteristics of palms to the basic structures of monocots, palms may be valuable in studying monocot evolution .<p><a id="Conservation" name="Conservation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Conservation</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/455.jpg.htm" title="Pritchardia affinis, a critically endangered species endemic to the Hawaiian Islands."><img alt="Pritchardia affinis, a critically endangered species endemic to the Hawaiian Islands." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pritchardia_affinis.jpg" src="../../images/4/455.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/455.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i><!--del_lnk--> Pritchardia affinis</i>, a critically endangered species endemic to the <!--del_lnk--> Hawaiian Islands.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Unfortunately, like many other plants, palms have been threatened by human intervention and exploitation. The greatest risk to palms is destruction of habitat, especially in the tropical forests, due to <!--del_lnk--> urbanization, wood-chipping, mining, and conversion to farmland. Palms rarely reproduce after such great changes in the habitat, and palms with a small habitat range are most vulnerable to them. The harvesting of <!--del_lnk--> heart of palm, a delicacy in salads, also poses a threat because it is derived from the inner core of the tree and thus harvesting kills the tree. The use of rattan palms in furniture has caused a major population decrease in these species that has negatively affected local and international markets as well as biodiversity in the area . The sale of seeds to nurseries and collectors is another threat, and the seeds of popular palms are sometimes harvested directly from the wild. At least 100 palm species are currently endangered, and nine species have reportedly recently become extinct .<p>However, several factors make palm conservation more difficult. Palms live in almost every type of habitat and have tremendous morphological diversity. Most palm seeds lose viability quickly, but they cannot be preserved in low temperatures because the cold kills the embryo. Using botanical gardens for conservation also presents problems, since they can only house a few plants of any species and cannot truly imitate the natural setting .<p>The Palm Specialist Group of the <!--del_lnk--> World Conservation Union (IUCN) began in 1984 and has performed a series of three studies in order to find basic information on the status of palms in the wild, utilization of wild palms, and palms under cultivation. Two projects on palm conservation and utilization supported by the <!--del_lnk--> World Wildlife Fund took place from 1985-1990 and 1986-1991, in the American tropics and southeast Asia respectively. Both studies produced a large amount of new data and publications on palms. Preparation of a global action plan for palm conservation began in 1991, supported by the IUCN, and was published in 1996 .<p><a id="Uses_and_cultivation" name="Uses_and_cultivation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Uses and cultivation</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/456.jpg.htm" title="Fruit of the Date Palm Phoenix dactylifera"><img alt="Fruit of the Date Palm Phoenix dactylifera" height="263" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dates_on_date_palm.jpg" src="../../images/4/456.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/456.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Fruit of the Date Palm <i>Phoenix dactylifera</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Human use of palms is as old or older than human civilization itself, starting with the cultivation of the <!--del_lnk--> Date Palm by <a href="../../wp/m/Mesopotamia.htm" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamians</a> and other Middle Eastern peoples 5000 years or more ago.<!--del_lnk--> Date wood, pits for storing dates, and other remains of the Date Palm have been found in Mesopotamian sites.The Date Palm had a tremendous effect on the history of the Middle East. W.H. Barreveld wrote:<dl>
<dd>"One could go as far as to say that, had the date palm not existed, the expansion of the human race into the hot and barren parts of the "old" world would have been much more restricted. The date palm not only provided a concentrated energy food, which could be easily stored and carried along on long journeys across the deserts, it also created a more amenable habitat for the people to live in by providing shade and protection from the desert winds (Fig. 1). In addition, the date palm also yielded a variety of products for use in agricultural production and for domestic utensils, and practically all parts of the palm had a useful purpose."<!--del_lnk--> </dl>
<p>An indication of the importance of Palms is that they are mentioned more than 30 times in the <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a>, and at least 22 times in the <a href="../../wp/q/Qur%2527an.htm" title="Koran">Koran</a>.<p>The type member of Arecaceae is the <!--del_lnk--> Areca palm, the fruit of which, the <!--del_lnk--> betel nut, is chewed with the <!--del_lnk--> betel leaf for intoxicating effects. Also belonging to the family are the Date Palm, harvested for its edible fruit; <!--del_lnk--> Rattans, whose stems are used extensively in <!--del_lnk--> furniture and <!--del_lnk--> baskets; and the <a href="../../wp/c/Coconut.htm" title="Coconut">Coconut</a>. <a href="../../wp/p/Palm_oil.htm" title="Palm oil">Palm oil</a> is an edible vegetable oil produced by the <!--del_lnk--> oil palms in the genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Elaeis</i>. Several species are harvested for <!--del_lnk--> heart of palm, a vegetable eaten in salads. Palm <!--del_lnk--> sap is sometimes <!--del_lnk--> fermented to produce <!--del_lnk--> palm wine or toddy, an <!--del_lnk--> alcoholic beverage common in parts of <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> . The <!--del_lnk--> Palm Sunday <!--del_lnk--> festival uses palm leaves, usually from the Date Palm, hence the name. <!--del_lnk--> Dragon's blood, a red resin used traditionally in <a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <!--del_lnk--> varnish, and <!--del_lnk--> dyes, may be obtained from the fruit of <i><!--del_lnk--> Daemonorops</i> species. <!--del_lnk--> Coir is a coarse water-resistant fibre extracted from the outer shell of <a href="../../wp/c/Coconut.htm" title="Coconut">coconuts</a>, used in doormats, brushes, mattresses, and ropes. Some indigenous groups living in palm-rich areas use palms to make many of their necessary items and food. <!--del_lnk--> Sago, for example, a starch made from the pith of the trunk of the Sago Palm <i><!--del_lnk--> Metroxylon sagu</i>, is a major <!--del_lnk--> staple food for lowland peoples of <!--del_lnk--> New Guinea and the <!--del_lnk--> Moluccas. Palm leaves are also valuable to some peoples as a material for thatching or clothing .<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/457.jpg.htm" title="Washingtonia robusta trees line Ocean Avenue in Santa Monica, California."><img alt="Washingtonia robusta trees line Ocean Avenue in Santa Monica, California." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Santa_Monica_Palm_Trees.jpg" src="../../images/4/457.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/457.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i><!--del_lnk--> Washingtonia robusta</i> trees line Ocean Avenue in <!--del_lnk--> Santa Monica, California.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Today, palms are valuable as <!--del_lnk--> ornamental plants and are often grown along streets in tropical and subtropical cities, and also along the <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> coast in Europe. Farther north, palms are a common feature in <!--del_lnk--> botanical gardens or as indoor plants. Few palms tolerate severe cold, however, and the majority of the species are tropical or subtropical. The three most cold-tolerant species are <i><!--del_lnk--> Trachycarpus fortunei</i>, native to eastern <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a>, and <i><!--del_lnk--> Rhapidophyllum hystrix</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Sabal minor</i>, both native to the southeastern <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> . For more details, see <!--del_lnk--> hardy palms.<p>The southeastern state of <!--del_lnk--> South Carolina is nicknamed the Palmetto State after the <!--del_lnk--> Cabbage Palmetto, logs from which were used to build the fort at <!--del_lnk--> Fort Moultrie. During the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Revolutionary_War.htm" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> they were invaluable to those defending the fort, because their spongy wood absorbed or deflected the British cannonballs. Some palms can be grown as far north as <!--del_lnk--> Maryland, <!--del_lnk--> Arkansas, and even up along the Pacific coast to <a href="../../wp/o/Oregon.htm" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Washington and <!--del_lnk--> British Columbia, where ocean winds have a warming effect. There have even been known species of transplanted palms that have survived as far north as southern <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey. The Chinese <i><!--del_lnk--> Trachycarpus fortunei</i> is being grown experimentally on the <a href="../../wp/f/Faroe_Islands.htm" title="Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a> at 62°N, with young plants doing well so far .<p><a id="Symbolism" name="Symbolism"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Symbolism</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/458.jpg.htm" title="Waving palm leaves to welcome Christ into Jerusalem"><img alt="Waving palm leaves to welcome Christ into Jerusalem" height="136" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Meister_der_Palastkapelle_in_Palermo_002.jpg" src="../../images/4/458.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/458.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Waving palm leaves to welcome Christ into Jerusalem</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The palm branch was a symbol of triumph and victory in pre-Christian times. The <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> rewarded champions of the games and celebrated military successes with palm branches. The motto of the <!--del_lnk--> HMS Nelson and the <!--del_lnk--> University of Southern California is "Palmam qui meruit ferat", which means in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a>, "Let him bear the palm who has deserved it". Jews followed a similar tradition of carrying palm branches during festive times.<p>Early <!--del_lnk--> Christians used the palm branch to symbolize the victory of the faithful over enemies of the soul, as in the <!--del_lnk--> Palm Sunday festival celebrating the triumphal entry of <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> into <a href="../../wp/j/Jerusalem.htm" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>. In <!--del_lnk--> Christian art, martyrs were usually shown holding palms representing the victory of spirit over flesh, and it was widely believed that a picture of a palm on a tomb meant that a martyr was buried there. <!--del_lnk--> Origen calls the palm (In Joan., XXXI) the symbol of victory in that war waged by the spirit against the flesh. In this sense it was especially applicable to martyrs, the victors par excellence over the spiritual foes of mankind; hence the frequent occurrence in the Acts of the martyrs of such expressions as "he received the palm of martyrdom." On <!--del_lnk--> 10 April <!--del_lnk--> 1688 it was decided by the <!--del_lnk--> Congregation of Rites that the palm when found depicted on catacomb tombs was to be regarded as a proof that a martyr had been interred there. Subsequently this opinion was acknowledged by Mabillon, Muratori, <!--del_lnk--> Benedict XIV and others to be untenable; further investigation showed that the palm was represented not only on tombs of the post-persecution era, but even on pagan tombs. The general significance of the palm on early Christian monuments is slightly modified according to its association with other symbols (e.g., with the<!--del_lnk--> monogram of Christ, the <!--del_lnk--> Ichthus (Fish), or the Good Shepherd). On some later monuments the palm was represented merely as an ornament separating two scenes Palms also represented heaven, evidenced by ancient art often depicting Jesus in heaven among palms.<p>In <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, the palm represents peace and plenty, and is one of the Four Species of <!--del_lnk--> Sukkot; the palm may also symbolize the <!--del_lnk--> Tree of Life in <!--del_lnk--> Kabbalah. The sacred tree in <a href="../../wp/a/Assyria.htm" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> mythology is a palm that symbolizes <!--del_lnk--> Ishtar connecting heaven, the crown of the tree, and earth, the base of the trunk. <a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad.htm" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> is said to have built his home out of palm, and the palm symbolizes rest and hospitality in many cultures of the Middle East. Palm stems represented long life to the <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptians</a>, and the god <!--del_lnk--> Huh was often shown holding a palm stem in one or both hands. The palm tree was a sacred sign of <a href="../../wp/a/Apollo.htm" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> in <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> because he had been born under one in <!--del_lnk--> Delos . In ancient Mesopotamia, the Date Palm may have represented fertility in humans. The Mesopotamian goddess <!--del_lnk--> Inanna, who had a part in the sacred marriage ritual, considered herself the one who made the dates abundant .<p>Today, the palm, especially the Coconut, remains a symbol of the stereotypical tropical island paradise .<p>Palms appear on the flags and seals of several places where they are native, including those of <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Guam.htm" title="Guam">Guam</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> and <!--del_lnk--> South Carolina.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arecaceae"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Plant', 'Tropics', 'Rainforest', 'Desert', 'Tropics', 'Madagascar', 'Africa', 'Colombia', 'France', 'California', 'Flower', 'Fruit', 'Seed', 'Andes', 'Desert', 'Colombia', 'DNA', 'Coconut', 'Cretaceous', 'Mesopotamia', 'Bible', 'Koran', 'Coconut', 'Palm oil', 'Africa', 'India', 'Philippines', 'Medicine', 'Coconut', 'Mediterranean Sea', 'Asia', 'United States', 'American Revolutionary War', 'Oregon', 'Faroe Islands', 'Ancient Rome', 'Latin', 'Jesus', 'Jerusalem', 'Judaism', 'Assyria', 'Muhammad', 'Ancient Egypt', 'Apollo', 'Ancient Greece', 'Haiti', 'Guam', 'Florida'] |
Argan | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Argan,2006,Argan (disambiguation),Argan oil,Berber,Binomial nomenclature,Biosphere reserve,Carolus Linnaeus,Endemic (ecology),Ericales,Essaouira" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Argan</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Argan";
var wgTitle = "Argan";
var wgArticleId = 3733044;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Argan">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Argan</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Plants.htm">Plants</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: lightgreen;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Argan</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/4/459.jpg.htm" title="Foliage, flowers and immature fruit"><img alt="Foliage, flowers and immature fruit" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Argania_spinosa.jpg" src="../../images/4/459.jpg" width="240" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Foliage, flowers and immature fruit</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: lightgreen;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">Plantae</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Division:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliophyta<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliopsida<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ericales<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sapotaceae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Argania</b></i><br /><small>Roem. & Schult.</small></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>A. spinosa</b></i></span><br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="lightgreen">
<th>
<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><i><b>Argania spinosa</b></i><br /><small>(<a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">L.</a>) <!--del_lnk--> Skeels</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>Argan</b> (<i>Argania spinosa</i>, <!--del_lnk--> syn. <i>A. sideroxylon</i> Roem. & Schult.) is a species of <a href="../../wp/t/Tree.htm" title="Tree">tree</a> <!--del_lnk--> endemic to the calcareous semi-desert <!--del_lnk--> Sous valley of southwestern <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>. It is the sole species in the genus <i>Argania</i>.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/460.jpg.htm" title="Argan tree"><img alt="Argan tree" height="139" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arganier.JPG" src="../../images/4/460.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/460.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Argan tree</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Argan grows to 8-10 metres high, and live to 150-200 years old. They are thorny, with gnarled trunks. The <!--del_lnk--> leaves are small, 2-4 cm long, oval with a rounded apex. The <a href="../../wp/f/Flower.htm" title="Flower">flowers</a> are small, with five pale yellow-green petals; flowering is in April. The <a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" title="Fruit">fruit</a> is 2-4 cm long and 1.5-3 cm broad, with a thick, bitter peel surrounding a sweet-smelling but unpleasantly flavoured layer of pulpy pericarp. This surrounds the very hard nut, which contains one (occasionally two or three) small, oil-rich seeds. The fruit takes over a year to mature, ripening in June to July of the following year.<p>The <i>arganeraie</i> forests now cover some 828,000 ha and are designated as a <!--del_lnk--> UNESCO <!--del_lnk--> Biosphere reserve. Their area has shrunk by about 50% over the last 100 years, owing to charcoal-making, grazing, and increasingly intensive cultivation. The best hope for the conservation of the trees may lie in the recent development of a thriving export market for <!--del_lnk--> argan oil as a high-value product.<p><a id="Uses" name="Uses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Uses</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/461.jpg.htm" title="Argan savanna northeast of Taroudant"><img alt="Argan savanna northeast of Taroudant" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Argania_spinosa_habitat1.jpg" src="../../images/4/461.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/461.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Argan savanna northeast of <!--del_lnk--> Taroudant</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In some parts of Morocco, Argan takes the place of the <!--del_lnk--> Olive as a source of <!--del_lnk--> forage, <!--del_lnk--> oil, <!--del_lnk--> timber and fuel in <!--del_lnk--> Berber society. Especially near <!--del_lnk--> Essaouira, the argan tree is frequently climbed by goats <!--del_lnk--> .<dl>
<dt>Fruit</dl>
<p>The average fruit yield per tree is 8kg per year. The fruits fall in July, when black and dry; until that time, goats are kept out of the argan woodlands by wardens. Rights to collect fruit are closely controlled by law and by village traditions. The leaves are an important browse after harvest. Fruits were and sometimes are gathered after consumption by goats (nimble climbers in argan trees), but this is not the case for oil produced for human consumption; the resultant product will taste unpleasantly (Nouaim 2005).<dl>
<dt>Argan oil</dl>
<p>Argan oil is produced by several women's co-operatives in the region. The most labour intensive part of oil-extraction is removal of the soft pulp (used as animal feed) and the cracking by hand, between two stones, of the hard nut. The seeds are then removed and gently roasted. This roasting accounts for part of the oil's distinctive, nutty flavour. The traditional technique for oil extraction is to grind the roasted seeds to paste, with a little water, in a stone rotary quern. The paste is then squeezed between hands to extract the oil. The extracted paste is still oil-rich and is used as animal feed. Oil produced by this method will keep 3-6 months, and will be produced as needed in a family, from a store of the kernels, which will keep for 20 years unopened. Dry-pressing is now increasingly important for oil produced for sale, as the oil will keep 12-18 months and extraction is much faster.<p>The oil contains 80% unsaturated fatty acids, is rich in essential fatty acids and is more resistant to oxidation than olive oil. Argan oil is used for dipping bread, on couscous, salads and similar uses. A dip for bread known as <b>amlou</b> is made from argan oil, almonds and peanuts, sometimes sweetened by honey or sugar. The unroasted oil is traditionally used as a treatment for skin diseases, and has found favour with European cosmetics manufacturers.<p>Argan oil is sold in Morocco as a luxury item (although difficult to find outside the region of production), and is of increasing interest to cosmetics companies in Europe. It was very difficult to buy the oil outside Morocco, but in 2001-2002 argan oil suddenly became a fashionable food in Europe and North America. It is now widely available in specialist shops and, sometimes, in supermarkets. Its price (<a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">USD</a>20-30 for 250 ml) reflects the labour needed for processing, but a little argan oil goes a long way.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argan"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Scientific classification', 'Plant', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Tree', 'Morocco', 'Flower', 'Fruit', 'United States dollar'] |
Argentina | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Argentina,Argentine,.ar,1524,1612,1810,1816,1821,1905,1920,1955" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Argentina</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Argentina";
var wgTitle = "Argentina";
var wgArticleId = 744;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Argentina">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Argentina</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Central_and_South_American_Geography.Central_and_South_American_Countries.htm">Central & South American Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3><div class="soslink"> SOS Children works in Argentina. For more information see <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina_A.htm" title="SOS Children in Argentina">SOS Children in Argentina</a></div>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox geography" style="width:23em;">
<tr>
<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><i><b>República Argentina</b></i><br /><b>Argentine Republic</b></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
<table style="margin:0 auto; background:none; text-align:center;" width="100%">
<tr>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1447.png.htm" title="Flag of Argentina"><img alt="Flag of Argentina" height="80" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Argentina.svg" src="../../images/159/15992.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/159/15993.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Argentina"><img alt="Coat of arms of Argentina" height="123" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Argentina_coa.png" src="../../images/159/15993.png" width="85" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i>En Unión y Libertad</i><br /> (<a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>: "In Union and Freedom")</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <i><!--del_lnk--> Himno Nacional Argentino</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/159/15994.png.htm" title="Location of Argentina"><img alt="Location of Argentina" height="110" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ArgentinaWorldMap.png" src="../../images/159/15994.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Capital</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> (and largest city)</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a><br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> (1)) 34°20′S 58°30′W</span></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> Federal republic</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> President</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Néstor Kirchner</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Vice President</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Daniel Scioli</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Independence</th>
<td>From <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> May Revolution</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 25 May <!--del_lnk--> 1810 </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Declared</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 9 July <!--del_lnk--> 1816 </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Recognized</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1821 (by <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>) </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2,780,400 (1) km² (<!--del_lnk--> 8th)<br /> 1,073,514 sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>1.1</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - 2006 estimate</td>
<td>39,921,833 (<!--del_lnk--> 32nd)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - 2001 census</td>
<td>36,260,130</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>14/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 195th)<br /> 36/sq mi</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2006 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td>US $548.754 billion (<!--del_lnk--> 22nd)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Per capita</td>
<td>US $14,838 (<!--del_lnk--> 48th)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2006)</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/159/15995.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Straight_Line_Steady.svg" src="../../images/159/15995.png" width="10" /></a> 0.863 (<font color="#009900">high</font>) (<!--del_lnk--> 36th)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Peso (<code><!--del_lnk--> ARS</code>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ART (<!--del_lnk--> UTC-3)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</td>
<td>ARST (<!--del_lnk--> UTC-3)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .ar</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+54</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><small>(1) Argentina also has a <!--del_lnk--> territorial dispute with the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> over an additional 1,000,000 km² of <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, the <a href="../../wp/f/Falkland_Islands.htm" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands.htm" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a>, for a total of 3,761,274 km² (1,452,236 sq mi).</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Argentina</b> is a country in southern South America. It ranks second in land area in South America, and <!--del_lnk--> eighth in the world.<p>Argentina occupies a continental surface area of 2,791,810 <!--del_lnk--> km² (1,078,000 <!--del_lnk--> sq mi) between the <a href="../../wp/a/Andes.htm" title="Andes">Andes</a> <!--del_lnk--> mountain range in the west and the southern <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> in the east and south. It is bordered by <a href="../../wp/p/Paraguay.htm" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia.htm" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a> in the north, <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> and <a href="../../wp/u/Uruguay.htm" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a> in the northeast, and <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a> in the west and south. The country claims the <!--del_lnk--> British overseas territories of the <a href="../../wp/f/Falkland_Islands.htm" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> (<a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i>Islas Malvinas</i>) and <a href="../../wp/s/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands.htm" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a>. Under the name of <!--del_lnk--> Argentine Antarctica, it claims 969,464 km² (374,312 sq mi) of <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, overlapping other claims made by <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a> and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>.<p>The country is formally called the <b>Argentine Republic</b> (<a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <b>República Argentina</b>, <!--del_lnk--> IPA <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[reˈpuβlika aɾxenˈtina]</span>). For many legal purposes, <i>Nación Argentina</i> (Argentine Nation) is used.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Origin_and_history_of_the_name" name="Origin_and_history_of_the_name"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origin and history of the name</span></h2>
<p>"<i>Argentina</i>" derives from the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>argentum</i> (<a href="../../wp/s/Silver.htm" title="Silver">silver</a>). When the first <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spanish</a> <!--del_lnk--> conquistadors discovered the <!--del_lnk--> Río de la Plata, they named the estuary <i>Mar Dulce</i> ('Sweet Sea', as in a fresh water sea). <!--del_lnk--> Indigenous people gave gifts of silver to the survivors of the shipwrecked expedition, who were led by <!--del_lnk--> Juan Díaz de Solís. The legend of <!--del_lnk--> Sierra del Plata — a mountain rich in silver — reached Spain around <!--del_lnk--> 1524, and the name was first seen in print on a <!--del_lnk--> Venice map from 1536. The source of the silver was the area where the city of <!--del_lnk--> Potosí was to be founded in 1546. An expedition that followed the trail of the silver up the <!--del_lnk--> Paraná and <!--del_lnk--> Pilcomayo rivers finally reached the source only to find it already claimed by explorers who reached it from <a href="../../wp/l/Lima.htm" title="Lima">Lima</a>, the capital of the Viceroyalty.<p>The name Argentina was first used extensively in <!--del_lnk--> Ruy Díaz de Guzmán's <!--del_lnk--> 1612 book <i>Historia del descubrimiento, población, y conquista del Río de la Plata</i> (History of the discovery, population, and conquest of the Río de la Plata), naming the territory <i>Tierra Argentina</i> (Land of Silver).<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/140/14071.png.htm" title="Río de la Plata aboriginals, as pictured by Hendrick Ottsen (1603)"><img alt="Río de la Plata aboriginals, as pictured by Hendrick Ottsen (1603)" height="129" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Toortse_Rio_de_la_Plata.png" src="../../images/140/14071.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/140/14071.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Río de la Plata aboriginals, as pictured by Hendrick Ottsen (1603)</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The first signs of human presence in Argentina are located in the <!--del_lnk--> Patagonia ( <!--del_lnk--> Piedra Museo, Santa Cruz), and date from 11,000 BC. Around 1 AD, several corn-based civilizations developed in the western <!--del_lnk--> Andean region (Santa María, Huarpes, Diaguitas, Sanavirones, among others). In 1480 the <a href="../../wp/i/Inca_Empire.htm" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a>, under the rule of emperor Pachacutec, launched an offensive and conquered present-day northwestern Argentina, integrating it into a region called <!--del_lnk--> Collasuyu. In the northeastern area, the <!--del_lnk--> Guaraní developed a culture based on <!--del_lnk--> yuca and <!--del_lnk--> sweet potato. The central and southern areas (<!--del_lnk--> Pampas and Patagonia) were dominated by nomadic cultures, unified in the 17th century by the <!--del_lnk--> Mapuches.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/23/2364.png.htm" title="Buenos Aires in 1536"><img alt="Buenos Aires in 1536" height="131" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Buenos_Aires_shortly_after_its_foundation_1536.png" src="../../images/159/15996.png" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/23/2364.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Buenos Aires in 1536</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Europeans arrived in 1502. <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> established a permanent colony on the site of <a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a> in 1580; the <!--del_lnk--> Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was created in 1776. In 1806 and 1807 the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> <!--del_lnk--> launched two invasions to Buenos Aires, but the creole population repelled both attempts. On <!--del_lnk--> May 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1810, after confirmation of the rumors about the overthrow of <!--del_lnk--> King Ferdinand VII by Napoleon, citizens of <a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a> took advantage of the situation and created the <!--del_lnk--> First Government Junta (<!--del_lnk--> May Revolution). Formal <!--del_lnk--> independence from Spain was declared on <!--del_lnk--> July 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1816 in <!--del_lnk--> Tucumán. In 1817, General <!--del_lnk--> José de San Martín <!--del_lnk--> crossed the Andes to free <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a>, thus eliminating the Spanish threat. Centralist and federalist groups (Spanish: <i>Unitarios</i> and <i>Federales</i>) were in conflict until national unity was established and the <!--del_lnk--> constitution promulgated in 1853.<p>Foreign <!--del_lnk--> investment and <!--del_lnk--> immigration from Europe led to the adoption of modern agricultural techniques. In the 1880s, the "<!--del_lnk--> Conquest of the Desert" subdued or exterminated the remaining indigenous tribes throughout the southern <!--del_lnk--> Pampas and <!--del_lnk--> Patagonia.<p>From 1880 to 1930, Argentina enjoyed increasing prosperity and prominence through an export-led economy, and the population of the country swelled sevenfold. Conservative forces dominated Argentine politics until 1916, when their traditional rivals, the <!--del_lnk--> Radicals, won control of the government. The military forced <!--del_lnk--> Hipólito Yrigoyen from power in 1930, leading to another decade of Conservative rule. Political change led to the presidency of <!--del_lnk--> Juan Perón in 1946, who tried to empower the working class and greatly expanded the number of unionized workers. The <!--del_lnk--> Revolución Libertadora of <!--del_lnk--> 1955 deposed him.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15997.jpg.htm" title="President Juan Perón (1946)"><img alt="President Juan Perón (1946)" height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Juan_Peron_con_banda_de_presidente.jpg" src="../../images/159/15997.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15997.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> President <!--del_lnk--> Juan Perón (1946)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>From the 1950s to 1970s, soft military and weak civilian administrations traded power. During those years the economy grew strongly and poverty declined (less than 7% in 1975), but became increasingly protectionist. At the same time political violence continued to escalate. In 1973, Perón returned to the presidency, but he died within a year of assuming power. His third wife <!--del_lnk--> Isabel, the Vice President, succeeded him in office, but the military coup of <!--del_lnk--> March 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1976 removed her from office.<p>The armed forces took power through a <a href="../../wp/m/Military_dictatorship.htm" title="Military dictatorship">junta</a> in charge of the self-appointed <!--del_lnk--> National Reorganization Process until 1983. The military government repressed opposition and terrorist leftist groups using harsh illegal measures (the "<!--del_lnk--> Dirty War"); thousands of dissidents "<!--del_lnk--> disappeared", while the <!--del_lnk--> SIDE cooperated with <!--del_lnk--> DINA and other South American intelligence agencies, and with the <!--del_lnk--> CIA in <!--del_lnk--> Operation Condor. Many of the military leaders that took part in the Dirty War were trained in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a>-financed <!--del_lnk--> School of the Americas, among them Argentine dictators <!--del_lnk--> Leopoldo Galtieri and <!--del_lnk--> Roberto Viola. Economic problems, charges of corruption, public revulsion in the face of <a href="../../wp/h/Human_rights.htm" title="Human rights">human rights</a> abuses and, finally, the country's 1982 defeat by the British in the <!--del_lnk--> Falklands War discredited the Argentine military regime.<p>Democracy was restored in 1983. <!--del_lnk--> Raúl Alfonsín's Radical government took steps to account for the "disappeared", established civilian control of the armed forces, and consolidated democratic institutions. The members of the three military juntas were prosecuted and sentenced to life terms. Failure to resolve endemic economic problems and an inability to maintain public confidence led to Alfonsín's early departure six months before his term was to be completed.<p>President <!--del_lnk--> Carlos Menem imposed a <!--del_lnk--> peso-<a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">dollar</a> <!--del_lnk--> fixed exchange rate in 1991 to stop <!--del_lnk--> hyperinflation and adopted far-reaching market-based policies, dismantling <!--del_lnk--> protectionist barriers and business <!--del_lnk--> regulations, and implementing a <!--del_lnk--> privatization program. These reforms contributed to significant increases in investment and growth with stable prices through most of the 1990s.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15998.jpg.htm" title="Protest against the corralito (2002)"><img alt="Protest against the corralito (2002)" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cacerolazo_Argentina_2001-2002.jpg" src="../../images/159/15998.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15998.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Protest against the <i><!--del_lnk--> corralito</i> (2002)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Menem and <!--del_lnk--> de la Rúa administrations faced diminished competitiveness of exports, massive imports which damaged national industry and reduced employment, chronic fiscal and trade deficits, and the contagion of several economic crises. The <!--del_lnk--> Asian financial crisis in 1998 precipitated an <!--del_lnk--> outflow of capital that mushroomed into a <!--del_lnk--> recession, and culminated in a <!--del_lnk--> financial panic in November of 2001. The next month, amidst <!--del_lnk--> bloody riots, President de la Rúa finally resigned.<p>In two weeks, several presidents followed in quick succession, culminating in <!--del_lnk--> Eduardo Duhalde being appointed interim <!--del_lnk--> President of Argentina by the Legislative Assembly on <!--del_lnk--> 2 January 2002. Argentina <!--del_lnk--> defaulted on its international debt obligations. The peso's almost 11-year-old linkage to the U.S. dollar was abandoned, resulting in major <!--del_lnk--> depreciation of the peso and a spike in <!--del_lnk--> inflation.<p>With a more competitive and flexible exchange rate, the country started implementing new policies based on re-industrialization, <!--del_lnk--> import substitution, increased exports, and consistent fiscal and trade surpluses. By the end of 2002, the economy began to stabilize. In 2003, <!--del_lnk--> Néstor Kirchner was elected president. During Kirchner's presidency, Argentina <!--del_lnk--> restructured its defaulted debt with a steep discount (about 75 percent) on most bonds, paid off outstanding debts with the <!--del_lnk--> International Monetary Fund, renegotiated contracts with utilities, and nationalized some previously privatized industries. Currently, Argentina is enjoying a period of high economic growth and increased political stability.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
<p><a id="Government" name="Government"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Government</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15999.jpg.htm" title="Congress building in Buenos Aires"><img alt="Congress building in Buenos Aires" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Buenos_Aires_Congreso_stock_xchng_214239.jpg" src="../../images/159/15999.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15999.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Congress building in Buenos Aires</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Argentina's political framework is a <!--del_lnk--> federal <!--del_lnk--> presidential <!--del_lnk--> representative democratic <!--del_lnk--> republic, in which the <!--del_lnk--> President of Argentina is both <!--del_lnk--> head of state and <!--del_lnk--> head of government, complemented by a pluriform <!--del_lnk--> multi-party system. Argentina's current president (2006) is <!--del_lnk--> Néstor Kirchner, with <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Scioli as vice president. The <!--del_lnk--> Argentine Constitution of 1853 mandates a <!--del_lnk--> separation of powers into <!--del_lnk--> executive, <!--del_lnk--> legislative, and <!--del_lnk--> judicial branches at the national and provincial level.<p><!--del_lnk--> Executive power resides in the <!--del_lnk--> President and his cabinet. The <!--del_lnk--> President and Vice President are directly elected to 4-year terms, limited to two consecutive terms, and the <!--del_lnk--> cabinet ministers are appointed by the president.<p><!--del_lnk--> Legislative power is vested in the bicameral <!--del_lnk--> National Congress or <i><!--del_lnk--> Congreso de la Nación</i>, consisting of a <!--del_lnk--> Senate (<i><!--del_lnk--> Senado</i>) of 72 seats, and a <!--del_lnk--> Chamber of Deputies (<i><!--del_lnk--> Cámara de Diputados</i>) of 257 members. Senators serve 6-year terms, with one-third standing for reelection every 2 years. Members of the Chamber of Deputies are directly elected to 4-year term via a system of <!--del_lnk--> proportional representation, with half of the members of the <!--del_lnk--> lower house being elected every 2 years. A third of the candidates presented by the parties must be women.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The <!--del_lnk--> Argentine Supreme Court of Justice has 9 members who are appointed by the President in consultation with the Senate. The rest of the judges are appointed by the <!--del_lnk--> Council of Magistrates of the Nation, a secretariat composed of representatives of judges, lawyers, the Congress, and the executive. (see also <!--del_lnk--> law of Argentina)<p><a id="Foreign_relations" name="Foreign_relations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Foreign relations</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Argentina is a member of <!--del_lnk--> Mercosur, an international bloc which has some legislative supranational functions. Mercosur is composed of five full members: Argentina, <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Paraguay.htm" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/Uruguay.htm" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a>, and <a href="../../wp/v/Venezuela.htm" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>. It has five associate members without full voting rights: <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia.htm" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Ecuador.htm" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>, and <a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a>.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16000.jpg.htm" title="Current and Former Presidents of Brazil and Argentina on the 20th anniversary of the Mercosur."><img alt="Current and Former Presidents of Brazil and Argentina on the 20th anniversary of the Mercosur." height="146" longdesc="/wiki/Image:20_A%C3%B1os_del_Mercosur-Iguazu-Sarney-Lula-Kirchner-Alfons%C3%ADn-Bielsa-_30-nov-05-presidencia-govar-2.jpg" src="../../images/160/16000.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16000.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Current and Former Presidents of Brazil and Argentina on the 20th anniversary of the Mercosur.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Argentina was the only country from <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> to participate in the 1991 <!--del_lnk--> Gulf War under mandate of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, and in every phase of the <!--del_lnk--> Haiti operation. It has also contributed worldwide in <!--del_lnk--> peacekeeping operations, including in <a href="../../wp/e/El_Salvador.htm" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a>-<a href="../../wp/h/Honduras.htm" title="Honduras">Honduras</a>-<a href="../../wp/n/Nicaragua.htm" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Guatemala.htm" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Ecuador.htm" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>-<a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Western_Sahara.htm" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a>, <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Cyprus.htm" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>, <a href="../../wp/k/Kosovo.htm" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.htm" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Timor Leste. In recognition of its contributions to international security, U.S. President <a href="../../wp/b/Bill_Clinton.htm" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> designated Argentina as a major non-NATO ally in January 1998. In 2005, it was elected as a temporary member of the <!--del_lnk--> UN Security Council.<p>In 2005, on <!--del_lnk--> November 4 and <!--del_lnk--> November 5, the Argentine city of <!--del_lnk--> Mar del Plata hosted the <!--del_lnk--> Fourth Summit of the Americas. This summit was marked by a number of anti-U.S. protests. As of 2006, Argentina has been emphasizing <!--del_lnk--> Mercosur as its first international priority; by contrast, during the 1990s, it relied more heavily on its relationship with the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>.<p>Argentina has long claimed sovereignty over the <a href="../../wp/f/Falkland_Islands.htm" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland/Malvinas Islands</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> South Shetland Islands, the <a href="../../wp/s/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands.htm" title="South Sandwich Islands">South Sandwich Islands</a> and almost 1 million km² in Antarctica, between the 25°W and the 74°W meridians and the 60°S parallel. This slice of the continent is known as <!--del_lnk--> Argentine Antarctica, which Argentina considers part of the national territory. For more than a century, there has been an Argentine presence at the <!--del_lnk--> Orcadas Base.<p>Argentina is a founding signatory and permanent consulting member of the <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctic_Treaty_System.htm" title="Antarctic Treaty System">Antarctic Treaty System</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Treaty Secretariat is established in <a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a> <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Military" name="Military"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Military</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> President is the Commander-in-Chief, and the military is under the control of the Defense Ministry. Argentina's military establishement has historically been one of the best equipped in the region (for example, developing its own advanced jet fighters as early as the 1950s), but has faced expenditure cutbacks in comparison to other regional militaries. The age of allowable military service is 18 years; there is no obligatory <!--del_lnk--> military service and currently no <!--del_lnk--> conscription.<p>The military is composed of a traditional <!--del_lnk--> Army, <!--del_lnk--> Navy, and <!--del_lnk--> Air Force. Controlled by a separate ministry (the Interior Ministry), Argentine territorial waters are patrolled by the <!--del_lnk--> Naval Prefecture, and the border regions by the <!--del_lnk--> National Gendarmerie; both branches however maintain liasions with the Defense Ministry. They mostly perform patrols against <!--del_lnk--> organized crime, <!--del_lnk--> drug smuggling, and rescue operations of civilians in distress. Argentina's Armed Forces are currently performing major operations in <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Cyprus.htm" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, in accordance to specified UN mandates.<p><a id="Administrative_divisions" name="Administrative_divisions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administrative divisions</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:342px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16001.png.htm" title="Provinces of Argentina. Argentina claims control of the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) and a slice of Antarctica, both of which it considers a part of its Tierra del Fuego Province (23)."><img alt="Provinces of Argentina. Argentina claims control of the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) and a slice of Antarctica, both of which it considers a part of its Tierra del Fuego Province (23)." height="561" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Argentina_-_Pol%C3%ADtico_2.png" src="../../images/160/16001.png" width="340" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16001.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Provinces of Argentina. Argentina claims control of the <a href="../../wp/f/Falkland_Islands.htm" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> (Islas Malvinas) and a slice of <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, both of which it considers a part of its <!--del_lnk--> Tierra del Fuego Province (23).</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Argentina is divided into 23 <!--del_lnk--> provinces (<i>provincias</i>; singular: <i>provincia</i>), and 1 <!--del_lnk--> autonomous city (commonly known as <i>capital federal</i> but constitutionally: "Capital de la República" or "Capital de la Nación"), marked with an asterisk:<table>
<tr>
<td>
<ol>
<li><a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires</a><sup>*</sup><li><!--del_lnk--> Buenos Aires (Province)<li><!--del_lnk--> Catamarca<li><!--del_lnk--> Chaco<li><!--del_lnk--> Chubut<li><!--del_lnk--> Córdoba<li><!--del_lnk--> Corrientes<li><!--del_lnk--> Entre Ríos<li><!--del_lnk--> Formosa<li><!--del_lnk--> Jujuy<li><!--del_lnk--> La Pampa<li><!--del_lnk--> La Rioja</ol>
</td>
<td>
<ol start="13">
<li><!--del_lnk--> Mendoza<li><!--del_lnk--> Misiones<li><!--del_lnk--> Neuquén<li><!--del_lnk--> Río Negro<li><!--del_lnk--> Salta<li><!--del_lnk--> San Juan<li><!--del_lnk--> San Luis<li><!--del_lnk--> Santa Cruz<li><!--del_lnk--> Santa Fe<li><!--del_lnk--> Santiago del Estero<li><!--del_lnk--> Tierra del Fuego<li><!--del_lnk--> Tucumán</ol>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><sup>*</sup> The current official name for the <!--del_lnk--> federal district is <i>Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires</i>.<p>Buenos Aires has been the capital of Argentina since its unification, but there have been projects to move the administrative centre elsewhere. During the presidency of <!--del_lnk--> Raúl Alfonsín a law was passed ordering the transfer of the federal capital to <!--del_lnk--> Viedma, a city in the <!--del_lnk--> Patagonian province of Río Negro. Studies were underway when economic problems killed the project in 1989. Though the law was never formally repealed, it has become a mere historical relic, and the project has been forgotten.<p>Provinces are divided into smaller secondary units called <i>departamentos</i>, or <!--del_lnk--> departments. There are 376 departments. The province of <!--del_lnk--> Buenos Aires has 134 similar divisions known as <i>partidos</i>. <i>Departamentos</i> and <i>partidos</i> are further subdivided into municipalities or districts.<p>In descending order by number of inhabitants, the <!--del_lnk--> major cities in Argentina are <a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Córdoba, <!--del_lnk--> Rosario, <!--del_lnk--> Mendoza, <!--del_lnk--> Tucumán, <!--del_lnk--> La Plata, <!--del_lnk--> Mar del Plata, <!--del_lnk--> Salta, <!--del_lnk--> Santa Fe, <!--del_lnk--> San Juan, <!--del_lnk--> Resistencia, and <!--del_lnk--> Neuquén.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:262px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16002.jpg.htm" title="Topographic map of Argentina (Including some territorial claims)"><img alt="Topographic map of Argentina (Including some territorial claims)" height="350" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Argentina_topo_blank.jpg" src="../../images/160/16002.jpg" width="260" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16002.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Topographic map of Argentina (Including some territorial claims)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Main_features" name="Main_features"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Main features</span></h3>
<p>The total surface area of Argentina (not including the Antarctic claim), is as follows:<ul>
<li>Total: <!--del_lnk--> 2,766,890 <!--del_lnk--> km²<li>Land: 2,736,691 km²<li>Water: 30,200 km²</ul>
<p>Argentina is nearly 3,700 km long from north to south, and 1,400 km from east to west (maximum values). It can roughly be divided into four parts: the fertile plains of the <!--del_lnk--> Pampas in the centre the country, the source of Argentina's <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> wealth; the flat to rolling, oil-rich plateau of <!--del_lnk--> Patagonia in the southern half down to <!--del_lnk--> Tierra del Fuego; the subtropical flats of the <!--del_lnk--> Gran Chaco in the north, and the rugged <a href="../../wp/a/Andes.htm" title="Andes">Andes</a> <!--del_lnk--> mountain range along the western border with <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a>.<p>The highest point above <!--del_lnk--> sea level in Argentina is located in <!--del_lnk--> Mendoza. Cerro <!--del_lnk--> Aconcagua, at 6,962 <!--del_lnk--> meters (22,834 <!--del_lnk--> feet), is the highest mountain in the <!--del_lnk--> Americas, the <!--del_lnk--> Southern, and <!--del_lnk--> Western Hemisphere. The lowest point is <!--del_lnk--> Laguna del Carbón in <!--del_lnk--> Santa Cruz, −105 meters (−344 feet) below sea level. This is also the lowest point on the South American <a href="../../wp/c/Continent.htm" title="Continent">continent</a>. The geographic centre of the country is located in south-central <!--del_lnk--> La Pampa province.<p>The country has a territorial claim over a portion of <!--del_lnk--> Antarctica, where it has maintained a constant occupied presence for more than a <!--del_lnk--> century, starting in 1904.<p><a id="Geographic_regions" name="Geographic_regions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Geographic regions</span></h3>
<p>The country is traditionally divided into several major geographically distinct regions:<ul>
<li>Pampas: The plains west and south from <a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a> are some of the most fertile in the world. Called the Humid Pampa, they cover most of the provinces of <!--del_lnk--> Buenos Aires and <!--del_lnk--> Córdoba, and big portions of the provinces of <!--del_lnk--> Santa Fe and <!--del_lnk--> La Pampa. The western part of <!--del_lnk--> La Pampa and the province <!--del_lnk--> San Luis also have plains (the Dry Pampa), but they are drier and used mainly for grazing. The <!--del_lnk--> Sierra de Córdoba in the homonymous province (extending into San Luis), is the most important geographical feature of the pampas.<li>Gran Chaco: The <!--del_lnk--> Gran Chaco region in the north of the country is seasonal dry/wet, mainly cotton growing and livestock raising. It covers the provinces of <!--del_lnk--> Chaco and <!--del_lnk--> Formosa. It is dotted with subtropical forests, scrubland, and some wetlands, home to a large number of plant and animal species. The province of <!--del_lnk--> Santiago del Estero lies in the drier region of the Gran Chaco.<li>Mesopotamia: The land between the <!--del_lnk--> Paraná and <!--del_lnk--> Uruguay rivers is called <!--del_lnk--> Mesopotamia and it is shared by the provinces of <!--del_lnk--> Corrientes and <!--del_lnk--> Entre Ríos. It features flatland apt for grazing and plant growing, and the <!--del_lnk--> Iberá Wetlands in central Corrientes. <!--del_lnk--> Misiones province is more tropical and belongs within the <!--del_lnk--> Brazilian Highlands geographic feature. It features subtropical rainforests and the <!--del_lnk--> Iguazú Falls.<li>Patagonia: The <!--del_lnk--> steppes of <!--del_lnk--> Patagonia, in the provinces of <!--del_lnk--> Neuquén, <!--del_lnk--> Río Negro, <!--del_lnk--> Chubut and <!--del_lnk--> Santa Cruz, are of <!--del_lnk--> Tertiary origin. Most of the region is semiarid in the north to cold and arid in the far south, but forests grow in its western fringes which are dotted with several large lakes. <!--del_lnk--> Tierra del Fuego is cool and wet, moderated by oceanic influences. Northern Patagonia (roughly Río Negro south of the homonymous river, and Neuquén) can also be referred as the <b>Comahue</b> <!--del_lnk--> region (not commonly in use).<li>Cuyo: West-central Argentina is dominated by the imposing <a href="../../wp/a/Andes.htm" title="Andes">Andes</a> Mountains. To their east is the arid region known as <!--del_lnk--> Cuyo. Melting waters from high in the mountains form the backbone of irrigated lowland oasis, at the centre of a rich fruit and <a href="../../wp/w/Wine.htm" title="Wine">wine</a> growing region in <!--del_lnk--> Mendoza and <!--del_lnk--> San Juan provinces. Further north the region gets hotter and drier with more geographical accidents in <!--del_lnk--> La Rioja province.<li>NOA or Noroeste: This region is the highest in average elevation. Several parallel mountain ranges, several of which have peaks higher than 20,000 feet, dominate the area. These ranges grow wider in geographic extent towards the north. They are cut by fertile river valleys, the most important being the <!--del_lnk--> Calchaquí Valleys in the provinces of <!--del_lnk--> Catamarca, <!--del_lnk--> Tucumán, and <!--del_lnk--> Salta. Farther north the province of <!--del_lnk--> Jujuy near <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia.htm" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a> lies mainly within the <!--del_lnk--> Altiplano plateau of the Central Andes. The <!--del_lnk--> Tropic of Capricorn goes through the far north of the region.</ul>
<p><a id="Rivers_and_lakes" name="Rivers_and_lakes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Rivers and lakes</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16003.jpg.htm" title="Espejo Lake, in Neuquén"><img alt="Espejo Lake, in Neuquén" height="138" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Patagonia.jpg" src="../../images/160/16003.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16003.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Espejo Lake, in Neuquén</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Major rivers in Argentina include the <!--del_lnk--> Pilcomayo, <!--del_lnk--> Paraguay, <!--del_lnk--> Bermejo, <!--del_lnk--> Colorado, <!--del_lnk--> Río Negro, <!--del_lnk--> Salado, <!--del_lnk--> Uruguay and the largest river, the <!--del_lnk--> Paraná. The latter two flow together before meeting the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, forming the estuary of the <!--del_lnk--> Río de la Plata. Regionally important rivers are the <!--del_lnk--> Atuel and <!--del_lnk--> Mendoza in the homonymous province, the <!--del_lnk--> Chubut in Patagonia, the Río Grande in Jujuy, and the San Francisco River in Salta.<p>There are several large <!--del_lnk--> lakes in Argentina, many of them in Patagonia. Among these are lakes <!--del_lnk--> Argentino and <!--del_lnk--> Viedma in Santa Cruz, <!--del_lnk--> Nahuel Huapi in Río Negro and <!--del_lnk--> Fagnano in Tierra del Fuego, and Colhué Huapi and Musters in Chubut. <!--del_lnk--> Lake Buenos Aires and <!--del_lnk--> O'Higgins/San Martín Lake are shared with Chile. <!--del_lnk--> Mar Chiquita, Córdoba, is the largest salt water lake in the country. There are numerous <!--del_lnk--> reservoirs created by <a href="../../wp/d/Dam.htm" title="Dam">dams</a>. Argentina features various <!--del_lnk--> hot springs, such as those at <!--del_lnk--> Termas de Río Hondo with temperatures between 30°C and 65°C.<p><a id="Coastal_areas_and_seas" name="Coastal_areas_and_seas"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Coastal areas and seas</span></h3>
<p>Argentina has 2,665 kilometers (1,656mi) of <!--del_lnk--> coastline. The continental platform is unusually wide; in Argentina this shallow area of the <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic <a href="../../wp/o/Ocean.htm" title="Ocean">Ocean</a> is called <!--del_lnk--> Mar Argentino. The waters are rich in fisheries and suspected of holding important <!--del_lnk--> hydrocarbon energy resources. Argentina's coastline varies between areas of <a href="../../wp/s/Sand.htm" title="Sand">sand</a> dunes and cliffs. The two major <!--del_lnk--> ocean currents affecting the coast are the warm <!--del_lnk--> Brazil Current and the cold <!--del_lnk--> Falkland Current (Spanish: <i>corriente Antártica</i>). Because of the uneveness of the coastal landmass, the two currents alternate in their influence on climate and do not allow temperatures to fall evenly with higher latitude. The southern coast of <!--del_lnk--> Tierra del Fuego forms the north shore of the <!--del_lnk--> Drake Passage.<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16004.jpg.htm" title="Calchaquí Valleys in the province of Salta"><img alt="Calchaquí Valleys in the province of Salta" height="151" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Salta-VallesCalchaquies-P3140151.JPG" src="../../images/160/16004.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16004.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Calchaquí Valleys in the province of Salta</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Because of longitudinal and elevation amplitudes, Argentina is subject to a variety of climates. As a rule, the <a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" title="Climate">climate</a> is predominantly <!--del_lnk--> temperate with extremes ranging from <!--del_lnk--> subtropical in the north to subpolar in the far south. The north of the country is characterized by very hot, humid summers with mild drier winters, and is subject to periodic droughts. Central Argentina has hot summers with thunderstorms (in western Argentina producing some of the world's largest <!--del_lnk--> hail), and cool winters. The southern regions have warm summers and cold winters with heavy snowfall, specially in mountainous zones. Higher elevations at all latitudes experience cooler conditions.<p>The hottest and coldest <!--del_lnk--> temperature extremes recorded in South America have occurred in Argentina. A record high temperature of 48.8 <!--del_lnk--> °C (120 <!--del_lnk--> °F), was recorded at Rivadavia, <!--del_lnk--> Salta on <!--del_lnk--> December 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1905. The lowest temperature recorded was −32.7 °C (−27 °F) at Sarmiento, <!--del_lnk--> Chubut, June 1st, 1907.<p>Major winds in Argentina include the cool <!--del_lnk--> Pampero blowing on the flat plains of Patagonia and the <i>Pampas</i> after a <!--del_lnk--> cold front; the <!--del_lnk--> Viento Norte, a warm wind that can blow from the north in mid and late winter creating mild conditions; and the <!--del_lnk--> Zonda, a hot and dry wind (<!--del_lnk--> <i>see</i> Föhn wind), affecting west-central Argentina. Squeezed of all moisture during the 6,000 meter descent from the Andes, Zonda winds can blow for hours with gusts up to 120 <!--del_lnk--> km/h, fueling <!--del_lnk--> wildfires and causing damage. When the Zonda blows (June-November), snowstorms and <!--del_lnk--> blizzard (<i>viento blanco</i>) conditions usually affect the higher elevations.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Sudestada (literally "southeaster") could be considered similar to the <!--del_lnk--> Noreaster, though snowfall is rarely involved (but is not unprecedented). Both are associated with a deep winter low pressure system. The <i>sudestada</i> usually moderates cold temperatures but brings very heavy rains, rough seas, and coastal flooding. It is most common in late autumn and winter along the coasts of central Argentina and in the Río de la Plata <!--del_lnk--> estuary.<p>The southern regions, particularly the far south, experience long periods of daylight from November to February (up to 19 hours), and extended nights from May to August. All of Argentina uses <!--del_lnk--> UTC-3 time zone. The country does not observe <!--del_lnk--> daylight savings.<p><a id="Extreme_points" name="Extreme_points"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Extreme points</span></h3>
<p>Argentina's eastermost continental point is northeast of the town of <!--del_lnk--> Bernardo de Irigoyen, <!--del_lnk--> Misiones (<span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 26°15′S 53°38′W</span>), the westernmost in the Mariano Moreno Range in <!--del_lnk--> Santa Cruz (<span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 49°33′S 73°35′W</span>). The northermost point is located at the confluence of the Grande de San Juan and Mojinete rivers, <!--del_lnk--> Jujuy (<span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 21°46′S 66°13′W</span>), and the southernmost is Cape San Pío in <!--del_lnk--> Tierra del Fuego (<span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 55°03′S 66°31′W</span>).<p><a id="Enclaves_and_exclaves" name="Enclaves_and_exclaves"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Enclaves and exclaves</span></h3>
<p>There is one Argentine <!--del_lnk--> exclave, the <!--del_lnk--> Martín García Island (co-ordinates <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 34°11′S 58°15′W</span>). It is near the confluence of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, a kilometre (0.62 mi) inside <a href="../../wp/u/Uruguay.htm" title="Uruguay">Uruguayan</a> waters, and 3.5 kilometres (2.1 mi) from the Uruguayan coastline near the small town of <!--del_lnk--> Martín Chico (itself halfway between <!--del_lnk--> Nueva Palmira and <!--del_lnk--> Colonia del Sacramento).<p>An agreement reached by Argentina and Uruguay in 1973 reaffirmed Argentine jurisdiction over the island, ending a century-old dispute. Under the terms of the agreement, Martín García is to be devoted exclusively as a natural preserve. Its area is about 2 square kilometres (500 <!--del_lnk--> acres), and its population is about 200 people.<p><a id="Flora_and_fauna" name="Flora_and_fauna"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Flora and fauna</span></h2>
<p><a id="Vegetation" name="Vegetation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Vegetation</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16005.jpg.htm" title="Ceibo is Argentina's national flower"><img alt="Ceibo is Argentina's national flower" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Erythrina_crista-galli2.jpg" src="../../images/160/16005.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16005.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Ceibo is Argentina's national flower</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Subtropical plants dominate the north, part of the <!--del_lnk--> Gran Chaco region of South America. The <!--del_lnk--> genus <!--del_lnk--> Dalbergia of trees is well disseminated with representatives like the <i><!--del_lnk--> Brazilian Rosewood</i> and the <i><!--del_lnk--> quebracho</i> tree; also predominant are white and black <i><!--del_lnk--> algarrobo</i> trees (<!--del_lnk--> prosopis alba and <!--del_lnk--> prosopis nigra). <i>Savannah</i>-like areas exist in the drier regions nearer the <a href="../../wp/a/Andes.htm" title="Andes">Andes</a>. Acquatic plants thrive in the wetlands dotting the region.<p>In central Argentina the <i>humid <!--del_lnk--> pampas</i> are a true <!--del_lnk--> tallgrass prairie <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem. The original <i>pampa</i> had virtually no <!--del_lnk--> trees; today along roads or in towns and country estates (<i>estancias</i>), some imported species like the <!--del_lnk--> American sycamore or <!--del_lnk--> eucalyptus are present. The only tree-like plant native to the <i>pampa</i> is the <!--del_lnk--> ombú, an evergreen. The surface soils of the <i>pampa</i> are a deep black colour, primarily <i>humus</i>, known commonly as <!--del_lnk--> compost. It is this which makes the region one of the most agriculturaly productive on Earth. However, this is also responsible for decimating much of the original ecosystem, to make way for commercial <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>. The western <i>pampas</i> receive less rainfall, this <i>dry pampa</i> is a plain of short grasses or <!--del_lnk--> steppe.<p>Most of <!--del_lnk--> Patagonia in the south lies within a <i>rain shade</i> of the <a href="../../wp/a/Andes.htm" title="Andes">Andes</a>. The plantlife, shrubby bushes and plants, is well suited to withstand dry conditions. The soil is hard and rocky making large-scale <!--del_lnk--> farming impossible except along <!--del_lnk--> river valleys. <!--del_lnk--> Coniferous forests grow in far western Patagonia and on the island of <!--del_lnk--> Tierra del Fuego. Conifers native to the region include <!--del_lnk--> alerce (<i>Fitzroya cupressoides</i>), <!--del_lnk--> ciprés de la cordillera (<i>Austrocedrus chilensis</i>), <!--del_lnk--> ciprés de las guaitecas (<i>Pilgerodendron uviferum</i>), <!--del_lnk--> huililahuán (<i>Podocarpus nubigenus</i>), <!--del_lnk--> lleuque (<i>Prumnopitys andina</i>), <!--del_lnk--> mañío hembra (<i>Saxegothaea conspicua</i>), and <!--del_lnk--> pehuén (<i>Araucaria araucana</i>), while native broadleaf trees include several species of <i><!--del_lnk--> Nothofagus</i> including coigüe or <!--del_lnk--> coihue, <!--del_lnk--> lenga (<i>Nothofagus pumilio</i>), <!--del_lnk--> ñire (<i>Nothofagus antarctica</i>). Other introduced trees present in <!--del_lnk--> forestry <!--del_lnk--> plantations include <!--del_lnk--> spruce, <!--del_lnk--> cypress, and <!--del_lnk--> pine. Common plants are the <!--del_lnk--> copihue and colihue (<i><!--del_lnk--> Chusquea coleou</i>).<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Cuyo, semiarid thorny bushes and other <!--del_lnk--> xerophile plants abound. Along the many river <!--del_lnk--> oasis, grasses and trees grow in significant numbers. The area presents optimal conditions for the large scale growth of <!--del_lnk--> grape vines. In the northwest of Argentina there are many species of <a href="../../wp/c/Cactus.htm" title="Cactus">cactii</a>. In the highest elevations (often above 4,000mts), no vegetation grows due to the extreme altitude, and the soils are virtually devoid of any plant life.<p>The <i>ceibo</i> flower (belonging to the tree <!--del_lnk--> Erythrina crista-galli), is the national flower of Argentina.<p><a id="Animal_life" name="Animal_life"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Animal life</span></h3>
<p>Many species live in the subtropical north. Big cats like the <!--del_lnk--> jaguar, <!--del_lnk--> puma, and <!--del_lnk--> ocelot; primates (<!--del_lnk--> howler monkey); large reptiles (<!--del_lnk--> crocodiles), and a species of <!--del_lnk--> caiman. Other animals include the <!--del_lnk--> tapir, <!--del_lnk--> capybara, <a href="../../wp/a/Anteater.htm" title="Anteater">anteater</a>, <!--del_lnk--> ferret, <!--del_lnk--> raccoon, and various species of <a href="../../wp/t/Turtle.htm" title="Turtle">turtle</a> and <!--del_lnk--> tortoise. There are many birds, notably <!--del_lnk--> hummingbirds, <!--del_lnk--> flamingos, <!--del_lnk--> toucans, and <!--del_lnk--> parrots.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16006.jpg.htm" title="The Condor in flight"><img alt="The Condor in flight" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Condor_flying_over_the_Colca_canyon_in_Peru.jpg" src="../../images/160/16006.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16006.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Condor in flight</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The central grasslands are populated by the <a href="../../wp/a/Armadillo.htm" title="Armadillo">armadillo</a>, <!--del_lnk--> pampas cat, and the <!--del_lnk--> rhea (<i>ñandú</i>), a flightless bird. <a href="../../wp/h/Hawk.htm" title="Hawks">Hawks</a>, <!--del_lnk--> falcons, <!--del_lnk--> herons, <!--del_lnk--> partridges inhabit the region. There are also <!--del_lnk--> deer and <!--del_lnk--> foxes. Some of these species extend into <!--del_lnk--> Patagonia.<p>The western mountains are home to different animals. These include the <!--del_lnk--> llama, <!--del_lnk--> guanaco, <!--del_lnk--> vicuña, among the most recognizable species of South America. Also in this region are the <a href="../../wp/j/Jackal.htm" title="Jackal">jackal</a>, <!--del_lnk--> andean cat, and the largest flying bird in the New World, the <!--del_lnk--> condor.<p>Southern Argentina is home to the <!--del_lnk--> puma, <!--del_lnk--> huemul, <!--del_lnk--> pudú (the world's smallest deer), and <!--del_lnk--> wild boar. The coast of <!--del_lnk--> Patagonia is rich in animal life: <!--del_lnk--> elephant seals, <!--del_lnk--> fur seals, <!--del_lnk--> sea lions, and species of <a href="../../wp/p/Penguin.htm" title="Penguin">penguin</a>. The far south is populated by <a href="../../wp/c/Cormorant.htm" title="Cormorant">cormorant</a> birds.<p>The territorial waters of Argentina have abundant ocean life; mammals such as <a href="../../wp/d/Dolphin.htm" title="Dolphins">dolphins</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Orca.htm" title="Orca">orcas</a>, and whales like the southern <a href="../../wp/r/Right_whale.htm" title="Right whale">right whale</a>, a major tourist draw for naturalists. Sea fish include <!--del_lnk--> sardines, <!--del_lnk--> argentine hakes, <!--del_lnk--> dolphinfish, <!--del_lnk--> salmon, and <!--del_lnk--> sharks; also present are <!--del_lnk--> squid and <!--del_lnk--> spider crab (<i>centolla</i>) in <!--del_lnk--> Tierra del Fuego. Rivers and streams in Argentina have many species of <a href="../../wp/t/Trout.htm" title="Trout">trout</a> and the South American <!--del_lnk--> dorado fish. Outstanding snake species inhabiting Argentina include <!--del_lnk--> boa constrictors, and the very <!--del_lnk--> venomous <i>yacará</i> <!--del_lnk--> pit viper and south American <!--del_lnk--> rattle snake.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Hornero was elected the National Bird after a survey in 1928.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<p><a id="Recent_developments" name="Recent_developments"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Recent developments</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16007.jpg.htm" title="Current Argentine peso bills"><img alt="Current Argentine peso bills" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pesosargentinos.jpg" src="../../images/160/16007.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16007.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Current Argentine peso bills</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Argentina benefits from rich <!--del_lnk--> natural resources, a highly <!--del_lnk--> literate population, an export-oriented <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> sector, and a diversified <a href="../../wp/i/Industry.htm" title="Industry">industrial</a> base. The country historically had a large middle class compared to other Latin American countries, but this segment of the population was decimated by a succession of economic crises. Today, while a significant segment of the population is still financially well-off, they stand in sharp contrast with millions who have seen their purchasing power drastically reduced. Since 2002, there has been an improvement in the situation of the poorer sectors and a strong rebound of the middle class.<p>Since the late 1970s, the country piled up public debt and was plagued by bouts of high <!--del_lnk--> inflation. In 1991, the government <!--del_lnk--> pegged the peso to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">U.S. dollar</a> and limited the growth in the <!--del_lnk--> monetary base. The government then embarked on a path of <!--del_lnk--> trade liberalization, <!--del_lnk--> deregulation, and <!--del_lnk--> privatization. Inflation dropped and the <!--del_lnk--> gross domestic product grew, but external economic shocks and failures of the system diluted its benefits, causing it to crumble in slow motion, from 1995 and up to the <!--del_lnk--> collapse in 2001.<p>By 2002, Argentina had <!--del_lnk--> defaulted on its debt, its GDP had shrunk, <!--del_lnk--> unemployment was more than 25%, and the peso had <!--del_lnk--> depreciated 75% after being <!--del_lnk--> devalued and <!--del_lnk--> floated. However, careful spending control and heavy <!--del_lnk--> taxes on now-soaring exports gave the state the tools to regain resources and conduct <!--del_lnk--> monetary policy.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16008.jpg.htm" title="Hilton Hotel to the right of River View Towers, Buenos Aires"><img alt="Hilton Hotel to the right of River View Towers, Buenos Aires" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Buenos_Aires-Puerto_Madero-Hilton-River_View.jpg" src="../../images/160/16008.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16008.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Hilton Hotel to the right of River View Towers, Buenos Aires</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In 2003, <!--del_lnk--> import substitution policies and soaring <!--del_lnk--> exports coupled with lower inflation and expansive economic measures, triggered a surge in the GDP. It was repeated in 2004 and 2005, creating millions of jobs and encouraging internal consumption. <!--del_lnk--> Capital flight decreased, and <!--del_lnk--> foreign investment slowly returned. The influx of foreign currency from exports created a huge <!--del_lnk--> trade surplus. The Central Bank was forced to buy dollars from the market, and continues to do a various times today to be accumulated as <!--del_lnk--> reserves. It does this to prevent the argentine peso from appreciating significantly and cutting competitiveness.<p>The situation by 2006 was further improved, the year is on track to match the large GDP growth of the last three (predictions are between 8.5% and 9.0%), though inflation, estimated at around 10 to 12%, has become an issue again, and <!--del_lnk--> income distribution is still considerably unequal. In a variety of reports, internationals organizations criticize Argentina for remaining a somewhat closed economy.<p>Even as the effects of the crisis have abated but not disappeared, Argentina remains one of the most developed countries in Latin America. Even though the income distribution is an important pending problem, it boasts the highest <!--del_lnk--> GDP per capita based on <!--del_lnk--> purchasing power parity, and the 3rd highest in US$ (nominal) GDP. The country enjoys the highest levels of education measured by university attendance, and a reasonable infrastructure that in many aspects equals that found in fully industrialized nations.<p>In 2002, 57,5% of the population was below the <a href="../../wp/p/Poverty.htm" title="Poverty">poverty</a> line, but the last report of August 2006 showed a 31,4% poverty level. Similarly, unemployment was more than 25 percent, by July 2006 it was 10.2 percent. GDP per capita has surpassed the previous pre-recession peak of 1998 in PPP, but still lags in nominal GDP, mostly due to an undervalued currency. The economy grew 8.9 percent in 2003, 9.0 percent in 2004, and 9.2 percent in 2005. As of 2006 foreign debt stands at 68 percent of GDP and is slowly decreasing.<p><a id="Sectors" name="Sectors"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sectors</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/23/2379.jpg.htm" title="Calatrava's Women's Bridge in Puerto Madero"><img alt="Calatrava's Women's Bridge in Puerto Madero" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Buenos_Aires-Puente_de_la_Mujer.jpg" src="../../images/23/2379.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/23/2379.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Calatrava's Women's Bridge in Puerto Madero</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In 2004, <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> output accounted for 11% of <!--del_lnk--> GDP, and one third of all exports. <!--del_lnk--> Soy and <!--del_lnk--> vegetable oils are major export <!--del_lnk--> commodities at 24% of exports. <a href="../../wp/w/Wheat.htm" title="Wheat">Wheat</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" title="Maize">maize</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Oat.htm" title="Oats">oats</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sorghum.htm" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> sunflower seeds totalled 8%. <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">Cattle</a> is also a major industry. <!--del_lnk--> Beef, <a href="../../wp/m/Milk.htm" title="Milk">milk</a>, <!--del_lnk--> leather products, and <a href="../../wp/c/Cheese.htm" title="Cheese">cheese</a> were 6% of total exports. <!--del_lnk--> Sheep and <!--del_lnk--> wool industries are important in <!--del_lnk--> Patagonia, <!--del_lnk--> pigs and <!--del_lnk--> caprines elsewhere.<p><!--del_lnk--> Fruits and <!--del_lnk--> vegetables made up 3% of exports: <a href="../../wp/a/Apple.htm" title="Apples">apples</a> and <!--del_lnk--> pears in the <!--del_lnk--> Río Negro valley; <!--del_lnk--> oranges and other <a href="../../wp/c/Citrus.htm" title="Citrus">citrus</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> northwest and <!--del_lnk--> Mesopotamia; <!--del_lnk--> grapes and <!--del_lnk--> strawberries in <!--del_lnk--> Cuyo, and <!--del_lnk--> berries in the far south. <a href="../../wp/c/Cotton.htm" title="Cotton">Cotton</a> and <!--del_lnk--> yerba mate are major crops in the <!--del_lnk--> Gran Chaco, <a href="../../wp/s/Sugarcane.htm" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Tobacco.htm" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> in the northwest, and <!--del_lnk--> olives and <!--del_lnk--> garlic in Cuyo. <a href="../../wp/b/Banana.htm" title="Bananas">Bananas</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Formosa), <!--del_lnk--> tomatoes (<!--del_lnk--> Salta), and <!--del_lnk--> peaches (Mendoza) are grown for domestic consumption. Argentina is the world's 5th <a href="../../wp/w/Wine.htm" title="Wine">wine</a> producer, and fine wine production has taken major leaps in quality. A growing export, total <!--del_lnk--> viticulture potential is far from met. <!--del_lnk--> Mendoza is the largest wine region, followed by <!--del_lnk--> San Juan.<p>Industrial <!--del_lnk--> petrochemicals, <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">oil</a>, and <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_gas.htm" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> are Argentina's 2nd group of exports, 20% of totals. The most important <!--del_lnk--> oil fields lie in <!--del_lnk--> Patagonia and <!--del_lnk--> Cuyo. An impressive network of <!--del_lnk--> pipelines send raw product to <!--del_lnk--> Bahia Blanca, centre of the petrochemical industry, and to the <!--del_lnk--> La Plata-<!--del_lnk--> Rosario industrial belt. <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">Coal</a> is also mined.<p><a href="../../wp/m/Mining.htm" title="Mining">Mining</a> is a rising industry. The <!--del_lnk--> northwest and <!--del_lnk--> San Juan Province are main regions of activity. Metals mined include <a href="../../wp/g/Gold.htm" title="Gold">gold</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Silver.htm" title="Silver">silver</a>, <a href="../../wp/z/Zinc.htm" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Magnesium.htm" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sulfur.htm" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Tungsten.htm" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a> and <a href="../../wp/u/Uranium.htm" title="Uranium">uranium</a>. In only ten years exports soared from US$ 200 million to 1.2 billion in 2004, 3% of total.. Estimates for 2006 are US$ 2bn, a 10 fold rise from 1996.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> fisheries, <!--del_lnk--> argentine hake accounts for 50% of catches, <!--del_lnk--> pollack and <!--del_lnk--> squid follow. <!--del_lnk--> Forestry has expanded in <!--del_lnk--> Mesopotamia; <!--del_lnk--> elm for <!--del_lnk--> cellulose, <!--del_lnk--> pine and <!--del_lnk--> eucalyptus for furniture, <!--del_lnk--> timber and <!--del_lnk--> paper products. Both sectors account for 2% of exports each.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16009.jpg.htm" title="The Yaciretá Dam hydroelectric complex is the 2nd largest in the world"><img alt="The Yaciretá Dam hydroelectric complex is the 2nd largest in the world" height="164" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Central_vista_externa_en_gris.jpg" src="../../images/160/16009.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16009.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Yaciretá Dam hydroelectric complex is the 2nd largest in the world</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a href="../../wp/m/Manufacturing.htm" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> is the nation's leading single sector in GDP output, with 35% of the share. Leading sectors are <a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" title="Automobile">motor vehicles</a>, <!--del_lnk--> auto parts, and <a href="../../wp/t/Transport.htm" title="Transportation">transportation</a> and <!--del_lnk--> farming equipment (7% of exports), <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a> (3%), <!--del_lnk--> foodstuffs and <!--del_lnk--> textiles (2%). Other manufactures include <!--del_lnk--> cement, industrial <!--del_lnk--> chemicals, <!--del_lnk--> home appliances, and processed <a href="../../wp/w/Wood.htm" title="Wood">wood</a>. The biggest industrial centers are <a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>, Rosario and <!--del_lnk--> Córdoba.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> service sector is the biggest contributor to total GDP. Argentina produces energy in large part through well developed <!--del_lnk--> hydroelectric resources; <!--del_lnk--> nuclear energy is also of high importance. The country is one of the largest producers and exporters (with <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>) of <!--del_lnk--> Cobalt-60, a <!--del_lnk--> radioactive <!--del_lnk--> isotope widely used in <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a> therapy. <!--del_lnk--> Telecommunications are extremely strong, with an important penetration of <!--del_lnk--> mobile telephony (75% of population) and <a href="../../wp/i/Internet.htm" title="Internet">internet</a> (30%), <!--del_lnk--> broadband services (3%) are expanding rapidly. Regular <a href="../../wp/t/Telephone.htm" title="Telephone">telephone</a> (85% of households) and <!--del_lnk--> mail are robust. <!--del_lnk--> Construction has led employment creation in the current economic expansion, and is 5% of GDP.<p><a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">Tourism</a> is increasingly important, now providing 7% of economic output. Argentines are travelling more within their borders, and foreign arrivals are flocking to a country seen as affordable, safe, and incredibly diverse: Cosmopolitan <a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Rosario, incomparable <!--del_lnk--> Iguazu Falls and colonial <!--del_lnk--> Salta. From native amerindian <!--del_lnk--> Jujuy Province to fun filled <!--del_lnk--> Córdoba, the <!--del_lnk--> wineries of <!--del_lnk--> Mendoza; skiing in scenic <!--del_lnk--> Bariloche to the beaches of <!--del_lnk--> Pinamar, and <!--del_lnk--> Perito Moreno Glacier to legendary <!--del_lnk--> Tierra del Fuego. 3.7 million tourists visited in 2005.<p><a id="Transportation" name="Transportation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Transportation</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16010.jpg.htm" title="A cargo ship in front of the Rosario-Victoria Bridge"><img alt="A cargo ship in front of the Rosario-Victoria Bridge" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Puente_Rosario-Victoria_2.jpg" src="../../images/160/16010.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16010.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A cargo ship in front of the <!--del_lnk--> Rosario-Victoria Bridge</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Argentina's <!--del_lnk--> highway system is well developed and paved roads reach all corners of the country. There are nearly 640,000 kilometers of highways and roads. Multilane highways now connect several main cities and more are now under construction.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> railway network was one of the largest in the world, at over 40,000 kilometers of tracks. After decades of decaying service and lack of maintenance, most passenger services shut down in 1992 when the rail company was privatized, and thousands of kilometers of track are now in disrepair. Currently, railway services are being reactivated between several cities, along with upgrades in the system. A <!--del_lnk--> high-speed train project between Buenos Aires and Rosario is due to break ground in 2007.<p>The country has around 3,000 kilometers of <!--del_lnk--> waterways, most significant among these the <!--del_lnk--> Río de la Plata, <!--del_lnk--> Paraná, <!--del_lnk--> Uruguay, and <!--del_lnk--> Paraguay rivers.<p><a id="Population" name="Population"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Population</span></h2>
<p><a id="Current_figures" name="Current_figures"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Current figures</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> National Institute of Statistics and Census of Argentina (INDEC) 2001 <!--del_lnk--> census showed the population of Argentina was 36,260,130. It ranks 3rd in South America in total population and 30th globally. The 2005 estimate is for a population of 38,747,000. Argentina's <!--del_lnk--> population density is 14 inhabitants per square kilometer. However, the population is not evenly distributed: areas of the city of Buenos Aires have a population density of over 14,000 inhab./km², while Santa Cruz province has less than 1 inhab./km². Argentina is the only nation in Latin America with a net positive <!--del_lnk--> migration rate, of about +0.6 persons.<p><a id="Cities_and_metropolitan_areas" name="Cities_and_metropolitan_areas"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cities and metropolitan areas</span></h3>
<p>The 15 largest metropolitan areas of Argentina as of 2005 are as follows:<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16011.jpg.htm" title="Oroño Boulevard, Rosario"><img alt="Oroño Boulevard, Rosario" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bulevar_Oro%C3%B1o_3.jpg" src="../../images/160/16011.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16011.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Oroño Boulevard, Rosario</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16012.jpg.htm" title="Córdoba is Argentina's 2nd largest city"><img alt="Córdoba is Argentina's 2nd largest city" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:C%C3%B3rdoba-Argentina.jpg" src="../../images/160/16012.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16012.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Córdoba is Argentina's 2nd largest city</div>
</div>
</div>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align:right; margin-right:60px">
<tr>
<th>Rank</th>
<th>City</th>
<th>Province</th>
<th>Population</th>
<th>Region</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">01</td>
<td align="left"><a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a></td>
<td align="left">Buenos Aires <a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">city</a> and <!--del_lnk--> province</td>
<td>14,673,738</td>
<td align="center">Pampean</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">02</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Córdoba</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Córdoba</td>
<td>1,513,200</td>
<td align="center">Pampean</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">03</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Rosario</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Santa Fe</td>
<td>1,295,100</td>
<td align="center">Pampean</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">04</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Mendoza</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Mendoza</td>
<td>1,009,100</td>
<td align="center">Cuyo</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">05</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> La Plata</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Buenos Aires</td>
<td>857,800</td>
<td align="center">Pampean</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">06</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> San Miguel de Tucumán</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Tucumán</td>
<td>833,100</td>
<td align="center">NOA (northwest)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">07</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Mar del Plata</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Buenos Aires</td>
<td>699,600</td>
<td align="center">Pampean</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">08</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Salta</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Salta</td>
<td>531,400</td>
<td align="center">NOA (northwest)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">09</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Santa Fe</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Santa Fe</td>
<td>524,300</td>
<td align="center">Pampean</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">10</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> San Juan</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> San Juan</td>
<td>456,400</td>
<td align="center">Cuyo</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">11</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Resistencia</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Chaco</td>
<td>399,800</td>
<td align="center">Gran Chaco</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">12</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Neuquén</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Neuquén</td>
<td>391,600</td>
<td align="center">Patagonian</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">13</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Santiago del Estero</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Santiago del Estero</td>
<td>389,200</td>
<td align="center">Gran Chaco</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">14</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Corrientes</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Corrientes</td>
<td>332,400</td>
<td align="center">Gran Chaco</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">15</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Bahía Blanca</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Buenos Aires</td>
<td>310,200</td>
<td align="center">Pampean</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16013.jpg.htm" title="Queen and Princesses of the 2004 National Immigrants' Festival, Oberá, Misiones."><img alt="Queen and Princesses of the 2004 National Immigrants' Festival, Oberá, Misiones." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Immigrant%27squeens.JPG" src="../../images/160/16013.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16013.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Queen and Princesses of the 2004 National Immigrants' Festival, Oberá, Misiones.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>More than any other Latin American country, Argentina's population is of European origin. Most of the population is made up of descendants of <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spanish</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italian</a>, and other European settlers.<p><a id="Europeans" name="Europeans"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Europeans</span></h3>
<p>After the regimented Spanish colonists, waves of European <!--del_lnk--> immigrants settled in Argentina from the late 19th to mid 20th centuries. Major contributors include <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> (notably <!--del_lnk--> Campania, <!--del_lnk--> Piedmont, <!--del_lnk--> Calabria, <!--del_lnk--> Veneto, <!--del_lnk--> Lombardy), <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> (foremost among them ethnic <!--del_lnk--> Galicians and <!--del_lnk--> Basques), and <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> (mostly to Buenos Aires and Mendoza). Smaller but significant numbers of immigrants came from <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> (in the so-called <i>Lakes Region</i> of Patagonia; and in Córdoba), <!--del_lnk--> Scandinavia (<a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>), the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a> (to Buenos Aires, Santa Fé, and Patagonia), and <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>. Eastern Europeans were also numerous, from <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Romania.htm" title="Romania">Romania</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/Lithuania.htm" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, as well as <!--del_lnk--> Balkan countries (<a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, particularly in Chaco). Smaller waves of settlers from <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> are recorded in Argentine immigration records. There is a large <!--del_lnk--> Armenian community, and the patagonian Chubut Valley has a significant <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Welsh</a>-descended population. The majority of Argentina's Jewish community (the largest in Latin America and fifth worldwide) derives from immigrants of north and eastern European origin (<!--del_lnk--> Ashkenazi Jews), and about 15-20% from <!--del_lnk--> Sephardic groups from Spain or <!--del_lnk--> Muslim nations. Many <!--del_lnk--> Syrians and <!--del_lnk--> Lebanese chose to emigrate to Argentina, which prior to 1924 were recorded as arrivals from the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>.<p><a id="Minorities" name="Minorities"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Minorities</span></h3>
<p>The largest ethnic minority is the <a href="../../wp/m/Mestizo.htm" title="Mestizo">Mestizo</a> (European/Amerindian) population, especially in the northern provinces. Estimates range from 3 to 15%. In recent decades, especially during the 1990s, there has been an influx of immigrants from neighboring countries, principally <a href="../../wp/p/Paraguay.htm" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia.htm" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a>; but some <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexican">Mexican</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Central American immigration took place.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16014.jpg.htm" title="Argentine Gaucho"><img alt="Argentine Gaucho" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:GauchoArgen.jpg" src="../../images/160/16014.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16014.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Argentine Gaucho</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Small but growing numbers of people from East Asia have also settled Argentina, mainly in Buenos Aires. The first Asian-Argentines were of <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> descent; <a href="../../wp/k/Korea.htm" title="Korea">Koreans</a>, <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam.htm" title="Vietnam">Vietnamese</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Chinese followed. The <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">Chinese</a> population alone has risen dramatically, now at over 60,000. Argentina is home to a significant <!--del_lnk--> refugee population from <a href="../../wp/l/Laos.htm" title="Laos">Laos</a>.<p>Argentina has a large <!--del_lnk--> Arabic community, made up mostly of immigrants from <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>. Many have gained prominent status in national business and politics, including former president <!--del_lnk--> Carlos Menem, the son of <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syrian</a> settlers from the province of La Rioja. Most of the Arab Argentines are <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christian</a> of the <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Orthodox and <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Catholic Churches, other than Muslims who represent a small portion of Arab Argentines.<p>The officially recognized <!--del_lnk--> indigenous population in the country, according to the <!--del_lnk--> 2005 Complementary Survey of Indigenous Peoples, stands at approximately 318,700 people (0.8 percent of the total population), who are either members or first-generation descendants of a recognized indigenous community. These parameters may imply an under-count, as most indigenous Argentines are no longer tribally affiliated; in some circumstances they have not been for several generations.<p><a id="Illegal_immigrants" name="Illegal_immigrants"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Illegal immigrants</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Illegal immigration has been a relatively important population factor in recent Argentine demographics. Most illegal immigrants come from <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia.htm" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Paraguay.htm" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, countries which border Argentina to the north. Smaller numbers arrive from <a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Ecuador.htm" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Romania.htm" title="Romania">Romania</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>. The number of stowaways inside incoming ships from <!--del_lnk--> West Africa have increased in recent times. The Argentine government estimates 750,000 are undocumented and has launched a program called <i>Patria Grande</i> ("Greater Homeland"), to encourage illegal immigrants to regularize their status; so far some 200,000 applications have been processed under the program. Other unofficial estimates suggest that over one million people reside in Argentina illegally.<p><a id="Urbanization" name="Urbanization"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Urbanization</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16015.jpg.htm" title="Government house of Tucumán"><img alt="Government house of Tucumán" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tucum%C3%A1n-Casa-Gobierno-1.jpg" src="../../images/160/16015.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16015.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Government house of Tucumán</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16016.jpg.htm" title="Beach on the Atlantic Ocean, Mar del Plata"><img alt="Beach on the Atlantic Ocean, Mar del Plata" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mar-del-plata.JPG" src="../../images/160/16016.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16016.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Beach on the Atlantic Ocean, <!--del_lnk--> Mar del Plata</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Argentina's population is very highly urbanized. About 2.7 million people live in the autonomous city of <a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>, and 11.5 million in <!--del_lnk--> Greater Buenos Aires (2001), making it one of the largest urban conglomerates in the world. Together with their respective <!--del_lnk--> metropolitan areas, the second- and third-largest cities in Argentina, <!--del_lnk--> Córdoba and <!--del_lnk--> Rosario, comprise about 1.3 and 1.1 million inhabitants respectively.<p>Most European <!--del_lnk--> immigrants to Argentina settled in the cities, which offered jobs, education, and other opportunities that enabled newcomers to enter the <!--del_lnk--> middle class. Many also settled in the growing small towns along the expanding railway system. Since the 1930s, many rural workers have moved to the big cities.<p>The 1990s saw many rural towns become <!--del_lnk--> ghost towns when train services ceased and local products manufactured on a small scale were replaced by massive amounts of cheap imported goods. Many slums (<i><!--del_lnk--> villas miseria</i>) sprouted in the outskirts of the largest cities, inhabited by impoverished lower-class urban dwellers, migrants from smaller towns in the interior, and also a large number of immigrants from neighbouring countries that came during the time of the convertibility and did not leave after the 2001 crisis.<p>Argentina's urban areas have a European look, reflecting the influence of European settlers. Many cities are built in a Spanish-grid style around a main square called a <i>plaza</i>. A cathedral and important government buildings often face the <i>plaza</i>. The general layout of the cities is called a <i>damero</i>, or checkerboard, since it is based on a pattern of square blocks, though modern developments sometimes depart from it (the city of La Plata, built at the end of the 19th century, is organized as a checkerboard plus diagonal avenues at fixed intervals). The El Faro Towers, show the modern architecture for urbanization.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/23/2377.jpg.htm" title="European and modern styles in Buenos Aires"><img alt="European and modern styles in Buenos Aires" height="206" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Buenos_Aires-Center-P3050007.JPG" src="../../images/23/2377.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/23/2377.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> European and modern styles in Buenos Aires</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Argentine culture has been primarily informed and influenced by its European roots. <a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>, considered by many its cultural capital, is often said to be the most European city in South America, due both to the prevalence of people of European descent and to conscious imitation of European styles in art forms such as its <!--del_lnk--> architecture. The other big influence on the development of a national identity is the culture of the <!--del_lnk--> gauchos and their traditional country lifestyle of self-reliance. Finally, indigenous American traditions (like <!--del_lnk--> mate tea drinking) have been absorbed into the greater cultural realm.<p><a id="Literature" name="Literature"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Literature</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Argentina has a rich history of world-renowned literature, including one of 20th century's most critically acclaimed writers, <a href="../../wp/j/Jorge_Luis_Borges.htm" title="Jorge Luis Borges">Jorge Luis Borges</a>. The country has been a leader in Latin American literature since becoming a fully united entity in the 1850s, with a strong constitution and a defined nation-building plan. The struggle between the Unitarians (who favored a loose <!--del_lnk--> confederation of provinces based on rural conservatism) and the Federalists (pro-<a href="../../wp/l/Liberalism.htm" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a> and advocates of a strong federal government that would encourage European immigration), set the tone for Argentine literature of the time.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16017.jpg.htm" title="José Hernández was the author of the epic tale The Gaucho Martín Fierro"><img alt="José Hernández was the author of the epic tale The Gaucho Martín Fierro" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jose_Hernandez_Argentino.jpg" src="../../images/160/16017.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16017.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> José Hernández was the author of the epic tale The Gaucho <!--del_lnk--> Martín Fierro</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The ideological divide between <!--del_lnk--> gaucho epic <i><!--del_lnk--> Martín Fierro</i> by <!--del_lnk--> José Hernández, and <i>Facundo</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, is a great example. Hernández favored the pastoral lifestyle of early Argentina and vehemently opposed European immigration. Sarmiento wrote immigration was the only way to save Argentina from becoming subject to the rule of a small number of dictatorial <i><!--del_lnk--> caudillo</i> families, arguing such immigrants would make Argentina more modern and enlightened to Western European thought, and therefore a more prosperous society.<p>Argentine literature of that period was fiercely nationalist. It was followed by the <!--del_lnk--> modernist movement, which emerged in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> in the late 19th century, and this period in turn was followed by vanguardism, with <!--del_lnk--> Ricardo Güiraldes as an important reference. <a href="../../wp/j/Jorge_Luis_Borges.htm" title="Jorge Luis Borges">Jorge Luis Borges</a> is Argentina's most acclaimed writer. Borges found new ways of looking at the modern world in metaphor and philosophical debate, and his influence has extended to writers all over the globe. Borges is most famous for his works in short stories such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Ficciones</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Aleph</i>.<p>Argentina has produced many more internationally noted writers, poets, and intellectuals: <!--del_lnk--> Juan Bautista Alberdi, <!--del_lnk--> Roberto Arlt, <!--del_lnk--> Enrique Banchs, <!--del_lnk--> Adolfo Bioy Cásares, <!--del_lnk--> Eugenio Cambaceres, <!--del_lnk--> Julio Cortázar, <!--del_lnk--> Esteban Echeverria, <!--del_lnk--> Leopoldo Lugones, <!--del_lnk--> Eduardo Mallea, <!--del_lnk--> Ezequiel Martínez Estrada, <!--del_lnk--> Tomás Eloy Martínez, <!--del_lnk--> Victoria Ocampo, <!--del_lnk--> Manuel Puig, <!--del_lnk--> Ernesto Sabato, <!--del_lnk--> Osvaldo Soriano, <!--del_lnk--> Alfonsina Storni, and <!--del_lnk--> María Elena Walsh. The one and only <!--del_lnk--> Quino (born <i>Joaquin Salvador Lavado</i>), has entertained readers the world over, while dipping into the events of modern times, with soup-hating <!--del_lnk--> Mafalda and her <!--del_lnk--> comic strip gang.<p><a id="Film_and_theater" name="Film_and_theater"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Film and theatre</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:262px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/135/13544.jpg.htm" title="The Nueve de Julio Avenue, the world's widest street. Its name honors Argentine Independence Day (July 9, 1816)."><img alt="The Nueve de Julio Avenue, the world's widest street. Its name honors Argentine Independence Day (July 9, 1816)." height="146" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Buenos_Aires-Av._9_de_julio.jpg" src="../../images/23/2372.jpg" width="260" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/135/13544.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Nueve de Julio Avenue, the world's widest street. Its name honours Argentine Independence Day (July 9, 1816).</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Argentina is a major producer of <a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Motion pictures">motion pictures</a>. The world's first animated films were made and released in Argentina, by cartoonist <!--del_lnk--> Quirino Cristiani. <!--del_lnk--> Argentine cinema enjoyed a 'golden age' in the 1930s through the 1950s with scores of productions, many now considered classics of Spanish-language film. More recent films have achieved worldwide recognition, such as <i><!--del_lnk--> The Official Story (La Historia Oficial)</i> , <i><!--del_lnk--> Nine Queens (Nueve Reinas)</i> , <i><!--del_lnk--> Man Facing Southeast</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Son of the Bride</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Motorcycle Diaries (Diarios de Motocicleta)</i> , or <i><!--del_lnk--> Iluminados por el Fuego</i>. Although rarely rivaling <!--del_lnk--> Hollywood-type movies in popularity, local films are released weekly and widely followed in Argentina and internationally. Even low-budget films have earned prizes in cinema festivals (such as <!--del_lnk--> Cannes). The city of <!--del_lnk--> Mar del Plata organizes its <!--del_lnk--> own film festival, while Buenos Aires has its <!--del_lnk--> independent cinema counterpart. The per capita number of screens is one of the highest in Latin America, and viewing per capita is the highest in the region. A new generation of Argentine directors has caught the attention of critics worldwide.<p>Buenos Aires is one of the great capitals of <!--del_lnk--> theatre. Besides the <i>Teatro Colón</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Colón Theatre, one of the great <!--del_lnk--> opera houses of the world), with its program of national and international caliber, <i>Calle Corrientes</i>, or <!--del_lnk--> Corrientes Avenue, is synonymous with the art. It is dubbed 'the street that never sleeps', and sometimes referred to as the <!--del_lnk--> Broadway of Buenos Aires. Many great careers in acting, music, and film have begun in its many theaters. The <i>Teatro General San Martín</i> is one of the most prestigious along Corrientes Avenue; the <i>Teatro Nacional Cervantes</i> is designated the national theater of Argentina. Another important theatre is the <i>Independencia</i> in <!--del_lnk--> Mendoza. Florencio Sanchez and <!--del_lnk--> Griselda Gambaro are famous argentine playwrights. <!--del_lnk--> Julio Bocca is one of the great <!--del_lnk--> ballet dancers of the modern era.<p><a id="Painting_and_sculpture" name="Painting_and_sculpture"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Painting and sculpture</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16018.jpg.htm" title="Día de Sol (Sunny Day) by Benito Quinquela Martín. (1958)"><img alt="Día de Sol (Sunny Day) by Benito Quinquela Martín. (1958)" height="126" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BQM_Dia_de_Sol_%281958%29.jpg" src="../../images/160/16018.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16018.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Día de Sol</b> (<i>Sunny Day</i>) by Benito Quinquela Martín. (<!--del_lnk--> 1958)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Perhaps one of the most enigmatic figures of argentine culture is Oscar Agustín Alejandro Schulz Solari, <i>aka</i> <!--del_lnk--> Xul Solar, whose watercolour syle and unorthodox painting media draws large crowds at museums worldwide; he also 'invented' two imaginary languages. The works of <!--del_lnk--> Candido Lopez (in <!--del_lnk--> Naïve art style), <!--del_lnk--> Emilio Pettoruti (<!--del_lnk--> cubist), <!--del_lnk--> Antonio Berni (<!--del_lnk--> neo-figurative style), <!--del_lnk--> Fernando Fader, and Guillermo Kuitca are appreciated internationally.<p><!--del_lnk--> Benito Quinquela Martín is considered to be the quintesennial 'port' painter, to which the city of <a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a> and particularly the working class and immigrant-bound <!--del_lnk--> La Boca neighbourhood, was excellently suited for. <!--del_lnk--> Lucio Fontana and <!--del_lnk--> Leon Ferrari are acclaimed <a href="../../wp/s/Sculpture.htm" title="Sculpture">scuptors</a> and <!--del_lnk--> conceptual artists.<p><a id="Food_and_drink" name="Food_and_drink"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Food and drink</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16019.jpg.htm" title="Asado"><img alt="Asado" height="118" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Asado_argentino.jpg" src="../../images/160/16019.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16019.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Asado</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Argentine food is influenced by cuisine from <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> and other European countries, and many foods from those countries such as pasta, sausages, and desserts are common in the nation's diet. Argentina has a wide variety of staple foods, which include <i><!--del_lnk--> empanadas</i>, a stuffed pastry; <i><!--del_lnk--> locro</i>, a mixture of corn, beans, meat, bacon, onion, and gourd; and <i><!--del_lnk--> chorizo</i>, a meat-based spicy sausage. The Argentine barbecue, <i><!--del_lnk--> asado</i>, is one of the most famous in the world and includes various types of meats, among them <i>chorizo</i>, <!--del_lnk--> sweetbread, <!--del_lnk--> chitterlings, and <!--del_lnk--> blood sausage. Thin sandwiches, <!--del_lnk--> sandwiches de miga, are also popular. Being an important <!--del_lnk--> wine producer, the yearly consumption is among the highest worldwide (<!--del_lnk--> Malbec has become a representative variety from Argentina). Also, a common custom among Argentines is drinking <!--del_lnk--> mate. <!--del_lnk--> Dulce de Leche is a famous sweet caramel spread.<p><a id="Sports" name="Sports"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sports</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16020.jpg.htm" title="The stadium for Boca Juniors football club, currently the team with the most international championships (16)"><img alt="The stadium for Boca Juniors football club, currently the team with the most international championships (16)" height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:La_Bombonera.jpg" src="../../images/160/16020.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16020.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The stadium for <!--del_lnk--> Boca Juniors football club, currently the team with the most international championships (16)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Argentina is a world power in <!--del_lnk--> team sports. <!--del_lnk--> Football (<a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">soccer</a>) is the most popular <!--del_lnk--> sport in Argentina, whose <!--del_lnk--> national team is twice <a href="../../wp/f/FIFA_World_Cup.htm" title="FIFA World Cup">FIFA World Cup</a> Champion and one-time Olympic Gold medalist (also 14 times <!--del_lnk--> Copa América winners). Yet the national sport of the country is <!--del_lnk--> pato, played with a six-handle ball on horseback. Also popular are <a href="../../wp/v/Volleyball.htm" title="Volleyball">volleyball</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">basketball</a>; a number of basketball players participate in the NBA and European leagues, and the national team won Olypmpic Gold in the Athens Olympics. Argentina has one of the top ranking teams in <!--del_lnk--> rugby union (see <!--del_lnk--> Los Pumas). Argentine <a href="../../wp/t/Tennis.htm" title="Tennis">tennis</a> is very competitive on the world stage, with dozens of players male and female in active tour. Other popular sports include <!--del_lnk--> field hockey (the top female sport), <!--del_lnk--> golf, and sailing. Argentina has a number of highly-ranked <!--del_lnk--> polo players and the national squad has historically been the world's strongest. <a href="../../wp/c/Cricket.htm" title="Cricket">Cricket</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Baseball.htm" title="Baseball">baseball</a> are played in a limited fashion.<p><!--del_lnk--> Motorsports are well represented in Argentina, with <!--del_lnk--> Turismo Carretera and <!--del_lnk--> TC 2000 being the most popular car racing formats. People all over the country enjoy the races, but it is most fervently followed in small towns and rural Argentina, attracting a rather similar demographic as <!--del_lnk--> NASCAR in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> Rally Argentina is part of the <!--del_lnk--> World Rally Championship (currently held in Córdoba Province).<p>World famous Argentines in sport include <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a> superstar <a href="../../wp/d/Diego_Maradona.htm" title="Diego Maradona">Diego Maradona</a> and five time <!--del_lnk--> Formula 1 champion <!--del_lnk--> Juan Manuel Fangio. Other great sporting figures are <!--del_lnk--> Alfredo Di Stéfano, <!--del_lnk--> Amadeo Carrizo and <!--del_lnk--> Gabriel Batistuta in <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football (soccer)</a>; <!--del_lnk--> Guillermo Vilas, <!--del_lnk--> Gabriela Sabatini, and <!--del_lnk--> David Nalbandian in <a href="../../wp/t/Tennis.htm" title="Tennis">tennis</a>; <!--del_lnk--> Roberto DeVicenzo and <!--del_lnk--> Ángel Cabrera for <!--del_lnk--> golf; <!--del_lnk--> Manu Ginobili and <!--del_lnk--> Andres Nocioni in <a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">basketball</a>; <!--del_lnk--> Luciana Aymar in <!--del_lnk--> field hockey; <!--del_lnk--> Hugo Porta and <!--del_lnk--> Agustin Pichot in <!--del_lnk--> rugby union, <!--del_lnk--> boxers <!--del_lnk--> Pascual Pérez and <!--del_lnk--> Carlos Monzón; the <!--del_lnk--> Heguy Family of <!--del_lnk--> Polo players, and many more.<p><a id="Music" name="Music"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Music</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The major genres of popular music in Argentina are <i>folclore</i> (<a href="../../wp/f/Folk_music.htm" title="Folk music">folk music</a>), <!--del_lnk--> tango, <!--del_lnk--> rock, <i>tropical</i> music (<!--del_lnk--> cumbia), and <!--del_lnk--> dance-<!--del_lnk--> electronica.<p><i>Tango</i>, the music <i>and</i> lyrics (often sung in a form of slang called <!--del_lnk--> lunfardo), is Argentina's musical symbol. The <!--del_lnk--> Milonga dance was a predecessor, slowly evolving into mordern <i>tango</i>. By the 1930s, <i>tango</i> had changed from a dance focused music to one of lyric and poetry, with singers like <!--del_lnk--> Carlos Gardel, <!--del_lnk--> Roberto Goyeneche, <!--del_lnk--> Hugo del Carril, <!--del_lnk--> Tita Merello, and <!--del_lnk--> Edmundo Rivero. The golden age of <i>tango</i> (1930 to mid-1950s) mirrored that of <a href="../../wp/j/Jazz.htm" title="Jazz">Jazz</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Swing in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, featuring large orchestral groups too, like the bands of <!--del_lnk--> Osvaldo Pugliese, <!--del_lnk--> Anibal Troilo, <!--del_lnk--> Francisco Canaro, and <!--del_lnk--> Juan D'Arienzo. After 1955 <i>tango</i> turned more intellectual and listener-oriented, led by <!--del_lnk--> Astor Piazzolla. Today tango has worldwide popularity, and the rise of <!--del_lnk--> <i>neo-tango</i> is a global phenomenon with groups like <!--del_lnk--> Tanghetto, <!--del_lnk--> Bajofondo and <!--del_lnk--> Gotan Project.<p><!--del_lnk--> Argentine rock is the most popular music among youth. Arguably the most listened form of <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>-language rock, its influence and success internationally owes to a rich, uninterrupted evolution. Bands such as <!--del_lnk--> Soda Stereo or <!--del_lnk--> Sumo, and composers like <!--del_lnk--> Charly García, <!--del_lnk--> Luis Alberto Spinetta, and <!--del_lnk--> Fito Páez are referents of national culture. Mid 1960s <a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Rosario were craddles of the music, and by 1970 argentine rock was established among middle class youth (see <!--del_lnk--> Almendra, <!--del_lnk--> Sui Generis, <!--del_lnk--> Pappo, <!--del_lnk--> Crucis). <!--del_lnk--> Seru Giran bridged the gap into the 1980s, when Argentine bands became popular across Latin America and elsewhere (<!--del_lnk--> Enanitos Verdes, <!--del_lnk--> Fabulosos Cadillacs, <!--del_lnk--> Virus, <!--del_lnk--> Andres Calamaro). There are many sub-genres: underground, pop oriented, and some associated with the working class (<!--del_lnk--> La Renga, <!--del_lnk--> Attaque 77, <!--del_lnk--> Divididos, <!--del_lnk--> Los Redonditos). Current popular bands include: <!--del_lnk--> Babasonicos, <!--del_lnk--> Rata Blanca, <!--del_lnk--> El Otro Yo, <!--del_lnk--> Attaque 77, <!--del_lnk--> Bersuit, <!--del_lnk--> Los Piojos, <!--del_lnk--> Intoxicados, and <!--del_lnk--> Miranda!.<p>"Tropical" music, a mixture of <!--del_lnk--> cumbia, local folk, and <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean syles, made it to Buenos Aires with South American migrants. This along with <!--del_lnk--> Cuarteto (<!--del_lnk--> Córdoba, where artist <!--del_lnk--> La Mona Jiménez has inmense popularity) and <!--del_lnk--> chamamé (<!--del_lnk--> Corrientes), gave rise to <!--del_lnk--> cumbia villera. The preferred musical style in the <!--del_lnk--> villa miseria (slums), its lyrics can parallel those of U.S. <!--del_lnk--> gangsta rap (<a href="../../wp/p/Poverty.htm" title="Poverty">poverty</a>, <!--del_lnk--> drugs and <a href="../../wp/c/Crime.htm" title="Crime">crime</a>). Cumbia villera is increasingly accepted within the middle class, particularly bands with ties to <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a> idols (popular bands: <i>Yerba Brava, Pibes Chorros, <!--del_lnk--> Damas Gratis, Nestor en Bloque</i>). <!--del_lnk--> Rodrigo Bueno, simply known as <i>Rodrigo</i>, was a surging <!--del_lnk--> cuarteto star until his untimely death in 2000.<p><a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a> has a major <!--del_lnk--> techno and <!--del_lnk--> electronica scene in Latin America, hosting a variety of events like local raves, the South American Music Conference, and <!--del_lnk--> Creamfields (which has the world record of 65,000 people). European <!--del_lnk--> DJs tour Buenos Aires to perform at clubs or in festivals. The city has its own form of <!--del_lnk--> house music, and is home to many successful electronic tango groups. Famous DJs from Argentina include <!--del_lnk--> Hernan Cattaneo and <!--del_lnk--> DJ Dero. <!--del_lnk--> Mar del Plata and <!--del_lnk--> Bariloche are other important dance and club-oriented cities.<p><!--del_lnk--> European classical music is well represented in Argentina. Buenos Aires is home to the world-renowned <!--del_lnk--> Colón Theatre. Classical musicians, such as <!--del_lnk--> Martha Argerich, <!--del_lnk--> Lalo Schiffrin, <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Barenboim, Eduardo Alonso-Crespo, and classical composers like <!--del_lnk--> Alberto Ginastera are internationally acclaimed. All major cities in Argentina have impressive theaters or opera houses, and provincial or city orchestras.<p>Argentine folk music is uniquely vast. Beyond dozens of regional dances, a national folk style emerged in the 1930s. <!--del_lnk--> Perón's Argentina would give rise to <!--del_lnk--> Nueva Canción, as artists began expressing in their music objections to political themes. <!--del_lnk--> Atahualpa Yupanqui, the greatest argentine <!--del_lnk--> folk musician, and <!--del_lnk--> Mercedes Sosa would be defining figures in shaping Nueva Canción, gaining worldwide popularity in the process. The style found a huge reception in <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a>, where it took off in the 1970s and went on to influence the entirety of <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" title="Latin America">Latin American</a> music. Today, <!--del_lnk--> Chango Spasiuk and <!--del_lnk--> Soledad Pastorutti have brought folk back to younger generations. <!--del_lnk--> Leon Gieco's <i>folk-rock</i> bridged the gap between <!--del_lnk--> argentine folklore and <!--del_lnk--> argentine rock, introducing both styles to millions overseas in successive tours.<p>Other notable musicians include <!--del_lnk--> Gato Barbieri with his seductive <a href="../../wp/s/Saxophone.htm" title="Saxophone">saxophone</a> and <!--del_lnk--> free jazz compositions, and <!--del_lnk--> Jaime Torres and his spacious <!--del_lnk--> andean music.<p><a id="Religion" name="Religion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Religion</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16021.jpg.htm" title="Cathedral of Córdoba (dating back to the 17th century)."><img alt="Cathedral of Córdoba (dating back to the 17th century)." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Catedral_de_C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Argentina.jpg" src="../../images/160/16021.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16021.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Cathedral of Córdoba (dating back to the 17th century).</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Argentinians are predominantly religious. Around 80% declare themselves <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic</a> according to different surveys, though most are not practising; the Church estimates an affiliation of 70%. Catholicism is supported by the state and endorsed in the <!--del_lnk--> Constitution. <!--del_lnk--> Evangelical churches have gained a foothold in Argentina since the 1980s, and their followers now number more than 3.5 million, about 10% of the total population. Members of <!--del_lnk--> The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) number over 330,300, the seventh-largest concentration in the world. Traditional <!--del_lnk--> Protestant communities are also present.<p>The country also hosts the largest <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Jewish</a> population in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>, about 2 percent of the population. It is also home to one of the largest <a href="../../wp/m/Mosque.htm" title="Mosque">mosques</a> in Latin America, serving Argentina's <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Muslim</a> community, estimated at 500,000–600,000 (93% <!--del_lnk--> Sunni).<p><a id="Language" name="Language"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Language</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16022.jpg.htm" title="A film poster in Buenos Aires. The title exemplifies the phenomenon of voseo."><img alt="A film poster in Buenos Aires. The title exemplifies the phenomenon of voseo." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cartelvosbsas.JPG" src="../../images/160/16022.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16022.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A film poster in Buenos Aires. The title exemplifies the phenomenon of <i><!--del_lnk--> voseo</i>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The only national official language of Argentina is <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> (which the Argentines call "Castellano" or <!--del_lnk--> Castilian), though the Amerindian language <!--del_lnk--> Guaraní also holds official status in the province of <!--del_lnk--> Corrientes. <!--del_lnk--> Quechua is spoken in <!--del_lnk--> Santiago del Estero, <a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>, and the Capital City and has 850.000 speakers of South Bolivian Quechua and 66,000 speakers of Santiago del Estero Quichua nationwide<!--del_lnk--> . There are 100,000 <!--del_lnk--> Mapudungun speaking <!--del_lnk--> Mapuches in the provinces of Neuquen, Río Negro, Chubut, Buenos Aires, and La Pampa.<!--del_lnk--> <p>Some immigrants and indigenous communities have retained their <!--del_lnk--> original languages. For example, Patagonia has many <!--del_lnk--> Welsh-speaking towns, and there are a number of <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>-speaking neighborhoods in Córdoba, Entre Ríos, Buenos Aires and again in Patagonia. Italian, English and French are widely spoken, and other languages such as Japanese, Chinese, Korean and Russian are easily found in Buenos Aires. <!--del_lnk--> Aymara is spoken by members of the Bolivian community who migrated to Argentina from remote rural areas in <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia.htm" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a>.<p>Argentines are the only large <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>-speaking society that universally employ what is known as <i><!--del_lnk--> voseo</i> (the use of the <!--del_lnk--> pronoun <i>vos</i> instead of <i>tú</i> (you), which occasions the use of alternate verb forms as well). The most prevalent dialect is <!--del_lnk--> Rioplatense, whose speakers are primarily located in the basin of the <!--del_lnk--> Río de la Plata.<p>A phonetic study conducted by the Laboratory for Sensory Investigations of <!--del_lnk--> CONICET and the University of Toronto showed that the accent of the inhabitants of Buenos Aires (known as <!--del_lnk--> Porteños) is closer to the Neapolitan dialect of Italian than any other spoken language. This immigration of Italians had a profound influence on <!--del_lnk--> Lunfardo, the famous slang spoken in Buenos Aires and elsewhere in the Río de la Plata region, permeating the vernacular vocabulary of other regions as well.<dl>
<dd><span class="boilerplate seealso"><i>See also: <!--del_lnk--> List of indigenous languages in Argentina</i></span> and also for a more complete report see <!--del_lnk--> Languages of Argentina</dl>
<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h3>
<p>After independence, Argentina rapidly constructed a national <!--del_lnk--> public education system in comparison to other nations, placing the country high up in the rankings of global <a href="../../wp/l/Literacy.htm" title="Literacy">literacy</a>. Today the country has a literacy rate of 97.5%, comparable to other developed nations.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16023.jpg.htm" title="The ubiquitous white uniform of Argentine school children; it is a national symbol of learning"><img alt="The ubiquitous white uniform of Argentine school children; it is a national symbol of learning" height="132" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Delantales_blancos_2.jpg" src="../../images/160/16023.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16023.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The ubiquitous white uniform of Argentine school children; it is a national symbol of learning</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>School attendance is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14. The Argentine school system consists of a primary or lower school level lasting six or seven years, and a secondary or high school level of between 3-5 years. In the 1990s, the system was split into different types of high school instruction, called <i>Educacion Secundaria</i> and the <i>Polimodal</i>. Some provinces adopted the <i>Polimodal</i> while others did not. There is a project in the Executive to repeal this measure and return to a more classic secondary level system of five years. President <!--del_lnk--> Domingo Faustino Sarmiento is overwhelmingly credited in pushing and implementing a free, modern education system in Argentina. The <!--del_lnk--> 1918 University reform shaped the current tripartite representation of most public Universities.<p>Education is free at all levels except for <!--del_lnk--> graduate studies. There are many private school institutions in the primary, secondary and university levels. Around 11.1 million people were enrolled in formal education of some kind:<ul>
<li>9,551,728 people attended either kindergarten, primary (lower school), or secondary (high school) establishements<li>494,461 people attended non-university level establishements (such as training or technical schools)<li>1,125,257 people attended colleges or universities</ul>
<p>There are 35 public <!--del_lnk--> universities across the contry, as well as several private. The Universities of <!--del_lnk--> Buenos Aires, <!--del_lnk--> Córdoba, <!--del_lnk--> La Plata, <!--del_lnk--> UTN (Technology University) , and <!--del_lnk--> Cuyo (Mendoza), are among the most important. Terciary (university) attendance is very high for global standards. Public universities faced cutbacks in spending during the 1980s and 1990s, which led to a decline in overall quality.<p><a id="Holidays" name="Holidays"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Holidays</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Public holidays include most of the Catholic holidays, though holidays of other faiths are respected. The main historic holidays include the anniversaries of the <!--del_lnk--> May Revolution (May 25), the <!--del_lnk--> Independence Day (July 9), <!--del_lnk--> National Flag day (June 20), and the death of national hero <!--del_lnk--> José de San Martín (August 17).<p><a id="Science_and_technology" name="Science_and_technology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Science and technology</span></h2>
<p>Argentina has contributed to the world many distinguished doctors, scientists, and inventors.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16024.jpg.htm" title="Luis Federico Leloir won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1970"><img alt="Luis Federico Leloir won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1970" height="229" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Luis_Federico_Leloir_-_young.jpg" src="../../images/160/16024.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/160/16024.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Luis Federico Leloir won the <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1970</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Argentines have been responsible for major breakthroughs in world <a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" title="Medicine">medicine</a>. <!--del_lnk--> René Favaloro developed the tecniques and performed the world's first ever coronary <!--del_lnk--> bypass surgery, and <!--del_lnk--> Francisco de Pedro invented a more reliable artificial <!--del_lnk--> cardiac pacemaker. <!--del_lnk--> Bernardo Houssay discovered the role of <!--del_lnk--> pituitary hormones in regulating <!--del_lnk--> glucose in animals; <!--del_lnk--> César Milstein did extensive research in <!--del_lnk--> antibodies; <!--del_lnk--> Luis Leloir discovered how organisms store energy coverting glucose into <!--del_lnk--> glycogen, and the compounds which are fundamental in <!--del_lnk--> metabolizing <!--del_lnk--> carbohydrates. <!--del_lnk--> Luis Agote performed one of the first two <!--del_lnk--> blood transfusions with pre-stored blood in history. <!--del_lnk--> Enrique Finochietto designed operating table tools such as the surgical scissors that bear his name ("Finochietto scissors"), and a rib-spreader. <!--del_lnk--> Roberto Zaldívar is a pioneer in laser-eye procedures and research. Argentine research has led to advancement in wound-healing therapies, <!--del_lnk--> heart disease, and in several forms of <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a>.<p>Argentina's <a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_power.htm" title="Nuclear power">nuclear program</a> is highly advanced. Argentina developed its nuclear program without being overly dependent on foreign technology. Nuclear facilities with Argentine technology have been built in <a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. In 1983, the country admitted having the capability of producing weapon-grade <a href="../../wp/u/Uranium.htm" title="Uranium">uranium</a>, a major step to assemble <a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_weapon.htm" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>. Since then Argentina has pledged to use nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.<p>In other areas, <!--del_lnk--> Juan Vucetich is the father of modern dactiloscopy (see <!--del_lnk--> fingerprint), Raúl Pateras de Pescara demonstrated the world's first flight of a <!--del_lnk--> helicopter, Hungarian-Argentine <!--del_lnk--> László Bíró mass-produced the first modern <!--del_lnk--> ball point pens, and Eduardo Taurozzi developed the more efficient pendular combustion engine. <!--del_lnk--> Juan Maldacena, an Argentine-American scientist, is a leading figure in <a href="../../wp/s/String_theory.htm" title="String theory">string theory</a>.<p><a id="Communications" name="Communications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Communications</span></h2>
<p><a id="Print" name="Print"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Print</span></h3>
<p>The printed media in Argentina is highly developed and independent. There are over 200 <!--del_lnk--> newspapers in the country, influential in their home cities and regions. The major national newspapers are from Buenos Aires, including the centrist <i><!--del_lnk--> Clarín</i>, one of the best selling daily in the Spanish speaking world. Other national papers are <i><!--del_lnk--> La Nación</i> (centre-right), <i><!--del_lnk--> Página/12</i> (centre-left), <i><!--del_lnk--> Ámbito Financiero</i> (business conservative), <i>Argentinisches Tageblatt</i> in German, <i>Le Monde Diplomatique</i> in Spanish and French and <i><!--del_lnk--> Crónica</i> (populist). Regional papers of importance include <i><!--del_lnk--> La Capital</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Rosario), <i><!--del_lnk--> Los Andes</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Mendoza), <i><!--del_lnk--> La Voz del Interior</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Córdoba), and <i><!--del_lnk--> El Tribuno</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Salta). <!--del_lnk--> <i>The Buenos Aires Herald</i> is a well-respected English language daily.<p>The Argentine <a href="../../wp/p/Publishing.htm" title="Publishing">publishing</a> industry is together with those in <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> the most important in the Spanish-speaking world. Argentina features the largest <!--del_lnk--> bookstore chains in Latin America, the <i><!--del_lnk--> El Ateneo</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Yenny</i> bookstores; numerous well-stocked independent stores abound. A number carry titles in English and other languages. There are hundreds of <!--del_lnk--> magazine publications covering a plethora of issues and hobbies, which are sold in kiosks on city sidewalks and in bookstores.<p><a id="Radio_and_television" name="Radio_and_television"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Radio and television</span></h3>
<p>Argentina was a pioneering nation in radio broadcasting. At 9 PM on <!--del_lnk--> August 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1920, <i>Sociedad Radio Argentina</i> announced: <i>"We now bring to your homes a live performance of <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Wagner.htm" title="Richard Wagner">Richard Wagner</a>'s Parsifal opera from the <!--del_lnk--> Coliseo Theatre in downtown Buenos Aires"</i>; only about twenty homes in the city had a receiver to tune in. The world's first radio station was the only one in the country until 1922, when <i>Radio Cultura</i> went on the air. By 1925, there were twelve stations in Buenos Aires and ten in other cities. The 1930s were the "golden age" of radio in Argentina, with live variety, news, soap opera, and sport shows.<p>At present there are more than 1,500 radio stations licensed in Argentina; 260 are <!--del_lnk--> AM broadcasting and 1150 <!--del_lnk--> FM broadcasting. Radio remains an important medium in Argentina. Music and youth variety programs dominate FM formats; news, debate, and sports are AM radio's primary broadcasts. <!--del_lnk--> Amateur radio is widespread in the country. Radio still serves a vital service of information, entertainment and even life saving in the most remote communities.<p>The Argentine television industry is large and diverse, widely viewed in Latin America, and its productions seen around the world. Many local programs are broadcast by networks in other countries, and others have their rights purchased by foreign producers for adaptations in their own markets. Argentina has five major networks. All provincial capitals and other large cities have at least one local station. Argentina boasts the highest penetration of cable and satellite television in Latin America, similar to percentages in North America. Many cable networks operate from Argentina and serve the Spanish-speaking world, including <!--del_lnk--> Utilísima Satelital, <!--del_lnk--> TyC Sports, <!--del_lnk--> Fox Sports en Español (with the United States and México), MTV Argentina, Cosmopolitan TV, and the news network Todo Noticias.<p><a id="Trivia_on_Argentina" name="Trivia_on_Argentina"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia on Argentina</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Argentina was the first independent <!--del_lnk--> nation state in the <!--del_lnk--> Southern Hemisphere.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Universidad Nacional de Córdoba is the second oldest university in South America.<li>Five different Argentines have won the <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize (for Chemistry, Medicine and Peace)<li>The city of <!--del_lnk--> La Plata was the first in Latin America with electric street illumination.<li>The Buenos Aires <!--del_lnk--> Subway was the first built in the Southern Hemisphere.<li>The city of <!--del_lnk--> Mendoza is one of the eight wine capitals of the world.<li>Argentines have the highest consumption in the world of <!--del_lnk--> red meat.<li>The first person to be born on the continent of <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> was <!--del_lnk--> Emilio Palma, an <!--del_lnk--> Argentine citizen, at <!--del_lnk--> Esperanza Base</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['SOS Children in Argentina', 'Spanish language', 'English language', 'Buenos Aires', 'Spanish language', 'List of countries by system of government', 'Spain', 'Portugal', 'Currency', 'Time zone', 'United Kingdom', 'Antarctica', 'Falkland Islands', 'South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands', 'Andes', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Paraguay', 'Bolivia', 'Brazil', 'Uruguay', 'Chile', 'Falkland Islands', 'Spanish language', 'South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands', 'Antarctica', 'Chile', 'United Kingdom', 'Spanish language', 'Latin', 'Silver', 'Spain', 'Lima', 'Inca Empire', 'Spain', 'Buenos Aires', 'British Empire', 'Buenos Aires', 'Chile', 'Peru', 'Military dictatorship', 'United States', 'Human rights', 'United States dollar', 'Brazil', 'Paraguay', 'Uruguay', 'Venezuela', 'Bolivia', 'Chile', 'Colombia', 'Ecuador', 'Peru', 'Latin America', 'United Nations', 'El Salvador', 'Honduras', 'Nicaragua', 'Guatemala', 'Ecuador', 'Peru', 'Western Sahara', 'Angola', 'Kuwait', 'Cyprus', 'Croatia', 'Kosovo', 'Bosnia and Herzegovina', 'Bill Clinton', 'United States', 'Falkland Islands', 'South Sandwich Islands', 'Antarctic Treaty System', 'Buenos Aires', 'Haiti', 'Cyprus', 'Falkland Islands', 'Antarctica', 'Buenos Aires', 'Buenos Aires', 'Agriculture', 'Andes', 'Chile', 'Continent', 'Buenos Aires', 'Andes', 'Wine', 'Bolivia', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Dam', 'Ocean', 'Sand', 'Climate', 'Uruguay', 'Andes', 'Agriculture', 'Andes', 'Cactus', 'Anteater', 'Turtle', 'Armadillo', 'Hawks', 'Jackal', 'Penguin', 'Cormorant', 'Dolphins', 'Orca', 'Right whale', 'Trout', 'Agriculture', 'Industry', 'United States dollar', 'Poverty', 'Agriculture', 'Wheat', 'Maize', 'Oats', 'Sorghum', 'Cattle', 'Milk', 'Cheese', 'Apples', 'Citrus', 'Cotton', 'Sugarcane', 'Tobacco', 'Bananas', 'Wine', 'Petroleum', 'Natural gas', 'Coal', 'Mining', 'Gold', 'Silver', 'Zinc', 'Magnesium', 'Copper', 'Sulfur', 'Tungsten', 'Uranium', 'Manufacturing', 'Automobile', 'Transportation', 'Iron', 'Steel', 'Wood', 'Buenos Aires', 'Canada', 'Russia', 'Cancer', 'Internet', 'Telephone', 'Tourism', 'Buenos Aires', 'Buenos Aires', 'Buenos Aires', 'Spain', 'Italy', 'Italy', 'Spain', 'France', 'Germany', 'Switzerland', 'Denmark', 'Norway', 'Sweden', 'United Kingdom', 'Republic of Ireland', 'Portugal', 'Poland', 'Russia', 'Ukraine', 'Romania', 'Lithuania', 'Croatia', 'Serbia', 'Australia', 'South Africa', 'United States', 'Wales', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Mestizo', 'Paraguay', 'Bolivia', 'Peru', 'Mexican', 'Japan', 'Korea', 'Vietnam', 'China', 'Laos', 'Syria', 'Lebanon', 'Syria', 'Christianity', 'Bolivia', 'Paraguay', 'Peru', 'Ecuador', 'Romania', "People's Republic of China", 'Buenos Aires', 'Buenos Aires', 'Jorge Luis Borges', 'Liberalism', 'France', 'Jorge Luis Borges', 'Motion pictures', 'Buenos Aires', 'Sculpture', 'Spain', 'Italy', 'Germany', 'France', 'Football (soccer)', 'FIFA World Cup', 'Volleyball', 'Basketball', 'Tennis', 'Cricket', 'Baseball', 'United States', 'Football (soccer)', 'Diego Maradona', 'Football (soccer)', 'Tennis', 'Basketball', 'Folk music', 'Jazz', 'United States', 'Spanish language', 'Buenos Aires', 'Poverty', 'Crime', 'Football (soccer)', 'Buenos Aires', 'Chile', 'Latin America', 'Saxophone', 'Roman Catholic Church', 'Judaism', 'Latin America', 'Mosque', 'Islam', 'Spanish language', 'Buenos Aires', 'German language', 'Bolivia', 'Spanish language', 'Literacy', 'Medicine', 'Cancer', 'Nuclear power', 'Peru', 'Algeria', 'Australia', 'Egypt', 'Uranium', 'Nuclear weapon', 'String theory', 'Publishing', 'Spain', 'Mexico', 'Richard Wagner', 'Antarctica'] |
Argentina_A | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en">
<head>
<title>Argentina Charity: Sponsor a Child in Argentina</title>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-uk" />
<meta name="Copyright" content="Copyright SOS Children." />
<meta name="robots" content="all" />
<meta name="keywords" content="children charity" />
<meta name="description" content="SOS Children: the world's largest orphan charity." />
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/p/Print.css" media="print" />
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../wp/s/Sos.css" media="screen" />
</head>
<body>
<div id="container">
<div id="header">
<div id="logo"><h1><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm" title="SOS Children's Villages">SOS Chidren's Villages<span></span></a></h1></div>
<div id="siteguide"><a href="../../wp/s/Site_Guide.htm" title="SOS Children Website Guide.">Site Guide</a></div>
<div id="sitesearch"><a href="../../wp/s/Search.htm" title="Search SOS Children Website.">Search</a></div>
</div>
<div id="page">
<div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a> > <a href="../../wp/s/Sponsorship_Directory.htm">Sponsorship Directory</a> > <a href="../../wp/a/Americas.htm">Americas</a> > <strong>Argentina</strong></div>
<div id="col">
<div id="nav">
<span class="boxtop"></span>
<ul><li><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">Charity News</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sos_Childrens_Charity.htm">Charity Facts</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Sponsor a Child</a>
<ul id="subnav"><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsorship_Directory.htm" id="selected">Sponsorship Directory</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/About_Child_Sponsorship.htm">About Child Sponsorship</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/f/Faq.htm">Child Sponsorship FAQ</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/p/Pros_And_Cons.htm">Pros & Cons</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/t/Testimonials.htm">Testimonials</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsored_Events.htm">Sponsored Events</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="../../wp/d/Donate_Help.htm">Donate & Help</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa.htm">Aids in Africa</a></li><li><a href="../../wp/v/Video_Tour.htm">Video Tour</a></li></ul>
<span class="boxbot"></span>
</div>
<!-- NEWS --><!-- ENDNEWS -->
</div>
<div id="content">
<h2>SOS Children in Argentina</h2>
<img src="../../wp/j/Jwp_map_argentina_en.gif" width="272" height="500" alt="Sponsorship sites in Argentina" class="left" /><p>Argentina, the second largest country in South America, is rich in resources, has a well-educated workforce and is one of South America's largest economies, but economic collapse in 2001 left more than half the population living in poverty as the country struggled with record debt defaults and currency devaluation. Recovery is taking place, but for many Argentineans the situation is still critical, especially the poorest members of society whose living conditions are deteriorating rather than improving, with the number of people, particularly children, living below the poverty line increasing. </p><p>Argentina's first SOS Children's community opened in 1987 in Oberá, a town in the Misiones provinces in the north-east near the border with Paraguay. Initially built with six houses, the village was later extended with a further five houses, a youth house, a kindergarten and a school providing primary and secondary education for over 750 pupils, as well as vocational training and adult education evening classes.</p><img src="../../wp/h/HR1_motherandchild_cordoba.jpg" width="333" height="500" alt="Argentina SOS Children" class="right" /><p>A second SOS Children site was built near Mar del Plata, a seaside resort on the Atlantic Coast about 400 km north of Buenos Aires, in 1982. However, the location was too remote to run the village efficiently and in 1997 it was closed and a new site opened in Mar del Plata. SOS Children Mar del Plata has ten family houses and two youth houses and in 1999 a kindergarten was opened which families in the neighbourhood also use. </p><p>Argentina's third SOS Children's site opened in Córdoba in Cordoba in central Argentina in 2000. It has ten family houses which are home to over 90 children.</p><p>A fourth SOS Children’s Village is planned to be built at Lujan a suburb of Buenos Aires. It will have 14 family houses.</p><h3>Local Contacts</h3>
<p>SOS Children in Argentina:<br />Aldeas Infantiles SOS Argentina,<br />Avda. Rivadavia 2195,<br />Esq.Uriburu,<br />2do.Piso B,<br />1034 Buenos Aires<br />Argentina<br />Tel: +54/11/49 53 51 12<br />Fax: +54/11/49 53 51 12<br />email: [email protected]</p><p><strong><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Argentina Child Sponsorship</a></strong></p>
<p>Next Country: <a href="../../wp/b/Benin_B.htm">Benin</a></p>
</div>
<table style="margin-left: 50px; clear:both;">
<tr>
<td style="vertical-align:middle">
<a href="../../index.htm"><image src="../../Wikipedia-logo-100-matte-ffcc66.gif" width="100px" height="100px" alt="Schools Wikipedia"></a>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle">
<a href="../../index.htm">Return to Schools Wikipedia Home page</a>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="clearboth"></div>
</div>
<div id="footer">
<span id="botright"></span>
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Contact.htm">Contact us</a> | <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> | 01223 365589 | <a href="../../wp/p/Privacy_Policy.htm">Privacy Policy</a></p>
<p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p>
<p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ["SOS Children's Villages", 'SOS Children Website Guide.', 'Search SOS Children Website.'] |
Argon | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Argon,1785,1894,1 E-10 m,1 E-11 m,1 E-26 kg,1 E9 s,Acidity regulator,Alpha decay,Anti-caking agent,Antioxidant" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Argon</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Argon";
var wgTitle = "Argon";
var wgArticleId = 896;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Argon">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Argon</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Chemistry.Chemical_elements.htm">Chemical elements</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table align="right" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin:0 0 0.5em 0.5em">
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table border="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td align="center"><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">18</span></td>
<td align="center" style="padding-left:2em"><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/c/Chlorine.htm" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a></span> ← <span style="font-size: 120%">argon</span> → <span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/p/Potassium.htm" title="Potassium">potassium</a></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><span style="font-size:95%"><a href="../../wp/n/Neon.htm" title="Neon">Ne</a></span><br /> ↑<br /><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">Ar</span><br /> ↓<br /><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/k/Krypton.htm" title="Krypton">Kr</a></span></td>
<td>
<table>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/4/462.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="73" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ar-TableImage.png" src="../../images/4/462.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
<div align="center"><!--del_lnk--> Periodic Table - <!--del_lnk--> Extended Periodic Table</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#c0ffff; color:green">General</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_elements_by_name.htm" title="List of elements by name">Name</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Symbol, <!--del_lnk--> Number</td>
<td>argon, Ar, 18</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chemical series</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> noble gases</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Group, <!--del_lnk--> Period, <!--del_lnk--> Block</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 18, <!--del_lnk--> 3, <!--del_lnk--> p</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">Appearance</a></td>
<td>colorless<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/4/463.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="61" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ar%2C18.jpg" src="../../images/4/463.jpg" width="125" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic mass</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 39.948<!--del_lnk--> (1) g/mol</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electron configuration</td>
<td>[<a href="../../wp/n/Neon.htm" title="Neon">Ne</a>] 3s<sup>2</sup> 3p<sup>6</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">Electrons</a> per <!--del_lnk--> shell</td>
<td>2, 8, 8</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#c0ffff; color:green">Physical properties</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Phase_%2528matter%2529.htm" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/Gas.htm" title="Gas">gas</a> (At room temperature)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>(0 °C, 101.325 kPa)<br /> 1.784 g/L</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Melting point</td>
<td>83.80 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (-189.35 °<!--del_lnk--> C, -308.83 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boiling point</td>
<td>87.30 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (-185.85 °<!--del_lnk--> C, -302.53 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Critical point</td>
<td>150.87 <!--del_lnk--> K, 4.898 MPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of fusion</td>
<td>1.18 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of vaporization</td>
<td>6.43 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat capacity</td>
<td>(25 °C) 20.786 J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption><!--del_lnk--> Vapor pressure</caption>
<tr align="center">
<td><i>P</i>/Pa</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>100</td>
<td>1 k</td>
<td>10 k</td>
<td>100 k</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>at <i>T</i>/K</td>
<td> </td>
<td>47</td>
<td>53</td>
<td>61</td>
<td>71</td>
<td>87</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#c0ffff; color:green">Atomic properties</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Crystal structure</td>
<td>cubic face centered</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Oxidation states</td>
<td>0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electronegativity</td>
<td>no data (Pauling scale)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Ionization energies<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> more)</td>
<td>1st: 1520.6 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2nd: 2665.8 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3rd: 3931 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 71 <!--del_lnk--> pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Atomic radius (calc.)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 71 pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Covalent radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 97 pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Van der Waals radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 188 pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#c0ffff; color:green">Miscellaneous</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Magnetism.htm" title="Magnetism">Magnetic ordering</a></td>
<td>nonmagnetic</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal conductivity</td>
<td>(300 K) 17.72 mW·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Speed of sound</td>
<td>(gas, 27 °C) 323 <!--del_lnk--> m/s</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CAS registry number</td>
<td>7440-37-1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#c0ffff; color:green">Selected isotopes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption>Main article: <!--del_lnk--> Isotopes of argon</caption>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> iso</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> NA</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> half-life</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DM</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DE <small>(<!--del_lnk--> MeV)</small></th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DP</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>36</sup>Ar</td>
<td>0.337%</td>
<td colspan="4">Ar is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 18 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>37</sup>Ar</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td>35 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ε</td>
<td> ?</td>
<td><sup>37</sup><a href="../../wp/c/Chlorine.htm" title="Chlorine">Cl</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>38</sup>Ar</td>
<td>0.063%</td>
<td colspan="4">Ar is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 20 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>39</sup>Ar</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 269 <!--del_lnk--> y</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> β<sup>-</sup></td>
<td>0.565</td>
<td><sup>39</sup><a href="../../wp/p/Potassium.htm" title="Potassium">K</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>40</sup>Ar</td>
<td>99.600%</td>
<td colspan="4">Ar is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 22 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>42</sup>Ar</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td>32.9 <!--del_lnk--> y</td>
<td>β<sup>-</sup></td>
<td>0.600</td>
<td><sup>42</sup><a href="../../wp/p/Potassium.htm" title="Potassium">K</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#c0ffff; color:green"><!--del_lnk--> References</th>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Argon</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ˈɑːgɒn/</span>) is a <a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_element.htm" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a> designated by the symbol <b>Ar</b>. Argon has <!--del_lnk--> atomic number 18 and is the third element in group 18 of the <a href="../../wp/p/Periodic_table.htm" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> (<!--del_lnk--> noble gases). Argon is present in the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a> at slightly less than 1%, making it the most common noble gas on Earth.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Characteristics" name="Characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics</span></h2>
<p>Argon and oxygen have approximately the same solubility in water and are 2.5 times more <!--del_lnk--> soluble in water than <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen.htm" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>. This highly stable chemical element is colorless, odorless, tasteless and nontoxic in both its liquid and gaseous forms. Argon is inert under most conditions and forms no confirmed stable compounds at room temperature. The creation of <!--del_lnk--> argon hydrofluoride (HArF), a metastable compound of argon with <a href="../../wp/f/Fluorine.htm" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a> and <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, was first reported by researchers at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Helsinki in 2000.<p>Although the neutral ground-state chemical compounds of argon are presently limited to HArF, argon can form <!--del_lnk--> clathrates with <!--del_lnk--> water when atoms of it are trapped in a lattice of the water molecules. Also argon-containing <!--del_lnk--> ions e.g. ArH+ and <!--del_lnk--> excited state complexes e.g. ArF are well known. Theoretical calculations on computers have shown several argon compounds that should be stable but for which no synthesis routes are currently known.<p><a id="Applications" name="Applications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/464.jpg.htm" title="Canisters containing Argon Gas for use in extinguishing fire without damaging server equipment"><img alt="Canisters containing Argon Gas for use in extinguishing fire without damaging server equipment" height="270" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Argon.jpg" src="../../images/4/464.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/464.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Canisters containing Argon Gas for use in extinguishing <a href="../../wp/f/Fire.htm" title="Fire">fire</a> without damaging server equipment</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/465.jpg.htm" title="An argon and mercury discharge tube. The mercury vapour glows brightly when an electric current is passed through it while the argon acts as the current carrier."><img alt="An argon and mercury discharge tube. The mercury vapour glows brightly when an electric current is passed through it while the argon acts as the current carrier." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ArTube.jpg" src="../../images/4/465.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/465.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An argon and mercury discharge tube. The mercury vapour glows brightly when an electric current is passed through it while the argon acts as the current carrier.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Argon is used in <!--del_lnk--> incandescent lighting and other applications in which diatomic <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen.htm" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> is not sufficiently <!--del_lnk--> inert. Argon will not react with the <!--del_lnk--> filament of <!--del_lnk--> light bulbs even at high temperatures. Other uses:<ul>
<li>Argon is used as an inert gas shield in many forms of <a href="../../wp/w/Welding.htm" title="Welding">welding</a>, including <!--del_lnk--> metal inert gas welding and <!--del_lnk--> tungsten inert gas welding.<li>as the gas of choice for the plasma used in <!--del_lnk--> ICP <!--del_lnk--> spectroscopy.<li>as a non-reactive blanket in the manufacture of <a href="../../wp/t/Titanium.htm" title="Titanium">titanium</a> and other reactive elements.<li>as a protective atmosphere for growing <a href="../../wp/s/Silicon.htm" title="Silicon">silicon</a> and <a href="../../wp/g/Germanium.htm" title="Germanium">germanium</a> <a href="../../wp/c/Crystal.htm" title="Crystal">crystals</a>.<li>as a gas for use in <!--del_lnk--> plasma globes.<li>as a gas for <!--del_lnk--> thermal insulation in energy efficient <!--del_lnk--> windows.<li>Argon-39 has been used for a number of applications, primarily <!--del_lnk--> ice coring. It has also been used for <!--del_lnk--> ground water dating.<li><!--del_lnk--> Cryosurgery procedures such as <!--del_lnk--> cryoablation use liquified argon to destroy <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a> cells.<li>Liquid argon is used in <!--del_lnk--> calorimetry in experimental <!--del_lnk--> particle physics.<li>Argon is used in technical <!--del_lnk--> scuba diving to inflate the dry suit, because it is inert and has low thermal conductivity.<li>Blue argon lasers are used in surgery to weld arteries, destroy tumors, and to correct eye defects.<li>Due to its inert qualities, it is commonly used by museum conservators to protect old materials or documents, which are prone to gradual oxidation in the presence of air. <li>Argon is used to keep open bottles of wine from oxidizing, and is used in a number of dispensing units and keeper cap systems.<li>Argon is used in winemaking as barrels are often topped off with the gas to displace oxygen, thus preventing the wine from turning to vinegar during the aging process.<li>Argon is used in surgery when doctors are working in areas where it is easy for the person to die from blood loss and dries up all the bleeding as soon as the cut is opened by a sharp tool with a pipe connected to it which blows argon gas onto the inscision</ul>
<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Argon (<!--del_lnk--> Greek <i>αργός</i> meaning "inactive") was suspected to be present in air by <!--del_lnk--> Henry Cavendish in <!--del_lnk--> 1785 but was not discovered until <!--del_lnk--> 1894 by <!--del_lnk--> Lord Rayleigh and Sir <!--del_lnk--> William Ramsay in an experiment in which they removed all of the <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen.htm" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> from the air. Argon was also encountered in 1882 through independent research of H.F. Newall and W.N. Hartley. Each observed new lines in the colour spectrum of air but were unable to identify the element responsible for the lines. Argon became the first member of the noble gases to be discovered.<p>The symbol for Argon is now <b>Ar</b>, but until 1957 it was <b>A</b>.<p><a id="Occurrence" name="Occurrence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Occurrence</span></h2>
<p>Argon constitutes 0.934% by volume and 1.29% by mass of the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a>, and air is the primary raw material used by industry to produce purified argon products. Argon is isolated from air by <!--del_lnk--> fractionation, most commonly by <!--del_lnk--> cryogenic <!--del_lnk--> fractional distillation, a process that also produces purified <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen.htm" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Neon.htm" title="Neon">neon</a>, <a href="../../wp/k/Krypton.htm" title="Krypton">krypton</a> and <a href="../../wp/x/Xenon.htm" title="Xenon">xenon</a>.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Martian atmosphere in contrast contains 1.6% of argon-40 and 5 <!--del_lnk--> ppm of argon-36. The <!--del_lnk--> Mariner spaceprobe fly-by of the <a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" title="Planet">planet</a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mercury_%2528planet%2529.htm" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a> in 1973 found that Mercury has a very thin atmosphere with 70% argon, believed to result from releases of the gas as a decay product from radioactive materials on the planet. In 2005, the <i><a href="../../wp/c/Cassini-Huygens.htm" title="Cassini-Huygens">Huygens</a></i> probe also discovered the presence of argon-40 on <!--del_lnk--> Titan, the largest moon of <!--del_lnk--> Saturn.<p><a id="Compounds" name="Compounds"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Compounds</span></h2>
<p>Argon’s complete octet of electrons indicates full s and p subshells. This full outer energy level makes argon very stable and extremely resistant to bonding with other elements. Before 1962, argon and the other noble gases were considered to be chemically inert and unable to form compounds; however, compounds of the heavier noble gases have since been synthesized. In 2000, the first argon compounds were formed by researchers at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Helsinki. By shining ultraviolet light onto frozen argon containing a small amount of hydrogen fluoride, <!--del_lnk--> argon hydrofluoride (HArF) was formed. It is stable up to 40 <!--del_lnk--> kelvins (−233 °<!--del_lnk--> C).<p><a id="Isotopes" name="Isotopes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Isotopes</span></h2>
<p>The main <!--del_lnk--> isotopes of argon found on Earth are <sup>40</sup>Ar, <sup>36</sup>Ar, and <sup>38</sup>Ar. Naturally occurring <sup>40</sup><a href="../../wp/p/Potassium.htm" title="Potassium">K</a> with a <!--del_lnk--> half-life of 1.250×10<sup>9</sup> years, decays to stable <sup>40</sup>Ar (11.2%) by <!--del_lnk--> electron capture and by <!--del_lnk--> positron emission, and also transforms to stable <sup>40</sup>Ca (88.8%) via <!--del_lnk--> beta decay. These properties and ratios are used to determine the age of <!--del_lnk--> rocks.<p>In the Earth's atmosphere, <sup>39</sup>Ar is made by <!--del_lnk--> cosmic ray activity, primarily with <sup>40</sup>Ar. In the subsurface environment, it is also produced through <!--del_lnk--> neutron capture by <sup>39</sup>K or <!--del_lnk--> alpha emission by <a href="../../wp/c/Calcium.htm" title="Calcium">calcium</a>. <sup>37</sup>Ar is created from the decay of <sup>40</sup>Ca as a result of subsurface <!--del_lnk--> nuclear explosions. It has a half-life of 35 days.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Chlorine', 'Potassium', 'Neon', 'Krypton', 'List of elements by name', 'Color', 'Neon', 'Electron', 'Phase (matter)', 'Gas', 'Magnetism', 'Neutron', 'Day', 'Chlorine', 'Neutron', 'Potassium', 'Neutron', 'Potassium', 'Chemical element', 'Periodic table', "Earth's atmosphere", 'Nitrogen', 'Fluorine', 'Hydrogen', 'Fire', 'Nitrogen', 'Welding', 'Titanium', 'Silicon', 'Germanium', 'Crystal', 'Cancer', 'Oxygen', 'Nitrogen', "Earth's atmosphere", 'Nitrogen', 'Oxygen', 'Neon', 'Krypton', 'Xenon', 'Planet', 'Mercury (planet)', 'Cassini-Huygens', 'Potassium', 'Calcium'] |
Argyle_diamond_mine | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Argyle diamond mine,1979,Alluvium,Argyle,As of 2001,Australia,Australian dollar,Breccia,Canada,Carat,Champagne (color)" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Argyle diamond mine</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Argyle_diamond_mine";
var wgTitle = "Argyle diamond mine";
var wgArticleId = 563896;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Argyle_diamond_mine">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Argyle diamond mine</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Oceania_Australasia.htm">Geography of Oceania (Australasia)</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<p>The <b>Argyle <!--del_lnk--> diamond mine</b> (<span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">16°42′44″S,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">128°23′51″E</span></span><span class="plainlinksneverexpand" id="coordinates"><!--del_lnk--> Coordinates: <!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">16°42′44″S,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">128°23′51″E</span></span>) is a <a href="../../wp/d/Diamond.htm" title="Diamond">diamond</a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mining.htm" title="Mining">mine</a> located in the north-east of <!--del_lnk--> Western Australia. The <!--del_lnk--> Argyle mine is the largest diamond producer in the world by volume, although due to the low proportion of gem-quality diamonds, is not the leader by value. It is the only known significant source of pink diamonds, producing 90 to 95% of the world's supply. The Argyle diamond mine is also notable for being the first commercial diamond mine exploiting a <a href="../../wp/v/Volcanic_pipe.htm" title="Volcanic pipe">volcanic pipe</a> of <!--del_lnk--> lamproite, rather than the more usual <!--del_lnk--> kimberlite pipe. The mine is owned by the <a href="../../wp/r/Rio_Tinto_Group.htm" title="Rio Tinto Group">Rio Tinto Group</a>, a diversified mining company which also owns the <!--del_lnk--> Diavik Diamond Mine in <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Murowa diamond mine in <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Description" name="Description"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Description</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16635.jpg.htm" title="A false-color NASA image of the Argyle mine. Blue colours show the location of the mine and its depressed elevation as a result of the open pit mining technique."><img alt="A false-color NASA image of the Argyle mine. Blue colours show the location of the mine and its depressed elevation as a result of the open pit mining technique." height="214" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Argyle_mine_false_color.jpg" src="../../images/166/16635.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16635.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A false-colour <!--del_lnk--> NASA image of the Argyle mine. Blue colours show the location of the mine and its depressed elevation as a result of the open pit mining technique.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The mine covers about 450,000 <!--del_lnk--> square metres (110 acres), stretching in a mostly linear shape about 1600 <!--del_lnk--> metres (5,200 ft) long and 150 to 600 metres (500 to 2,000 ft) wide. The mine is of <!--del_lnk--> open pit construction, and reaches about 600 metres (1,900 ft) deep at its deepest point.<p><a id="Location" name="Location"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Location</span></h3>
<p>The Argyle diamond mine is located in the <!--del_lnk--> Kimberley <!--del_lnk--> region in the far northeast of the <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australian</a> <!--del_lnk--> state of <!--del_lnk--> Western Australia. It is located to the southwest of <!--del_lnk--> Lake Argyle in the <!--del_lnk--> Matsu Ranges, about 550 kilometres (340 miles) southwest of <!--del_lnk--> Darwin. Because the mine is located about 120 kilometres (75 miles) from the nearest settlement (<!--del_lnk--> Kununurra), a complete residential camp has been constructed on site. Most of the 520 workers commute from <a href="../../wp/p/Perth%252C_Western_Australia.htm" title="Perth, Western Australia">Perth</a> (over 2,000 kilometres, or 1,200 miles, away) for alternating two week shifts at the mine. The mine has encouraged local employment and has a large number of indigenous local people working within the mine.<p><a id="Geology" name="Geology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Geology</span></h3>
<p>The mine is the first commercial diamond mine (except <!--del_lnk--> alluvial mining operations) not located on a <!--del_lnk--> kimberlite pipe. The pipe is named "AK-1", although it is commonly simply called the "Argyle pipe".<p>The volcanic pipe is a <!--del_lnk--> diatreme, composed of <!--del_lnk--> olivine <!--del_lnk--> lamproite, present as tuff and lava. Peripheral volcanic facies suggest the lamproite eruption formed a <!--del_lnk--> maar. At the margins of the volcanic pipe the lamproite is mixed with a volcanic <!--del_lnk--> breccia containing shattered wall rock fragments mixed and milled by the eruption. Minerals in the marginal facies include <!--del_lnk--> zeolite minerals, <!--del_lnk--> micas, <!--del_lnk--> kaolinite and clays, typical of post-eruption <!--del_lnk--> hydrothermal circulation.<p>Diamonds are found within the intact core of the volcanic pipe, as well as within some of the marginal breccia facies and maar facies. However, some diamonds are considered to have been resorbed during the post-eruption cooling of the pipe and converted to <!--del_lnk--> graphite.<p>The diatreme pipe formed by explosive eruption of the lamproite magma through a zone of weakness in the <a href="../../wp/c/Continental_crust.htm" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a>.<p>The diamonds found at the Argyle pipe have been dated to about 1.58 billion years of age, while the volcano which created the pipe is aged between 1.1 and 1.2 billion years old. This represents a relatively short period during which diamond formation could have taken place (around 400 million years), which may explain the small average size and unusual physical characteristics of Argyle diamonds. Diamonds found in the Argyle pipe are predominantly <i><!--del_lnk--> eclogitic</i>, meaning that the carbon is of organic origin (see <!--del_lnk--> Natural history of diamonds).<p>In addition to the pipe itself, there are a number of semi-permanent streams that have eroded away portions of the pipe and created significant alluvial deposits of diamonds. These deposits are also actively mined.<p><a id="Production" name="Production"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Production</span></h2>
<p>The Argyle diamond mine leads the world in volume production of diamond, averaging annual production of 35 million <!--del_lnk--> carats (7,000 <!--del_lnk--> kg), or about one third of global production of natural diamonds. Production peaked in 1996, when 42 million carats (8,400 kg) were produced. Of this quantity only 5% is considered gem-quality, with the rest being either near-gem quality or industrial grade; this is somewhat below world averages of about 20% of mined diamonds qualifying as gem-grade. Since the mine's opening in 1985, it has produced over 600 million carats (120,000 kg) of diamonds.<p>Most of Argyle's gem quality production is in brown diamonds. These diamonds are usually difficult to sell, although Rio Tinto has seen some success in a decade-long marketing campaign to promote brown diamonds as <!--del_lnk--> champagne and <!--del_lnk--> cognac toned. In contrast, the company has no problems selling pink and red diamonds, which are very rare and in high demand, therefore commanding premium prices. The pink diamonds are processed and sold as polished diamonds by a specialised team based in Perth to customers world wide. The highlight of the coloured diamond industry calendar is the annual Pink Diamond Tender. Access to its collector's edition catalogue and website access in itself is highly sought after.<p>The mine has ore processing and diamond sorting facilities on site. Once diamonds are removed from the ore and acid washed, they are sorted and shipped to Perth for further sorting and sale. A significant quantity of diamonds are cut in <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, where low costs of labor allow small diamonds to be cut for a profit; this is especially relevant to the Argyle mine, which on average produces smaller rough diamonds than other mines do.<p><a id="Diamond_characteristics" name="Diamond_characteristics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Diamond characteristics</span></h3>
<p>The diamonds produced at the Argyle diamond mine are of on average low quality. Only 5% of mined diamonds are of gem quality, compared to a worldwide average of 20%; of the remaining 95%, they are about evenly split between classifications of "near gem quality" and industrial grade. 80% of Argyle diamonds are brown, followed by 16% yellow, 2% white, 2% grey, and less than 1% pink and green. Despite the low production volume of pink and red diamonds, the Argyle mine is the only reliable source in the world, producing 90 to 95% of all pink and red diamonds. Most Argyle diamonds are classified as type 1a (see <a href="../../wp/m/Material_properties_of_diamond.htm" title="Material properties of diamond">material properties of diamond</a>), and have low levels of <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen.htm" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> impurities, their colour resulting instead from structural defects of the <!--del_lnk--> crystal lattice. Argyle diamonds tend to <!--del_lnk--> fluoresce blue or dull green under <!--del_lnk--> ultraviolet light, and blue-white under <!--del_lnk--> X-ray radiation. The most common inclusion is unconverted <!--del_lnk--> graphite, followed by crystalline inclusions of orange <!--del_lnk--> garnet, <!--del_lnk--> pyroxene, and <!--del_lnk--> olivine.<p><a id="Reserves" name="Reserves"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Reserves</span></h3>
<p>Initial proven reserves of the Argyle mine were 61 million <!--del_lnk--> metric tons (<i>tonnes</i>) of ore, with an average <i><!--del_lnk--> ore grade</i> or diamond concentration of 6.8 carats (1.36 g) per tonne, about 400 million carats (80,000 kg). Further estimated reserves of 14 million tonnes of ore, at a grade of 6.1 carats (1.22 g) per tonne, 85 million carats (17,000 kg), also existed. <!--del_lnk--> As of 2001, reserves and resources in the open-pit mined area contain 220 million tonnes of 2.5 to 3.0 carat (500 to 600 m) per tonne graded ore, sufficient to sustain current production rates until 2007. The ore grades at the Argyle mine are unusually high, with most commercial diamond mines averaging grades of 0.3 to 1.0 carats (60 to 200 mg) per metric ton. Alluvial deposits of diamonds are believed to have been exhausted.<p>In 1995, drilling samples taken from about 300 metres below the floor of the pit indicated the possible presence of about 100 million tons of ore, with an estimated grade of 3.7 carats (740 mg) per ton. In 1998, it was decided to instead move mining operations toward the west ridge of the mine, where 64 million tons of ore graded at 2.6 carats (520 mg) per ton are located.<p>An exploration decline was constructed at a cost of 70 million <!--del_lnk--> Australian dollars to evaluate the economics of mining <a href="../../wp/d/Diamond.htm" title="Diamond">diamonds</a> from the diamoniferous pipes below the floor of the open pit; these reserves would be mined underground (via sub-level caving), rather than the open pit method currently used. In late-2005 Rio Tinto Ltd concluded that the operation was economically feasible and pre-production construction of the underground mine is due to commence in early to mid 2006.<p><a id="Economics" name="Economics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Economics</span></h3>
<p>The Argyle diamond mine is economically feasible because its large reserves and high grade ore offsets a low average diamond weight value. The estimated value of Argyle diamond production is only 7 <!--del_lnk--> USD per carat ($35/g); this compares to values of 70 USD per carat ($350/g) for diamonds produced at the <!--del_lnk--> Diavik mine in <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, and 170 USD per carat ($850/g) at the <!--del_lnk--> Ekati mine (also in Canada).<!--del_lnk--> However, Argyle has two to four times the concentration of diamonds (ore grade) of these mines. This makes extraction economically feasible, as mine costs are mostly related to the amount of ore processed, not the amount of diamond which is extracted.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Small quantities of alluvially deposited diamonds have been known in Australia since the late 19th century, first found by prospectors searching for <a href="../../wp/g/Gold.htm" title="Gold">gold</a>. However, no source volcanic pipe deposit was apparent. A systematic search of Western Australia for the source of these diamonds began in 1969, and on <!--del_lnk--> October 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1979, the Argyle pipe was discovered. Over the following three years, the deposit was assessed for economic viability, and in 1983 the decision was made to commence mining operations. Alluvial mining operations commenced immediately, while the open pit mine was constructed over a period of 18 months at a cost of 450 million Australian dollars. The mine was commissioned in December 1985.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argyle_diamond_mine"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Diamond', 'Mining', 'Volcanic pipe', 'Rio Tinto Group', 'Canada', 'Zimbabwe', 'Australia', 'Perth, Western Australia', 'Continental crust', 'India', 'Material properties of diamond', 'Nitrogen', 'Diamond', 'Canada', 'Gold'] |
Ariel_Sharon | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Ariel Sharon,He-Ariel Sharon.ogg,IsraelPMS,1928,1973,1982,1982 Lebanon War,1983,1998,1999,2000" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Ariel Sharon</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Ariel_Sharon";
var wgTitle = "Ariel Sharon";
var wgArticleId = 2944;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Ariel_Sharon">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Ariel Sharon</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Political_People.htm">Political People</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox" style="width:23em; font-size:90%; text-align:left; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.5em;">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size:140%;"><b><big>Ariel Sharon</big><br /> אֲרִיאֵל שָׁר‏וֹן</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/166/16636.jpg.htm" title="Ariel Sharon"><img alt="Ariel Sharon" height="243" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ariel_Sharon.jpg" src="../../images/166/16636.jpg" width="160" /></a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:110%;">
<hr />
<div style="background:lavender;">11th <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister of Israel</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> March 7, <!--del_lnk--> 2001 – <!--del_lnk--> April 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2006<br /><small>(incapacitated from <!--del_lnk--> January 4, <!--del_lnk--> 2006)</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Deputy</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ehud Olmert</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ehud Barak</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Succeeded by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ehud Olmert</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<hr />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Born</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> February 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1928<br /><!--del_lnk--> Kfar Malal, <!--del_lnk--> British Mandate of Palestine</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Political party</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Kadima (formerly <!--del_lnk--> Likud)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Spouse</th>
<td>Margalit Sharon (d. 1962);<br /><!--del_lnk--> Lily Sharon (d. 2000)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b><span class="unicode audiolink"><!--del_lnk--> Ariel Sharon</span> </b> (<a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" xml:lang="he"><b>אֲרִיאֵל שָׁר‏וֹן</b></span>, also known by his <!--del_lnk--> diminutive <b>Arik</b> <b>אָרִיק</b>) (born <!--del_lnk--> February 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1928) is a former Israeli politician and <!--del_lnk--> general.<p>He served as <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister of Israel from <!--del_lnk--> March 2001 until <!--del_lnk--> April 2006, though the powers of his office were exercised by acting <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister <!--del_lnk--> Ehud Olmert following Sharon's massive <a href="../../wp/s/Stroke.htm" title="Stroke">stroke</a> on <!--del_lnk--> January 4, <!--del_lnk--> 2006. He fell into a <!--del_lnk--> coma, and has not regained consciousness.<p>During his lengthy career, Sharon was a highly controversial figure among many factions, both inside and outside <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a>. His supporters view him as a leader who strove to establish peace without sacrificing Israel's security. Many Israelis likewise consider him a <!--del_lnk--> war hero who helped defend the country during some of its greatest struggles. Some of his critics have sought to prosecute him as a <!--del_lnk--> war criminal for alleged crimes related to the <!--del_lnk--> Sabra and Shatila massacre during the <!--del_lnk--> 1982 Lebanon War, for which the <!--del_lnk--> Kahan Commission held him both 'indirectly' and 'personally' responsible. While no Israelis participated in the massacre, the investigation found that Sharon was personally responsible due to negligence and complacency. Sharon was dismissed as <!--del_lnk--> Defense Minister as a result. Nevertheless, Sharon remained a leading figure in the <!--del_lnk--> Likud Party, and held various senior <!--del_lnk--> cabinet and party posts, ultimately becoming party leader in <!--del_lnk--> 1999 and Prime Minister in <!--del_lnk--> 2001.<p>During his tenure as Prime Minister, Sharon's policies caused a rift within the <!--del_lnk--> Likud Party, and Sharon ultimately left Likud to form a new party called <!--del_lnk--> Kadima. He became the first <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister of Israel who did not belong to either <!--del_lnk--> Labor or Likud — the two parties that have traditionally dominated Israeli politics. The new party created by Sharon, with Olmert having stepped in as its leader, won the most <!--del_lnk--> Knesset seats in the 2006 elections, and is now the senior coalition partner in the Israeli government.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
<p>Sharon was born <b>Ariel Scheinermann</b> to Shmuel and Dvora (formerly Vera) in <!--del_lnk--> Kfar Malal. His family immigrated to the British Palestine Mandate from <!--del_lnk--> Russia, fleeing the <!--del_lnk--> Red Army. Sharon's father spoke <!--del_lnk--> Yiddish and his mother spoke <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, and Sharon learned to speak Russian as a young boy.<p>The family arrived in the <!--del_lnk--> Second Aliyah and settled in a <a href="../../wp/s/Socialism.htm" title="Socialism">socialist</a>, <!--del_lnk--> secular community where, despite being <!--del_lnk--> Mapai supporters, they were known to be contrarians against the prevailing community consensus:<dl>
<dd><i>The Scheinermans' eventual ostracism... followed the 1933 <!--del_lnk--> Arlozorov murder when Dvora and Shmuel refused to endorse the Labor movement's anti-Revisionist calumny and participate in Bolshevi(k)-style public revilement rallies, then the order of the day. Retribution was quick to come. They were expelled from the local health-fund clinic and village synagogue. The cooperative's truck wouldn't make deliveries to their farm nor collect produce.</i></dl>
<p>In 1942 at the age of 14, Sharon joined the <!--del_lnk--> Gadna, a <!--del_lnk--> paramilitary youth <!--del_lnk--> battalion, and later the <!--del_lnk--> Haganah, the underground paramilitary force and the Jewish military <!--del_lnk--> precursor to the <!--del_lnk--> Israel Defense Forces. At the creation of Israel (and <!--del_lnk--> Haganah's transformation into the Israel Defense Forces), Sharon was a <!--del_lnk--> platoon commander in the <!--del_lnk--> Alexandroni Brigade. He was severely wounded in the groin by the <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordanian</a> <!--del_lnk--> Arab Legion in the Second Battle of <!--del_lnk--> Latrun, an unsuccessful attempt to relieve the <a href="../../wp/s/Siege.htm" title="Siege">besieged</a> <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jewish</a> community of <a href="../../wp/j/Jerusalem.htm" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>. His injuries eventually healed.<p>In September 1949, Sharon was promoted to <!--del_lnk--> company commander (of the Golani Brigade's reconnaissance unit) and in 1950 to <!--del_lnk--> intelligence officer for Central Command. He then took leave to begin studies in history and Middle Eastern culture at the <!--del_lnk--> Hebrew University of Jerusalem. A year and a half later, he was asked to return to active service in the rank of <!--del_lnk--> major and as the leader of the new <!--del_lnk--> Unit 101, Israel's first <!--del_lnk--> special forces unit.<p>Unit 101 undertook a series of military raids against <!--del_lnk--> Palestinians and neighboring <!--del_lnk--> Arab states that helped bolster Israeli morale and fortify its <!--del_lnk--> deterrent image. The unit was known for targeting civilians as well as Arab soldiers, notably in the widely condemned <!--del_lnk--> Qibya operation in the fall of 1953, in which 69 Palestinian civilians, some of them children, were killed by Sharon's troops in a reprisal attack on their <a href="../../wp/w/West_Bank.htm" title="West Bank">West Bank</a> village. In the <!--del_lnk--> documentary <i>Israel and the Arabs: 50 Year War</i>, Ariel Sharon recalls what happened after the raid, which was heavily condemned by many Western nations, including the U.S.:<dl>
<dd><i>I was summoned to see <!--del_lnk--> Ben-Gurion. It was the first time I met him, and right from the start Ben-Gurion said to me: "Let me first tell you one thing: it doesn't matter what the world says about Israel, it doesn't matter what they say about us anywhere else. The only thing that matters is that we can exist here on the land of our forefathers. And unless we show the Arabs that there is a high price to pay for murdering Jews, we won't survive."</i></dl>
<p>Shortly afterwards, just a few months after its founding, Unit 101 was merged into the 202nd <!--del_lnk--> Paratroopers Brigade (IDF) (Sharon eventually became the latter's commander), which continued to attack military and civilian targets, culminating with the attack on the <!--del_lnk--> Qalqilyah police station in autumn of 1956.<p>As reflected in the above-mentioned episode, Sharon -- while formally no more than a middle-ranking officer at the rank of Rav Seren (Major) -- had direct access to the Prime Minister as well as to then-Army Chief of Staff <!--del_lnk--> Moshe Dayan, bypassing the normal chain of command.<p>Ben Gurion and Dayan, as well as Sharon himself, were well aware that the actions of his commando unit had a significant role in shaping Israel's relations with its neighbors, and that such raids could become the subject of headlines in the international press and debates in the UN.<p>Perforce, Sharon was already at this stage of his career involved in strategic considerations which are normally the province of senior officers and of the political echelon. Moreover, historians often point to this period as shaping Sharon's habit of acting on his own judgment and ignoring or circumventing the instructions of his direct superiors.<p>Sharon has been widowed twice. Shortly after becoming a <!--del_lnk--> military instructor, he married his first wife, <!--del_lnk--> Margalit, with whom he had a son, Gur. Margalit died in a <!--del_lnk--> car accident in May 1962. Their son, Gur, died in October 1967 after a friend shot him while they were playing with a <!--del_lnk--> rifle. After Margalit's death, Sharon married her younger sister, <!--del_lnk--> Lily. They had two sons, <!--del_lnk--> Omri and <!--del_lnk--> Gil'ad. Lily Sharon died of <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a> in 2000.<p><a id="Mitla_incident" name="Mitla_incident"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mitla incident</span></h2>
<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> 1956 Suez War (the British "<!--del_lnk--> Operation Musketeer"), Sharon commanded the 202nd <!--del_lnk--> Brigade, and was responsible for taking ground east of the <!--del_lnk--> Sinai's <!--del_lnk--> Mitla Pass and eventually taking the pass itself. Having successfully carried out the first part of his mission (joining a battalion parachuted near Mitla with the rest of the brigade moving on ground), Sharon's unit was deployed near the pass. Neither <!--del_lnk--> reconnaissance aircraft nor <!--del_lnk--> scouts reported enemy forces inside the Mitla Pass. Sharon, whose forces were initially heading east, away from the pass, reported to his superiors that he was increasingly concerned with the possibility of an enemy thrust through the pass, which could attack his brigade from the flank or the rear.<p>Sharon asked for permission to attack the pass several times, but his requests were denied although he was allowed to check its status so that if the pass was empty, he could receive permission to take it later. Sharon sent a small scout force, which was met with heavy fire and became bogged down due to vehicle <!--del_lnk--> malfunction in the middle of the pass. Sharon ordered the rest of his troops to attack in order to aid their comrades. In the ensuing successful battle to capture the pass, 38 Israeli soldiers were killed.<p>Sharon was not only criticized by his superiors, he was damaged by revelations several years later by several former subordinates (one of <!--del_lnk--> IDF's first major revelations to the press), who claimed that Sharon tried to provoke the <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egyptians</a> and sent out the scouts in bad faith, ensuring that a battle would ensue. Deliberate or not, the attack was considered strategically reckless because the Egyptian forces were expected to withdraw from the pass in the following one or two days.<p><a id="Six-Day_War_and_Yom_Kippur_War" name="Six-Day_War_and_Yom_Kippur_War"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Six-Day War and Yom Kippur War</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The Mitla incident hindered Sharon's military career for several years. In the meantime, he occupied the position of an <!--del_lnk--> infantry <!--del_lnk--> brigade commander and received a <!--del_lnk--> law degree from <!--del_lnk--> Tel Aviv University. When <!--del_lnk--> Yitzhak Rabin (who within a few years became associated with the <!--del_lnk--> Labor Party) became <!--del_lnk--> Chief of Staff in 1964, however, Sharon began again to rise rapidly in the ranks, occupying the positions of Infantry School Commander and Head of Army Training Branch, eventually achieving the rank of <!--del_lnk--> Major General (<i><!--del_lnk--> Aluf</i>). In the 1967 <!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War, Sharon commanded the most powerful <!--del_lnk--> armored division on the <!--del_lnk--> Sinai <!--del_lnk--> front which made a breakthrough in the Kusseima-Abu-Ageila fortified area. In 1969, he was appointed the Head of IDF's Southern Command. He had no further promotions before retiring in August 1973. Soon after, he joined the right-wing <!--del_lnk--> Likud ("Unity") <!--del_lnk--> political party.<p>Sharon's military career was not over, however. At the start of the <a href="../../wp/y/Yom_Kippur_War.htm" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a> on <!--del_lnk--> October 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1973, Sharon was called back to duty and assigned to command a reserve <!--del_lnk--> armored division. His forces did not engage the <!--del_lnk--> Egyptian Army immediately, but it was Sharon who helped locate a breach between the Egyptian forces, which he then exploited by capturing a <!--del_lnk--> bridgehead on <!--del_lnk--> October 16 and throwing a bridge across the <a href="../../wp/s/Suez_Canal.htm" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> the following day. He violated orders from the head of Southern Command by exploiting this success to cut the <!--del_lnk--> supply lines of the Egyptian Third Army, located to the south of the canal crossing, isolating it from other Egyptian units.<p>The divisions of Sharon and <!--del_lnk--> Abraham Adan (Bren) passed over this bridge into <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> advancing to within 101 <!--del_lnk--> kilometers of <a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>. They wreaked havoc on the supply lines of the Third Army stretching to the south of them, cutting off and <!--del_lnk--> encircling the Third Army, but could not force its surrender before the <!--del_lnk--> ceasefire*. Tensions between the two generals followed his decision, but a <!--del_lnk--> military tribunal later found his action was militarily effective. This move was regarded by many Israelis as the turning point of the war in the Sinai front. Thus, Sharon is viewed by some as a war hero who saved Israel from defeat in Sinai. A photo of Sharon wearing a head bandage on the Suez Canal became a famous symbol of Israeli military prowess.<p>Sharon's aggressive political positions were controversial and he was relieved of duty in February 1974.<p><a id="Beginnings_of_political_career" name="Beginnings_of_political_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Beginnings of political career</span></h2>
<p>In the 1940s and 1950s he seemed to be personally devoted to the ideals of <!--del_lnk--> Mapai (Workers Party of the Land of Israel), the predecessor of the modern <!--del_lnk--> Labor Party. However, after retiring from military service, Sharon was instrumental in establishing the <!--del_lnk--> Likud in July 1973. The <!--del_lnk--> Likud was comprised of <!--del_lnk--> Herut (Freedom), the <!--del_lnk--> Liberal Party and independent elements. Sharon became chairman of the campaign staff for the elections which were scheduled for November 1973. But two and a half weeks after the start of the election campaign, the <a href="../../wp/y/Yom_Kippur_War.htm" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a> erupted and Sharon was called back to reserve service (<i>see above</i>). In December 1973 Sharon was elected to the <!--del_lnk--> Knesset, but a year later he was tired of political life and resigned.<p>From June 1975 to March 1976, Sharon was a special aide to Prime Minister <!--del_lnk--> Yitzhak Rabin. With the 1977 elections near, Sharon tried to return to the Likud and replace <!--del_lnk--> Menachem Begin at the head of the party. He suggested to <!--del_lnk--> Simkha Erlikh, who headed the Liberal Party bloc in the Likud, that he was more fitting than Begin to win an election victory; but he was rejected. Following this he tried to join the <!--del_lnk--> Labor Party and the centrist <!--del_lnk--> Dash, but was rejected in those parties too. Only then did he form his own list, <!--del_lnk--> Shlomtzion, which won only two Knesset seats in the subsequent elections. Immediately after the elections he merged Shlomtzion with the Likud and became Minister of Agriculture.<p>When Sharon joined Begin's government he had relatively little political experience. During this period, Sharon supported the <!--del_lnk--> Gush Emunim settlements movement and was viewed as the patron of the messianic settlers' movement. He used his position to encourage the establishment of a network of Israeli settlements in the occupied territories to prevent the possibility of the return of these territories to Palestinian Arabs. Sharon doubled the number of Jewish settlements on the West Bank and Gaza Strip during his tenure.<p>On his settlement policy, Sharon said while addressing a meeting of the Tsomet Party: "Everybody has to move, run and grab as many (Judean) hilltops as they can to enlarge the (Jewish) settlements because everything we take now will stay ours... Everything we don't grab will go to them." (Agence France Presse, <!--del_lnk--> 15 November <!--del_lnk--> 1998.)<p>After the 1981 elections, Begin rewarded Sharon for his important contribution to Likud's narrow win, by appointing him Minister of Defense.<p><a id="Sabra_and_Shatila_massacre" name="Sabra_and_Shatila_massacre"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sabra and Shatila massacre</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>During the <!--del_lnk--> 1982 Lebanon War, while Ariel Sharon was <!--del_lnk--> Defense minister, the <!--del_lnk--> Sabra and Shatila massacre took place, in which between 460 and 3,500 Palestinian civilians in the <!--del_lnk--> refugee camps were killed by the <!--del_lnk--> Phalanges -- Lebanese Maronite Christian militias. The Security Chief of the Phalange militia, a Lebanese himself, <!--del_lnk--> Elie Hobeika, was the ground commander of the militiamen who entered the Palestinian camps and killed the Palestinians. The Phalange had been sent into the camps to clear out <!--del_lnk--> PLO fighters, and Israeli forces had been sent to the camps at Sharon's command to provide them with <a href="../../wp/l/Logistics.htm" title="Logistics">logistical</a> support and to guard camp exits. The incident led some of Sharon's critics to refer to him as "the Butcher of <a href="../../wp/b/Beirut.htm" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>".<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Kahan Commission found the <!--del_lnk--> Israeli Defence Forces indirectly responsible for the massacre and charged Sharon with "personal responsibility." It recommended in early 1983 the removal of Sharon from his post as Defense minister. In their recommendations and closing remarks, the commission stated:<dl>
<dd><i>We have found, as has been detailed in this report, that the Minister of Defense [Ariel Sharon] bears personal responsibility. In our opinion, it is fitting that the Minister of Defense draw the appropriate personal conclusions arising out of the defects revealed with regard to the manner in which he discharged the duties of his office - and if necessary, that the <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister consider whether he should exercise his authority under Section 21-A(a) of the Basic Law: the Government, according to which "the Prime Minister may, after informing the Cabinet of his intention to do so, remove a minister from office."</i></dl>
<p>An AP report on <!--del_lnk--> 15 September <!--del_lnk--> 1982 stated:<dl>
<dd><i>Defense Minister Ariel Sharon, in a statement, tied the killing [of the Phalangist leader Gemayel] to the PLO, saying: "It symbolises the terrorist murderousness of the PLO terrorist organisations and their supporters." Habib Chartouni, a Lebanese Christian from the Syrian Socialist National Party confessed to the murder of Gemayel, and no Palestinians were involved. Sharon had used this to instigate the entrance of the Lebanese militias into the camps.</i></dl>
<p>Sharon was dismissed by Prime Minister <!--del_lnk--> Menachem Begin but he remained in successive governments as a Minister.<p>In its <!--del_lnk--> February 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1983, issue, <!--del_lnk--> <i>Time</i> published a story implying Sharon was directly responsible for the massacres. Sharon <!--del_lnk--> sued <i>Time</i> for <!--del_lnk--> libel in American and Israeli <!--del_lnk--> courts. Although the jury concluded that the Time story included false allegations, they found that <i>Time</i> had not acted with "actual malice" and did not award any damages.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> June 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2001, relatives of the victims of the Sabra massacre began proceedings in <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> to have Ariel Sharon indicted on war crimes charges. In June 2002, a <a href="../../wp/b/Brussels.htm" title="Brussels">Brussels</a> Appeals Court rejected the lawsuit because the law was subsequently changed under heavy U.S. pressure to disallow such lawsuits unless a Belgian citizen is involved.<p><a id="Political_downturn_and_recovery" name="Political_downturn_and_recovery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Political downturn and recovery</span></h2>
<p>After being dismissed from the Defense Minister post because the Kahan Commission found him "personally responsible" for his "disregard of the danger of a massacre," Sharon remained in successive governments as a Minister without portfolio (1983—1984), Minister for Trade and Industry (1984—1990), and Minister for Housing Construction (1990—1992). During this period he was a rival to then prime minister <!--del_lnk--> Yitzhak Shamir, but failed in various bids to replace him as chairman of the ruling <!--del_lnk--> Likud party. Their rivalry reached a head on the "Night of Microphones" in February 1990, when Sharon snapped the microphone from Shamir, who was addressing the Likud central committee, and famously exclaimed: "Who's for wiping out terrorism?". The implication was that only Sharon knew how to destroy the scourge and whoever deemed this as important should support him. The incident was widely viewed as an apparent <!--del_lnk--> putsch attempt against Shamir's leadership of the party.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Netanyahu's 1996–1999 government, he was Minister of National Infrastructure (1996—1998), and Foreign Minister (1998—1999). Upon the election of the <!--del_lnk--> Barak Labor government, Sharon became leader of the Likud party. After the collapse of Barak's government, Ariel Sharon was elected Prime Minister in February 2001.<p><a id="Prime_Minister" name="Prime_Minister"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Prime Minister</span></h2>
<p>Ariel Sharon was allegedly involved in the <!--del_lnk--> Greek island affair related to attempts by <!--del_lnk--> David Appel to purchase an island near the coast of <a href="../../wp/a/Athens.htm" title="Athens">Athens</a> for the purpose of building a multimillion-dollar resort complex. The charge against Sharon was dropped in 2004.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/38/3844.jpg.htm" title="Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas, United States President George W. Bush, and Ariel Sharon after reading statement to the press during the closing moments of the Red Sea Summit in Aqaba, Jordan, June 4, 2003."><img alt="Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas, United States President George W. Bush, and Ariel Sharon after reading statement to the press during the closing moments of the Red Sea Summit in Aqaba, Jordan, June 4, 2003." height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Red_Sea_Summit_in_Aqaba.jpg" src="../../images/166/16638.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/38/3844.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Palestinian President <a href="../../wp/m/Mahmoud_Abbas.htm" title="Mahmoud Abbas">Mahmoud Abbas</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> President <a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a>, and Ariel Sharon after reading statement to the press during the closing moments of the Red Sea Summit in <!--del_lnk--> Aqaba, <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <!--del_lnk--> June 4, <!--del_lnk--> 2003.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>According to the Palestinians, Ariel Sharon has followed an aggressive policy of non-negotiation. Palestinians allege that the <!--del_lnk--> al-Aqsa Intifada (September 2000-February 2005) was sparked by a visit by Sharon and an escort of several hundred policemen to the <!--del_lnk--> Temple Mount complex, site of the <!--del_lnk--> Dome of the Rock and <!--del_lnk--> al-Aqsa Mosque. Sharon's visit, prior to his election as Prime Minister, came after archeologists claimed that extensive building operations at the site were destroying priceless antiquities and a few months before the election. While visiting the site, Sharon declared that the complex would remain under perpetual Israeli control. Palestinian commentators accused Sharon of purposely inflaming emotions with the event to provoke a violent response and obstruct success of delicate ongoing peace talks.<p>Sharon's supporters claim that <!--del_lnk--> Yasser Arafat and the <!--del_lnk--> Palestinian National Authority planned the intifada months prior to Sharon's visit. They state that Palestinian security chief Jabril Rajoub provided assurances that if Sharon did not enter the mosques, no problems would arise. They also often quote statements by Palestinian Authority officials, particularly Imad Falouji, the P.A. Communications Minister, who admitted months after Sharon's visit that the violence had been planned in July, far in advance of Sharon's visit, stating the intifada "was carefully planned since the return of (Palestinian President) Yasser Arafat from <!--del_lnk--> Camp David negotiations rejecting the U.S. conditions". According to the Mitchell Report, the government of Israel asserted that<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16639.jpg.htm" title="President George W. Bush, center, discusses the Middle East peace process with Prime Minister Ariel Sharon of Israel, left, and Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas in Aqaba, Jordan, June 4, 2003."><img alt="President George W. Bush, center, discusses the Middle East peace process with Prime Minister Ariel Sharon of Israel, left, and Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas in Aqaba, Jordan, June 4, 2003." height="111" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sharon_bush_abbas.jpg" src="../../images/166/16639.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16639.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> President <a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a>, centre, discusses the <!--del_lnk--> Middle East peace process with Prime Minister Ariel Sharon of Israel, left, and Palestinian President <a href="../../wp/m/Mahmoud_Abbas.htm" title="Mahmoud Abbas">Mahmoud Abbas</a> in <!--del_lnk--> Aqaba, <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <!--del_lnk--> June 4, <!--del_lnk--> 2003.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd><i>the immediate catalyst for the violence was the breakdown of the Camp David negotiations on <!--del_lnk--> 25 July <!--del_lnk--> 2000 and the “widespread appreciation in the international community of Palestinian responsibility for the impasse.” In this view, Palestinian violence was planned by the PA leadership, and was aimed at “provoking and incurring Palestinian casualties as a means of regaining the diplomatic initiative.”</i></dl>
<p>The Mitchell Report, based on a subsequent investigation, also found that the Sharon visit did not cause the Al-Aqsa Intifada, though it was poorly timed and would clearly have a provocative effect.<p>Palestinians doubt the existence of popular support for Sharon's actions. Polls published in the media, as well as the 140% call-up of reservists (as opposed to the 60% in regular periods) seem to indicate that the Israeli public is quite supportive of Sharon's policies. A survey conducted by Tel Aviv University's Jaffe Centre in May 2004 found that 80% of Jewish Israelis believe that the Israel Defense Forces have succeeded in militarily countering the Al-Aqsa Intifada, indicating widespread faith in Sharon's hard-line policy.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16640.jpg.htm" title="President Bush and Prime Minister Sharon meet in the White House on 14 April 2004."><img alt="President Bush and Prime Minister Sharon meet in the White House on 14 April 2004." height="130" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bush_sharon.jpg" src="../../images/166/16640.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16640.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> President Bush and Prime Minister Sharon meet in the White House on <!--del_lnk--> 14 April <!--del_lnk--> 2004.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> July 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, Sharon called on <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jews</a> to emigrate from France to Israel immediately, in light of an increase in French <!--del_lnk--> anti-Semitism (94 anti-Semitic assaults reported in the first six months of 2004 compared to 47 in 2003). France has the third largest Jewish population (about 600,000 people), after the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a>. Sharon claimed that an "unfettered anti-Semitism" reigned in France. The French government responded by describing his comments as "unacceptable", as did the French representative Jewish organization <!--del_lnk--> CRIF, which denied Sharon's claim of intense anti-Semitism in French society. An Israeli spokesperson later claimed that Sharon had been misunderstood. France then postponed a visit by Sharon. Upon his visit, both Sharon and Chirac were described as showing a willingness to put the issue behind them.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> July 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, Israeli attorney general <!--del_lnk--> Menachem Mazuz announced that he would indict Sharon's son, <!--del_lnk--> Omri, on charges of <!--del_lnk--> corruption. Omri had <!--del_lnk--> parliamentary immunity at the time, but indicated willingness to stand trial. The Knesset passed a law limiting members' immunity in order to allow the indictment and Omri was formally indicted on <!--del_lnk--> August 28.<p><a id="Unilateral_disengagement" name="Unilateral_disengagement"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Unilateral disengagement</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>While some believe that his recent efforts have been damaging to the peace process, he has embarked on a bold course of unilateral withdrawal from the <a href="../../wp/g/Gaza_Strip.htm" title="Gaza Strip">Gaza Strip</a>, while maintaining control of its coastline and airspace. It has been welcomed by both the <!--del_lnk--> Palestinian Authority and the left-wing in Israel, as well as by many abroad, including the United States and the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>, as a step towards a final peace settlement. However, it has been greeted with opposition from within his own Likud party and from other right-wing Israelis, on security, military, and religious grounds. Other detractors have publicly distrusted Sharon's motives for this plan, and their suspicions were further roused after publication of an interview with top Sharon aide Dov Weisglass in the Israeli newspaper <i><!--del_lnk--> Haaretz</i> on <!--del_lnk--> October 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, in which he explained Israel's motivation for withdrawing from Gaza. He told the newspaper that both Israel and the US felt Palestinian terrorism must end before a political process leading to a Palestinian state begins. Otherwise, Weisglass said, "the result would be a Palestinian state with terrorism..." The Gaza withdrawal would allow Israel to delay negotiations, and a Palestinian state, until such time that their leadership abandons violence. Critics interpreted Weisglass' comments as saying the purpose of disengagement was to destroy Palestinian aspirations for a state for years to come. This incident has been interpretated by critics that Sharon was intentionally trying to destroy the peace process, an accusation denied by the Prime Minister's camp.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, Sharon dismissed five ministers from the Shinui party for voting against the government's 2005 budget. In January 2005 Sharon formed a national unity government that included representatives of Likud, Labor, and <!--del_lnk--> Meimad and <!--del_lnk--> Degel HaTorah as "out-of-government" supporters without any seats in the government (<!--del_lnk--> Haredi parties usually reject having ministerial offices as a policy). Between <!--del_lnk--> August 16 and <!--del_lnk--> August 30, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, Sharon controversially expelled 8,500 Jewish settlers from 21 settlements in Gaza. Once it became clear that the evictions were definitely going ahead a group of extreme right-wing Rabbis, led by Rabbi <!--del_lnk--> Yosef Dayan placed an ancient curse on him known as the <!--del_lnk--> Pulsa diNura, calling on the <!--del_lnk--> Angel of Death to intervene and kill him. After Israeli soldiers bulldozed every settlement structure except for several former <!--del_lnk--> synagogue buildings, Israeli soldiers formally left Gaza on Sunday, <!--del_lnk--> September 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2005 and closed the border fence at <!--del_lnk--> Kissufim. The synagogues were later looted and burned to the ground by Palestinians. While his decision to withdraw from Gaza sparked bitter protests from members of the Likud party and the settler movement, opinion polls showed that it was a popular move among most of the Israeli electorate. On <!--del_lnk--> September 27, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, Sharon narrowly defeated a leadership challenge by a 52-48% vote. The move was initiated within the central committee of the governing Likud party by his main rival, <!--del_lnk--> Binyamin Netanyahu, who had left the cabinet to protest Sharon's withdrawal from Gaza. The measure was an attempt by Netanyahu to call an early primary in November 2005 to choose the party's leader.<p><a id="Founding_of_Kadima" name="Founding_of_Kadima"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Founding of Kadima</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> November 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, Sharon resigned as head of Likud, and dissolved parliament to form a new centre-left party called <i><!--del_lnk--> Kadima</i> ("Forward"). November polls indicated that Sharon was likely to be returned to the prime ministership. On <!--del_lnk--> December 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, Sharon's longtime rival <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Netanyahu was elected his successor as leader of Likud. Following Sharon's incapacitation, Ehud Olmert replaced Sharon as Kadima's leader. Netanyahu, along with <!--del_lnk--> Labor's <!--del_lnk--> Amir Peretz, were <i>Kadima'</i>s chief rivals in the <!--del_lnk--> March 2006 elections.<p>In the elections, which saw Israel's lowest-ever voter turnout, Kadima received the most Knesset seats, followed by Labor. The new governing coalition installed in May 2006 includes Kadima, with Olmert as Prime Minster, Labor (including Peretz as Defense Minster), the Gil (Pensioner's) Party and the Shas religious party.<p><a id="Incapacitation" name="Incapacitation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Incapacitation</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Sharon was hospitalized on <!--del_lnk--> December 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2005 after reportedly suffering a minor <!--del_lnk--> ischemic stroke. Sharon spent several days in the hospital before being released. During his hospital stay, he was also diagnosed with a minor hole in his <!--del_lnk--> atrial septum and was scheduled to undergo a <!--del_lnk--> cardiac catheterization on <!--del_lnk--> January 5, <!--del_lnk--> 2006. Despite stern medical advice to the contrary, Sharon immediately returned to work.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> January 4, however, Sharon suffered a massive <!--del_lnk--> hemorrhagic stroke at his ranch <!--del_lnk--> Havat Hashikmim, in the <!--del_lnk--> Negev region. He was transported by ambulance to <!--del_lnk--> Hadassah hospital in <a href="../../wp/j/Jerusalem.htm" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> to undergo <!--del_lnk--> brain surgery. Although Sharon was reportedly in stable condition, his doctors called the stroke "significant", adding that he "suffered a <!--del_lnk--> cerebral hemorrhage", or bleeding in the brain. Sharon underwent seven hours of surgery to stop the bleeding and drain the accumulated blood. Hadassah Director <!--del_lnk--> Shlomo Mor-Yosef reported after the surgery that the bleeding had stopped, saying that "all the parameters are according to expectations after an operation of this type." However, now comatose, Sharon's chances for recovery are estimated as "very low".<p>While the hospital was preparing announcements of his death, members of the media incorrectly reported that Sharon had already died. Nevertheless, Sharon's family and advisors urged his physicians to try once again to save his life.<p>On the night of Sharon's stroke, in the wake of his serious illness and following consultations between Government Secretary <!--del_lnk--> Israel Maimon and Attorney General <!--del_lnk--> Meni Mazouz, Sharon was declared "temporarily incapable of discharging his powers". As a result, <!--del_lnk--> Ehud Olmert, the Deputy Prime Minister, was officially confirmed as the Acting Prime Minister of Israel. Olmert and the Cabinet announced that the <!--del_lnk--> elections would take place on <!--del_lnk--> March 28 as scheduled.<p>During the rest of January, Sharon's condition remained essentially unchanged. On <!--del_lnk--> February 11, he underwent an operation to investigate damage to his digestive tract. It was found that he was suffering from <!--del_lnk--> intestinal bleeding and life-threatening <!--del_lnk--> necrosis, and about 50 cm of his intestines were consequently removed. On <!--del_lnk--> February 22, he underwent an additional procedure to drain excess fluid from his stomach, discovered during a routine <!--del_lnk--> CT scan.<p>According to Israeli law, an Acting Prime Minister can remain in office 100 days after the Prime Minister has become incapacitated. After 100 days, the Israeli President must appoint a new Prime Minister.<p>At the time of his stroke, Sharon enjoyed considerable support from the general public in Israel. The new <!--del_lnk--> centrist political party that he founded, <!--del_lnk--> Kadima, won the largest number of seats in the <!--del_lnk--> Knesset elections held on <!--del_lnk--> March 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2006. (Since Sharon was unable to sign a nomination form, he was not a candidate and therefore ceased to be a Knesset member.)<p>On <!--del_lnk--> April 6, President of Israel <!--del_lnk--> Moshe Katsav formally asked Olmert to form a government, making him Prime Minister-Designate. Olmert had an initial period of 28 days to form a governing <!--del_lnk--> coalition, with a possible two-week extension.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> April 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, the Israeli Cabinet deemed that Sharon was incapacitated. Although Sharon's replacement was to be named within 100 days of his becoming incapacitated, the replacement deadline was extended due to the Jewish festival of <!--del_lnk--> Passover. A provision was made that, should Sharon's condition improve between <!--del_lnk--> April 11 and <!--del_lnk--> April 14, the declaration would not take effect. Therefore, the official declaration took effect on <!--del_lnk--> April 14, formally ending Sharon's term as Prime Minister and making <!--del_lnk--> Ehud Olmert the country's new Prime Minister.<p>Medical experts reported that Sharon's cognitive abilities were destroyed by the massive stroke, and that he is in a <!--del_lnk--> persistent vegetative state (PVS) with extremely slim chances of regaining consciousness. Although the Israeli press (Yediot) reported that Sharon had opened his eyes several times, doctors were quick to note that that was not unusual with comatose patients. <p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Sharon was transferred from the hospital in Jerusalem to a long-term care unit of the <!--del_lnk--> Sheba Medical Centre in <!--del_lnk--> Tel HaShomer, a large civilian and military hospital. <i>Ha'aretz</i> reported that this move was an indication that Sharon's doctors did not expect him to emerge from his coma in the foreseeable future. Dr. Yuli Krieger, a physician not involved in Sharon's case, told <!--del_lnk--> Israel Radio on Sunday that the chances of waking up after such a lengthy coma were small. "Every day that passes after this kind of event with the patient still unconscious the chances that he will gain consciousness get smaller," said Krieger, Deputy Head of Levinstein House, another long-term care facility.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> July 23, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, CNN reported that his condition was deteriorating and his kidney function was worsening . On <!--del_lnk--> July 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 doctors moved him to <!--del_lnk--> intensive care and began <!--del_lnk--> hemofiltration. On <!--del_lnk--> August 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 doctors reported that Sharon's condition worsened significantly and that he was suffering from <a href="../../wp/p/Pneumonia.htm" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a> in both lungs. On August 29, doctors reported that he had been successfully treated for his pneumonia and moved out of intensive care back to the long-term care unit .<p>On November 3, 2006, it was reported that Sharon has been admitted to intensive care after contracting an infection, though doctors insisted that his condition was 'stable'.<p>On November 6, 2006, it was reported that Sharon has been moved out of an intensive care unit after treatment for a heart infection. "His heart function has improved after being treated for an infection and his overall condition has stabilised,".<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_Sharon"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Hebrew language', 'Stroke', 'Israel', 'Russian language', 'Socialism', 'Jordan', 'Siege', 'Jew', 'Jerusalem', 'West Bank', 'Cancer', 'Egypt', 'Yom Kippur War', 'Suez Canal', 'Africa', 'Cairo', 'Yom Kippur War', 'Logistics', 'Beirut', 'Belgium', 'Brussels', 'Athens', 'Mahmoud Abbas', 'United States', 'George W. Bush', 'Jordan', 'George W. Bush', 'Mahmoud Abbas', 'Jordan', 'France', 'Jew', 'United States', 'Israel', 'Gaza Strip', 'European Union', 'Jerusalem', 'Pneumonia'] |
Aristarchus_(crater) | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Aristarchus (crater),1911,2005,2006,Albedo,Alpha particle,Anorthosite,Apollo 15,Apollo 17,Apollo 18,Aristarchus of Samos" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Aristarchus (crater)</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Aristarchus_(crater)";
var wgTitle = "Aristarchus (crater)";
var wgArticleId = 623885;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Aristarchus_crater">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Aristarchus (crater)</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="float:right; clear:right; margin:0 0 2px 2px;">
<tr>
<th bgcolor="#FFCCCC" colspan="2">Crater characteristics</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">
<div style="width: 200px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/166/16643.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aristarchus_and_Herodotus_craters_Apollo_15.jpg" src="../../images/166/16643.jpg" width="200" /></a><br /><small>Aristarchus (centre) and Herodotus (right) from <!--del_lnk--> Apollo 15. <i><!--del_lnk--> NASA photo</i>.</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#FFEEEE">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Coordinates</b></td>
<td>23.7° N, 47.4° W</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Diameter</b></td>
<td>40 km</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#FFEEEE">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Depth</b></td>
<td>3.7 km</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Colongitude</b> </td>
<td>48° at sunrise</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#FFEEEE">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Eponym</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Aristarchus<br /> of Samos</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Aristarchus</b> is a prominent <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">lunar</a> <!--del_lnk--> impact crater that lies in the northwest part of the <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a>'s near side. It is considered the brightest of the large formations on the lunar surface, with an <!--del_lnk--> albedo nearly double that of most lunar features. The feature is bright enough to be visible to the naked eye, and is dazzling in a large <a href="../../wp/t/Telescope.htm" title="Telescope">telescope</a>. It is also readily identified when most of the <!--del_lnk--> lunar surface is illuminated by <!--del_lnk--> earthshine.<p>The crater is located at the southeastern edge of the Aristarchus plateau, an elevated area that contains a number of volcanic features, such as sinuous <!--del_lnk--> rilles. This area is also noted for the large number of reported <!--del_lnk--> transient lunar phenomena, as well as recent emissions of <a href="../../wp/r/Radon.htm" title="Radon">radon</a> gas as measured by the <!--del_lnk--> Lunar Prospector spacecraft.<p>Aristarchus was originally named by the <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italian</a> map maker <!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Riccioli. His work <i>Almagestum novum</i> ("New Almaghest"), published in 1651, gave the spot-shaped telescopic features (later called craters) <!--del_lnk--> eponyms of noted astronomers and philosophers. Although widely adopted, the name only became an official international standard by a vote of the <!--del_lnk--> IAU General Assembly in 1935.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script><a id="Selenography" name="Selenography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Selenography</span></h2>
<p>The Aristarchus crater is located on an elevated rocky rise, known as the Aristarchus plateau, in the midst of the <!--del_lnk--> Oceanus Procellarum, a large expanse of lunar <!--del_lnk--> mare. This is a tilted crustal block, about 200 km across, that rises to a maximum altitude of 2 km above the mare in the southeastern section. Aristarchus crater is just to the east of the <!--del_lnk--> Herodotus crater and the <!--del_lnk--> Vallis Schröteri.<p>The brightest feature of this crater is the steep central peak. Sections of the interior floor appear relatively level, but <!--del_lnk--> Lunar Orbiter <!--del_lnk--> photographs reveal the surface is covered in many small hills, streaky gouges, and some minor fractures. The crater has a terraced outer wall covered in a bright blanket of ejecta, which spreads out into bright <!--del_lnk--> rays to the south and south-east. (These suggest that Aristarchus was most likely formed by an oblique impact from the northeast.) Observers have noted that the wall is roughly circular but has a somewhat <!--del_lnk--> polygonal shape.<p>The main reason for the crater's brightness is that it is a young formation, approximately 450 million years old, and the <!--del_lnk--> solar wind has not yet had time to darken the excavated material by the process of <!--del_lnk--> space weathering. The impact occurred following the creation of the <!--del_lnk--> Copernicus crater, but before the appearance of <!--del_lnk--> Tycho crater. Based on the asymmetrical spread of the ejecta, it was formed by an object that struck at a low angle to the surface, arriving from the north-east. The composition of the ejecta includes material from both the plateau and the mare.<p>To the north of this crater is a system of narrow sinuous <!--del_lnk--> rilles named <i>Rimae Aristarchus</i>. These rilles extend for a distance of 121 km, or three times the diameter of the Aristarchus crater.<p><a id="Remote_sensing" name="Remote_sensing"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Remote sensing</span></h2>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1911, Professor <!--del_lnk--> Robert W. Wood used <a href="../../wp/u/Ultraviolet.htm" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> <a href="../../wp/p/Photography.htm" title="Photography">photography</a> to take images of the crater area. He discovered the plateau had an anomalous appearance in the ultraviolet, and an area to the north appeared to give indications of a <a href="../../wp/s/Sulfur.htm" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> deposit. This colorful area is sometimes referred to as "Wood's Spot", an alternate name for the Aristarchus Plateau.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16644.jpg.htm" title="Clementine image of Aristarchus crater and surroundings mapped onto simulated topography. NASA photo."><img alt="Clementine image of Aristarchus crater and surroundings mapped onto simulated topography. NASA photo." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aristarchus_hst.jpg" src="../../images/166/16644.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/166/16644.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Clementine image of Aristarchus crater and surroundings mapped onto simulated <!--del_lnk--> topography. <i><!--del_lnk--> NASA</i> photo.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Spectra taken of this crater during the <!--del_lnk--> Clementine mission was used to perform <a href="../../wp/m/Mineral.htm" title="Mineral">mineral</a> mapping. The data indicated that the central peak is a type of rock called <!--del_lnk--> anorthosite, which is a slow-cooling form of <!--del_lnk--> igneous rock composed of <!--del_lnk--> plagioclase <a href="../../wp/f/Feldspar.htm" title="Feldspar">feldspar</a>. By contrast the outer wall is <!--del_lnk--> troctolite, a rock composed of equal parts <!--del_lnk--> plagioclase and <!--del_lnk--> olivine.<p>The Aristarchus crater region was part of a <!--del_lnk--> Hubble space telescope study in 2005 that was investigating the presence of <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>-rich glassy soils in the form of the mineral <!--del_lnk--> ilmenite. Baseline measurements were made of the <!--del_lnk--> Apollo 15 and <!--del_lnk--> Apollo 17 landing sites, where the chemistry is known, and these were compared to Aristarchus. The Hubble Advanced Camera for Surveys was used to photograph the crater is visual and <a href="../../wp/u/Ultraviolet.htm" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> light. The crater was determined to have especially rich concentrations of ilmenite, a <!--del_lnk--> titanium oxide mineral that could potentially be used in the future by a <!--del_lnk--> lunar settlement for extracting oxygen.<p><a id="Transient_lunar_phenomenon" name="Transient_lunar_phenomenon"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transient lunar phenomenon</span></h2>
<p>Aristarchus is noted for possible <!--del_lnk--> lunar transient phenomena (TLP). In 1971 when <!--del_lnk--> Apollo 15 passed 110 kilometers above this <!--del_lnk--> crater, a significant rise in <!--del_lnk--> alpha particles was detected. These particles are believed to be caused by the decay of <a href="../../wp/r/Radon.htm" title="Radon">radon-222</a>, a <!--del_lnk--> radioactive <a href="../../wp/g/Gas.htm" title="Gas">gas</a> with a <!--del_lnk--> half-life of only 3.8 days. The <!--del_lnk--> Lunar Prospector mission later confirmed Radon-222 emissions from this crater.<p>On April 23rd, 1994, amateur observers reported another TLP event in the vicinity of the "Cobra Head", the name for the bulbous start of Vallis Shröteri, a volcanic sinuous rille. The <!--del_lnk--> Clementine <!--del_lnk--> spacecraft took before and after pictures of this region, and colour changes were claimed to have been observed.<p><a id="Satellite_craters" name="Satellite_craters"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Satellite craters</span></h2>
<p>Surrounding the Aristarchus crater are several smaller craters, many of which are probably <b>secondaries</b>. Secondary craters form when large blocks ejected from the primary crater reimpact the surface at high velocities. By convention these features are identified on lunar maps by placing a letter on the side of the crater mid-point that is closest to the primary crater.<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th style="background:#eeeeee;" width="25%">Aristarchus</th>
<th style="background:#eeeeee;" width="25%">Latitude</th>
<th style="background:#eeeeee;" width="25%">Longitude</th>
<th style="background:#eeeeee;" width="25%">Diameter</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">B</td>
<td align="center">26.3° N</td>
<td align="center">46.8° W</td>
<td align="center">7 km</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">D</td>
<td align="center">23.7° N</td>
<td align="center">42.9° W</td>
<td align="center">5 km</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">F</td>
<td align="center">21.7° N</td>
<td align="center">46.5° W</td>
<td align="center">18 km</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">H</td>
<td align="center">22.6° N</td>
<td align="center">45.7° W</td>
<td align="center">4 km</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">N</td>
<td align="center">22.8° N</td>
<td align="center">42.9° W</td>
<td align="center">3 km</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">S</td>
<td align="center">19.3° N</td>
<td align="center">46.2° W</td>
<td align="center">4 km</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">T</td>
<td align="center">19.6° N</td>
<td align="center">46.4° W</td>
<td align="center">4 km</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">U</td>
<td align="center">19.7° N</td>
<td align="center">48.6° W</td>
<td align="center">4 km</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">Z</td>
<td align="center">25.5° N</td>
<td align="center">48.4° W</td>
<td align="center">8 km</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The following craters have been renamed by the <!--del_lnk--> IAU.<ul>
<li>Aristarchus A — <i>See</i> <!--del_lnk--> Väisälä crater.<li>Aristarchus C — <i>See</i> <!--del_lnk--> Toscanelli crater.</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristarchus_%28crater%29"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Moon', 'Moon', 'Telescope', 'Radon', 'Italy', 'Ultraviolet', 'Photography', 'Sulfur', 'Mineral', 'Feldspar', 'Oxygen', 'Ultraviolet', 'Radon', 'Gas'] |
Aristotle | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html dir="ltr" lang="en" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type" />
<meta content="Aristotle,Henry Babcock Veatch,McGraw Hill,Cambridge University Press,Aristotle for Everybody,Mortimer Adler,322 BC,340s BC,384 BC,A priori and a posteriori (philosophy),Abstraction" name="keywords" />
<link href="../../favicon.ico" rel="shortcut icon" />
<link href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" rel="copyright" />
<title>Aristotle</title>
<style media="screen,projection" type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/wp-monobook-main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
<link href="../../css/wp-commonPrint.css" media="print" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if IE 7]><style type="text/css">@import "../../css/IE70Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
<!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="../../js/IEFixes.js"></script>
<meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
<script type="text/javascript">
var skin = "monobook";
var stylepath = "/skins-1.5";
var wgArticlePath = "/wiki/$1";
var wgScriptPath = "/w";
var wgServer = "http://en.wikipedia.org";
var wgCanonicalNamespace = "";
var wgNamespaceNumber = 0;
var wgPageName = "Aristotle";
var wgTitle = "Aristotle";
var wgArticleId = 308;
var wgIsArticle = true;
var wgUserName = null;
var wgUserLanguage = "en";
var wgContentLanguage = "en";
</script>
<script src="../../js/wikibits.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- wikibits js --></script>
<script src="../../js/wp.js" type="text/javascript"><!-- site js --></script>
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
@import "../../css/wp-common.css";
@import "../../css/wp-monobook.css";
@import "../../css/wp.css";
/*]]>*/</style>
<!-- Head Scripts -->
</head>
<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Aristotle">
<div id="globalWrapper">
<div id="column-content">
<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Aristotle</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Philosophers.htm">Philosophers</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table cellpadding="2" class="infobox" style="border-color: #B0C4DE; width:26em; font-size: 85%">
<tr>
<th align="center" bgcolor="#B0C4DE" colspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #B0C4DE; font-size: 125%;">Western philosophy<br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Ancient philosophy</small></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/28/2846.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg" src="../../images/4/466.jpg" width="200" /></a></span></div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Name:</th>
<td><span class="polytonic" lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀριστοτέλης</span> <i>Aristotélēs</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Birth:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 384 BC</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Death:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> March 7, <!--del_lnk--> 322 BC</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">School/tradition:</th>
<td>Gave rise to <!--del_lnk--> Aristotelianism and the <!--del_lnk--> Peripatetic school</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Main interests:</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Politics.htm" title="Politics">Politics</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Metaphysics, <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">Science</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Logic.htm" title="Logic">Logic</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Notable ideas:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> The Golden mean, Reason, Passion</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Influences:</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Plato.htm" title="Plato">Plato</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: right;">Influenced:</th>
<td>Almost all of <!--del_lnk--> western philosophy and <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">science</a> afterward</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Aristotle</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Greek: <span class="polytonic" lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀριστοτέλης</span> <i>Aristotélēs</i>) (<!--del_lnk--> 384 BC – <!--del_lnk--> March 7, <!--del_lnk--> 322 BC) was an <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> <!--del_lnk--> philosopher, a student of <a href="../../wp/p/Plato.htm" title="Plato">Plato</a> and teacher of <a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_the_Great.htm" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>. He wrote on diverse subjects, including <a href="../../wp/p/Physics.htm" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Poetry.htm" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Biology.htm" title="Biology">biology</a> and <!--del_lnk--> zoology, <a href="../../wp/l/Logic.htm" title="Logic">logic</a>, <!--del_lnk--> rhetoric, <a href="../../wp/p/Politics.htm" title="Politics">politics</a> and <a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">government</a>, and <a href="../../wp/e/Ethics.htm" title="Ethics">ethics</a>. Along with <a href="../../wp/s/Socrates.htm" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Plato.htm" title="Plato">Plato</a>, Aristotle was one of the most influential of <!--del_lnk--> ancient Greek philosophers. They transformed <!--del_lnk--> Presocratic <!--del_lnk--> Greek philosophy into the foundations of <!--del_lnk--> Western philosophy as we know it. Some consider Plato and Aristotle to have founded two of the most important schools of <!--del_lnk--> Ancient philosophy; others consider <!--del_lnk--> Aristotelianism as a development and concretization of Plato's insights.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</script>
<p>Although Aristotle wrote dialogues, only fragments of these have survived. The works that have survived are in <!--del_lnk--> treatise form and were, for the most part, unpublished texts. These are generally thought to be lecture notes or texts used by his students. Among the most important are <i><!--del_lnk--> Physics</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Metaphysics (or <!--del_lnk--> Ontology)</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Nicomachean Ethics</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Politics</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> De Anima (On the Soul)</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Poetics</i>. These works, although connected in many fundamental ways, differ significantly in both style and substance.<p>Aristotle was a <!--del_lnk--> polymath. He not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant contributions to most of them. In science, Aristotle studied <a href="../../wp/a/Anatomy.htm" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Astronomy.htm" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Economics.htm" title="Economics">economics</a>, <!--del_lnk--> embryology, <a href="../../wp/g/Geography.htm" title="Geography">geography</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Geology.htm" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Meteorology.htm" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Physics.htm" title="Physics">physics</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> zoology. In philosophy, Aristotle wrote on <a href="../../wp/a/Aesthetics.htm" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Ethics.htm" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">government</a>, <!--del_lnk--> metaphysics, <a href="../../wp/p/Politics.htm" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Psychology.htm" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <!--del_lnk--> rhetoric and <!--del_lnk--> theology. He also dealt with <a href="../../wp/e/Education.htm" title="Education">education</a>, foreign customs, <a href="../../wp/l/Literature.htm" title="Literature">literature</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Poetry.htm" title="Poetry">poetry</a>. His combined works practically constitute an <!--del_lnk--> encyclopedia of Greek knowledge.<p>
<br />
<p><a id="Biography" name="Biography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Early_life_and_studies_at_the_Academy" name="Early_life_and_studies_at_the_Academy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early life and studies at the Academy</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/89/8944.jpg.htm" title="A bust of Aristotle is a nearly ubiquitous ornament in places of high culture in the West[citation needed]."><img alt="A bust of Aristotle is a nearly ubiquitous ornament in places of high culture in the West[citation needed]." height="266" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bust_of_Aristotle.jpg" src="../../images/4/467.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/89/8944.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> bust of Aristotle is a nearly ubiquitous ornament in places of high culture in the <!--del_lnk--> West.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Aristotle was born in <!--del_lnk--> Stagira, on the peninsula of <!--del_lnk--> Chalcidice in 384 BC. His father, Nicomachus, was court physician to King <!--del_lnk--> Amyntas III of Macedon. It is believed that Aristotle's ancestors held this position under various kings of the Macedon. He did not go to school, instead he was taught by his father. His father's medical knowledge was perhaps the inspiration for Aristotle's later interest in natural phenomena.<p>Little is known about his mother, Phaestis, who died early in Aristotle's life. His father Nicomachus died when Aristotle was ten, making him an <!--del_lnk--> orphan. Then he was placed under the guardianship of his uncle, <!--del_lnk--> Proxenus of Atarneus, who also took over his education. He gave Aristotle significant instruction in <!--del_lnk--> Greek, <!--del_lnk--> rhetoric, and <a href="../../wp/p/Poetry.htm" title="Poetry">poetry</a> (O'Connor <i>et al.</i>, 2004). Aristotle went to <a href="../../wp/a/Athens.htm" title="Athens">Athens</a> at the age of 18, and attended Plato's school for young Greek aristocracy (the <i><!--del_lnk--> Academy</i>). Aristotle quickly became Plato's favorite student.<p>From the age of 18 to 37 Aristotle remained at the Academy. The relationship between Plato and Aristotle has formed the subject of various legends, many of which depict Aristotle unfavourably. No doubt there were divergences of opinion between Plato, who took his stand on sublime, idealistic principles, and Aristotle, who even at that time showed a preference for the investigation of the facts and laws of the physical world. It is also probable that Plato suggested that Aristotle needed restraining rather than encouragement, but not that there was an open breach of friendship. In fact, Aristotle's conduct after the death of Plato, his continued associations with <!--del_lnk--> Xenocrates and other <!--del_lnk--> Platonists, and his allusions in his writings to Plato's doctrines prove that while there were conflicts of opinions between Plato and Aristotle, there was no lack of cordial appreciation or mutual forbearance. Legends that reflect Aristotle unfavourably are allegedly traceable to the <!--del_lnk--> Epicureans, although some doubt remains of this charge. If such legends were circulated widely by <!--del_lnk--> patristic writers such as <!--del_lnk--> Justin Martyr and <!--del_lnk--> Gregory Nazianzen, the reason may rest in the exaggerated esteem which early <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christian</a> <!--del_lnk--> heretics had for Aristotle.<p>It is not exactly clear when in his life, but according to <!--del_lnk--> Clearchus of Soli in his work "De Somno" (apud: Josephus, Contra Apionem, I, 176-183:), Aristotle met a <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jew</a> in <!--del_lnk--> Asia Minor and regarded him very favorable, noting that there is something to learn from him. Clearchus of Soli quotes Aristoteles as: "'Well', said Aristotle, [...] 'the man was a Jew of Coele-Syria. These people are descended from the Indian philosophers. The philosophers, they say, are in India called Calani, in Syria by the territorial name of Jews; for the district which they inhabit is known as Judea. Their city has a remarkably odd name: they call it Hierusaleme. (180) Now this man, who entertained by a large circle of friends and was on his way from the interior to the coast, not only spoke Greek but had the soul of a Greek. (181) During my stay in Asia, he visited the same places as I did, and came to converse with me and some other scholars, to test our learning. But as one who had been intimate with many cultivated persons, it was rather he who imparted to us something of his own.<i>"</i> <!--del_lnk--> Flavius Josephus writes: "...he [Aristoteles] went on to speak of the great and astonishing endurance and sobriety displayed by this Jew in his manner of life." (trans. H. St. J. Tackery, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge (Mass.)-London)<p><a id="Aristotle_as_philosopher_and_tutor" name="Aristotle_as_philosopher_and_tutor"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Aristotle as philosopher and tutor</span></h3>
<p>After the death of Plato (347 BC), Aristotle was considered for the position of head of the Academy, but this was eventually awarded to Plato's nephew. Aristotle then went with Xenocrates to the court of Hermias, ruler of <!--del_lnk--> Atarneus in <!--del_lnk--> Asia Minor. He married Pythias, the niece of Hermias, and they had a daughter. They called her Pythias after her mother. In 344 BC, Hermias was murdered in a rebellion, and Aristotle went with his family to <!--del_lnk--> Mytilene. It is also reported that he stopped on <!--del_lnk--> Lesbos and briefly conducted biological research. Then, one or two years later, he was summoned to Pella, the Macedonian capital, by King <!--del_lnk--> Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor of <a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_the_Great.htm" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, who was then 12.<p><!--del_lnk--> Plutarch wrote that Aristotle not only imparted to Alexander a knowledge of ethics and politics, but also of the most profound secrets of philosophy. We have much proof that Alexander profited by contact with the philosopher, and that Aristotle made prudent and beneficial use of his influence over the young prince (although <a href="../../wp/b/Bertrand_Russell.htm" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> disputes this). Due to this influence, Alexander provided Aristotle with ample means for the acquisition of books and the pursuit of his scientific investigation.<p>It is possible that Aristotle also participated in the education of Alexander's boyhood friends, which may have included for example <!--del_lnk--> Hephaestion and <!--del_lnk--> Harpalus. Aristotle maintained a long correspondence with Hephaestion, eventually collected into a book, unfortunately now lost.<p>According to sources such as <!--del_lnk--> Plutarch and <!--del_lnk--> Diogenes, Philip burned down Aristotle's hometown of Stageira during the <!--del_lnk--> 340s BC; Aristotle successfully requested that Alexander rebuild it. During his tutorship of Alexander, Aristotle was reportedly considered a second time for leadership of the Academy; his companion Xenocrates was selected instead.<p><a id="Founder_and_master_of_the_Lyceum" name="Founder_and_master_of_the_Lyceum"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Founder and master of the Lyceum</span></h3>
<p>In about 336 BC, Alexander departed on his Asiatic campaign, and Aristotle, who had served as an informal adviser (more or less) since Alexander ascended the Macedonian throne, returned to Athens and opened his own school of philosophy. He may, as <!--del_lnk--> Aulus Gellius says, have conducted a school of <!--del_lnk--> rhetoric during his former residence in Athens; but now, following Plato's example, he gave regular instruction in philosophy in a <!--del_lnk--> gymnasium dedicated to <!--del_lnk--> Apollo Lyceios, from which his school has come to be known as the <!--del_lnk--> Lyceum. (It was also called the <!--del_lnk--> Peripatetic School because Aristotle preferred to discuss problems of philosophy with his pupils while walking around -- <i>peripateo</i> -- the shaded walks -- <i>peripatoi</i> -- surrounding the gymnasium).<p>During the thirteen years (335 BC–322 BC) which he spent as head of the Lyceum, Aristotle composed most of his writings. Imitating Plato, he wrote <i><!--del_lnk--> Dialogues</i> in which his doctrines were expounded in popular language. He also composed the surviving treatises, in which the exposition is more <!--del_lnk--> didactic and the language more technical than in the <i>Dialogues</i>. These writings succeeded in bringing together the works of his predecessors in Greek philosophy, and how he pursued, either personally or through others, his investigations in the realm of natural phenomena. <!--del_lnk--> Pliny the Elder claimed that Alexander placed under Aristotle's orders all the hunters, fishermen, and fowlers of the royal kingdom and all the overseers of the royal forests, lakes, ponds and cattle-ranges; Aristotle's zoological works make this claim believable. Aristotle was fully informed about the doctrines of his predecessors, and <!--del_lnk--> Strabo asserted that he was the first to accumulate a great library.<p>During the last years of Aristotle's life the relations between him and Alexander became very strained, owing to the disgrace and punishment of <!--del_lnk--> Callisthenes, whom Aristotle had recommended to Alexander. Nevertheless, Aristotle continued to be regarded in Athens as a friend of Alexander and a representative of Macedonia. Consequently, when Alexander's death became known in Athens, and the outbreak occurred which led to the <!--del_lnk--> Lamian war, Aristotle shared in the general unpopularity of the Macedonians. The charge of <!--del_lnk--> impiety, which had been brought against <!--del_lnk--> Anaxagoras and <a href="../../wp/s/Socrates.htm" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, was now brought against Aristotle. He left the city, saying, "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" (<i>Vita Marciana</i> 41). He took up residence at his country house at <!--del_lnk--> Chalcis, in <!--del_lnk--> Euboea, and there he died the following year (322 BC). His death was due to a disease, reportedly 'of the stomach', from which he had long suffered. The story that his death was due to <!--del_lnk--> hemlock poisoning, as well as the legend that he threw himself into the sea "because he could not explain the <a href="../../wp/t/Tide.htm" title="Tide">tides</a>," are without historical foundation.<p>Aristotle's legacy, besides its impact on Western thought, also had a profound influence on Islamic thought and philosophy during the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. Muslim thinkers such as <!--del_lnk--> Avicenna, <!--del_lnk--> Al-Farabi, and Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi were a few of the major proponents of the <!--del_lnk--> Aristotelian school of thought during the <i><!--del_lnk--> Golden Age of Islam</i>.<p><a id="Methodology" name="Methodology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Methodology</span></h2>
<p>Aristotle defines his philosophy in terms of <!--del_lnk--> essence, saying that philosophy is "the science of the universal essence of that which is <!--del_lnk--> actual". Plato had defined it as the "science of the <!--del_lnk--> idea", meaning by idea what we should call the unconditional basis of <!--del_lnk--> phenomena. Both pupil and master regard philosophy as concerned with the <!--del_lnk--> universal; Aristotle, however, finds the universal in <!--del_lnk--> particular things, and called it the essence of things, while Plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their <!--del_lnk--> prototype or <!--del_lnk--> exemplar. For Aristotle, therefore, philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal ideas to a contemplation of particular imitations of those ideas. In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both <!--del_lnk--> inductive and <!--del_lnk--> deductive, while Plato's is essentially deductive from <i><!--del_lnk--> a priori</i> principles.<p>In Aristotle's terminology, the term <i>natural philosophy</i> corresponds to the phenomena of the natural world, which include: <a href="../../wp/m/Motion_%2528physics%2529.htm" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Light.htm" title="Light">light</a>, and the <!--del_lnk--> laws of physics. Many centuries later these subjects would become the basis of modern science, as studied through the <!--del_lnk--> scientific method. In modern times the term <i>philosophy</i> has come to be more narrowly understood as metaphysics, distinct from empirical study of the natural world via the physical sciences. In contrast, in Aristotle's time and use, <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> was taken to encompass all facets of intellectual inquiry.<p>In the larger sense of the word, Aristotle makes philosophy coextensive with <!--del_lnk--> reasoning, which he also called "science". Note, however, that his use of the term <i>science</i> carries a different meaning than that covered by the term <!--del_lnk--> scientific method. "All science (<i>dianoia</i>) is either practical, poetical or theoretical". By practical science he means ethics and politics; by poetical science, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; while by theoretical science he means physics, <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, and metaphysics.<p>Metaphysics, philosophy in the strictest sense, he defines as "the knowledge of <!--del_lnk--> immaterial being", and calls it "first philosophy", "the theologic science" or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction". If logic, or, as Aristotle calls it, <!--del_lnk--> Analytic, be regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, we have as divisions of Aristotelian philosophy (1) <a href="../../wp/l/Logic.htm" title="Logic">Logic</a>; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including <!--del_lnk--> Metaphysics, <a href="../../wp/p/Physics.htm" title="Physics">Physics</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a>, (3) Practical Philosophy; and (4) Poetical Philosophy.<p><a id="Aristotle.27s_epistemology" name="Aristotle.27s_epistemology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Aristotle's epistemology</span></h2>
<p><a id="Logic" name="Logic"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Logic</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Aristotle's conception of logic was the dominant form of logic up until the advances in <!--del_lnk--> mathematical logic in the 19th century. Kant states in the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> that Aristotle's theory of logic had arrived at a complete account of the core of deductive inference.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h4>
<p>Aristotle "says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of'" (Bocheński, 1951). However, Plato reports that <!--del_lnk--> syntax was thought of before him, by <!--del_lnk--> Prodikos of Keos, who was concerned by the right use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from <!--del_lnk--> dialectics; the earlier philosophers used concepts like <i><!--del_lnk--> reductio ad absurdum</i> as a rule when discussing, but never understood its logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic. Although he had the idea of constructing a system for <!--del_lnk--> deduction, he was never able to construct one. Instead, he relied on his <!--del_lnk--> dialectic, which was a confusion between different sciences and methods (Bocheński, 1951). Plato thought that deduction would simply follow from <!--del_lnk--> premises, so he focused on having good premises so that the <!--del_lnk--> conclusion would follow. Later on, Plato realized that a method for obtaining the conclusion would be beneficial. Plato never obtained such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book <i>Sophist</i>, where he introduced his division method (Rose, 1968).<p><a id="Analytics_and_the_Organon" name="Analytics_and_the_Organon"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Analytics and the <i>Organon</i></span></h4>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>What we today call <i>Aristotelian logic</i>, Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean <i>dialectics</i>. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, since it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books in about the early 1st century AD:<ol>
<li><i>Categories</i><li><i>On Interpretation</i><li><i>Prior Analytics</i><li><i>Posterior Analytics</i><li><i>Topics</i><li><i>On Sophistical Refutations</i></ol>
<p>The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) and dialetics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the <i>Organon</i>, namely the fourth book of <i>Metaphysics.</i> (Bocheński, 1951).<p><a id="Modal_logic" name="Modal_logic"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Modal logic</span></h4>
<p>Aristotle is also the creator of <!--del_lnk--> syllogisms with modalities (<!--del_lnk--> modal logic). The word modal refers to the word 'modes', explaining the fact that modal logic deals with the modes of <!--del_lnk--> truth. Aristotle introduced the qualification of 'necessary' and 'possible' premises. He constructed a logic which helped in the evaluation of truth but which was difficult to interpret. (Rose, 1968).<p><a id="Science" name="Science"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Science</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/468.jpg.htm" title="Aristotle, by Francesco Hayez"><img alt="Aristotle, by Francesco Hayez" height="232" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Francesco_Hayez_001.jpg" src="../../images/4/468.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/4/468.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aristotle, by Francesco Hayez</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In the period between his two stints in Athens, between his times at the Academy and the Lyceum, Aristotle conducted most of the scientific thinking and research for which he is now most renowned. In fact, most of Aristotle's life was devoted to the study of the objects of natural science. Aristotle’s Metaphysics contains observations on the nature of numbers but he made no original contributions to Mathematics. He did, however, perform original research in the natural sciences, including: botany, zoology, physics, astronomy, chemistry, meteorology, geometry and several other sciences.<p>Aristotle's writings on science are largely qualitative, not quantitative. Beginning in the sixteenth century, scientists began applying mathematics to the physical sciences, and Aristotle's work in this area was found to be hopelessly inadequate. His failings were largely down to lacking concepts like mass, velocity, force, and temperature. He had a notion of what speed and temperature was, but no quantitative understanding of them. This was partly due to not having basic experimental apparatus, like a clock or thermometer.<p>His writings provide an account of many scientific observations, but there are some curious errors. For example, in his <i><!--del_lnk--> History of Animals</i> he claimed that human males have more teeth than females. In a similar vein, Galileo showed by simple experiments that Aristotle's theory that the heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.<p>Some have alleged that Aristotle regularly started from theory and twisted facts to fit it. For instance he observed living things on earth, in the oceans, and in the air. From this he concluded there must be fire beings living on the moon. This is obviously absurd. In his defence, there are very few passages like this. In many passages Aristotle suggest that facts must be collected before an axiomatized deductive science can be built. But Aristotle never had all the facts, and thought he had facts when he had only falsehoods.<p>In places, Aristotle goes too far in deriving 'laws of the universe' from simple observation and over-stretched <!--del_lnk--> reason. Today's <!--del_lnk--> scientific method assumes that thinking without sufficient facts often leads people astray, and one must be much stricter than Aristotle was in comparing one's ideas to the actual world through experimentation; only then can one discern if one's hypothesis corresponds to reality.<p>Aristotle also had some scientific blind spots, the largest being his inability to see the application of mathematics to physics. Aristotle held that physics was about changing objects with a reality of their own, whereas mathematics was about unchanging objects without a reality of their own. In this philosophy, he could not imagine that there was a relationship between them. He also posited a flawed cosmology that we may discern in selections of the <i>Metaphysics</i>. His cosmology would gain much acceptance up until the 1500s. From the 3rd century to the 1500s, the dominant view held that the Earth was the centre of the universe; of course, we now know that the Earth is not even the centre of our own solar system.<p>Aristotle's scientific shortcomings should not mislead you into forgetting the immense advances that he made in the many fields of science. For instance, he founded logic as a formal science and created foundations to biology that were not superseded for two millennia. Also, he introduced the fundamental notion that nature is composed of things that change and that studying such changes can provide useful knowledge. This made the study of physics, and all other sciences, respectable. This observation, though, goes beyond physics and is really the subject matter of metaphysics.<p><a id="Aristotle.27s_metaphysics" name="Aristotle.27s_metaphysics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Aristotle's metaphysics</span></h2>
<p><a id="Causality" name="Causality"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Causality</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Material Cause is that from which a thing comes into existence as from its parts, constituents, substratum or materials. This reduces the explanation of causes to the parts (factors, elements, constituents, ingredients) forming the whole (system, structure, compound, complex, composite, or combination) (the part-whole causation).<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Formal Cause tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis, or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (macrostructure) is the cause of its parts (the whole-part causation).<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Efficient Cause is that from which the change or the ending of the change first starts. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Final Cause is that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or telos is the purpose or end that something is supposed to serve, or it is that from which and that to which the change is. This also covers modern ideas of mental causation involving such psychological causes as volition, need, motivation, or motives, rational, irrational, ethical, all that gives purpose to behaviour.<p>Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. [Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or action or influence of cause and effect.] Also, Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects, its presence and absence may result in different outcomes.<p>Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentially, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect.<p>All further investigations of causality will be consisting in imposing the favorite hierarchies on the order causes, like as final > efficient> material > formal (<a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Aquinas.htm" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>), or in restricting all causality to the material and efficient causes or to the efficient causality (deterministic or chance) or just to regular sequences and correlations of natural phenomena (the natural sciences describing how things happen instead of explaining the whys and wherefores).<p><a id="Chance_and_spontaneity" name="Chance_and_spontaneity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Chance and spontaneity</span></h3>
<p>Spontaneity and chance are causes of effects. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place. For example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance.<p>However, chance can only apply to human beings, it is in the sphere of moral actions. According to Aristotle, chance must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. "What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance" (<i>Physics</i>, 2.6).<p><a id="Substance.2C_potentiality_and_actuality" name="Substance.2C_potentiality_and_actuality"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Substance, potentiality and actuality</span></h3>
<p>Aristotle examines the concept of <!--del_lnk--> substance (<i>ousia</i>) in his <!--del_lnk--> Metaphysics, Book VII and he concludes that a particular <b>substance</b> is a combination of both <b>matter</b> and <b>form</b>. As he proceeds to the book VIII, he concludes that the matter of the substance is the <!--del_lnk--> substratum or the stuff of which is composed e.g. the matter of the house are the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the <i>potential</i> house. While the form of the substance, is the <i>actual</i> house, namely ‘covering for bodies and chattels’ or any other <!--del_lnk--> differentia. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form (Metaphysics VIII, 1043a 10-30).<p>With regard to the change (<i>kinesis</i>) and its causes now, as he defines in his <!--del_lnk--> Physics and <!--del_lnk--> On Generation and Corruption 319b-320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from 1. growth and diminution, which is change in quantity 2. locomotion, which change in space and 3. alteration, which is change in quality. The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of <!--del_lnk--> potentiality (<i>dynamis</i>) and <!--del_lnk--> actuality (<i>entelecheia</i>) in association with the matter and the form.<p>Referring to <!--del_lnk--> potentiality, is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if it is not prevented from something else. For example, a seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (<i>dynamei</i>) plant, and if is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (<i>poiein</i>) or 'be acted upon' (<i>paschein</i>), as well as can be either innate or come by practice or learning. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate - being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise - acting).<p>Referring now to <!--del_lnk--> actuality, this is the fulfillment of the <b>end</b> of the potentiality. Because the <b>end</b> (<i>telos</i>) is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that actuality is when the seed of the plant becomes a plant.<p>“ For that for the sake of which a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see.” (Aristotle, Metaphysics IX 1050a 5-10).<p>In conclusion, the <b>matter</b> of the house is its <b>potentiality</b> and the <b>form</b> is its <b>actuality</b>. The <!--del_lnk--> Formal Cause (<i>aitia</i>) then of that change from potential to actual house, is the <!--del_lnk--> reason (<i>logos</i>) of the house builder and the <!--del_lnk--> Final Cause is the end, namely the house itself. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality.<p>With this <!--del_lnk--> definition of the <!--del_lnk--> particular substance (<b>matter and form</b>) Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings; <i>e.g.</i>, what is that makes the man one? Since, according to <a href="../../wp/p/Plato.htm" title="Plato">Plato</a> there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same thing. (Aristotle, Metaphysics VIII 1045a-b).<p><a id="The_five_elements" name="The_five_elements"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The five elements</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Fire, which is hot and dry.<li><!--del_lnk--> Earth, which is cold and dry.<li><!--del_lnk--> Air, which is hot and wet.<li><!--del_lnk--> Water, which is cold and wet.<li><!--del_lnk--> Aether, which is the divine substance that makes up the heavenly spheres and heavenly bodies (stars and planets).</ul>
<p>Each of the four earthly elements has its natural place; the earth at the centre of the universe, then water, then air, then fire. When they are out of their natural place they have natural motion, requiring no external cause, which is towards that place; so bodies sink in water, air bubbles up, rain falls, flame rises in air. The heavenly element has perpetual circular motion.<p><a id="Aristotle.27s_ethics" name="Aristotle.27s_ethics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Aristotle's ethics</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Although Aristotle wrote several works on <a href="../../wp/e/Ethics.htm" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, the major one was the <i><!--del_lnk--> Nicomachean Ethics</i>, which is considered one of Aristotle's greatest works; it discusses <!--del_lnk--> virtues. The ten books which comprise it are based on notes from his lectures at the <!--del_lnk--> Lyceum and were either edited by or dedicated to Aristotle's son, <!--del_lnk--> Nicomachus.<p>Aristotle believed that ethical knowledge is not <i>precise</i> knowledge, like <a href="../../wp/l/Logic.htm" title="Logic">logic</a> and <!--del_lnk--> mathmatics, but <i>general knowledge</i> like knowledge of nutrition and exercise. Also, as it is a practical discipline rather than a <!--del_lnk--> theoretical one; he thought that in order to become "good", one could not simply study what virtue <i>is</i>; one must actually be virtuous. Analogously, in order to become good at a sport like football, one does not simply study but also practices. Aristotle first establishes what was virtuous. He began by determining that everything was done with some goal in mind and that goal is 'good.' The ultimate goal he called the <i>Highest Good</i>.<p>Aristotle contended that happiness could not be found only in pleasure or only in fame and honour. He finally finds happiness "by ascertaining the specific function of man". But what is this function that will bring happiness? To determine this, Aristotle analyzed the soul and found it to have three parts: the Nutritive Soul (plants, animals and humans), the Perceptive Soul (animals and humans) and the Rational Soul (humans only). Thus, a human's function is to do what makes it human, to be good at what sets it apart from everything else: the ability to reason or <i>Nous</i>. A person that does this is the happiest because they are fulfilling their purpose or nature as found in the rational soul. Depending on how well they did this, Aristotle said people belonged to one of four categories: the Virtuous, the Continent, the Incontinent and the Vicious.<p>Aristotle believed that every ethical virtue is an intermediate condition between <!--del_lnk--> excess and <!--del_lnk--> deficiency. This does not mean Aristotle believed in moral relativism, however. He set certain emotions (e.g., hate, envy, jealousy, spite, etc.) and certain actions (e.g., adultery, theft, murder, etc.) as always wrong, regardless of the situation or the circumstances.<p>In the Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle often focused on finding the mean between two extremes of any particular subject; whether it be justice, courage, wealth and so forth. For example, courage is a mean between two feelings (fear and confidence) and an action (the courageous act). Too much fear or too little confidence leads to cowardice, and too little fear or too much confidence can lead to rash, foolish choices. Aristotle says that finding this middle ground is essential to reaching eudemonia, the ultimate form of godlike consciousness. This middle ground is often referred to as The Golden Mean.<p>Aristotle also wrote about his thoughts on the concept of justice in the Nicomachean Ethics. In these chapters, Aristotle defined justice in two parts, general justice and particular justice. General justice is Aristotle’s form of universal justice that can only exist in a perfect society. Particular justice is where punishment is given out for a particular crime or act of injustice. This is where Aristotle says an educated judge is needed to apply just decisions regarding any particular case. This is where we get the concept of the scales of justice, the blindfolded judge symbolizing blind justice, balancing the scales, weighing all the evidence and deliberating each particular case individually. Homonymy is an important theme in Aristotle’s justice because one form of justice can apply to one, while another would be best suited for a different person/case. Aristotle says that developing good habits can make a good human being and that practicing the use of The golden mean when applicable to virtues will allow a human being to live a healthy, happy life.<p><a id="Aristotle.27s_critics" name="Aristotle.27s_critics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Aristotle's critics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/106/10609.jpg.htm" title="Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms."><img alt="Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms." height="236" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" src="../../images/4/469.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/106/10609.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/p/Plato.htm" title="Plato">Plato</a> (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of <i><!--del_lnk--> The School of Athens</i>, a fresco by <a href="../../wp/r/Raphael.htm" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in <!--del_lnk--> The Forms.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Aristotle has been criticized on several grounds.<ul>
<li>His analysis of procreation is frequently criticized on the grounds that it presupposes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive, lumpen female element; it is on these grounds that some feminist critics refer to Aristotle as a misogynist.<li>At times, the objections that Aristotle raises against the arguments of his own teacher, <a href="../../wp/p/Plato.htm" title="Plato">Plato</a>, appear to rely on faulty interpretations of those arguments.<li>Although Aristotle advised, against Plato, that knowledge of the world could only be obtained through experience, he frequently failed to take his own advice. Aristotle conducted projects of careful <!--del_lnk--> empirical investigation, but often drifted into <!--del_lnk--> abstract logical reasoning, with the result that his work was littered with conclusions that were not supported by empirical evidence: for example, his assertion that objects of different <!--del_lnk--> mass fall at different speeds under <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravity</a>, which was later refuted by <!--del_lnk--> John Philoponus (credit is often given to <!--del_lnk--> Galileo, even though Philoponus lived centuries earlier).<li>Some academics have suggested that Aristotle was unaware of much of the current science of his own time.</ul>
<p>Aristotle was called not a great philosopher, but "The Philosopher" by <!--del_lnk--> Scholastic thinkers. These thinkers blended <!--del_lnk--> Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods.<p><a id="The_loss_of_his_works" name="The_loss_of_his_works"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The loss of his works</span></h2>
<p>Though we know that Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises (<!--del_lnk--> Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"), the originals have been lost in time. All that we have now are the literary notes of his pupils, which are often difficult to read (the <i><!--del_lnk--> Nicomachean Ethics</i> is a good example). It is now believed that we have about one fifth of his original works.<p>Aristotle underestimated the importance of his written work for humanity. He thus never published his books, only his dialogues. The story of the original manuscripts of his treatises is described by <!--del_lnk--> Strabo in his Geography and <!--del_lnk--> Plutarch in his "<!--del_lnk--> Parallel Lives, Sulla": The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to <!--del_lnk--> Theophrastus, from Theophrastus to <!--del_lnk--> Neleus of Scepsis, from Neleus to his heirs. Their descendants sold them to <!--del_lnk--> Apellicon of Teos. When <!--del_lnk--> Lucius Cornelius Sulla occupied Athens in 86 BC, he carried off the library of Appellicon to <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a>, where they were first published in 60 BC from the grammarian <!--del_lnk--> Tyrranion of Amisus and then by philosopher <!--del_lnk--> Andronicus of Rhodes.<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Named after Aristotle</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Aristoteles, a crater on the <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a>.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Aristotle University of Thessaloniki<li><!--del_lnk--> Aristotelous Square<li>Aristotle Lane in Oxford, England<li>Aristotle Bar and Grill in Springfield, Illinois</ul>
<center>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<th colspan="2">Academic Genealogy</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<th width="50%">Notable teachers</th>
<th width="50%">Notable students</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: center;" width="50%"><a href="../../wp/p/Plato.htm" title="Plato">Plato</a></td>
<td style="text-align: center;" width="50%"><a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_the_Great.htm" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Harpalus<br /><!--del_lnk--> Hephaestion<br /><!--del_lnk--> Nicomachus<br /><!--del_lnk--> Theophrastus</td>
</tr>
</table>
</center>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"</div>
<!-- end content -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
<div class="visualClear">
</div>
<div id="footer">
<div class="center"> This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details of authors and sources) and is available under the <nobr><a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm">GNU Free Documentation License</a></nobr>. See also our <b><a href="../../disclaimer.htm">Disclaimer</a></b>. </div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook();</script>
</div>
</body>
</html>
| ['Politics', 'Science', 'Logic', 'Plato', 'Science', 'Ancient Greece', 'Plato', 'Alexander the Great', 'Physics', 'Poetry', 'Biology', 'Logic', 'Politics', 'Government', 'Ethics', 'Socrates', 'Plato', 'Anatomy', 'Astronomy', 'Economics', 'Geography', 'Geology', 'Meteorology', 'Physics', 'Aesthetics', 'Ethics', 'Government', 'Politics', 'Psychology', 'Education', 'Literature', 'Poetry', 'Poetry', 'Athens', 'Christianity', 'Jew', 'Alexander the Great', 'Bertrand Russell', 'Socrates', 'Tide', 'Middle Ages', 'Motion (physics)', 'Light', 'Philosophy', 'Mathematics', 'Logic', 'Physics', 'Mathematics', 'Thomas Aquinas', 'Plato', 'Ethics', 'Logic', 'Plato', 'Raphael', 'Plato', 'Gravity', 'Rome', 'Moon', 'Plato', 'Alexander the Great'] |