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http://ctan.space-pro.be/tex-archive/macros/luatex/latex/wallcalendar/doc/examples/cal-year-planner.tex | space-pro.be | CC-MAIN-2021-10 | text/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-10/segments/1614178358976.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20210227144626-20210227174626-00591.warc.gz | 21,061,840 | 1,261 | \documentclass[
year = 2018,
eventsCsv = ./data/holidays.csv,
markDefaultsCsv = ./data/mark_defaults.csv,
imageFolder = ./photos/,
]{wallcalendar}
\makeatletter
\usepackage{fontspec}
\defaultfontfeatures{Ligatures={TeX}}
\setmainfont{TeX Gyre Pagella}
\newfontfamily\dejaVuSans{DejaVu Sans}
% Use two CSV files for day text input to include the moon phases
\renewcommand\@wall@plm[1]{%
\luadirect{
require("wallcalendar-helpers.lua")
monthMarksDayText(\luastring{#1}, nil, \luastring{\plannerMarksDayTextCSV})
monthMarksDayText(\luastring{#1}, nil, \luastring{./data/moonphases.csv})
tex.sprint(';')
}}
\newcommand\plannerYearFmt{\fontsize{26}{26}\selectfont\color{orangegold}}
\newlength\plannerNotesSep
\setlength{\plannerNotesSep}{3mm}
\newcommand\preYearPlannerPageHook{%
\setlength{\markNumberAbove}{-9pt}%
\setlength{\markNumberRight}{-6pt}%
\setlength{\markDayTextAbove}{-11pt}%
\setlength{\markDayTextRight}{-6pt}%
}
\newcommand\postYearPlannerPageHook{%
\setlength{\markNumberAbove}{-10pt}%
\setlength{\markNumberRight}{-3pt}%
\setlength{\markDayTextAbove}{-10pt}%
\setlength{\markDayTextRight}{-3pt}%
}
\newcommand\printPlannerTitle{\plannerYearFmt \CalendarYear}
\newcommand\YearPlannerPage{%
\newpage
\ifvarnishmask
\mbox{}
\else
\preYearPlannerPageHook
{\centering
{\printPlannerTitle}
\vspace*{7mm}
\YearPlannerPortrait
\vspace*{\plannerNotesSep}
\plannerEvents
}
\postYearPlannerPageHook
\fi
}
\makeatother
\begin{document}
\YearPlannerPage
\end{document}
|
http://dottorato.ph.unito.it/cover_1stpage.tex | unito.it | CC-MAIN-2019-13 | application/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-13/segments/1552912202672.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20190322155929-20190322181929-00134.warc.gz | 55,915,385 | 928 |
\documentclass[a4paper,12pt]{article}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\begin{document}
\thispagestyle{empty}
\begin{center}
\begin{large}
Universit\`a degli Studi di Torino \\
{\bf Scuola di Dottorato in Scienza ed Alta Tecnologia} \\
\end{large}
\end{center}
\hrulefill
\vspace{2cm}
Eventuale figura
\vspace{8cm}
\large{\bf Titolo titolo titolo titolo titolo titolo titolo titolo}
\vspace{2cm}
\large{\bf Nome e cognome del dottorando}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newpage
\pagenumbering{arabic}
\begin{center}
\begin{large}
Universit\`a degli Studi di Torino \\
{\bf Scuola~di~Dottorato~in~Scienza~ed~Alta~Tecnologia}
\end{large}
\end{center}
\hrulefill
\begin{center}
\begin{large}
%{\bf Tesi di Dottorato di Ricerca in Scienza ed Alta Tecnologia} \\
{\bf Indirizzo di Fisica ed Astrofisica}
\end{large}
\end{center}
\vspace{2cm}
\Large{\bf Titolo titolo titolo titolo titolo titolo titolo}
\vspace{8cm}
\large{\bf Nome e cognome del dottorando}
\vspace{1cm}
\large{\bf Tutor: Nome e cognome del relatore}
\end{document} |
http://tug.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/schule/latex/schule.typ.ueb.code.tex | ctan.org | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | application/x-tex | text/x-matlab | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710691.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20221129100233-20221129130233-00656.warc.gz | 52,601,419 | 875 | % allgemeine Voreinstellungen
% ****************************************************************
\pagestyle{scrheadings}
\setheadsepline{0.5pt}
\xsimsetup{
aufgabe/template=schule-default,
}
% Dokumentenbezeichnung für Kopfzeile festlegen
% ****************************************************************
\newcommand{\schule@dokumentTypBezeichnung}{Übungsblatt}
% Kopfzeile festlegen
% ****************************************************************
% Kopf, Innenseite
\ihead{\schule@kopfInnen}
% Kopf, Mitte
\chead{\schule@kopfMitte}
% Kopf, Außenseite
\ohead{\schule@kopfAussen{\schule@dokumentTypBezeichnung}}
% Fußzeile festlegen
% ****************************************************************
% Seitenzahlen ==> Modul Format
\cfoot{\Seitenzahlen}
|
http://dlmf.nist.gov/3.3.E44.tex | nist.gov | CC-MAIN-2017-17 | application/x-tex | null | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-17/segments/1492917120881.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20170423031200-00020-ip-10-145-167-34.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 111,588,711 | 631 | \[S(k,h)(x)=\frac{\mathop{\sin\/}\nolimits\!\left(\pi(x-kh)/h\right)}{\pi(x-kh)/%
h},\] |
http://ftp.heanet.ie/mirrors/ctan.org/tex/macros/latex/unpacked/article.cls | heanet.ie | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | text/x-tex | null | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706413448/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121333-00048-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 105,259,590 | 6,098 | %%
%% This is file `article.cls',
%% generated with the docstrip utility.
%%
%% The original source files were:
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%% classes.dtx (with options: `article')
%%
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%% Copyright 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
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%% --------------------------------------------------------------
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https://www.zentralblatt-math.org/matheduc/en/?id=168671&type=tex | zentralblatt-math.org | CC-MAIN-2019-22 | text/plain | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-22/segments/1558232257624.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20190524124534-20190524150534-00271.warc.gz | 1,018,272,411 | 1,164 | \input zb-basic
\input zb-matheduc
\iteman{ZMATH 1997a.00037}
\itemau{Miller, Philip}
\itemti{Evolution of Novice Programming Environments: The Structure Editors of Carnegie Mellon University.}
\itemso{Interact. Learn. Environ. 4, No. 2, 140-58 (1994).}
\itemab
Describes three projects at Carnegie Mellon University (Pennsylvania) that developed novice programming environments based on structure editors: GNOME, MacGNOME and ACSE (Advanced Computing for Science Education). Tracks the evolution of the programming environments and courses, documenting important lessons and discoveries about novice programmers and the environments that support them. (ERIC)
\itemrv{~}
\itemcc{Q65}
\itemut{}
\itemli{doi:10.1080/1049482940040202}
\end |
http://emath.a.la9.jp/ydir/Wiki/index.php?plugin=attach&refer=EMpsKinziC&openfile=EMpsKinziC03p.tex | la9.jp | CC-MAIN-2020-24 | application/octet-stream | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-24/segments/1590347405558.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200529152159-20200529182159-00516.warc.gz | 40,925,910 | 1,154 | \documentclass[a4j]{jarticle}
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https://www.authorea.com/users/170866/articles/207589/download_latex | authorea.com | CC-MAIN-2021-43 | application/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585045.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20211016231019-20211017021019-00087.warc.gz | 819,848,263 | 4,196 | \documentclass[10pt]{article}
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\begin{document}
\title{Software Project Management Plan}
\author[1]{Akash}%
\affil[1]{Affiliation not available}%
\vspace{-1em}
\date{\today}
\begingroup
\let\center\flushleft
\let\endcenter\endflushleft
\maketitle
\endgroup
\sloppy
\tableofcontents
%\listoffigures
\section*{\textbf{Software Project Management Plan}}
\section*{Introduction}
\paragraph{}Our Objective is to design and implement a user friendly movie player which can play most of the video files that exist.
\subsection*{Project Overview}
\paragraph{}Media is any form of data that changes meaningfully with respect to time.Media Players are known as either audio players or video players (or simply a "Movie Player" in this case) and often have a user interface tailored for the specific media type. This Movie Player will behave like other media players except the fact that it will not support any audio playback i.e this player will only play videos.
\paragraph{}This Project is created for users with entertainment interests, i.e those who like to watch movies regularly. The completion date would be 25th October,2017.
\subsection*{Project Deliverable}
\paragraph{}The required project deliverable for this topic are:\\
1)Problem Definition.\\
2)Software Requirement Specification(SRS).\\
3)UML 2.0 Models.\\
4)Software Project Management Plan(SPMP).\\
5)Software Design Document (SDD).\\
6)Software Test Document (STD).\\
7)Executable Code(.java files).\\
\section*{Project Organization}
\subsection*{Process Model}
\paragraph{}Incremental model is a type of software development model like V-model, Agile model etc.In this model, the whole requirement is divided into various builds. Multiple development cycles take place here, making the life cycle a "multi-waterfall" cycle. Cycles are divided up into smaller, more easily managed modules.
\par\null\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[h!]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/incremental-model/incremental-model}
\caption{{Incremental Model
{\label{952398}}%
}}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\paragraph{}In this model, each module passes through the requirements, design, implementation and testing phases. A working version of software is produced during the first module, so you have working software early on during the software life cycle. Each subsequent release of the module adds function to the previous release. The process continues till the complete system is achieved.
\subsection*{Roles And Responsibilities}
\paragraph{}The following are the roles and responsibilities carried out by the specific people/group of people. This project requires only a maximum of 1-2 persons, therefore, these
roles will actually be played by one person.\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{table}
\begin{center}
\caption{{{Roles And Responsibilities}}}
\begin{tabular}{| l | l |}
\hline
Roles & Responsibilities\\ \hline
Communicator & To provide the desired requirements of the users.\\ \hline
Project Manager & To Control project workflow \\ \hline
Analyst & To supervise the workflow and Report to the Manager\\ \hline
Designer & To Implement(Code And Test) the Project\\ \hline
Deployment Manager & To manage delivery related work\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\subsection*{Tools And Techniques}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{table}
\begin{center}
\caption{{{Tools And Techniques}}}
\begin{tabular}{| l | l | l |}
\hline
Deliverable & Tools & Techniques \\ \hline
Problem Definition & Latex & Research \\ \hline
SRS & Latex & Interview\\ \hline
Design Models & Rational Rose & UML 2.0\\ \hline
SPMP & Latex & Discussion and Research \\ \hline
SDD & Latex, MS Word, Fluid UI & Improvisation\\ \hline
STD & Latex, JUnit & Black Box Testing, Unit Testing \\ \hline
Executable Code & JAVA & Coding\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\section*{Project Management Plan}
\paragraph{}The Project Management Plan describes every task in detail as well as the risks
associated with it. These tasks are also mapped appropriately in the Gantt Chart delivered
separately. Also, the risks are identified and a proper mitigation plan is introduced.\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{table}
\caption{{{Tasks and Deliverables}}}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|c|lllll|}
\hline
\textbf{Task} & \textbf{Task Description} & \textbf{Deliverable and Milestones} & \textbf{Resources Needed}\\ \hline
T1.1 & Requirement Elicitation & SRS & TexMaker\\ \hline
T1.2 & Creation Of Trivial Plan & Trivial Plan & Workgroups\\ \hline
T1.3 & Develop Project Plan & SPMP & TexMaker\\ \hline
T1.4 & Gathering Views & External Views & Client Interviews\\ \hline
T1.5 & Design and Modelling & UML Models & UML 2.0\\ \hline
T1.6 & Implementation & Executable Code & JAVA\\ \hline
T1.7 & Delivering Prototype & Product Build 1 & -\\ \hline
T2.1 & Develop Process Plan & Upgraded SRS and SPMP & TexMaker\\ \hline
T2.2 & Upgrade Design & Upgraded UML Model & UML 2.0\\ \hline
T2.3 & Implementation & Executable Code & JAVA &\\ \hline
T2.4 & Deliver Upgrade & Product Build 2 & -\\ \hline
T3.1 & Finalize Views & Final SRS & TexMaker\\ \hline
T3.2 & Finalize Models & Final Model & UML 2.0\\ \hline
T3.3 & System Tests & Testing Stage & JAVA\\ \hline
T3.4 & Fix Bugs & Bugs Removed & JAVA\\ \hline
T3.5 & Deliver Final Product & Final Build & - \\ \hline
T3.6 & Feedback & - & -\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{table}
\caption{{{Tasks and Risks}}}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|c|lllll|}
\hline
\textbf{Task} & \textbf{Dependency/Constraints} & \textbf{Risk And Contingencies} \\ \hline
T1.1 & Finalization Of Client Requirement & Disapproval of SRS.\\ \hline
T1.2 & Satisfy Basic Client Requirements & Failing to satisfy basic requirements.\\ \hline
T1.3 & Acceptance of Trivial Plan & Disapproval of Trivial Plan.\\ \hline
T1.4 & - & - \\ \hline
T1.5 & Should describe basic user specification & Failing to describe basic specifications \\ \hline
T1.6 & Lines Of Code & LOC beyond estimation\\ \hline
T1.7 & Working Prototype & Failing to Satisfy basic constraints\\ \hline
T2.1 & Finalization Of Project Plan & Disapproval of Process Plan \\ \hline
T2.2 & Should describe overall user specification & Failing to describe overall specifications \\ \hline
T2.3 & Approprieate technique & Failure Of Technique\\ \hline
T2.4 & Working with extended Specifications & Failed to satisfy additional specifications\\ \hline
T3.1 & - & - \\ \hline
T3.2 & - & - \\ \hline
T3.3 & Efficient LOC & Test Fail \\ \hline
T3.4 & - & Failed to remove bugs \\ \hline
T3.5 & Expected Product Growth & - \\ \hline
T3.6 & - & - \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\subsection*{Assignments}
\paragraph{}These are the assignments given to the specific member according to his/her role
in the project.\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{table}
\begin{center}
\caption{{{Assignments}}}
\begin{tabular}{| l | l |}
\hline
Member & Assignments\\ \hline
Communicator & Conduct Surveys, Interviews regarding Project Requirements\\ \hline
Project Manager & Control project workflow \\ \hline
Analyst & Supervise the working the report the status to the manager\\ \hline
Designer & Implement code and carry out various tests\\ \hline
Deployment Manager & Deliver Product to Clients\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\selectlanguage{english}
\FloatBarrier
\end{document}
|
http://porocila.imfm.si/2006/mat/clani/kramarm.tex | imfm.si | CC-MAIN-2023-14 | text/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296945183.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20230323194025-20230323224025-00424.warc.gz | 41,287,240 | 3,259 | \clan {Marjeta Kramar Fijavž}
%--------------------------------------------------------
% A. objavljene znanstvene monografije
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{A}
%\disertacija
% {NASLOV}
% {UNIVERZA}
% {FAKULTETA}
% {ODDELEK}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {LETO}
%\magisterij
% {NASLOV}
% {UNIVERZA}
% {FAKULTETA}
% {ODDELEK}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {LETO}
%\monografija
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {ZALOZBA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% B. raziskovalni clanki sprejeti v objavo v znanstvenih
% revijah in v zbornikih konferenc
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{B}
%\sprejetoRevija
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {REVIJA}
%\sprejetoZbornik
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% C. raziskovalni clanki objavljeni v znanstvenih revijah
% in v zbornikih konferenc
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{C}
%\objavljenoRevija
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {REVIJA} {LETNIK} {LETO} {STEVILKA} {STRANI}
%\objavljenoZbornik
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
% {ZBORNIK} {STRANI}
%\end{skupina}
\begin{skupina}{C}
\objavljenoRevija
% {J.~Bernik, R.~Drnovšek, D.~Hadwin, A.~Jafarian, D.~Kokol-Bukovšek, T.~Košir, \crta, T.~J.~Laffey, L.~Livshits,
% M.~Mastnak, R.~Meshulam, V.~M\"{u}ller, E.~A.~Nordgren, J.~Okni\'{n}ski, M.~Omladi\v{c}, H.~Radjavi,
% A.~R.~Sourour, R.~M.~Timoney}
{Semitransitivity Working Group at LAW'05}
{Semitransitive subspaces of matrices}
{Electron.\ J. Linear Algebra} {15} {2006} {} {225--238}
\objavljenoRevija
% 1.01: {\bf 1}. KRAMAR FIJAV\v{Z}, Marjeta. Representations of $p$-groups with submultiplicative spectra. {\it Linear multilinear algebra}, 2006, vol. 54, no. 5, str. 313-320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03081080500132624. $[$COBISS.SI-ID 14028889$]$\\
{}
{Representations of $p$-groups with submultiplicative spectra}
{Linear Multilinear Algebra} {54} {2006} {5} {313--320}
\end{skupina}
%--------------------------------------------------------
% D. urednistvo v znanstvenih revijah in zbornikih
% znanstvenih konferenc
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{D}
%\urednikRevija
% {OPIS}
% {REVIJA}
%\urednikZbornik
% {OPIS}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% E. organizacija mednarodnih in domacih znanstvenih
% srecanj
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{E}
%\organizacija
% {OPIS}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% F. vabljena predavanja na tujih ustanovah in
% mednarodnih konferencah
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{F}
%\predavanjeUstanova
% {NASLOV}
% {OPIS}
% {USTANOVA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\predavanjeKonferenca
% {NASLOV}
% {OPIS}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% G. aktivne udelezbe na mednarodnih in domacih
% konferencah
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{G}
%\konferenca
% {NASLOV}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
\begin{skupina}{G}
\konferenca
{Flows in networks}
{Evolution on Networks}
{Blaubeuren} {Nem\v{c}ija} {april} {2006}
\end{skupina}
%--------------------------------------------------------
% H. strokovni clanki
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{H}
%\clanekRevija
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {REVIJA} {LETNIK} {LETO} {STEVILKA} {STRANI}
%\clanekZbornik
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
% {ZBORNIK} {STRANI}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% I. razno
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{I}
%\razno
% {OPIS}
%\end{skupina}
\begin{skupina}{I}
%POZOR: bibliografije.tex > 2006\mat\clani\kramarm.tex 8609/215: Stevilo neopredeljenih zadetkov: 10
%\razno
% 1.19: {\bf 3}. KRAMAR FIJAV\v{Z}, Marjeta. Goldberger, Assaf; Neumann, Michael: Perron-Frobenius theory of seminorms: a topological approach. (English). - $[$J$]$ Linear Algebra Appl. 399, 245-284 (2005). $[$ISSN 0024-3795$]$. {\it Zentralblatt MATH database}. $[$Online ed.$]$, 2006, zbl 1072.15011. http://www.zentralblatt-math.org/zmath/en/. $[$COBISS.SI-ID 14205785$]$\\
%\razno
% 1.19: %list {\bf 4}. KRAMAR FIJAV\v{Z}, Marjeta. Bradley, Walter; Ma, Jingjing: Lattice-ordered 2 \${$\backslash$}times\$ 2 triangular matrix algebras. (English). - $[$J$]$ Linear Algebra Appl. 404, 262-274 (2005). $[$ISSN 0024-3795$]$. {\it Zentralblatt MATH database}. $[$Online ed.$]$, 2006, zbl 1076.15017. http://www.zentralblatt-math.org/zmath/en/. $[$COBISS.SI-ID 14206041$]$\\
%\razno
% 1.19: %list {\bf 5}. KRAMAR FIJAV\v{Z}, Marjeta. King, Christopher; Nathanson, Michael; Ruskai, Mary Beth: Multiplicativity properties of entrywise positive maps. (English). - $[$J$]$ Linear Algebra Appl. 404,367-379 (2005). $[$ISSN 0024-3795$]$. {\it Zentralblatt MATH database}. $[$Online ed.$]$, 2006, zbl 1082.15043. http://www.zentralblatt-math.org/zmath/en/. $[$COBISS.SI-ID 14206297$]$\\
%\razno
% 1.19: %list {\bf 6}. KRAMAR FIJAV\v{Z}, Marjeta. Fosner, Ajda: Nonlinear commutativity preserving maps on \$M\_n({$\backslash$}Bbb R)\$. (English). - $[$J$]$ Linear Multilinear Algebra 53, No. 5, 323-344 (2005). $[$ISSN 0308-1087; ISSN 1563-5139$]$. {\it Zentralblatt MATH database}. $[$Online ed.$]$, 2006, zbl 1085.15002. http://www.zentralblatt-math.org/zmath/en/. $[$COBISS.SI-ID 14206553$]$\\
%\razno
% 1.19: %list {\bf 7}. KRAMAR FIJAV\v{Z}, Marjeta. Yahaghi, Bamdad R.: Near triangularizability implies triangularizability. (English). - $[$J$]$ Can. Math. Bull. 47, No. 2, 298-313 (2004). $[$ISSN 0008-4395; ISSN1496-4287$]$. {\it Zentralblatt MATH database}. $[$Online ed.$]$, 2006, zbl 1092.47005. http://www.zentralblatt-math.org/zmath/en/. $[$COBISS.SI-ID 14205273$]$\\
%\razno
% 1.19: %list {\bf 8}. KRAMAR FIJAV\v{Z}, Marjeta. Scheffold, Egon: One-parameter semigroups generated by inverse operators. (Von inversen Operatoren erzeugte Einparameter-Halbgruppen.) (German. English summary). - $[$J$]$ Demonstr. Math. 37, No. 4, 893-904 (2004). $[$ISSN 0420-1213$]$. {\it Zentralblatt MATH database}. $[$Online ed.$]$, 2006, zbl 1096.47006. http://www.zentralblatt-math.org/zmath/en/. $[$COBISS.SI-ID 14205529$]$\\
%\razno
% 1.19: %list {\bf 9}. KRAMAR FIJAV\v{Z}, Marjeta. Cavers, Michael S.; Kim, In Jae; Shader, Bryan L.; Vander Meulen, Kevin N.: On determining minimal spectrally arbitrary patterns. (English). - $[$J$]$ Electron. J. Linear Algebra 13, 240-248, electronic only (2005). $[$ISSN 1081-3810$]$. {\it Zentralblatt MATH database}. $[$Online ed.$]$, 2006, zbl 1097.15009. http://www.zentralblatt-math.org/zmath/en/. $[$COBISS.SI-ID 14206809$]$\\
%\razno
% 1.19: %list {\bf 10}. KRAMAR FIJAV\v{Z}, Marjeta. Graillat, Stef: A note on structured pseudospectra. (English). - $[$J$]$ J. Comput. Appl. Math. 191, No. 1, 68-76 (2006). $[$ISSN 0377-0427$]$. {\it Zentralblatt MATH database}. $[$Online ed.$]$, 2006, zbl 1097.15010. http://www.zentralblatt-math.org/zmath/en/. $[$COBISS.SI-ID 14207321$]$\\
%\razno
% 1.19: %list {\bf 11}. KRAMAR FIJAV\v{Z}, Marjeta. Kouachi, Said: Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of tridiagonal matrices. (English). - $[$J$]$ Electron. J. Linear Algebra 15, 115-133, electronic only (2006). $[$ISSN 1081-3810$]$. {\it Zentralblatt MATH database}. $[$Online ed.$]$, 2006, zbl 1097.15011. http://www.zentralblatt-math.org/zmath/en/. $[$COBISS.SI-ID 14207577$]$\\
%\razno
% 1.19: %list {\bf 12}. KRAMAR FIJAV\v{Z}, Marjeta. Henr\'{\i}quez, H.R.; Castillo, Genaro: The Kneser property for the second order functional abstract Cauchy problem. (English). - $[$J$]$ Integral Equations Oper. Theory 52, No. 4, 505-525 (2005). $[$ISSN 0378-620X$]$. {\it Zentralblatt MATH database}. $[$Online ed.$]$, 2006, zbl 1098.47038. http://www.zentralblatt-math.org/zmath/en/. $[$COBISS.SI-ID 14207065$]$\\
\razno{10 recenzij za Zentralblatt MATH database [Online ed.]}
\end{skupina}
%--------------------------------------------------------
% tuji gosti
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{seznam}
%\gost {IME} {TRAJANJE} {USTANOVA} {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO} {POVABILO}
%\end{seznam}
%\begin{seznam}
%\gost {Britta Dorn} {23 dni} {Eberhard Karls Universit\"{a}t} {T\"{u}bingen} {Nem\v{c}ija} {marec} {2006} {Marjete Kramar Fijavž}
%\gost {Eszter Sikolya} {7 dni} {E\"{o}tv\"{o}s Lorand University} {Budimpešta} {Madžarska} {marec} {2006} {Marjete Kramar Fijavž}
%\gost {Eszter Sikolya} {7 dni} {E\"{o}tv\"{o}s Lorand University} {Budimpešta} {Madžarska} {maj} {2006} {Marjete Kramar Fijavž}
%\end{seznam}
%--------------------------------------------------------
% gostovanja
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{seznam}
%\gostovanje {IME} {TRAJANJE} {USTANOVA} {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{seznam}
%\begin{seznam}
%\gostovanje {Marjeta Kramar Fijavž} {8 dni} {E\"{o}tv\"{o}s Lorand University} {Budimpešta} {Madžarska}{april} {2006}
%\gostovanje {Marjeta Kramar Fijavž} {3 dni}{Eberhard Karls Universit\"{a}t} {T\"{u}bingen} {Nem\v{c}ija}{april} {2006}
%\end{seznam}
|
https://projects.mako.cc/source/latex_mako/blobdiff_plain/666e60d856cb177843e9125ea21278b53af6031d..010540f5c24a76412243c94bb19d3b7e0c78f20c:/paper_template/text.tex | mako.cc | CC-MAIN-2022-40 | text/plain | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030335365.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20220929194230-20220929224230-00300.warc.gz | 509,674,177 | 957 | X-Git-Url: https://projects.mako.cc/source/latex_mako/blobdiff_plain/666e60d856cb177843e9125ea21278b53af6031d..010540f5c24a76412243c94bb19d3b7e0c78f20c:/paper_template/text.tex
diff --git a/paper_template/text.tex b/paper_template/text.tex
index 3e7529e..0f51b10 100644
--- a/paper_template/text.tex
+++ b/paper_template/text.tex
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@
\title{Title}
\author{Benjamin Mako Hill\\
- \href{mailto:[email protected]}{[email protected]}}
+ \href{mailto:[email protected]}{[email protected]}}
\date{}
% \published{\textsc{\textcolor{BrickRed}{This document is an
|
https://www.authorea.com/users/359272/articles/481389/download_latex | authorea.com | CC-MAIN-2021-39 | application/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780057366.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20210922132653-20210922162653-00117.warc.gz | 701,972,094 | 2,774 | \documentclass[10pt]{article}
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\usepackage{latexsym}
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\usepackage{booktabs,array,multirow}
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\begin{document}
\title{CHARACTERIZATION OF VAGINAL AND ENDOMETRIAL MICROBIOME IN PATIENTS WITH
CHRONIC ENDOMETRITIS: A PILOT STUDY.}
\author[1]{FM LOZANO}%
\author[1]{A BERNABEU}%
\author[1]{B LLEDO}%
\author[1]{R MORALES}%
\author[1]{M DIAZ}%
\author[2]{FI ARANDA}%
\author[1]{J LLACER}%
\author[1]{R BERNABEU}%
\affil[1]{Instituto Bernabeu}%
\affil[2]{HGUA}%
\vspace{-1em}
\date{\today}
\begingroup
\let\center\flushleft
\let\endcenter\endflushleft
\maketitle
\endgroup
\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{abstract}
Comparative study of CD138 immunostain and microbiome of the female
reproductive tract (vaginal and endometrial) in the diagnosis of chronic
endometritis. A pilot study from May 2017 to May 2019. Instituto
Bernabeu fertility clinic. Cohort study with sixty patients undergoing
assisted reproductive treatment. The vaginal and endometrial microbiome
was analyzed by mass sequencing of the V3V4 region of 16S rRNA.
Bioinformatics analysis was performed using QIIME2 and MicrobiomeAnalyst
packages. Alpha, beta diversity and taxonomic characterization were
compared with positive and negative CD138 groups for chronic
endometritis. Different bacterial communities were detected when vaginal
and endometrial samples were analyzed in patients with and without
endometritis diagnosed with CD138 immunohistochemistry. In patients with
endometritis, a higher alpha diversity index tendency was found in
vaginal samples (p=0.15) and significant differences in endometrial
samples (p=0.01). In the beta diversity analysis, no significant
differences were observed between the groups established as per the
diagnosis of endometritis. Vaginal and endometrial samples from women
with endometritis showed a microbiome pattern not dominated by
Lactobacillus spp. Relative abundance analysis identified genera
Ralstonia and Gardnerella in endometrial sample, and genera
Streptoccoccus and Ureaplasma in vaginal sample of CE patients diagnosed
with CD138. Our results demonstrate the existence of a characteristic
vaginal and endometrial microbiota in endometritis patients. Different
genera and species have been identified in patients with and without
endometritis depending on whether the sample is endometrial or vaginal.
There is a relationship between vaginal microbiome alteration and
chronic endometritis.%
\end{abstract}%
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https://latex.knobs-dials.com/letter.tex | knobs-dials.com | CC-MAIN-2023-14 | text/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296949331.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20230330132508-20230330162508-00212.warc.gz | 425,524,780 | 977 | \documentclass[12pt]{letter}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\address{Oude Kijk in 't Jat Straat 26\\9712 EK Groningen}
\signature{\includegraphics[width=3cm]{sig2.eps}\\Bart\\Student Assistant}
\begin{document}
\begin{letter}{Bunch of students\\
Campus Lane 22 through 29\\
Groningen}
\opening{Dear Student:}
This is a letter style document using the {\tt letter} documentclass.
You may rejoice now. It uses a whole load of commands to get you to
specify chunks of information, which it typesets for you, meaning
minimal bother for you, at least ideally.
Well, then.
\closing{Sincerely,}
\cc{Other people who want this}
\end{letter}
\end{document} |
http://www.utstat.toronto.edu/~brunner/oldclass/256f19/assignments/256f19Assignment6.tex | toronto.edu | CC-MAIN-2021-04 | application/x-tex | text/x-matlab | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-04/segments/1610703522242.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20210121035242-20210121065242-00470.warc.gz | 179,424,985 | 2,952 | % 256f19Assignment6.tex Continuous distributions
\documentclass[12pt]{article}
%\usepackage{amsbsy} % for \boldsymbol and \pmb
%\usepackage{graphicx} % To include pdf files!
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage{amsbsy}
\usepackage{amsfonts}
\usepackage[colorlinks=true, pdfstartview=FitV, linkcolor=blue, citecolor=blue, urlcolor=blue]{hyperref} % For links
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%\enlargethispage*{1000 pt}
\begin{center}
{\Large \textbf{\href{http://www.utstat.toronto.edu/~brunner/oldclass/256f19}{STA 256f19}
Assignment Six}}\footnote{Copyright information is at the end of the last page.}
\vspace{1 mm}
\end{center}
\noindent
Please read Sections 2.5 and 2.7. Also, look over your lecture notes. The following homework problems are not to be handed in. They are preparation for Term Test 2 and the final exam. Use the formula sheet.
%\vspace{5mm}
\begin{enumerate}
% CDFs
\item Let $X$ have an exponential density with parameter $\lambda>0$. Find the cumulative distribution function $F_{_X}(x)$.
\item Let $X$ have a Normal($\mu,\sigma^2$) density. Express the cumulative distribution function $F_{_X}(x)$ in terms of $\Phi(z)$, the cumulative distribution function of a Normal random variable with $\mu=0$ and $\sigma^2=1$. The notation $\Phi$ is standard.
\item Do exercises 2.5.7, 2.5.9, 2.5.21, 2.5.23 in the text.
\item Let $X$ be a random variable with cumulative distribution function $F_{_X}(x)$
\begin{enumerate}
\item Prove $\displaystyle \lim_{x \rightarrow \infty} F_{_X}(x) = 1$.
\item Prove $\displaystyle \lim_{x \rightarrow -\infty} F_{_X}(x) = 0$.
\end{enumerate}
% A few more one-variable transformations
\item Do Exercises 2.6.1, 2.6.3, 2.6.4, 2.6.5, 2.6.7 and 2.6.8 in the text. Please use the ``distribution function technique" illustrated in lecture, and \emph{not} theorems from Section 2.6. In particular, Theorems 2.6.1-2.6.4 are to be avoided and will not be on the formula sheet.
%%%%%%%%%%%%% Joint distributions part one %%%%%%%%%%%%%
\item Let $p_{_{X,Y}}(x,y) = c(x+y)$ for $x=1,2,3$, $y = 1,2$, and zero otherwise.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Find the constant $c$. [21]
\item What is $p_{_{X,Y}}(1,1)$? [2/21]
\item What is $p_{_{X,Y}}(2.5,1.75)$? [0]
\item What is $F_{_{X,Y}}(2.5,1.75)$? [5/21]
\item What is $F_{_{X,Y}}(5,1.5)$? [9/21]
\item What is $F_{_{X,Y}}(0,4)$? [0]
\item What is $F_{_{X,Y}}(4,4)$? [1]
\item What is $p_{_X}(2)$? [7/21]
\item What is $p_{_Y}(1)$? [9/21]
\item What is $F_{_X}(2.5)$? [12/21]
\end{enumerate}
\item Do Exercise 2.7.1 in the text. Don't waste too much energy trying to understand the answer in the back of the book. Instead of giving the joint cumulative distribution function, answer the following questions instead. Notice that you are \emph{not} being asked for a full statement of the cumulative distribution function.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Draw a set of $x,y$ coordinates, plot all the points with non-zero probability, and write a probability beside each point.
\item What is $p_{_{X,Y}}(x,y)$? Make sure your answer applies to all real $x$ and $y$.
\item What is $F_{_{X,Y}}(1,-1)$? I hope you agree it's $P(X=0,Y=-2) = \frac{2}{3}$. Thus, the answer in the back of the book has to be wrong.
\end{enumerate}
\item Do Exercise 2.7.3 in the text. It's easier if you put the joint probabilities in a two-way table.
\item Do Exercise 2.7.5 in the text. Hint: Think of sets contained in other sets.
\item Five cards are selected from an ordinary deck of 52 playing cards. Let $X$ equal the number of spades and $Y$ equal the number of hearts. Give the joint probability function of $X$ and $Y$
\begin{enumerate}
\item If the sampling is \emph{without} replacement. Be sure to specify the values of $x$ and $y$ for which $p_{_{X,Y}}(x,y)$ is non-zero.
\item If the sampling is \emph{with} replacement. Be sure to specify the values of $x$ and $y$ for which $p_{_{X,Y}}(x,y)$ is non-zero
\end{enumerate}
\item Please look at Example 2.7.3 on page 82 of the text.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Find the joint density $f_{_{X,Y}}(x,y)$. Show your work. Make sure to specify where it is non-zero.
\item Check that your $f_{_{X,Y}}(x,y)$ integrates to one.
\item Find the marginal density $f_{_X}(x)$. If you do not specify where the density is non-zero, it's worth half marks at most.
\item Find the marginal density $f_{_Y}(y)$. If you do not specify where the density is non-zero, it's worth half marks at most.
\item Find the marginal cumulative distribution function $F_{_X}(x)$.
\begin{enumerate}
\item By integrating $f_{_X}(x)$.
\item By taking limits of $F_{_{X,Y}}(x,y)$
\end{enumerate}
Make sure your answer applies to all real $x$.
\pagebreak
\item Find the marginal cumulative distribution function $F_{_Y}(y)$.
\begin{enumerate}
\item By integrating $f_{_Y}(y)$.
\item By taking limits of $F_{_{X,Y}}(x,y)$
\end{enumerate}
Make sure your answer applies to all real $y$.
\item Find $P(Y < X^2)$. Show your work. My answer is $\frac{1}{5}$.
\end{enumerate}
\item Do Exercise 2.7.9 in the text. Hint: Sketch the support before beginning. ][% Marginals with non-rectangular support.
\item Do Problem 2.7.12 in the text. Hint: Use Exercise 2.7.5.
\item Do Problem 2.7.16 in the text. % Like one of my sample problems, by chance.
\end{enumerate} % End of all the questions
\vspace{60mm}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\vspace{3mm}
\hrule
\vspace{3mm}
\noindent
This assignment was prepared by \href{http://www.utstat.toronto.edu/~brunner}{Jerry Brunner},
Department of Mathematical and Computational Sciences, University of Toronto. It is licensed under a
\href{http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en_US}
{Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License}. Use any part of it as you like and share the result freely. The \LaTeX~source code is available from the course website:
\begin{center}
\href{http://www.utstat.toronto.edu/~brunner/oldclass/256f19} {\small\texttt{http://www.utstat.toronto.edu/$^\sim$brunner/oldclass/256f19}}
\end{center}
\end{document}
\vspace{20mm} \hrule
\vspace{3mm}
\vspace{3mm} \hrule
|
http://git.csclub.uwaterloo.ca/?p=public/csc-propaganda.git;a=blob_plain;f=csc-prices.tex;hb=21b7fbdfc1955d50316345b59a63f024895d9894 | uwaterloo.ca | CC-MAIN-2019-51 | text/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-51/segments/1575541307797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20191215070636-20191215094636-00165.warc.gz | 62,962,042 | 1,032 | \documentclass{article}
\usepackage{csc-poster}
\newcommand{\price}[2]{\vspace{1ex}\hspace{1em} #1: \hfill #2 \hspace{1em}}
\begin{document}
\begin{center}
\csctitlefont Drinks and Snacks
Cheap Prices!
\end{center}
\HUGE
\price{Pop Can}{\$0.50}
\price{Arizona/Jones}{\$1.00}
\price{Red Bull}{\$2.00}
\price{SanPellegrino}{\$1.00}
\price{Candy/Chocolate}{\$1.00}
\price{Chips (28g)}{\$0.50}
\price{Chips (40g or 45g)}{\$0.75}
\price{Larabar}{\$1.00}
\price{Taste of Nature}{\$1.00}
\price{Clif Bar}{\$1.00}
\price{Red Rain}{\$1.00}
\\
\price{Combos}{\$0.75}
\price{Noodle Bowl}{\$1.00}
\price{Nature Valley Bar}{\$0.50}
\price{Quaker Granola Bar}{\$0.25}
\price{Nutri-Grain Bar}{\$0.50}
\price{Popcorn}{\$0.25}
\price{Tea}{\$FREE!!!!}
\price{Ferrero Rocher}{\$1/pack}
\price{Other}{\$1.00}
\end{document}
|
http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/anonymous-report-from-occupied-miwok-territory.tex | theanarchistlibrary.org | CC-MAIN-2020-50 | application/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-50/segments/1606141194171.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20201127191451-20201127221451-00225.warc.gz | 91,932,123 | 4,205 | \documentclass[DIV=12,%
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\title{Report from Occupied Miwok Territory}
\date{2010}
\author{Anonymous}
\subtitle{}
% https://groups.google.com/d/topic/comp.text.tex/6fYmcVMbSbQ/discussion
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{\usekomafont{author}{Anonymous\par}}%
\vskip 1.5em
{\usekomafont{date}{2010\par}}%
\end{center}
\vskip 3em
\par
\begin{quote}
“We will not budge and are willing to die\dots{} Everything has been taken. This is the last.”
— Silvia Burley, CVMT chairperson
\end{quote}
\begin{quote}
“Don’t talk about it, be about it.”
— Mos Def
\end{quote}
Anarchists and indigenous activists from the Bay, Central Valley, Santa Cruz and Canada have gathered at a foreclosed house in Stockton which is the only property belonging to the California Valley Miwok Tribe. It’s an hour and a half into the second announced eviction date (the first was in June and sheriffs were held off by a lawsuit). The contest over the house is part of a struggle over the legal identity of the CVMT. It is also one of the first eviction resistances attempted in the U.S. since the housing market crashed, and it is happening in Stockton, CA which has been the \#1 city in the U.S. for foreclosures the past 3 years running. (The Central Valley in general has been exceptionally hard hit by the foreclosure crisis.)
The CVMT has existed as a federally recognized tribe (i.e., technically a part of the federal government) since 1915. The tribe existed as a mere formality, without organization or land, until the late 1970s when a number of young activists inspired by the burgeoning indigenous movement of those years began the process of building an actual tribal government organization which can obtain and disburse federal funds and other services. It has been a long slow process but the CVMT has managed to obtain food, housing, environmental protection and other aid for some of its members.
In the past few years, the tribe’s funding stream has been frozen. A development corporation which owns a chain of casinos in Nevada and major housing development concerns in California has hired a front group of thugs and assorted scumbags to intimidate the existing tribal members and take control of the tribal government, with the goal of building a casino. Casinos represent the most crude monetization of the land rights and sovereignty that tribal governments represent. It’s also worth noting that four major “gaming tribes” in southern California hog most of the federal funds available to the state’s 108 recognized tribes (many of which are landless).
There is a very long story here about the BIA, the developer, and the various connections between businesses and government agencies involved. (see the CVMT website) The point that really resonates here though, is that a group of people are drawing a line and standing their ground against the forces of capital. Our homes, our futures, and our lives will not be taken away without resistance. We are not few enough to be easily pried apart. Today, anarchists resisting foreclosure will stand with indigenous people resisting disconnection from their territory. And tomorrow? The occupants of this house are prepared to keep out the sheriffs, the developers’ thugs and anyone else that tries to fuck with us. If the house can be held until Feb. 9 there is a court date which may release funds to the tribe and save the house, so it would be concretely really helpful for more people to join the resisters here. It would also be awesome if more people started occupying foreclosed houses, resisting eviction, and occupying fucking everything.
We are starting again\dots{} \textbf{Cali what!}
likelostchildren.blogspot.com\forcelinebreak
modestoanarcho.org\forcelinebreak
californiavalleymiwoktribe.us
% begin final page
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% the page would be odd on an even one.
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\begin{center}
The Anarchist Library
\smallskip
Anti-Copyright
\bigskip
\includegraphics[width=0.25\textwidth]{logo-en}
\bigskip
\end{center}
\strut
\vfill
\begin{center}
Anonymous
Report from Occupied Miwok Territory
2010
\bigskip
Retrieved on January 25, 2010 from \href{http://www.anarchistnews.org/?q=node/10467}{www.anarchistnews.org}
\bigskip
\textbf{theanarchistlibrary.org}
\end{center}
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\end{document}
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https://cforall.uwaterloo.ca/trac/log/doc/rob_thesis/intro.tex?format=changelog&rev=0111dc78014e8cb9bf465cd3dda3af109d744b69&limit=100&mode=stop_on_copy | uwaterloo.ca | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | text/plain | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662564830.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20220524045003-20220524075003-00146.warc.gz | 176,945,028 | 1,550 | #
# ChangeLog for doc/rob_thesis/intro.tex
#
# Generated by Trac 1.2.1
# May 24, 2022, 2:39:23 AM
Fri, 14 Apr 2017 00:29:38 GMT Rob Schluntz <rschlunt@…> [0111dc7]
* doc/rob_thesis/conclusions.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/ctordtor.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/intro.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/thesis-frontpgs.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/thesis.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/tuples.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/variadic.tex (modified)
penultimate thesis draft
Wed, 12 Apr 2017 19:54:28 GMT Rob Schluntz <rschlunt@…> [0eb18557]
* doc/rob_thesis/cfa-format.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/conclusions.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/ctordtor.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/intro.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/tuples.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/variadic.tex (modified)
thesis updates based on Peter's feedback
Fri, 07 Apr 2017 22:25:23 GMT Rob Schluntz <rschlunt@…> [f92aa32]
* doc/rob_thesis/cfa-format.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/conclusions.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/ctordtor.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/conclusions/dtor.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/conclusions/except.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/conclusions/except.cc (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/intro.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/thesis.bib (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/thesis.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/tuples.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/variadic.tex (modified)
thesis conclusions and editting pass
Mon, 03 Apr 2017 23:04:30 GMT Rob Schluntz <rschlunt@…> [7493339]
* doc/rob_thesis/conclusions.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/ctordtor.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/ctor/member.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/nested.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/tuples/named.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/variadic/sum1.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/variadic/sum2.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/intro.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/thesis-frontpgs.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/thesis.bib (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/thesis.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/tuples.tex (modified)
* doc/rob_thesis/variadic.tex (added)
incorporate Peter's feedback, handle many TODOs
Wed, 22 Mar 2017 19:24:52 GMT Rob Schluntz <rschlunt@…> [9c14ae9]
* doc/rob_thesis/cfa-format.tex (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/conclusions.tex (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/ctordtor.tex (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/ctor/array_ctor.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/ctor/copy_ctor.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/ctor/cv_ctor.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/ctor/enum_ctor.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/ctor/expr_ctor.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/ctor/global_ctor.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/ctor/hide_ctor.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/ctor/placement_ctor.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/ctor/return_dtor.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/ctor/static_ctor.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/ctor/union_ctor.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/intro/FileOutputStream.java (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/intro/compound_lit.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/intro/designation.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/intro/ignore.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/intro/ires.java (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/intro/res.java (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/intro/res1.java (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/intro/res2.java (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/intro/res3.java (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/intro/tuple.cc (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/intro/variadic.java (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/scope_guard.h (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/test_scoped_guard.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/tuples/assign.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/tuples/cast.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/tuples/ctor.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/tuples/mrv.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/tuples/mrv_1.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/tuples/mrv_2.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/tuples/mrv_3.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/variadic/new.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/examples/variadic/print.c (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/intro.tex (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/thesis-frontpgs.tex (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/thesis.tex (added)
* doc/rob_thesis/tuples.tex (added)
add thesis source
|
https://git.rockbox.org/cgit/rockbox.git/plain/manual/configure_rockbox/system_options.tex?id=05e5fbf5e2faa46e7d8470ee4d095153d06322cb | rockbox.org | CC-MAIN-2022-05 | text/plain | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320300573.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20220129062503-20220129092503-00385.warc.gz | 326,505,956 | 7,010 | % $Id$ %
\section{\label{ref:SystemOptions}System}
\subsection{Start Screen}
Set the screen that Rockbox will start in. The default is the main menu but
the following options are available: % almost all items in the main menu with a few exceptions
\begin{description}
\item[Previous Screen.] Start Rockbox in the same screen as when it was shut off.
\item[Main Menu.] Show the main menu.
\item[Files.] Display the file browser, starting in the root directory of your \dap.
\item[Database.] Show the default database view.
\item[Resume Playback.] Go to the WPS and and resume playback from where it was
before turning off (if there is a playlist to resume).
\item[Settings.] Display the main settings menu.
\opt{recording}{%
\item[Recording.] Start the \dap{} in the recording screen
(recording does not start automatically).
}
\opt{radio}{%
\item[FM Radio.] Go to the radio screen and start playing.
}
\item[Recent Bookmarks.] Show the list of recent bookmarks as
described in \reference{ref:Bookmarkconfigactual}. Bookmarking needs
to be enabled.
\end{description}
\nopt{sansa}%will probably be there on Sansas one day - exclude it the simple way without specific option
{\nopt{sansaAMS}{
\subsection{Battery}
Options relating to the \opt{archos}{batteries}\nopt{archos}{battery}
in the \dap.
\begin{description}
\item [Battery Capacity.] This setting can be used to tell Rockbox what
capacity (in mAh) the battery being used has. The default is
\opt{player,recorder}{1500~mAh}%
\opt{recorderv2fm}{2200~mAh}%
\opt{ondiosp,ondiofm,vibe500}{1000~mAh}%
\opt{h100,h300}{1300~mAh}%
\opt{ipodmini}{400~mAh (1G) or 630~mAh (2G)}%
\opt{ipodcolor}{700~mAh}%
\opt{ipodnano}{300~mAh}%
\opt{ipodvideo}{400~mAh (30~GB) or 600~mAh (60/80~GB)}%
\opt{ipod4g}{630~mAh}%
\opt{ipod3g}{630~mAh}%
\opt{ipod1g2g}{1200~mAh}%
\opt{m5,x5}{950~mAh}%
\opt{gigabeatf}{2000~mAh}%
\opt{gigabeats}{700~mAh}%
\opt{cowond2}{1600~mAh}%
, which is the capacity value for the standard
\opt{archos}{batteries}\nopt{archos}{battery} shipped with the \dap.
Rockbox uses this value for runtime estimation, not battery percentage
calculation. Changing this setting has no effect whatsoever on
actual battery life. This setting only affects the accuracy of the
runtime estimation as shown on screen.
\opt{iaudio}{Rockbox does not automatically distinguish between the
``L'' models and the ``simple'' models which determine the default
value. If your dap{} is an \opt{m5}{M5L}\opt{x5}{X5L} set the value
to 2250~mAh for more accuracy in the runtime estimation.}
\opt{ipod,sansa}{This value is fairly meaningless in the \playerman{}
family at present, and work is on-going into finding a better way to
determine battery life.}
\opt{battery_types}{
\item [Battery Type.] This setting tells Rockbox which type of battery
is currently used in the \dap{}. The two supported battery types are
``Alkaline'' or ``NiMH''.}
\opt{usb_charging_enable}{
\item [Charge During USB Connection.] This option lets you control whether
the \dap{} should charge during the USB connection and hence draw the
full 500~mA. Turning it \setting{Off} is recommended if the \dap{} is
connected through an unpowered USB hub or a laptop port. To use a USB
AC adapter, select \setting{Force} to instruct the \dap{} to also
charge when USB power is available but no connection is established.
}
\end{description}
}}
\opt{dircache,HAVE_DISK_STORAGE}{
\subsection{Disk}
Options relating to the hard disk.
\begin{description}
\opt{HAVE_DISK_STORAGE}{
\item [Disk Spindown.] Rockbox has a timer that makes it spin down the
hard disk after it is idle for a certain amount of time. This setting
controls the amount of time between the last user activity and the time
that the disk spins down. This idle time is only affected by user
activity, like navigating through the \setting{File Browser}. When the
hard disk spins up to fill the audio buffer, it automatically spins down
afterwards.
}
\opt{dircache}{
\item [Directory Cache.] Rockbox has the ability to cache the contents of
your drive in RAM. The \setting{Directory Cache} takes a small amount of
memory away from Rockbox that would otherwise be used to buffer music,
but it speeds up navigation in the file browser by eliminating
the slight pause between the time a navigation button is pressed and the
time Rockbox responds. Turning this setting on activates the
directory cache, and turning it off deactivates the directory
cache.
\note{The first time you enable the directory cache,
Rockbox will request a reboot of the \dap{} and upon restarting take a few
minutes to scan the drive. After this, the directory cache will work in the
background.}
}
\end{description}
} % \opt{dircache,HAVE_DISK_STORAGE}
\subsection{Idle Poweroff}
Rockbox can be configured to turn off power after the unit has been idle for a
defined number of minutes. The \dap{} is idle when playback is stopped or
paused. It is not idle while the USB or charger is connected
\opt{recording}{, or while recording}.
Settings are either \setting{Off} or 1 to 10 minutes in 1 minute steps. Then
15, 30, 45 or 60 minutes are available.
\subsection{Limits}
This sub menu relates to limits in the Rockbox operating system.
\begin{description}
\item [Max Entries in File Browser.] This setting controls the limit on
the number of files that you can put in any particular directory in the
file browser. You can configure the size to be between 50 and
10,000 files in steps of 50. The default is 400. Higher values will shorten
the music buffer, so you should increase this setting \emph{only} if you have
directories with a large number of files.
\item [Max Playlist Size.] This setting controls the maximum size of
a playlist. The playlist size can be between 1,000 and 32,000 files,
in steps of 1,000 (default is 10,000). Higher values will shorten the
music buffer, so you should increase this setting \emph{only} if you
have very large playlists.
\end{description}
% TODO: this needs to be rewritten in another style, it lets you mix sound from another source into the music
\opt{player}{
\subsection{Line In} This option activates the line-in port on \dap, which is
off by default. This is useful for such applications as:
\begin{itemize}
\item Game boy $\rightarrow$ \dap $\rightarrow$ human
\item laptop $\rightarrow$ \dap $\rightarrow$ human
\item LAN party computer $\rightarrow$ \dap $\rightarrow$ human
\end{itemize}
}
\opt{HAVE_CAR_ADAPTER_MODE}{
\subsection{Car Adapter Mode}
This option turns \setting{On} and \setting{Off} the car ignition
auto stop function.
\begin{description}
\item [Car Adapter Mode.] When using the \dap{} in a car,
\setting{Car Adapter Mode} automatically stops playback on the \dap{} when
power (i.e. from cigarette lighter power adapter) to the external DC in jack
is turned off. If the \setting{Car Adapter Mode} is set to \setting{On},
Rockbox will pause playback when the external power off condition is
detected. Rockbox will then shutdown the \dap{} after the length of time set
in the \setting{Idle Poweroff} setting (see above).
If power to the DC in jack is turned back on before the \emph{Idle Poweroff}
function has shut the \dap{} off, playback will be resumed 5 seconds after
the power is applied. This delay is to allow for the time while the car
engine is being started.
\end{description}
Once the \dap{} is shut off either manually, or automatically with the
\setting{Idle Poweroff} function, it must be powered up manually to resume
playback.
}
\opt{accessory_supply}{
\subsection{\label{ref:AccessoryPowerSupply}Accessory Power Supply}
This option turns the accessory power supply \setting{On} and \setting{Off}.
The Apple accessory protocol has been partially implemented in Rockbox, and
thus there is a reasonable chance that your favourite accessory will work.
The accessory may require power from the \dap{} to function, and if so you should turn
this option \setting{On}. If it is not required, then turning this setting
\setting{Off} will save battery and therefore result in better runtime.
}
\opt{lineout_poweroff}{
\subsection{\label{ref:LineoutOnOff}Line Out}
This option turns the \dap{}'s line-out \setting{On} and \setting{Off}. On some
devices an enabled line-out will consume some power even if not used. If it is
not required, then turning this setting \setting{Off} will save battery and
therefore result in better runtime.
}
\opt{HAVE_BUTTON_LIGHTS}{
\opt{e200,e200v2}{
\subsection{Wheel Light Timeout}
This setting controls the amount of time the wheel lights shine after a
button press or wheel turn. If set to \setting{Off}, the LEDs will not
light when a button is pressed. If set to \setting{On}, the lights will
never shut off. If set to a time (1 to 120 seconds), the wheel will stay
lit for that amount of time after a button press or wheel turn.
}
\nopt{e200,e200v2}{
\subsection{Button Light Timeout}
This setting controls the amount of time the button lights shine after a
button press. If set to \setting{Off}, the LEDs will not light when a
button is pressed. If set to \setting{On}, the lights will never shut off.
If set to a time (1 to 120 seconds), the buttons will stay lit for
that amount of time after a button press.
}
\opt{gigabeatf}{
\subsection{Button Light Brightness}
Changes the brightness of the button lights.
}
}
\opt{usb_hid}{
\subsection{\label{ref:USB_HID}USB HID}
This option turns the USB HID feature \setting{On} and \setting{Off}.
When this feature is enabled, the \dap{} enumerates as a Human Interface
Device (HID), composed of several HID sub devices.
Since the \dap{} also enumerates as a Mass Storage Device, it becomes a USB
Composite Device, which contains both these devices.
\subsection{USB Keypad Mode}
This setting control the keypad mode when the \dap{} is attached to a
computer through USB. Pressing a key on the \dap{} sends a keystroke the
computer the \dap{} is attached to, according to the mapping set by the
keypad mode. There are different modes which provide different
functionality.
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,GIGABEAT_S_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD%
,IRIVER_H10_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD,MROBE100_PAD%
,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{%
Switching modes back and forth is done by pressing the
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD}{\ButtonRec}%
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD,MROBE100_PAD,IRIVER_H10_PAD}%
{\ButtonPower}%
\opt{IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD}{\ButtonSelect+\ButtonRight}
\opt{PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{\ButtonOK+\ButtonLeft}
and
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD}{Long \ButtonRec}%
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD,MROBE100_PAD,IRIVER_H10_PAD}%
{Long \ButtonPower}%
\opt{IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD}{\ButtonSelect+\ButtonLeft}
\opt{PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{\ButtonOK+\ButtonRight}
keys, respectively.%
}%
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
Remote %
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCDsp / Long \ButtonRCDsp}%
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCMode / Long \ButtonRCMode}
can also be used to switch modes.%
}%
\newline\newline
The following modes are available:
\begin{description}
\item [Multimedia.] This mode lets you control the volume, playback,
and skips tracks on the host computer. It is equivalent for the
multimedia keys found on top of some multimedia keyboards.
\begin{btnmap}
% Volume up / down
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD}
{\ButtonScrollFwd / \ButtonScrollBack}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD}
{\ButtonVolUp / \ButtonVolDown}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{\ButtonScrollUp / \ButtonScrollDown}
\opt{MROBE100_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{\ButtonUp / \ButtonDown}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD,MROBE100_RC_PAD}
{\ButtonRCVolUp / \ButtonRCVolDown}%
&}
Volume up / down, respectively
\\
% Volume mute
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD%
,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD,MROBE100_PAD}{\ButtonSelect}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}{\ButtonSelect; \ButtonBack}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{\ButtonFF}
\opt{IRIVER_VIBE500_PAD}{\ButtonMenu}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD}{Long \ButtonRCFF}%
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCHeart}%
&}
Volume mute
\\
% Playback play / pause
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD}{\ButtonUp}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD%
,MROBE100_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{\ButtonPlay}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}{\ButtonPlay; \ButtonUp}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCPlay}%
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCPlay}%
&}
Play / Pause
\\
% Playback stop
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD}{\ButtonPower}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}{\ButtonMenu; \ButtonDown}
\opt{SANSA_CLIP_PAD}{\ButtonHome}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{\ButtonRew; Long \ButtonPlay}
\opt{IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD}
{\ButtonMenu; Long \ButtonPlay}
\opt{PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{\ButtonCancel; Long \ButtonPlay}
\opt{MROBE100_PAD}{\ButtonDisplay; Long {\ButtonPlay}}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD}{Long \ButtonRCPlay}%
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCDisplay; Long \ButtonRCPlay}%
&}
Stop
\\
% Scan previous track
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD,%
IRIVER_H10_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD%
,MROBE100_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}
{\ButtonLeft}
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD}{\ButtonPrev; \ButtonLeft}%
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD,MROBE100_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCRew}%
&}
Scan previous track
\\
% Scan next track
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD%
,IRIVER_H10_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD%
,MROBE100_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}
{\ButtonRight}
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD}{\ButtonNext; \ButtonRight}%
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD,MROBE100_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCFF}%
&}
Scan next track
\\
\end{btnmap}
\item [Presentation.] This mode lets you control a presentation program
(e.g. OpenOffice Impress, and some other popular application), making
the \dap{} a wired remote control device. This mode is can be useful
for lecturers who does not have a wireless remote control for this
purpose.
\begin{btnmap}
% Slideshow start
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD}{\ButtonUp}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}{\ButtonPlay; \ButtonUp}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD%
,MROBE100_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{\ButtonPlay}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD,MROBE100_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCPlay}%
&}
Slideshow start
\\
% Slideshow leave
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD}{\ButtonPower}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}{Long \ButtonPlay; Long \ButtonUp}
\opt{SANSA_CLIP_PAD}{\ButtonHome}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{Long \ButtonPlay}
\opt{IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD}{Long \ButtonPlay}
\opt{MROBE100_PAD}{\ButtonDisplay; Long \ButtonPlay}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD,MROBE100_RC_PAD}{Long \ButtonRCPlay}%
&}
Slideshow leave
\\
% Slide previous
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD%
,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD,MROBE100_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}
{\ButtonLeft}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}{\ButtonPrev; \ButtonLeft}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{\ButtonRew}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD,MROBE100_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCRew}%
&}
Slide previous
\\
% Slide next
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD%
,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD,MROBE100_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}
{\ButtonRight}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}{\ButtonNext; \ButtonRight}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{\ButtonFF}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD,MROBE100_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCFF}%
&}
Slide next
\\
% Slide first
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD%
,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD,MROBE100_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}
{Long \ButtonLeft}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}{Long \ButtonPrev; Long \ButtonLeft}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{Long \ButtonRew}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{Long \ButtonRCRew}%
&}
Slide first
\\
% Slide last
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD%
,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD,MROBE100_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}
{Long \ButtonRight}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}{Long \ButtonNext; Long \ButtonRight}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{Long \ButtonFF}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{Long \ButtonRCFF}%
&}
Slide last
\\
% Screen black
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,GIGABEAT_S_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD%
,SANSA_CLIP_PAD}{\ButtonDown}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{\ButtonLeft}
\opt{IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD,MROBE100_PAD}
{\ButtonMenu}
\opt{PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{\ButtonCancel}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCDisplay}%
&}
Black screen
\\
% Screen white
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,GIGABEAT_S_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD%
,SANSA_CLIP_PAD}{Long \ButtonDown}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{Long \ButtonLeft}
\opt{IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD,MROBE100_PAD}
{Long \ButtonMenu}
\opt{PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{\ButtonMenu}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{Long \ButtonRCDisplay}%
&}
White screen
\\
% Link previous / next
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD}
{\ButtonScrollBack / \ButtonScrollFwd}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD}
{\ButtonVolUp / \ButtonVolDown}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{\ButtonScrollUp / \ButtonScrollDown}
\opt{MROBE100_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{\ButtonUp / \ButtonDown}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD,MROBE100_RC_PAD}
{\ButtonRCVolUp / \ButtonRCVolDown}%
&}
Previous / next link in slide, respectively
\\
% Mouse click
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD%
,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD,MROBE100_PAD}
{\ButtonSelect}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}{\ButtonSelect; \ButtonBack}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{\ButtonRight}
\opt{PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{\ButtonOK}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD}{Long \ButtonRCFF}%
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCHeart}%
&}
Perform a `mouse click' over a link
\\
% Mouse over
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD%
,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD,MROBE100_PAD}{Long \ButtonSelect}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}{Long \ButtonSelect; Long \ButtonBack}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{Long \ButtonRight}
\opt{PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{Long \ButtonOK}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD}{Long \ButtonRCRew}%
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{Long \ButtonRCHeart}%
&}
Perform a `mouse over' over a link
\\
\end{btnmap}
\item [Browser.] This mode lets you control a web browser (e.g.
Firefox). It uses the \dap{}'s keys to navigate through the web page
and different tabs, navigate through history, and to control zoom.
\begin{btnmap}
% Scroll up / down
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD}
{\ButtonScrollBack / \ButtonScrollFwd}
\opt{SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD}
{\ButtonVolUp / \ButtonVolDown}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}
{\ButtonPrev; \ButtonVolUp / \ButtonNext; \ButtonVolDown}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{\ButtonScrollUp / \ButtonScrollDown}
\opt{MROBE100_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{\ButtonUp / \ButtonDown}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD,MROBE100_RC_PAD}
{\ButtonRCVolUp / \ButtonRCVolDown}%
&}
Scroll up / down, respectively
\\
% Scroll page up / page down
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD}
{\ButtonUp / \ButtonDown}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}{\ButtonUp / \ButtonDown}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{\ButtonRew / \ButtonFF}
\opt{IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD,MROBE100_PAD}
{\ButtonPlay / \ButtonMenu}
\opt{PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{\ButtonOK / \ButtonCancel}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCPlay / \ButtonRCDisplay}%
&}
Scroll page up / page down, respectively
\\
% Zoom in / out
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD}
{Long \ButtonUp / Long \ButtonDown}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}{Long \ButtonUp / Long \ButtonDown}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{Long \ButtonRew / Long \ButtonFF}
\opt{IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD,MROBE100_PAD}
{Long \ButtonPlay / Long \ButtonMenu}
\opt{PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{\ButtonPlay / \ButtonMenu}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD}{Long \ButtonRCFF / Long \ButtonRCRew}%
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}
{Long \ButtonRCPlay / Long \ButtonRCDisplay}%
&}
Zoom in / out, respectively
\\
% Zoom reset
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD}
{Long \ButtonSelect; Long \ButtonUp+\ButtonDown}
\opt{MROBE100_PAD}
{Long \ButtonSelect; Long \ButtonPlay+\ButtonMenu}
\opt{SANSA_CLIP_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD}
{Long \ButtonSelect; Long \ButtonUp+\ButtonDown}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}
{Long \ButtonSelect; Long \ButtonUp+\ButtonDown}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{Long \ButtonRew+\ButtonFF}
\opt{IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD}
{Long \ButtonPlay+\ButtonMenu}
\opt{PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{Long \ButtonPlay}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD}{Long \ButtonRCFF+\ButtonRCRew}%
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{Long \ButtonRCHeart}%
&}
Zoom reset
\\
% Tab previous / next
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,GIGABEAT_S_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD%
,SANSA_CLIP_PAD,IRIVER_H10_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD%
,IPOD_1G2G_PAD,MROBE100_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}
{\ButtonLeft / \ButtonRight}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD,MROBE100_RC_PAD}
{\ButtonRCRew / \ButtonRCFF}%
&}
Tab previous / next, respectively
\\
% Tab close
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD}{Long \ButtonPower}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}{Long \ButtonPlay; Long \ButtonBack}
\opt{SANSA_CLIP_PAD}{Long \ButtonHome}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{Long \ButtonLeft+\ButtonRight}
\opt{MROBE100_PAD}{Long \ButtonDisplay}
\opt{IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD}
{Long \ButtonSelect+\ButtonMenu}
\opt{PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{Long \ButtonCancel}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD}{Long \ButtonRCPlay}%
&}
Tab close
\\
% History back / forward
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,GIGABEAT_S_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD%
,SANSA_CLIP_PAD,IRIVER_H10_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD%
,IPOD_1G2G_PAD,MROBE100_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}
{Long \ButtonLeft / Long \ButtonRight}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{Long \ButtonRCRew / Long \ButtonRCFF}%
&}
History back / forward
\\
% View full-screen
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD%
,GIGABEAT_S_PAD,MROBE100_PAD}
{\ButtonSelect}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{\ButtonPlay}
\opt{IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD}
{Long \ButtonSelect+\ButtonPlay}
\opt{PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{Long \ButtonRec}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{GIGABEAT_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCPlay}%
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCHeart}%
&}
View full-screen toggle
\\
\end{btnmap}
{\opt{usb_hid_mouse}{
\item [Mouse.] This mode emulates a mouse. Features supported: Mouse
movement; left and right button clicking; and dragging and dropping.
\begin{btnmap}
% Cursor move up / down / left / right
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,GIGABEAT_S_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD%
,SANSA_CLIP_PAD,MROBE100_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}
{\ButtonUp / \ButtonDown / \ButtonLeft / \ButtonRight}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{\ButtonScrollUp / \ButtonScrollDown /
\ButtonLeft / \ButtonRight}
\opt{IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD}
{\ButtonMenu / \ButtonPlay / \ButtonLeft / \ButtonRight}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCPlay / \ButtonRCDisplay /
\ButtonRCRew / \ButtonRCFF}%
&}
Cursor move up / down / left / right, respectively
\\
% Mouse button left-click
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD%
,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD}
{\ButtonSelect}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}{\ButtonSelect; \ButtonBack}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{\ButtonPlay}
\opt{MROBE100_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{\ButtonMenu}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCHeart}%
&}
Left mouse button click
\nopt{IRIVER_H10_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD}{
\\
% Mouse button right-click
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,SANSA_C200_PAD}{\ButtonPower}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}{\ButtonMenu}
\opt{SANSA_CLIP_PAD}{\ButtonHome}
\opt{MROBE100_PAD,PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}{\ButtonPlay}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
&}
Right mouse button click
}
\\
% Mouse wheel scroll up / down
\opt{SANSA_E200_PAD,IPOD_4G_PAD,IPOD_3G_PAD,IPOD_1G2G_PAD}
{\ButtonScrollBack / \ButtonScrollFwd}
\opt{IRIVER_H10_PAD}{\ButtonRew / \ButtonFF}
\opt{GIGABEAT_S_PAD}
{\ButtonVolUp; \ButtonPrev / \ButtonVolDown; \ButtonNext}
\opt{SANSA_C200_PAD,SANSA_CLIP_PAD,MROBE100_PAD}
{\ButtonVolUp / \ButtonVolDown}
\opt{PBELL_VIBE500_PAD}
{\ButtonOK / \ButtonCancel}
&
\opt{HAVEREMOTEKEYMAP}{
\opt{MROBE100_RC_PAD}{\ButtonRCVolUp / \ButtonRCVolDown}%
&}
Mouse wheel scroll up / down, respectively
\\
\end{btnmap}
}}
\end{description}
}
|
http://parabix.costar.sfu.ca/browser/docs/Working/icXML/arch-contentstream.tex?rev=3633&format=txt | sfu.ca | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | text/plain | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986672548.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20191017022259-20191017045759-00281.warc.gz | 147,494,573 | 1,963 | \subsection{Content Stream}
\label{section:arch:contentstream}
A relatively-unique concept for \icXML{} is the use of a filtered content stream.
Rather that parsing an XML document in its original format, the input is transformed
into one that is easier for the parser to iterate through and produce the sequential
output.
In Figure~\ref{fig:parabix2}, the source data
% \verb|<root><t1>text</t1><t2 a1=’foo’ a2 = ’fie’>more</t2><tag3 att3=’b’/></root>|
is transformed into
``{\tt\it 0}\verb`>fee`{\tt\it 0}\verb`=fie`{\tt\it 0}\verb`=foe`{\tt\it 0}\verb`>`{\tt\it 0}\verb`/fum`{\tt\it 0}\verb`/`''
through the parallel filtering algorithm, described in section \ref{sec:parfilter}.
Combined with the symbol stream, the parser traverses the content stream to effectively
reconstructs the input document in its output form.
The initial {\tt\it 0} indicates an empty content string. The following \verb|>|
indicates that a start tag without any attributes is the first element in this text and
the first unused symbol, ``\verb|document|'', is the element name.
Succeeding that is the content string ``\verb`fee`'', which is null-terminated in accordance
with the Xerces API specification. Unlike Xerces, no memory-copy operations
are required to produce these strings, which as Figure~\ref{fig:xerces-profile} shows
accounts for $6.83\%$ of Xerces's execution time.
Additionally, it is cheap to locate the terminal character of each string:
using the String End \bitstream{}, the \PS{} can effectively calculate the offset of each
null character in the content stream in parallel, which in turn means the parser can
directly jump to the end of every string without scanning for it.
Following ``\verb`fee`'' is a \verb`=`, which marks the existence of an attribute.
Because all of the intra-element was performed in the \PS{}, this must be a legal attribute.
Since attributes can only occur within start tags and must be accompanied by a textual value,
the next symbol in the symbol stream must be the element name of a start tag,
and the following one must be the name of the attribute and the string that follows the \verb`=` must be its value.
However, the subsequent \verb`=` is not treated as an independent attribute because the parser has yet to
read a \verb`>`, which marks the end of a start tag. Thus only one symbol is taken from the symbol stream and
it (along with the string value) is added to the element.
Eventually the parser reaches a \verb`/`, which marks the existence of an end tag. Every end tag requires an
element name, which means they require a symbol. Inter-element validation whenever an empty tag is detected to
ensure that the appropriate scope-nesting rules have been applied.
|
https://www.emis.de/journals/JIS/VOL13/Barry4/barry122.tex | emis.de | CC-MAIN-2022-05 | text/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320300244.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20220116210734-20220117000734-00582.warc.gz | 807,637,309 | 11,412 | \documentclass[12pt,reqno]{article}
\usepackage[usenames]{color}
\usepackage{amssymb}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage{amscd}
\usepackage[colorlinks=true,
linkcolor=webgreen,
filecolor=webbrown,
citecolor=webgreen]{hyperref}
\definecolor{webgreen}{rgb}{0,.5,0}
\definecolor{webbrown}{rgb}{.6,0,0}
\usepackage{color}
\usepackage{fullpage}
\usepackage{float}
\usepackage{psfig}
\usepackage{graphics,amsmath,amssymb}
\usepackage{amsthm}
\usepackage{amsfonts}
\usepackage{latexsym}
\usepackage{epsf}
\setlength{\textwidth}{6.5in}
\setlength{\oddsidemargin}{.1in}
\setlength{\evensidemargin}{.1in}
\setlength{\topmargin}{-.5in}
\setlength{\textheight}{8.9in}
\newcommand{\seqnum}[1]{\href{http://www.research.att.com/cgi-bin/access.cgi/as/~njas/sequences/eisA.cgi?Anum=#1}{\underline{#1}}}
\begin{document}
\begin{center}
\epsfxsize=4in
\leavevmode\epsffile{logo129.eps}
\end{center}
\begin{center}
\vskip 1cm{\LARGE\bf
Exponential Riordan Arrays and \\
\vskip .1in
Permutation Enumeration
}
\vskip 1cm
\large
Paul Barry\\
School of Science\\
Waterford Institute of Technology\\
Ireland\\
\href{mailto:[email protected]}{\tt [email protected]} \\
\end{center}
\vskip .2 in
\begin{abstract}
We show that the generating function of the symmetric group with
respect to five particular statistics gives rise to an exponential
Riordan array, whose inverse is the coefficient array of the associated
orthogonal polynomials. This also provides us with an LDU
factorization of the Hankel matrix of the associated moments.
\end{abstract}
\theoremstyle{plain}
\newtheorem{theorem}{Theorem}
\newtheorem{corollary}[theorem]{Corollary}
\newtheorem{lemma}[theorem]{Lemma}
\newtheorem{proposition}[theorem]{Proposition}
\theoremstyle{definition}
\newtheorem{definition}[theorem]{Definition}
\newtheorem{example}[theorem]{Example}
\newtheorem{conjecture}[theorem]{Conjecture}
\theoremstyle{remark}
\newtheorem{remark}[theorem]{Remark}
\section{Introduction}
In this note, we shall re-interpret some of the results of Zeng
\cite{Zeng} in terms of exponential Riordan arrays. For this, we let
$\mathfrak{S}_n$ denote the set of permutations of $\{1,2,\ldots,n\}$. Given a permutation $\sigma\in \mathfrak{S}_n
$, each value
$x=\sigma(i),\,1 \leq i \leq n$, can be classified according to one of the five following cases: \begin{enumerate} \item a peak (``pic
de cycle''), if $\sigma^{-1}(x)<x>\sigma(x)$; \item a valley (``creux de cycle''), if $\sigma^{-1}>x<\sigma(x)$; \item a double rise
(``double mont\'ee de cycle''), if $\sigma^{-1}(x)<x<\sigma(x)$; \item a double descent (``double descente de cycle''), if
$\sigma^{-1}(x)>x>\sigma(x)$; \item a fixed point (``point fixe''), if $\sigma(i)=i$. \end{enumerate}
Using the notation of Zeng
\cite{Zeng}, we denote the number of peaks, valleys, double rises, double descents, and fixed points of $\sigma$ respectively by pic
$\sigma$, cc $\sigma$, dm $\sigma$, dd $\sigma$, and fix $\sigma$. We shall also denote by cyc $\sigma$ the number of cycles of
$\sigma$. We set $$\mu_n=\sum_{\sigma \in \mathbf{S}_n} u_1^{\text{cc}\, \sigma}u_2^{\text{pic}\, \sigma}u_3^{\text{dm}\,
\sigma}u_4^{\text{dd} \,\sigma}\alpha^{\text{fix}\, \sigma}\beta^{\text{cyc}\, \sigma}.$$ We then have the following theorem.
\begin{theorem}\label{Thm} We let $\alpha_1$ and $\alpha_2$ be such that $\alpha_1 \alpha_2=u_1 u_2$ and $\alpha_1+\alpha_2=u_3+u_4$.
Then the exponential Riordan array $$\mathbf{L}=\left[e^{\alpha \beta x}\left(\frac{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}{\alpha_1 e^{\alpha_2
x}-\alpha_2
e^{\alpha_1 x}}\right)^{\beta}, \frac{e^{\alpha_1 x}-e^{\alpha_2 x}}{\alpha_1 e^{\alpha_2 x}-\alpha_2 e^{\alpha_1 x}}\right]$$ is the
inverse of the coefficient array for the family of orthogonal polynomials for which $\mu_n$ are the moments. The elements of the first
column of $\mathbf{L}$ are given by $\mu_n$. The Hankel matrix $\mathbf{H}=(\mu_{i+j})_{i,j \ge 0}$ has LDU factorization
$$\mathbf{H}=\mathbf{L}\mathbf{D}\mathbf{L}^t.$$ \end{theorem} While partly expository in nature, this note assumes a certain
familiarity with integer sequences, generating functions, orthogonal polynomials \cite{Chihara, wgautschi, Szego}, Riordan arrays
\cite{SGWW, Spru}, production matrices \cite{ProdMat, P_W}, and the integer Hankel transform \cite{BRP, CRI, Layman}. Many interesting
examples of sequences and Riordan arrays can be found in Neil Sloane's On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences (OEIS), \cite{SL1,
SL2}. Sequences are frequently referred to by their OEIS number. For instance, the binomial matrix $\mathbf{B}$ (``Pascal's
triangle'')
is \seqnum{A007318}. \newline\newline \noindent The plan of the paper is as follows: \begin{enumerate} \item This Introduction \item
Integer sequences, exponential Riordan arrays and orthogonal polynomials \item Proof of the theorem
\item A matrix product \end{enumerate} \section{Integer
sequences, exponential Riordan arrays and orthogonal polynomials} For an integer sequence $a_n$, that is, an element of
$\mathbb{Z}^\mathbb{N}$, the power series $f_o(x)=\sum_{k=0}^{\infty}a_k x^k$ is called the \emph{ordinary generating function} or
g.f.
of the sequence, while $f_e(x)=\sum_{k=0}^{\infty}\frac{a_k}{k!} x^k$ is called the \emph{exponential generating function} or e.g.f.
of
the sequence. $a_n$ is thus the coefficient of $x^n$ in $f_o(x)$. We denote this by $a_n=[x^n]f_o(x)$. Similarly, $a_n=n![x^n]f_e(x)$.
For instance, $F_n=[x^n]\frac{x}{1-x-x^2}$ is the $n$-th Fibonacci number \seqnum{A000045}, while $n!=n![x^n]\frac{1}{1-x}$, which
says
that $\frac{1}{1-x}$ is the e.g.f. of $n!$ \seqnum{A000142}. For a power series $f(x)=\sum_{n=0}^{\infty}a_n x^n$ with $f(0)=0$ and
$f'(0)\neq 0$ we
define the reversion or compositional inverse of $f$ to be the power series $\bar{f}(x)=f^{[-1]}(x)$ such that $f(\bar{f}(x))=x$. We
sometimes write $\bar{f}= \text{Rev}f$.
The \emph{exponential Riordan group} \cite {PasTri,ProdMat,DeutschShap}, is a set of infinite
lower-triangular integer matrices, where each matrix is defined by a pair of generating functions $g(x)=g_0+g_1x+g_2x^2+\cdots$ and
$f(x)=f_1x+f_2x^2+\cdots$ where $g_0 \ne 0$ and $f_1\ne 0$. The associated matrix is the matrix whose $i$-th column has exponential
generating function
$g(x)f(x)^i/i!$ (the first column being indexed by 0). The matrix corresponding to the pair $f, g$ is denoted by $[g, f]$. It is
\emph{monic} if $g_0=1$. The group law is given by \begin{displaymath} [g, f]*[h, l]=[g(h\circ f), l\circ f].\end{displaymath} The
identity for this law is $I=[1,x]$ and the inverse of $[g, f]$ is $[g, f]^{-1}=[1/(g\circ \bar{f}), \bar{f}]$ where $\bar{f}$ is the
compositional inverse of $f$. We use the notation $\mathit{e}\mathcal{R}$ to denote this group. If $\mathbf{M}$ is the matrix $[g,f]$,
and $\mathbf{u}=(u_n)_{n \ge 0}$ is an integer sequence with exponential generating function $\mathcal{U}$ $(x)$, then the sequence
$\mathbf{M}\mathbf{u}$ has exponential generating function $g(x)\mathcal{U}(f(x))$. Thus the row sums of the array $[g,f]$ are given
by
$g(x)e^{f(x)}$ since the sequence $1,1,1,\ldots$ has exponential generating function $e^x$. \begin{example} The \emph{binomial matrix}
is the matrix with general term $\binom{n}{k}$. It is realized by Pascal's triangle. As an exponential Riordan array, it is given by
$[e^x,x]$. We further have $$([e^x,x])^m=[e^{mx},x].$$ \end{example} \noindent As an example of the calculation of an inverse, we have
the following proposition. \begin{proposition} $$\mathbf{L}^{-1}=\left[\left(\frac{1+\alpha_2 x}{1+\alpha_1 x}\right)^{\frac{\alpha
\beta}{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}}\left(\frac{(1+\alpha_2x)^{\frac{\alpha_1}{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}}}{(1+\alpha_1
x)^{\frac{\alpha_2}{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}}}\right)^{-\beta}, \frac{1}{\alpha_2-\alpha_1}\ln\left(\frac{1+\alpha_2x}{1+\alpha_1
x}\right)\right].$$ \end{proposition} \begin{proof} This follows since with $$f(x)=\frac{e^{\alpha_1 x}-e^{\alpha_2 x}}{\alpha_1
e^{\alpha_2 x}-\alpha_2 e^{\alpha_1 x}}$$ we have $$\bar{f}(x)=\frac{1}{\alpha_2-\alpha_1}\ln\left(\frac{1+\alpha_2x}{1+\alpha_1
x}\right).$$ \end{proof}
\noindent We note that we can then write $\mathbf{L}^{-1}$ as
$$\mathbf{L}^{-1}=\left[\frac{(1+\alpha_2x)^{\frac{\beta(\alpha-\alpha_1)}{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}}}{(1+\alpha_1x)^{\frac{\beta(\alpha-\alpha_2)}{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}}},
\frac{1}{\alpha_2-\alpha_1}\ln\left(\frac{1+\alpha_2x}{1+\alpha_1
x}\right)\right].$$
An important concept for the sequel is that of production matrix. The concept of a \emph{production matrix}
\cite{ProdMat_0, ProdMat} is a general one, but for this work we find it convenient to review it in the context of Riordan arrays.
Thus
let $P$ be an infinite matrix (most often it will have integer entries). Letting $\mathbf{r}_0$ be the row vector
$$\mathbf{r}_0=(1,0,0,0,\ldots),$$ we define $\mathbf{r}_i=\mathbf{r}_{i-1}P$, $i \ge 1$. Stacking these rows leads to another
infinite
matrix which we denote by $A_P$. Then $P$ is said to be the \emph{production matrix} for $A_P$. \noindent If we let
$$u^T=(1,0,0,0,\ldots,0,\ldots)$$ then we have $$A_P=\left(\begin{array}{c} u^T\\u^TP\\u^TP^2\\\vdots\end{array}\right)$$ and
$$DA_P=A_PP$$ where $D=(\delta_{i+1,j})_{i,j \ge 0}$ (where $\delta$ is the usual Kronecker symbol). In \cite{P_W, Shapiro_bij} $P$ is
called the Stieltjes matrix associated to $A_P$. In \cite{ProdMat}, we find the following result concerning matrices that are
production matrices for exponential Riordan arrays. \begin{proposition}\label{Deutsch_Shapiro} Let $A=\left(a_{n,k}\right)_{n,k \ge
0}=[g(x),f(x)]$ be an
exponential Riordan array and let \begin{equation}\label{seq_def} c(y)=c_0 + c_1 y +c_2 y^2 + \cdots, \qquad r(y)=r_0 + r_1 y + r_2
y^2
+ \cdots\end{equation} be two formal power series such that \begin{eqnarray}\label{r_def} r(f(x))&=&f'(x) \\ \label{c_def}
c(f(x))&=&\frac{g'(x)}{g(x)}. \end{eqnarray} Then \begin{eqnarray} (i)\qquad a_{n+1,0}&=&\sum_{i} i! c_i a_{n,i} \\ (ii)\qquad
a_{n+1,k}&=& r_0 a_{n,k-1}+\frac{1}{k!} \sum_{i\ge k}i!(c_{i-k}+k r_{i-k+1})a_{n,i} \end{eqnarray} or, defining $c_{-1}=0$,
\begin{equation}\label{array_def} a_{n+1,k}=\frac{1}{k!}\sum_{i\ge k-1} i!(c_{i-k}+k r_{i-k+1})a_{n,i}.\end{equation} Conversely,
starting from the sequences defined by (\ref{seq_def}), the infinite array $\left(a_{n,k}\right)_{n,k\ge 0}$ defined by
(\ref{array_def}) is an exponential Riordan array. \end{proposition} \noindent A consequence of this proposition is that
$P=\left(p_{i,j}\right)_{i,j\ge 0}$ where $$p_{i,j}=\frac{i!}{j!}(c_{i-j}+jr_{r-j+1}) \qquad (c_{-1}=0).$$ Furthermore, the bivariate
exponential generating function $$\phi_P(t,z)=\sum_{n,k} p_{n,k}t^k \frac{z^n}{n!}$$ of the matrix $P$ is given by $$\phi_P(t,z) =
e^{tz}(c(z)+t r(z)).$$ Note in particular that we have $$r(x)=f'(\bar{f}(x))$$ and $$c(x)=\frac{g'(\bar{f}(x))}{g(\bar{f}(x))}.$$
\begin{example} We consider the exponential Riordan array $L=[\frac{1}{1-x},x]$, \seqnum{A094587}. This array has elements
\begin{displaymath}L=\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 2 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 0
&
0 & \cdots \\ 6 & 6 & 3 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 24 & 24 & 12 & 4 & 1 & 0 & \cdots \\120 & 120 & 60 & 20 & 5 & 1 &\cdots\\ \vdots &
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots\end{array}\right)\end{displaymath} and general term $[k \le n] \frac{n!}{k!}$ with
inverse \begin{displaymath}L^{-1}=\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\-1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 &
-2 & 1
& 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 0 & -3 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 0 & 0& -4 & 1 & 0 & \cdots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & -5 & 1 &\cdots\\ \vdots &
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots\end{array}\right)\end{displaymath} which is the array $[1-x,x]$. In particular, we
note that the row sums of the inverse, which begin $1,0,-1,-2,-3,\ldots$ (that is, $1-n$), have e.g.f. $(1-x)\exp(x)$. This sequence
is
thus the binomial transform of the sequence with e.g.f. $(1-x)$ (which is the sequence starting $1,-1,0,0,0,\ldots$). In order to
calculate the production matrix $\mathbf{P}$ of $L=[\frac{1}{1-x},x]$ we note that $f(x)=x$, and hence we have $f'(x)=1$ so
$f'(\bar{f}(x))=1$. Also $g(x)=\frac{1}{1-x}$ leads to $g'(x)=\frac{1}{(1-x)^2}$, and so, since $\bar{f}({x})=x$, we get
$$\frac{g'(\bar{f}(x))}{g(\bar{f}(x))}=\frac{1}{1-x}.$$ Thus the generating function for $\mathbf{P}$ is
$$e^{tz}\left(\frac{1}{1-z}+t\right).$$ Thus $\mathbf{P}$ is the matrix $[\frac{1}{1-x},x]$ with its first row removed. \end{example}
\begin{example} We consider the exponential Riordan array $L=[1, \frac{x}{1-x}]$. The general term of this matrix may be calculated as
follows: \begin{eqnarray*}T_{n,k}&=&\frac{n!}{k!}[x^n]\frac{x^k}{(1-x)^k}\\ &=&\frac{n!}{k!}[x^{n-k}](1-x)^{-k}\\
&=&\frac{n!}{k!}[x^{n-k}]\sum_{j=0}^{\infty}\binom{-k}{j}(-1)^jx^j\\ &=&\frac{n!}{k!}[x^{n-k}]\sum_{j=0}^{\infty}\binom{k+j-1}{j}x^j\\
&=&\frac{n!}{k!}\binom{k+n-k-1}{n-k}\\ &=&\frac{n!}{k!}\binom{n-1}{n-k},\end{eqnarray*} with
\begin{displaymath}L=\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 0
&
0 & \cdots \\0 & 6 & 6 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 24 & 36 & 12 & 1 & 0 & \cdots \\0 & 120 & 240 & 120 & 20 & 1 &\cdots\\ \vdots &
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots\end{array}\right).\end{displaymath}
Thus its row sums, which have e.g.f. $\exp
\left(\frac{x}{1-x}\right)$, have general term $\sum_{k=0}^n \frac{n!}{k!}\binom{n-1}{n-k}$. This is \seqnum{A000262}, the `number of
``sets of lists": the number of partitions of $\{1,..,n\}$ into any number of lists, where a list means an ordered subset'. Its
general
term is equal to $(n-1)!L_{n-1}(1,-1)$. The inverse of $\left[1, \frac{x}{1-x}\right]$ is the exponential Riordan array
$L^{-1}=\left[1,\frac{x}{1+x}\right]$, \seqnum{A111596}. The row sums of this sequence have e.g.f. $\exp\left(\frac{x}{1+x}\right)$,
and start
$1, 1, -1, 1, 1, -19, 151, \ldots$. This is \seqnum{A111884}. To calculate the production matrix of $L=\left[1,\frac{x}{1-x}\right]$
we
note that $g'(x)=0$, while $\bar{f}(x)=\frac{x}{1+x}$ with $f'(x)=\frac{1}{(1+x)^2}$. Thus $$f'(\bar{f}(x))=(1+x)^2,$$ and so the
generating function of the production matrix is given by $$ e^{tz}t(1+z)^2.$$ \noindent Thus the production matrix of the inverse
begins \begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\0 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 2 & 4 &
1
& 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 0 & 6 & 6 & 1 & 0 & \cdots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 12 & 8 & 1 & \cdots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 20 & 10 &\cdots\\ \vdots &
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots\end{array}\right).\end{displaymath} \end{example}
\begin{example} The exponential
Riordan array $A= \left[\frac{1}{1-x},\frac{x}{1-x}\right]$, or \begin{displaymath}A=\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0
& 0 & 0 & \cdots \\1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 2 & 4 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 6 & 18 & 9 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 24 & 96 & 72
& 16 & 1 & 0 & \cdots \\120 & 600 & 600 & 200 & 25 & 1 &\cdots\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\ddots\end{array}\right)\end{displaymath} has general term $$ T_{n,k}=\frac{n!}{k!}\binom{n}{k}.$$ Its inverse is
$A^{-1}=\left[\frac{1}{1+x},\frac{x}{1+x}\right]$ with general term
$(-1)^{n-k}\frac{n!}{k!}\binom{n}{k}$. This is \seqnum{A021009}, the triangle of coefficients of the Laguerre polynomials $L_n(x)$.
The
production matrix of A is given by \begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 &
\cdots \\1 & 3 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 4 & 5 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 0 & 9 & 7 & 1 & 0 & \cdots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 16 & 9 & 1 &
\cdots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 25 & 11 &\cdots\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\ddots\end{array}\right).\end{displaymath} \end{example}
\begin{example} The exponential Riordan array
$L=\left[e^x,\ln\left(\frac{1}{1-x}\right)\right]$, or \begin{displaymath}L=\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots
\\1
& 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 1 & 3 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 1 & 8 & 6 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 1 & 24 & 29 & 10 & 1 & 0 & \cdots
\\1 & 89 & 145 & 75 & 15 & 1 &\cdots\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots\end{array}\right)\end{displaymath}
is the coefficient array for the polynomials $$_2F_0(-n,x;-1)$$ which are an unsigned version of the Charlier polynomials (of order
$0$) \cite{wgautschi, Roman, Szego}. This is \seqnum{A094816}. We have $$L=[e^x,x]* \left[ 1,
\ln\left(\frac{1}{1-x}\right)\right],$$ or the product of the binomial array $\mathbf{B}$ and the array of (unsigned) Stirling numbers
of the first kind. The production matrix of the inverse of this matrix is given by \begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} -1
&
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\1 & -2 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 2 & -3 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 0 & 3 & -4 & 1 & 0 & \cdots \\0
& 0 & 0 & 4 & -5 & 1 & \cdots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 5 & -6 &\cdots\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\ddots\end{array}\right)\end{displaymath} which indicates the orthogonal nature of these polynomials. We can prove this form as
follows. We
have $$\left[e^x, \ln\left(\frac{1}{1-x}\right)\right]^{-1}=\left[e^{-(1-e^{-x})},1-e^{-x}\right].$$ Hence $g(x)=e^{-(1-e^{-x})}$ and
$f(x)=1-e^{-x}$. We are thus led to the equations \begin{eqnarray*} r(1-e^{-x})&=&\,e^{-x},\\ c(1-e^{-x})&=&-e^{-x},\end{eqnarray*}
with solutions $r(x)=1-x$, $c(x)=x-1$. Thus the bi-variate generating function for the production matrix of the inverse array is
$$e^{tz}(z-1+t(1-z)),$$ which is what is required. \end{example}
According to Proposition \textbf{\ref{Deutsch_Shapiro}}, for a Riordan array to have a tri-diagonal production array $P$, it is
necessary and sufficient that $P$ be of the form
\begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} c_0 &
r_0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\c_1 & c_0+r_1 & r_0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 2(c_1+r_2) & c_0+2r_1 & r_0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 0 &
3(c_1+2r_2) & r_0 & 1 & 0 & \cdots \\0
& 0 & 0 & 4(c_1+3r_2) & c_0+4r_1 & r_0 & \cdots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 5(c_1+4r_2) & c_0+5r_1 &\cdots\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\vdots & \vdots &
\ddots\end{array}\right).\end{displaymath}
We recognize in this the form of Meixner's solution \cite{Meixner, Godsil} to the question of which families of Sheffer polynomials
\cite{He_Sheffer} are orthogonal. Thus $P$ corresponds to the family of orthogonal polynomials $(S_n(x))_{n\ge 0}$ that satisfy
$$S_{n+1}(x)=(x-(c_0+n r_1))S_n(x)-n(c_1+n r_2)S_{n-1}(x).$$
Of importance to this study are the following results (the first is the well-known ``Favard's Theorem''), which we essentially
reproduce from
\cite{Kratt}.
\begin{theorem}
\cite{Kratt} {\rm (Cf.\ \cite[Th\'eor\`eme $9$, p.\ I-4]{Viennot} or
\cite[Theorem 50.1]{Wall}).}
Let $(p_n(x))_{n\ge 0}$
be a sequence of monic polynomials, the polynomial $p_n(x)$ having degree $n=0,1,\ldots$. Then the sequence $(p_n(x))$ is (formally)
orthogonal if and only if there exist sequences $(\alpha_n)_{n\ge 0}$ and $(\beta_n)_{n\ge 1}$ with $\beta_n \neq 0$ for all $n\ge 1$,
such that the three-term recurrence
$$p_{n+1}=(x-\alpha_n)p_n(x)-\beta_n (x), \quad \text{for}\quad n\ge 1, $$
holds, with initial conditions $p_0(x)=1$ and $p_1(x)=x-\alpha_0$.
\end{theorem}
\begin{theorem} \cite{Kratt}
{\rm (Cf.\ \cite[Prop.\ 1, (7), p. V-5]{Viennot} or
\cite[Theorem 51.1]{Wall}).}
Let $(p_n(x))_{n\ge
0}$ be a sequence of monic polynomials, which is orthogonal with respect to some functional $L$. Let
$$p_{n+1}=(x-\alpha_n)p_n(x)-\beta_n (x), \quad \text{for}\quad n\ge 1, $$ be the corresponding three-term recurrence which is
guaranteed by Favard's theorem. Then the generating function
$$g(x)=\sum_{k=0}^{\infty} \mu_k x^k $$ for the moments $\mu_k=L(x^k)$ satisfies
$$g(x)=\cfrac{\mu_0}{1-\alpha_0 x-
\cfrac{\beta_1 x^2}{1-\alpha_1 x -
\cfrac{\beta_2 x^2}{1-\alpha_2 x -
\cfrac{\beta_3 x^2}{1-\alpha_3 x -\cdots}}}}.$$
\end{theorem}
The Hankel transform of $\mu_n$, which is the sequence with general term $h_n=|\mu_{i+j}|_{0\le i,j\le n}$, is then given by
$$h_n=\mu_0^{n+1}\beta_1^n\beta_2^{n-1}\cdots\beta_{n-1}^2\beta_n.$$
\section{Proof of Theorem \ref{Thm}}
\begin{proof} We first note that
since $$g(x)=e^{\alpha \beta x}\left(\frac{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}{\alpha_1 e^{\alpha_2 x}-\alpha_2 e^{\alpha_1 x}}\right)^{\beta},$$ by
\cite[Theorem 1]{Zeng}, the first column of the Riordan array is indeed $\{\mu_n\}_{n\ge 0}$. We now calculate the production
matrix $\mathbf{P}_{\mathbf{L}}$ of $\mathbf{L}$. We have $$r(x)=f'(\bar{f}(x))=(1+\alpha_2x)(1+\alpha_1x)$$ and
$$c(x)=\frac{g'(\bar{f}(x))}{g(\bar{f}(x))}=\beta(\alpha+\alpha_1 \alpha_2 x).$$ Thus the bivariate generating function for the
production
matrix $\mathbf{P}_{\mathbf{L}}$ of $\mathbf{L}$ is given by $$e^{tz}(\beta(\alpha+\alpha_1 \alpha_2
x)+t(1+\alpha_2x)(1+\alpha_1x)).$$
Now this is equal to $$e^{tz}(\alpha \beta +\beta u_1 u_2 x+t(1+(u_3+u_4)x+u_1u_2x^2)).$$ But this implies that
$\mathbf{P}_{\mathbf{L}}$ is precisely the Jacobi tri-diagonal matrix corresponding to the continued $J$-fraction $$\cfrac{1}{1-\alpha
\beta x - \cfrac{\beta u_1u_2x^2}{1-(\alpha \beta +u_3+u_4)x- \cfrac{2(\beta+1)u_1 u_2x^2}{1-(\alpha \beta +2(u_3+u_4))x-
\cfrac{3(\beta+2)u_1u_2x^2}{1-\cdots}}}}$$ which by \cite{Zeng} is equal
to the generating function $$\sum_{k=0}^{\infty}\mu_k x^k.$$ The matrix $\mathbf{P}_{\mathbf{L}}$ begins:
\begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} \alpha \beta & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\\beta u_1 u_2 & \alpha \beta+u_3+u_4 &
0
& 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\0 & 2(\beta+1)u_1u_2 & \alpha \beta+2(u_3+u_4) & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 0 & 3(\beta+2)u_1u_2 & \alpha
\beta+3(u_3+u_4) & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 4(\beta+3)u_1u_2 & \alpha \beta+4(u_3+u_4) & 0 & \cdots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 0
&5(\beta+4)u_1u_2 & \alpha \beta+5(u_3+u_4) &\cdots\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\ddots\end{array}\right)\end{displaymath} This implies that $\mathbf{L}^{-1}$ is indeed the coefficient array of the set of orthogonal
polynomials which correspond to the tri-diagonal array $\mathbf{P}_{\mathbf{L}}$. The results of \cite{Triple, P_W} now imply that if
$\mathbf{H}=(\mu_{i+j})_{i,j\ge 0}$ then $$\mathbf{H}=\mathbf{L}\mathbf{D}\mathbf{L}^t.$$ \end{proof}
As pointed out by an anonymous referee, this result could also have been arrived at using the theory of orthogonal Sheffer polynomials,
as the $\mu_n$ are seen to be the moment sequence of the orthogonal polynomials defined by
$$P_{n+1}(x)=(x-b_n)P_n(x)-\lambda_nP_{n-1}(x),$$ with $P_{-1}(x)=0$ and $P_1(x)=1$, where $b_n=\alpha \beta +n(u_3+u_4)$ and
$\lambda_n=n(\beta+n)u_1 u_2$. Thus $(P_n(x))_{n\ge0}$ is a sequence of orthogonal Sheffer polynomials \cite{Godsil}. Note that the
interrelationship between Riordan arrays and Sheffer polynomials is comprehensively studied in \cite{He_Sheffer}.
The elements of the diagonal
matrix $\mathbf{D}$ are the successive products of the elements of the sub-diagonal of $\mathbf{P}_{\mathbf{L}}$: $$ \beta u_1 u_2,
\quad 2\beta(\beta+1)u_1^2 u_2^2,\quad 6\beta(\beta+1)(\beta+2)u_1^3 u_2^3,\ldots$$ \begin{corollary} The Hankel transform of $\mu_n$
is given by $$h_n=(u_1 u_2)^{\binom{n+1}{2}}\prod_{k=0}^n k!(\beta+k)^{n-k}.$$ \end{corollary} We notice in particular that this is
independent of $\alpha$, $u_3$ and $u_4$.
\noindent We have the following factorization. \begin{eqnarray*} \mathbf{L}&=&\left[e^{\alpha
\beta x}\left(\frac{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}{\alpha_1 e^{\alpha_2 x}-\alpha_2 e^{\alpha_1 x}}\right)^{\beta}, \frac{e^{\alpha_1
x}-e^{\alpha_2 x}}{\alpha_1 e^{\alpha_2 x}-\alpha_2 e^{\alpha_1 x}}\right]\\ &=&[e^{\alpha \beta
x},x]\left[\left(\frac{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}{\alpha_1 e^{\alpha_2 x}-\alpha_2 e^{\alpha_1 x}}\right)^{\beta}, \frac{e^{\alpha_1
x}-e^{\alpha_2 x}}{\alpha_1 e^{\alpha_2 x}-\alpha_2 e^{\alpha_1 x}}\right]\\ &=& [e^x,x]^{\alpha \beta} \mathbf{L}_0,\end{eqnarray*}
where the matrix $\mathbf{L_0}$ has production matrix generated by $$e^{tz}(\beta u_1 u_2 x+t(1+(u_3+u_4)x+u_1u_2x^2)).$$ This matrix
begins \begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\\beta u_1 u_2 & u_3+u_4 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 &
\cdots \\0 & 2(\beta+1)u_1u_2 & 2(u_3+u_4) & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 0 & 3(\beta+2)u_1u_2 & 3(u_3+u_4) & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 0 & 0
& 4(\beta+3)u_1u_2 & 4(u_3+u_4) & 0 & \cdots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 0 &5(\beta+4)u_1u_2 & 5(u_3+u_4) &\cdots\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\vdots
& \vdots & \vdots & \ddots\end{array}\right).\end{displaymath} Thus $\mathbf{L}_0^{-1}$ is the coefficient array of the orthogonal
polynomials whose moments have generating function given by $$\cfrac{1}{1 - \cfrac{\beta u_1u_2x^2}{1-(u_3+u_4)x- \cfrac{2(\beta+1)u_1
u_2x^2}{1-\cdots}}}.$$ In fact, we have
$$\mathbf{L}_0^{-1}=\left[\left(\frac{(1+\alpha_2x)^{\frac{\alpha_1}{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}}}{(1+\alpha_1
x)^{\frac{\alpha_2}{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}}}\right)^{-\beta}, \frac{1}{\alpha_2-\alpha_1}\ln\left(\frac{1+\alpha_2x}{1+\alpha_1
x}\right)\right].$$
\begin{example} The exponential Riordan array $\left[\frac{e^x}{2e^x-e^{2x}},\frac{e^{2x}-e^x}{2e^x-e^{2x}}\right]$ begins:
\begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 1 & 0 &
0
& 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 3 & 5
& 1 & 0 & 0 &
0 & \cdots \\ 13 & 31 & 12 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 75 & 233 & 133
& 22 & 1 & 0 & \cdots \\541 & 2071 & 1560 & 385 & 35 & 1
&\cdots\\
\vdots &
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\ddots\end{array}\right).\end{displaymath}
Its first column is the sequence \seqnum{A000670}, known as the ordered Bell numbers. The production matrix of this array is
\begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 &
\cdots \\2 & 4 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 8 & 7 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 0 & 18 & 10 & 1 & 0 & \cdots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 32 & 13 & 1
&
\cdots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 50 & 16 &\cdots\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\ddots\end{array}\right).\end{displaymath}
Thus the ordered Bell numbers are the moments $\mu_n$ of the family of orthogonal polynomials whose coefficient array is given by
$$\left[\frac{e^x}{2e^x-e^{2x}},\frac{e^{2x}-e^x}{2e^x-e^{2x}}\right]^{-1}=\left[\frac{1}{1+x},\ln\left(\frac{1+2x}{1+x}\right)\right],$$
and whose generating function is given by
$$\cfrac{1}{1-x-
\cfrac{2x^2}{1-4x-
\cfrac{8x^2}{1-7x-
\cfrac{18x^2}{1-\cdots}}}}.$$
\end{example}
\section{A matrix product}
We recall that the matrix $[\frac{1}{1-rx},\frac{x}{1-rx}]$ has production matrix
\begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} r & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 &
\cdots \\r^2 & 3r & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 4r^2 & 5r & 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\ 0 & 0 & 9r^2 & 7r & 1 & 0 & \cdots \\0 & 0 & 0 &
16r^2 & 9r & 1 &
\cdots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 25r^2 & 11r &\cdots\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\ddots\end{array}\right).\end{displaymath}
We use the notation $\mathbf{Lag}[r]$ for this matrix $\left[\frac{1}{1-rx},\frac{x}{1-rx}\right]$ \cite{Lah}.
We now form the product $\mathbf{L}\cdot\mathbf{Lag}[r]$ to get
\begin{eqnarray*}
\mathbf{L}\cdot \mathbf{Lag}[r]&=&\left[e^{\alpha \beta x}\left(\frac{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}{\alpha_1 e^{\alpha_2 x}-\alpha_2
e^{\alpha_1 x}}\right)^{\beta}, \frac{e^{\alpha_1 x}-e^{\alpha_2 x}}{\alpha_1 e^{\alpha_2 x}-\alpha_2 e^{\alpha_1 x}}\right]\cdot
\left[\frac{1}{1-rx},\frac{x}{1-rx}\right]\\
&=&\left[e^{\alpha \beta x}\left(\frac{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}{\alpha_1 e^{\alpha_2 x}-\alpha_2
e^{\alpha_1 x}}\right)^{\beta}\frac{\alpha_1 e^{\alpha_2 x}-\alpha_2 e^{\alpha_1 x}}{(\alpha_1+r) e^{\alpha_2 x}-(\alpha_2+r)
e^{\alpha_1 x}}, \frac{e^{\alpha_1 x}-e^{\alpha_2 x}}{(\alpha_1+r) e^{\alpha_2 x}-(\alpha_2+r) e^{\alpha_1 x}}\right].\end{eqnarray*}
For $\beta=1$, this product is equal to
$$\left[e^{\alpha x}\frac{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}{(\alpha_1+r) e^{\alpha_2 x}-(\alpha_2+r) e^{\alpha_1 x}}, \frac{e^{\alpha_1 x}-e^{\alpha_2
x}}{(\alpha_1+r) e^{\alpha_2 x}-(\alpha_2+r) e^{\alpha_1 x}}\right].$$
This matrix has a tri-diagonal production array which starts
\scriptsize {
\begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} \alpha+r & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 &
\cdots \\(\alpha_1+r)(\alpha_2+r) & \alpha+\alpha_1+\alpha_2+3r & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\
0 & 4(\alpha_1+r)(\alpha_2+r) & \alpha+2(\alpha_1+\alpha_2)+5r & 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \\
0 & 0 & 9(\alpha_1+r)(\alpha_2+r) & \alpha+3(\alpha_1+\alpha_2)+7r & 1 & 0 & \cdots \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 16(\alpha_1+r)(\alpha_2+r) & \alpha+4(\alpha_1+\alpha_2)+9r & 1 &
\cdots \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 25(\alpha_1+r)(\alpha_2+r) & \alpha+5(\alpha_1+\alpha_2)+11r &\cdots\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\vdots &
\ddots \end{array}\right).\end{displaymath}}
\normalsize
Thus for $\beta=1$, this product matrix is again the inverse of the coefficient array of a family of orthogonal polynomials. Taking
inverses, we arrive at the following product of orthogonal polynomial coefficient arrays:
$$\left[\frac{1}{1+rx},\frac{x}{1+rx}\right]\cdot \left[\left(\frac{1+\alpha_2 x}{1+\alpha_1 x}\right)^{\frac{\alpha
}{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}}\frac{(1+\alpha_1x)^{\frac{\alpha_2}{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}}}{(1+\alpha_2
x)^{\frac{\alpha_1}{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}}}, \frac{1}{\alpha_2-\alpha_1}\ln\left(\frac{1+\alpha_2x}{1+\alpha_1
x}\right)\right]$$
$$=\left[\frac{1}{1+rx},\frac{x}{1+rx}\right]\cdot
\left[\frac{(1+\alpha_2x)^{\frac{\alpha-\alpha_1}{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}}}{(1+\alpha_1x)^{\frac{\alpha-\alpha_2}{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}}},
\frac{1}{\alpha_2-\alpha_1}\ln\left(\frac{1+\alpha_2x}{1+\alpha_1
x}\right)\right]$$
$$=\left[\frac{(1+(\alpha_1+r)x)^{\frac{\alpha_2-\alpha}{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}}}{(1+(\alpha_2+r)x)^{\frac{\alpha_1-\alpha}{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}}},
\frac{1}{\alpha_1-\alpha_2}\ln\left(\frac{1+(\alpha_1+r)x}{1+(\alpha_2+r)x}\right)\right].$$
\begin{thebibliography}{30}
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\end{thebibliography}
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\noindent 2010 {\it Mathematics Subject Classification}:
Primary 05A15; Secondary 42C05, 11B83, 11C20, 15B05, 15B36, 20B30, 33C45.
\noindent \emph{Keywords: }
Permutation, integer sequence, orthogonal polynomials, moments,
exponential Riordan array, Hankel determinant, Hankel transform.
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\noindent (Concerned with sequences
\seqnum{A000045},
\seqnum{A000142},
\seqnum{A000262},
\seqnum{A000670},
\seqnum{A007318},
\seqnum{A021009},
\seqnum{A094587},
\seqnum{A094816},
\seqnum{A111596}, and
\seqnum{A111884}.)
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\vspace*{+.1in}
\noindent
Received June 25 2010;
revised version received September 13 2010
Published in {\it Journal of Integer Sequences}, December 5 2010.
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\noindent
Return to
\htmladdnormallink{Journal of Integer Sequences home page}{http://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/}.
\vskip .1in
\end{document}
|
http://dlmf.nist.gov/28.22.E9.tex | nist.gov | CC-MAIN-2017-17 | application/x-tex | null | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-17/segments/1492917119080.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20170423031159-00550-ip-10-145-167-34.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 106,492,283 | 658 | \[f_{\mathit{e},m}(h)=-\sqrt{\ifrac{\pi}{2}}g_{\mathit{e},m}(h)\mathop{{\mathrm{%
Mc}^{(2)}_{m}}\/}\nolimits\!\left(0,h\right),\] |
https://dlmf.nist.gov/16.4.E13.tex | nist.gov | CC-MAIN-2018-13 | application/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-13/segments/1521257647251.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20180320013620-20180320033620-00179.warc.gz | 590,557,179 | 753 | \[{{}_{3}F_{2}}\left({a,b,c\atop d,e};1\right)=\dfrac{c(e-a)}{de}{{}_{3}F_{2}}%
\left({a,b+1,c+1\atop d+1,e+1};1\right)+\dfrac{d-c}{d}{{}_{3}F_{2}}\left({a,b+%
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https://dlmf.nist.gov/7.8.E7.tex | nist.gov | CC-MAIN-2022-05 | application/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320305141.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20220127042833-20220127072833-00222.warc.gz | 255,525,914 | 697 | \[\int_{0}^{x}e^{t^{2}}\mathrm{d}t<\frac{e^{x^{2}}-1}{x},\] |
https://www.lounge.se/wiki2/tex/RubyFileExample | lounge.se | CC-MAIN-2019-39 | text/plain | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-39/segments/1568514573827.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20190920030357-20190920052357-00255.warc.gz | 943,405,435 | 4,076 | \documentclass[12pt,titlepage]{article}
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\newcommand{\Beta}{B}
\newcommand{\Zeta}{Z}
\newcommand{\Eta}{H}
\newcommand{\Iota}{I}
\newcommand{\Kappa}{K}
\newcommand{\Mu}{M}
\newcommand{\Nu}{N}
\newcommand{\Rho}{P}
\newcommand{\Tau}{T}
\newcommand{\Upsi}{\Upsilon}
\newcommand{\omicron}{o}
\newcommand{\lang}{\langle}
\newcommand{\rang}{\rangle}
\newcommand{\Union}{\bigcup}
\newcommand{\Intersection}{\bigcap}
\newcommand{\Oplus}{\bigoplus}
\newcommand{\Otimes}{\bigotimes}
\newcommand{\Wedge}{\bigwedge}
\newcommand{\Vee}{\bigvee}
\newcommand{\coproduct}{\coprod}
\newcommand{\product}{\prod}
\newcommand{\closure}{\overline}
\newcommand{\integral}{\int}
\newcommand{\doubleintegral}{\iint}
\newcommand{\tripleintegral}{\iiint}
\newcommand{\quadrupleintegral}{\iiiint}
\newcommand{\conint}{\oint}
\newcommand{\contourintegral}{\oint}
\newcommand{\infinity}{\infty}
\newcommand{\bottom}{\bot}
\newcommand{\minusb}{\boxminus}
\newcommand{\plusb}{\boxplus}
\newcommand{\timesb}{\boxtimes}
\newcommand{\intersection}{\cap}
\newcommand{\union}{\cup}
\newcommand{\Del}{\nabla}
\newcommand{\odash}{\circleddash}
\newcommand{\negspace}{\!}
\newcommand{\widebar}{\overline}
\newcommand{\textsize}{\normalsize}
\renewcommand{\scriptsize}{\scriptstyle}
\newcommand{\scriptscriptsize}{\scriptscriptstyle}
\newcommand{\mathfr}{\mathfrak}
\newcommand{\statusline}[2]{#2}
\newcommand{\tooltip}[2]{#2}
\newcommand{\toggle}[2]{#2}
% Theorem Environments
\theoremstyle{plain}
\newtheorem{theorem}{Theorem}
\newtheorem{lemma}{Lemma}
\newtheorem{prop}{Proposition}
\newtheorem{cor}{Corollary}
\newtheorem*{utheorem}{Theorem}
\newtheorem*{ulemma}{Lemma}
\newtheorem*{uprop}{Proposition}
\newtheorem*{ucor}{Corollary}
\theoremstyle{definition}
\newtheorem{defn}{Definition}
\newtheorem{example}{Example}
\newtheorem*{udefn}{Definition}
\newtheorem*{uexample}{Example}
\theoremstyle{remark}
\newtheorem{remark}{Remark}
\newtheorem{note}{Note}
\newtheorem*{uremark}{Remark}
\newtheorem*{unote}{Note}
%-------------------------------------------------------------------
\begin{document}
%-------------------------------------------------------------------
\section*{RubyFileExample}
\hypertarget{ruby_file_example}{}\section*{{Ruby file example}}\label{ruby_file_example}
Simple Ruby example handling script arguments and files. All text files in a specified folder is printed with line numbers.
\begin{verbatim}#!/usr/bin/env ruby
# Print all text files in specified folder (with line numbers)
def print_files(folder)
Dir.entries(folder).each do |name|
if File.extname(name) =~ /.rb|.txt|.sh|.tex|.lyx|.xml|.html|.htm|.md/
puts
puts "File: " + name
File.open(name, "r") do |infile|
counter = 1
while (line = infile.gets)
puts "#{counter}: #{line}"
counter += 1
end
end
end
end
end
if (ARGV.size == 1)
print_files(ARGV[0])
else
puts "Usage: ./print_files.rb <folder> (e.g. ./print_files.rb .)"
end\end{verbatim}
\hypertarget{references}{}\subsection*{{References}}\label{references}
\begin{itemize}%
\item \href{http://www.ruby-lang.org/en/}{http\char58\char47\char47www\char46ruby\char45lang\char46org\char47en\char47}
\item \href{http://rubyinstaller.org/}{http\char58\char47\char47rubyinstaller\char46org\char47}
\end{itemize}
\end{document}
|
http://www.mathematik.tu-dortmund.de/lsiii/cms/bibtex/41438640.tex | tu-dortmund.de | CC-MAIN-2019-13 | application/x-tex | application/x-bibtex-text-file | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-13/segments/1552912202003.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20190319163636-20190319185636-00409.warc.gz | 315,413,824 | 802 | @ARTICLE{MuensterMierkaTurek2011,
author = {M\"{u}nster, R. and Mierka, O. and Turek, S.},
title = {Finite Element fictitious boundary methods (FEM--FBM) for {3D} particulate flow},
journal = {International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids},
year = {2011},
volume = {69},
number = {2},
pages = {294-313},
}
|
https://tug.ctan.org/macros/generic/psbox/psboxall.tex | ctan.org | CC-MAIN-2022-27 | application/x-tex | text/x-matlab | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656104205534.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20220702222819-20220703012819-00726.warc.gz | 637,095,070 | 18,781 | % This text was produced with psbox's \joinfiles. You should:
%-save this with a filename CONTAINING ONLY LETTERS
% (say, PSBOXALL.TEX), in some uncrowded directory;
%-tex PSBOXALL.TEX using Plain TeX.
% You will get 6 files:
% psbox.tex (the macros),
% psbsamp.tex (the dox & sample file)
% psbREAD.ME (a quick overview)
% box.ps (a stupid sample PostScript dawing)
% psbugs.tex (a sample bug report file)
% psboxOK.tex {an anti-bug report file: please send if satisfied!)
% and furthermore do the equivalent of TeXing psbsamp.tex.
%Beginning-Of-File-Named:psbox.tex
%
% %%%%%%% %%%%% %%%%%% %%%%% % %
% % % % % % % % % %
% % % % % % % % % %
% %%%%%%% %%%%% %%%%%% % % %
% % % % % % % % %
% % % % % % % % %
% % %%%%%% %%%%%% %%%%% % %
%
% By Jean Orloff
% Comments & suggestions by e-mail: [email protected]
% No modification of this file allowed if not e-sent to me.
%
% WHAT IS IT:
% psbox is a set of machine-independent TeX macros to
% 1) allow (Encapsulated) PostScript figure inclusion in all versions
% of TeX (Plain, LaTeX) on all machines using a PostScript printer
% 2) facilitate the communication (e-mail, ftp, ...) of all the files
% (text, macros, figs) needed to reproduce a TeX document by grouping
% them together into a single, TeXable file.
% For more info, get the file pub/TeX/psbox/PSBOXALL.TEX by anonymous
% ftp from cs.nyu.edu(=128.122.140.24)
%
% History:
% 1.34 \readfilename=final fix for all filename scans; try \psforptips
% 1.33: corrects \psnewinput for LaTeX (still fails if fname=a{b}c)
% 1.32: corrects \psfordvialw and adds .TEX to PSBOXALL(!)
% 1.31: adds \psfordvialw(?)
% 1.30: adds \splitfile & \joinfiles for multi-file management
% 1.24: fix error handling & add \psonlyboxes
% 1.22: makes \drawingBox \global for use in Phyzzx
% 1.21: accepts %%BoundingBox: (atend)
% 1.20: tries to add \psfordvitps for the TeXPS package.
% 1.10: adds \psforoztex, error handling...
%2345678 1 2345678 2 2345678 3 2345678 4 2345678 5 2345678 6 2345678 7 23456789
%
% Checking version no to avoid multiple loadings
\def\temp{1.34}%
\let\tempp=\relax
\expandafter\ifx\csname psboxversion\endcsname\relax
\message{PSBOX(\temp) loading}%
\else
\ifdim\temp cm>\psboxversion cm
\message{PSBOX(\temp) loading}%
\else
\message{PSBOX(\psboxversion) is already loaded: I won't load
PSBOX(\temp)!}%
\let\temp=\psboxversion
\let\tempp=\endinput
\fi
\fi
\tempp
\let\psboxversion=\temp
\catcode`\@=11
% Every macro likes a little privacy...
%
%Trying to tame the variety of \special commands for Postscript: the
% universal internal command \PSspeci@l##1##2 takes ##1 to be the
% filename and ##2 to be the integer scale factor*1000 (as for usual
% TeX \scale commands)
%
\def\psfortextures{% For TeXtures on the Macintosh
%-----------------
\def\PSspeci@l##1##2{%
\special{illustration ##1\space scaled ##2}%
}}%
\def\psfordvitops{% For the DVItoPS converter on IBM mainframes
%----------------
\def\PSspeci@l##1##2{%
\special{dvitops: import ##1\space \the\drawingwd \the\drawinght}%
}}%
\def\psfordvips{% For DVIPS converter on VAX, UNIX and PC's
%--------------
\def\PSspeci@l##1##2{%
% \special{/@scaleunit 1000 def}% never read dox without trying!
\d@my=0.1bp \d@mx=\drawingwd \divide\d@mx by\d@my% BUG! for large \drawingwd
\special{PSfile=##1\space llx=\psllx\space lly=\pslly\space%
urx=\psurx\space ury=\psury\space rwi=\number\d@mx
}}}%
\def\psforoztex{% For the OzTeX shareware on the Macintosh
%--------------
\def\PSspeci@l##1##2{%
\special{##1 \space
##2 1000 div dup scale
\number-\psllx\space \number-\pslly\space translate
}}}%
\def\psfordvitps{% From the UNIX TeXPS package, vers.>3.12
%---------------
% Convert a dimension into the number \psn@sp (in scaled points)
\def\psdimt@n@sp##1{\d@mx=##1\relax\edef\psn@sp{\number\d@mx}}
\def\PSspeci@l##1##2{%
% psfig.psr contains the def of "startTexFig": if you can locate it
% and include the correct pathname, it should work
\special{dvitps: Include0 "psfig.psr"}% contains def of "startTexFig"
\psdimt@n@sp{\drawingwd}
\special{dvitps: Literal "\psn@sp\space"}
\psdimt@n@sp{\drawinght}
\special{dvitps: Literal "\psn@sp\space"}
\psdimt@n@sp{\psllx bp}
\special{dvitps: Literal "\psn@sp\space"}
\psdimt@n@sp{\pslly bp}
\special{dvitps: Literal "\psn@sp\space"}
\psdimt@n@sp{\psurx bp}
\special{dvitps: Literal "\psn@sp\space"}
\psdimt@n@sp{\psury bp}
\special{dvitps: Literal "\psn@sp\space startTexFig\space"}
\special{dvitps: Include1 "##1"}
\special{dvitps: Literal "endTexFig\space"}
}}%
\def\psfordvialw{% Try for dvialw, a UNIX public domain
%---------------
\def\PSspeci@l##1##2{
\special{language "PostScript",
position = "bottom left",
literal " \psllx\space \pslly\space translate
##2 1000 div dup scale
-\psllx\space -\pslly\space translate",
include "##1"}
}}%
\def\psforptips{% For MS-DOS; [email protected]
%---------------
\def\PSspeci@l##1##2{{
\d@mx=\psurx bp
\advance \d@mx by -\psllx bp
\divide \d@mx by 1000\multiply\d@mx by \xscale
\incm{\d@mx}
\let\tmpx\dimincm
\d@my=\psury bp
\advance \d@my by -\pslly bp
\divide \d@my by 1000\multiply\d@my by \xscale
\incm{\d@my}
\let\tmpy\dimincm
\d@mx=-\psllx bp
\divide \d@mx by 1000\multiply\d@mx by \xscale
\d@my=-\pslly bp
\divide \d@my by 1000\multiply\d@my by \xscale
\at(\d@mx;\d@my){\special{ps:##1 x=\tmpx, y=\tmpy}}
}}}%
\def\psonlyboxes{% Draft-like behaviour if none of the others works
%---------------
\def\PSspeci@l##1##2{%
\at(0cm;0cm){\boxit{\vbox to\drawinght
{\vss\hbox to\drawingwd{\at(0cm;0cm){\hbox{({\tt##1})}}\hss}}}}
}}%
\def\psloc@lerr#1{%
\let\savedPSspeci@l=\PSspeci@l%
\def\PSspeci@l##1##2{%
\at(0cm;0cm){\boxit{\vbox to\drawinght
{\vss\hbox to\drawingwd{\at(0cm;0cm){\hbox{({\tt##1}) #1}}\hss}}}}
\let\PSspeci@l=\savedPSspeci@l% restore normal output for other figs!
}}%
%\def\psfor... add your own!
%
% Some common defs
%
\newread\pst@mpin
\newdimen\drawinght\newdimen\drawingwd
\newdimen\psxoffset\newdimen\psyoffset
\newbox\drawingBox
\newcount\xscale \newcount\yscale \newdimen\pscm\pscm=1cm
\newdimen\d@mx \newdimen\d@my
\newdimen\pswdincr \newdimen\pshtincr
\let\ps@nnotation=\relax
{\catcode`\|=0 |catcode`|\=12 |catcode`|%=12 |catcode`~=12
|catcode`#=12 |catcode`*=14
|xdef|backslashother{\}*
|xdef|percentother{%}*
|xdef|tildeother{~}*
|xdef|sharpother{#}*
}%
% useful to display special chars in \tt; fails for \,#,%
\def\R@moveMeaningHeader#1:->{}%
\def\uncatcode#1{%
\edef#1{\expandafter\R@moveMeaningHeader\meaning#1}}%
%
\def\execute#1{#1}% NOT stupid: cs in #1 are then identified BEFORE execution
\def\psm@keother#1{\catcode`#112\relax}% borrowed from latex
\def\executeinspecs#1{%
\execute{\begingroup\let\do\psm@keother\dospecials\catcode`\^^M=9#1\endgroup}}%
\def\@mpty{}%
% \if\matchin#1#2<=> \iftrue if #1 contains #2, <=>\iffalse otherwise:
% \if\matchexpin: idem, but #1 & #2 are first fully expanded (no \if
% inside!)
% \tmpa & \tmpb contain what's before and after the occurence of #2
\def\matchexpin#1#2{
\fi%
%\message{(#1>#2)}
\edef\tmpb{{#2}}%
\expandafter\makem@tchtmp\tmpb%
\edef\tmpa{#1}\edef\tmpb{#2}%
\expandafter\expandafter\expandafter\m@tchtmp\expandafter\tmpa\tmpb\endm@tch%
\if\match%
}%
\def\matchin#1#2{%
\fi%
\makem@tchtmp{#2}%
\m@tchtmp#1#2\endm@tch%
\if\match%
}%
\def\makem@tchtmp#1{\def\m@tchtmp##1#1##2\endm@tch{%
\def\tmpa{##1}\def\tmpb{##2}\let\m@tchtmp=\relax%
\ifx\tmpb\@mpty\def\match{YN}%
\else\def\match{YY}\fi%
}}%
% converts any dimen in cm, with 1E-4 cm precision
\def\incm#1{{\psxoffset=1cm\d@my=#1
\d@mx=\d@my
\divide\d@mx by \psxoffset
\xdef\dimincm{\number\d@mx.}
\advance\d@my by -\number\d@mx cm
\multiply\d@my by 100
\d@mx=\d@my
\divide\d@mx by \psxoffset
\edef\dimincm{\dimincm\number\d@mx}
\advance\d@my by -\number\d@mx cm
\multiply\d@my by 100
\d@mx=\d@my
\divide\d@mx by \psxoffset
\xdef\dimincm{\dimincm\number\d@mx}
}}%
%
% \ReadPSize{PSfilename} reads the dimensions of a PostScript drawing
% and stores it in \drawinght(wd)
\newif\ifNotB@undingBox
\newhelp\PShelp{Proceed: you'll have a 5cm square blank box instead of
your graphics (Jean Orloff).}%
\def\s@tsize#1 #2 #3 #4\@ndsize{
\def\psllx{#1}\def\pslly{#2}%
\def\psurx{#3}\def\psury{#4}% needed by a crazyness of dvips!
\ifx\psurx\@mpty\NotB@undingBoxtrue% this is not a valid one!
\else
\drawinght=#4bp\advance\drawinght by-#2bp
\drawingwd=#3bp\advance\drawingwd by-#1bp
% !Units related by crazy factors as bp/pt=72.27/72 should be BANNED!
\fi
}%
\def\sc@nBBline#1:#2\@ndBBline{\edef\p@rameter{#1}\edef\v@lue{#2}}%
\def\g@bblefirstblank#1#2:{\ifx#1 \else#1\fi#2}%
{\catcode`\%=12
\xdef\B@undingBox{%%BoundingBox}}%
%% is not a true comment in PostScript, even if % is!
\def\ReadPSize#1{
\readfilename#1\relax
\let\PSfilename=\lastreadfilename
\openin\pst@mpin=#1\relax
\ifeof\pst@mpin \errhelp=\PShelp
\errmessage{I haven't found your postscript file (\PSfilename)}%
\psloc@lerr{was not found}%
\s@tsize 0 0 142 142\@ndsize
\closein\pst@mpin
\else
% each entry in \GlobalInputList should be unique
\if\matchexpin{\GlobalInputList}{, \lastreadfilename}%
\else\xdef\GlobalInputList{\GlobalInputList, \lastreadfilename}%
\immediate\write\psbj@inaux{\lastreadfilename,}%
\fi%
\loop
\executeinspecs{\catcode`\ =10\global\read\pst@mpin to\n@xtline}%
\ifeof\pst@mpin
\errhelp=\PShelp
\errmessage{(\PSfilename) is not an Encapsulated PostScript File:
I could not find any \B@undingBox: line.}%
\edef\v@lue{0 0 142 142:}%
\psloc@lerr{is not an EPSFile}%
\NotB@undingBoxfalse
\else
\expandafter\sc@nBBline\n@xtline:\@ndBBline
\ifx\p@rameter\B@undingBox\NotB@undingBoxfalse
\edef\t@mp{%
\expandafter\g@bblefirstblank\v@lue\space\space\space}%
\expandafter\s@tsize\t@mp\@ndsize
\else\NotB@undingBoxtrue
\fi
\fi
\ifNotB@undingBox\repeat
\closein\pst@mpin
\fi
\message{#1}%
}%
%
% \psboxto(xdim;ydim){psfilename}: you specify the dimensions and
% TeX uniformly scales to fit the largest one. If xdim=0pt, the
% scale is fully determined by ydim and vice versa.
% Notice: psboxes are a real vboxes; couldn't take hbox otherwise all
% indentation and all cr's would be interpreted as spaces (hugh!).
%
\def\psboxto(#1;#2)#3{\vbox{%
\ReadPSize{#3}%
\advance\pswdincr by \drawingwd
\advance\pshtincr by \drawinght
\divide\pswdincr by 1000
\divide\pshtincr by 1000
\d@mx=#1
\ifdim\d@mx=0pt\xscale=1000
\else \xscale=\d@mx \divide \xscale by \pswdincr\fi
\d@my=#2
\ifdim\d@my=0pt\yscale=1000
\else \yscale=\d@my \divide \yscale by \pshtincr\fi
\ifnum\yscale=1000
\else\ifnum\xscale=1000\xscale=\yscale
\else\ifnum\yscale<\xscale\xscale=\yscale\fi
\fi
\fi
\divide\drawingwd by1000 \multiply\drawingwd by\xscale
\divide\drawinght by1000 \multiply\drawinght by\xscale
\divide\psxoffset by1000 \multiply\psxoffset by\xscale
\divide\psyoffset by1000 \multiply\psyoffset by\xscale
\global\divide\pscm by 1000
\global\multiply\pscm by\xscale
\multiply\pswdincr by\xscale \multiply\pshtincr by\xscale
\ifdim\d@mx=0pt\d@mx=\pswdincr\fi
\ifdim\d@my=0pt\d@my=\pshtincr\fi
\message{scaled \the\xscale}%
\hbox to\d@mx{\hss\vbox to\d@my{\vss
\global\setbox\drawingBox=\hbox to 0pt{\kern\psxoffset\vbox to 0pt{%
\kern-\psyoffset
\PSspeci@l{\PSfilename}{\the\xscale}%
\vss}\hss\ps@nnotation}%
\global\wd\drawingBox=\the\pswdincr
\global\ht\drawingBox=\the\pshtincr
\global\drawingwd=\pswdincr
\global\drawinght=\pshtincr
\baselineskip=0pt
\copy\drawingBox
\vss}\hss}%
\global\psxoffset=0pt
\global\psyoffset=0pt
\global\pswdincr=0pt
\global\pshtincr=0pt % These are local to one figure
\global\pscm=1cm %should not be necessary
}}%
%
% \psboxscaled{scalefactor*1000}{PSfilename} allows to bypass the
% rounding errors of TeX integer divisions for situations where the
% TeX box should fit the original BoundingBox with a precision
% better
% than 1/1000.
%
\def\psboxscaled#1#2{\vbox{%
\ReadPSize{#2}%
\xscale=#1
\message{scaled \the\xscale}%
\divide\pswdincr by 1000 \multiply\pswdincr by \xscale
\divide\pshtincr by 1000 \multiply\pshtincr by \xscale
\divide\psxoffset by1000 \multiply\psxoffset by\xscale
\divide\psyoffset by1000 \multiply\psyoffset by\xscale
\divide\drawingwd by1000 \multiply\drawingwd by\xscale
\divide\drawinght by1000 \multiply\drawinght by\xscale
\global\divide\pscm by 1000
\global\multiply\pscm by\xscale
\global\setbox\drawingBox=\hbox to 0pt{\kern\psxoffset\vbox to 0pt{%
\kern-\psyoffset
\PSspeci@l{\PSfilename}{\the\xscale}%
\vss}\hss\ps@nnotation}%
\advance\pswdincr by \drawingwd
\advance\pshtincr by \drawinght
\global\wd\drawingBox=\the\pswdincr
\global\ht\drawingBox=\the\pshtincr
\global\drawingwd=\pswdincr
\global\drawinght=\pshtincr
\baselineskip=0pt
\copy\drawingBox
\global\psxoffset=0pt
\global\psyoffset=0pt
\global\pswdincr=0pt
\global\pshtincr=0pt % These are local to one figure
\global\pscm=1cm
}}%
%
% \psbox{PSfilename} makes a TeX box having the minimal size to
% enclose the picture
\def\psbox#1{\psboxscaled{1000}{#1}}%
%------------------------------------------------------
% \joinfiles file1, file2, ...n \into joinedfilename .
% makes one file out of many
% \splitfile joinedfilename
% the opposite
\newif\ifn@teof\n@teoftrue
\newif\ifc@ntrolline
\newif\ifmatch
\newread\j@insplitin
\newwrite\j@insplitout
\newwrite\psbj@inaux
\immediate\openout\psbj@inaux=psbjoin.aux
\immediate\write\psbj@inaux{\string\joinfiles}%
\immediate\write\psbj@inaux{\jobname,}%
%
% INPUT REDEFINITION
%
% works if #1 is a single character
\def\toother#1{\ifcat\relax#1\else\expandafter%
\toother@ux\meaning#1\endtoother@ux\fi}%
\def\toother@ux#1 #2#3\endtoother@ux{\def\tmp{#3}%
\ifx\tmp\@mpty\def\tmp{#2}\let\next=\relax%
\else\def\next{\toother@ux#2#3\endtoother@ux}\fi%
\next}%
%
% \readfilename defs:
%
\let\readfilenamehook=\relax
\def\re@d{\expandafter\re@daux}% spares typing 10 \expandafter's...
\def\re@daux{\futurelet\nextchar\stopre@dtest}%
\def\re@dnext{\xdef\lastreadfilename{\lastreadfilename\nextchar}%
\afterassignment\re@d\let\nextchar}%
\def\stopre@d{\egroup\readfilenamehook}%
\def\stopre@dtest{%
\ifcat\nextchar\relax\let\nextread\stopre@d
\else
\ifcat\nextchar\space\def\nextread{%
\afterassignment\stopre@d\chardef\nextchar=`}%
\else\let\nextread=\re@dnext
\toother\nextchar
\edef\nextchar{\tmp}%
\fi
\fi\nextread}%
\def\readfilename{\bgroup%
\let\\=\backslashother \let\%=\percentother \let\~=\tildeother
\let\#=\sharpother \xdef\lastreadfilename{}%
\re@d}%
%
% redefines \input using \readfilename
%
\xdef\GlobalInputList{\jobname}%
\def\psnewinput{%
\def\readfilenamehook{% each entry in \GlobalInputList should be unique
\if\matchexpin{\GlobalInputList}{, \lastreadfilename}%
\else\xdef\GlobalInputList{\GlobalInputList, \lastreadfilename}%
\immediate\write\psbj@inaux{\lastreadfilename,}%
\fi%
\ps@ldinput\lastreadfilename\relax%
\let\readfilenamehook=\relax%
}\readfilename%
}%
\expandafter\ifx\csname @@input\endcsname\relax % then Plain
\immediate\let\ps@ldinput=\input\def\input{\psnewinput}%
\else
\immediate\let\ps@ldinput=\@@input
\def\@@input{\psnewinput}%
\fi%
%
\def\nowarnopenout{%
\def\warnopenout##1##2{%
\readfilename##2\relax
\message{\lastreadfilename}%
\immediate\openout##1=\lastreadfilename\relax}}%
\def\warnopenout#1#2{%
\readfilename#2\relax
\def\t@mp{TrashMe,psbjoin.aux,psbjoint.tex,}\uncatcode\t@mp
\if\matchexpin{\t@mp}{\lastreadfilename,}%
\else
\immediate\openin\pst@mpin=\lastreadfilename\relax
\ifeof\pst@mpin
\else
\errhelp{If the content of this file is so precious to you, abort (ie
press x or e) and rename it before retrying.}%
\errmessage{I'm just about to replace your file named \lastreadfilename}%
\fi
\immediate\closein\pst@mpin
\fi
\message{\lastreadfilename}%
\immediate\openout#1=\lastreadfilename\relax}%
% % will have an unusual catcode below; use * instead
%\vbox
{\catcode`\%=12\catcode`\*=14
\gdef\splitfile#1{*
\readfilename#1\relax
\immediate\openin\j@insplitin=\lastreadfilename\relax
\ifeof\j@insplitin
\message{! I couldn't find and split \lastreadfilename!}*
\else
\immediate\openout\j@insplitout=TrashMe
\message{< Splitting \lastreadfilename\space into}*
\loop
\ifeof\j@insplitin
\immediate\closein\j@insplitin\n@teoffalse
\else
\n@teoftrue
\executeinspecs{\global\read\j@insplitin to\spl@tinline\expandafter
\ch@ckbeginnewfile\spl@tinline%Beginning-Of-File-Named:%\endcheck}*
\ifc@ntrolline
\else
\toks0=\expandafter{\spl@tinline}*
\immediate\write\j@insplitout{\the\toks0}*
\fi
\fi
\ifn@teof\repeat
\immediate\closeout\j@insplitout
\fi\message{>}*
}*
\gdef\ch@ckbeginnewfile#1%Beginning-Of-File-Named:#2%#3\endcheck{*
\def\t@mp{#1}*
\ifx\@mpty\t@mp
\def\t@mp{#3}*
\ifx\@mpty\t@mp
\global\c@ntrollinefalse
\else
\immediate\closeout\j@insplitout
\warnopenout\j@insplitout{#2}*
\global\c@ntrollinetrue
\fi
\else
\global\c@ntrollinefalse
\fi}*
\gdef\joinfiles#1\into#2{*
\message{< Joining following files into}*
\warnopenout\j@insplitout{#2}*
\message{:}*
{*
\edef\w@##1{\immediate\write\j@insplitout{##1}}*
\w@{% This collection of files was produced with CERN psbox package}*
\w@{% To decompose and tex it:}*
\w@{%-save this with a filename CONTAINING ONLY LETTERS and a .TEX}*
\w@{% extension (say, JOINTFIL.TEX), in some uncrowded directory;}*
\w@{%-make sure you can \string\input\space psbox.tex (version>=1.3);}*
\w@{% (else ftp cs.nyu.edu(=128.122.140.24):pub/TeX/psbox/, then get}*
\w@{% and tex the file psboxall.tex; more info in psbREAD.ME)}*
\w@{%-tex JOINTFIL.TEX using Plain, or LaTeX, or whatever is needed by}*
\w@{% the first file in the joining (after splitting JOINTFIL.TEX into}*
\w@{% it's constituents, TeX will try to process it as it stands).}*
\w@{\string\input\space psbox.tex}*
\w@{\string\splitfile{\string\jobname}}*
\w@{\string\let\string\autojoin=\string\relax}*
}*
\expandafter\tre@tfilelist#1, \endtre@t
\immediate\closeout\j@insplitout
\message{>}*
}*
\gdef\tre@tfilelist#1, #2\endtre@t{*
\readfilename#1\relax
\ifx\@mpty\lastreadfilename
\else
\immediate\openin\j@insplitin=\lastreadfilename\relax
\ifeof\j@insplitin
\errmessage{I couldn't find file \lastreadfilename}*
\else
\message{\lastreadfilename}*
\immediate\write\j@insplitout{%Beginning-Of-File-Named:\lastreadfilename}*
\executeinspecs{\global\read\j@insplitin to\oldj@ininline}*
\loop
\ifeof\j@insplitin\immediate\closein\j@insplitin\n@teoffalse
\else\n@teoftrue
\executeinspecs{\global\read\j@insplitin to\j@ininline}*
\toks0=\expandafter{\oldj@ininline}*
\let\oldj@ininline=\j@ininline
\immediate\write\j@insplitout{\the\toks0}*
\fi
\ifn@teof
\repeat
\immediate\closein\j@insplitin
\fi
\tre@tfilelist#2, \endtre@t
\fi}*
}%
% To be put at the end of a file, for making a tar-like file containing
% everything it used.
\def\autojoin{%
\immediate\write\psbj@inaux{\string\into{psbjoint.tex}}%
\immediate\closeout\psbj@inaux
\expandafter\joinfiles\GlobalInputList\into{psbjoint.tex}%
}%
%----------------------------------------------------------------
% Annotations & Captions etc...
%
%
% \centinsert{anybox} is just a centered \midinsert, but is included as
% people barely use the original inserts from TeX.
%
\def\centinsert#1{\midinsert\line{\hss#1\hss}\endinsert}%
\def\psannotate#1#2{\vbox{%
\def\ps@nnotation{#2\global\let\ps@nnotation=\relax}#1}}%
\def\pscaption#1#2{\vbox{%
\setbox\drawingBox=#1
\copy\drawingBox
\vskip\baselineskip
\vbox{\hsize=\wd\drawingBox\setbox0=\hbox{#2}%
\ifdim\wd0>\hsize
\noindent\unhbox0\tolerance=5000
\else\centerline{\box0}%
\fi
}}}%
% for compatibility with older versions, but \psfig is a bad name!
%\def\psfig#1#2#3{\pscaption{\psannotate{#1}{#2}}{#3}}
%\def\psfigurebox#1#2#3{\pscaption{\psannotate{\psbox{#1}}{#2}}{#3}}
%
% \at(#1;#2)#3 puts #3 at #1-higher and #2-right of the current
% position without moving it (to be used in annotations).
\def\at(#1;#2)#3{\setbox0=\hbox{#3}\ht0=0pt\dp0=0pt
\rlap{\kern#1\vbox to0pt{\kern-#2\box0\vss}}}%
%
% \gridfill(ht;wd) makes a 1cm*1cm grid of ht by wd whose lower-left
% corner is the current point
\newdimen\gridht \newdimen\gridwd
\def\gridfill(#1;#2){%
\setbox0=\hbox to 1\pscm
{\vrule height1\pscm width.4pt\leaders\hrule\hfill}%
\gridht=#1
\divide\gridht by \ht0
\multiply\gridht by \ht0
\gridwd=#2
\divide\gridwd by \wd0
\multiply\gridwd by \wd0
\advance \gridwd by \wd0
\vbox to \gridht{\leaders\hbox to\gridwd{\leaders\box0\hfill}\vfill}}%
%
% Useful to measure where to put annotations
\def\fillinggrid{\at(0cm;0cm){\vbox{%
\gridfill(\drawinght;\drawingwd)}}}%
%
% \textleftof\anybox: Sample text\endtext
% inserts "Sample text" on the left of \anybox ie \vbox, \psbox.
% \textrightof is the symmetric (not documented, too uggly)
% Welcome any suggestion about clean wraparound macros from
% TeXhackers reading this
%
\def\textleftof#1:{%
\setbox1=#1
\setbox0=\vbox\bgroup
\advance\hsize by -\wd1 \advance\hsize by -2em}%
\def\textrightof#1:{%
\setbox0=#1
\setbox1=\vbox\bgroup
\advance\hsize by -\wd0 \advance\hsize by -2em}%
\def\endtext{%
\egroup
\hbox to \hsize{\valign{\vfil##\vfil\cr%
\box0\cr%
\noalign{\hss}\box1\cr}}}%
%
% \frameit{\thick}{\skip}{\anybox}
% draws with thickness \thick a box around \anybox, leaving \skip of
% blank around it. eg \frameit{0.5pt}{1pt}{\hbox{hello}}
% \boxit{\anybox} is a shortcut.
\def\frameit#1#2#3{\hbox{\vrule width#1\vbox{%
\hrule height#1\vskip#2\hbox{\hskip#2\vbox{#3}\hskip#2}%
\vskip#2\hrule height#1}\vrule width#1}}%
\def\boxit#1{\frameit{0.4pt}{0pt}{#1}}%
%
%
\catcode`\@=12 % cs containing @ are unreachable
%
% CUSTOMIZE YOUR DEFAULT DRIVER:
% Uncomment the line corresponding to your TeX system:
%\psfortextures% For TeXtures on the Macintosh
%\psforoztex % For OzTeX shareware on the Macintosh
%\psfordvitops % For the DVItoPS converter for TeX on IBM mainframes
\psfordvips % For DVIPS converter on VAX and UNIX
%\psfordvitps % For dvitps from TeXPS package under UNIX
%\psfordvialw % For dvialw, UNIX public domain
%\psonlyboxes % Blank Boxes (when all else fails).
%Beginning-Of-File-Named:TrashMe
%\nowarnopenout
\splitfile{\jobname}%
\let\autojoin=\relax
%Beginning-Of-File-Named:psbsamp.tex
% psbsamp.tex V-1.3: a sample use of the psbox macros from Plain TeX.
%2345678 1 345678 2 345678 3 345678 4 345678 5 345678 6 345678 7 3456789
%
\input psbox.tex % 'told you it was necessary!
%
%
% These are just to get a mini verbatim:
\def\\{\hbox{$\backslash$}}%
\edef\{{\hbox{$\{$}}%
\edef\}{\hbox{$\}$}}%
\def\section#1{\ifnum\pageno=1\else\vfil\break\fi
\centerline{\frameit{1pt}{2pt}{\frameit{0.5pt}{3pt}{\hbox{#1}}}}%
\nobreak\medskip}%
\def\LaTeX{{\rm L\kern-.36em\raise.3ex\hbox{a}\kern-.15em
T\kern-.1667em\lower.7ex\hbox{E}\kern-.125emX}}%
%
%
\line{\hfil
\frameit{1pt}{2pt}{\frameit{0.5pt}{3pt}{\hbox{PS}}}
\frameit{1pt}{2pt}{\frameit{0.5pt}{3pt}{\hbox{BOX}}}
\hfil \llap{V-\psboxversion, by Jean Orloff}}
\line{\sevenrm e-mail: ORLOFF @ SURYA11.CERN.CH\hfil
Updates available by anonymous ftp from:
cs.nyu.edu:pub/tex/psbox/%;\hfil noa.huji.ac.il
}
\bigbreak
\section{Crash Overview}
{\def\nl{\hfil\break}\parindent=0pt\parskip=3ptplus3pt\def\im{\parindent=1cm}
WHAT IS IT:\nl
psbox is a set of machine-independent TeX macros to:
{\im
\item{1)\ }allow (Encapsulated) PostScript figure inclusion in all versions
of TeX (Plain, LaTeX) on all machines using a PostScript printer
\item{2)\ }facilitate the communication (e-mail, ftp, ...) of all the files
(text, macros, figs) needed to reproduce a TeX document by grouping
them together into a single, TeXable file.
\bigskip
\noindent HOW TO GET IT TO WORK:
\item{1)\ }get the file psboxall.tex by one of the following ways:\nl
-from outside CERN: ftp cs.nyu.edu(=128.122.140.24):pub/tex/psbox/\nl
-(if all else fails) send me a mail ([email protected]);
\item{2)\ }tex psboxall.tex: this will produce a complete documentation
dvi and a
set of files, including the raw macros named psbox.tex;
\item{3)\ }adapt your psbox.tex to your system by uncommenting the appropriate
{\tt\%\\psfor...}-line at the end of the file;
\item{4)\ }put it in your TeX Inputs directory
}
\bigskip
MAJOR COMMANDS:
\def\tag#1{\noindent\hbox{\tt #1\hss}\nl\hangindent1cm}
\tag{\\psbox\{fname.eps\}}
makes a box having the right size to enclose the figure fname.eps;
\tag{\\psboxto(xdim;ydim)\{fn.eps\}}
makes a box of the given size and rescales fn.eps so that it just fits;
\tag{\\psboxto(\\hsize;0pt)\{fn.eps\}}
has the maximal width \& a height computed from a uniformal rescaling;
\tag{\\centinsert\{\\pscaption\{\\psbox\{fn.eps\}\}\{Fig 1: the
caption...\}\}}
recommended way to include a graphics between 2 paragraphs;
\tag{\\begin\{figure\}[hbt]\\begin\{center\}\\mbox\{\\psbox\{fn.eps\}\}\\caption\{Fig
1:\} \\end\{figure\}}
recommended way in LaTeX;
\tag{\\autojoin}
makes a single file called psbjoint.tex containing the currently tex'd
file plus all the files (macros \& figs) included since the \\input of
psbox.tex. Texing psbjoint.tex will split it into all these files with
their original names (so think of PC's:12345678.123!!) and tex the
first one (generally the one that issued \\autojoin).
}
\vfill\break
\section{Introduction}
\TeX{} and PostScript have become de-facto standards for
producing scientific papers and figures. The reason for this perhaps
lies in the success of electronic mail within the scientific
community as both standards produce text files that easily propagate by
e-mail and yet produce machine-independent result when printed from any
computer on any PostScript printer\footnote{*}{You might think of
sending directly the PostScript description of the whole document, but
this would mean sending 15 times more caracters and moreover
forbidding your correspondant to make any correction to the
manuscript.}. Recently, these standards have been further sanctified in
the Physics community with the advent of electronic ``Bulletin Boards"
which spread like crazy and whose very existence precisely relies on
such standards.
In this rapidly evolving and modernish landscape, the
inclusion of figures into papers still remains a dark spot: it is
relatively uneasy and, worse, essentially non-universal. The purpose of the
{\tt psbox} macros is to try and correct for this.
To start with, let us show how to use the macros for including
Encapsulated PostScript graphics-File (EPSF) into any \TeX\ document
(Plain \TeX, Plain-based macros like Harvmac, Phyzzx,... or \LaTeX).
To get this to work, you first need to produce an EPSF. This
is different from a usual PostScript file. (For instance, with CERN's
package PAW/HIGZ, the output device specified in the metafile is -111
for simple postscript and -113 for EPSF). You can always check whether
you succeeded by looking at your EPSF: it should start with {\tt\%!}
and somewhere contain a line like:
$$
\hbox{\tt\%\%BoundingBox: llx lly urx ury\hfil}
$$
where llx \& lly (urx \& ury) are the positive integer coordinates of
the lower-left (upper-right) corners of the smallest rectangle enclosing
your graphics. If all else fails, you still have the opportunity of
adding such a line by hand: you might then want to know that
coordinates are given in ``Big Points'' (1in=72bp)%
\footnote{**}{%
Not to be confused with ``Points'' (1in=72.27pt): inventing units
related by such crazy factors as 72.27/72 definitely is a perverse and
deeply immoral sport!}
from the bottom left
corner of the printed page. You can always visualize the corresponding
{\tt\%\%BoundingBox} using {\tt\\boxit} (see below). Once you have a
good EPSF, you should save it in the same directory as the \TeX{}
file in which you want to insert your graphics.
Now you're ready for inserting. Here is how to do:
\item{1)} Check you have a copy of the file {\tt psbox.tex} somewhere on
your system. If you don't, get it by ``anonymous ftp'' from the site
{\tt cs.nyu.edu}. In the directory pub/tex/psbox, you will find a file
called {\tt psboxall.tex} which is an ``archive'' containing the macros,
this documentation, a sample PostScript figure, etc... Just ``{\tt get}''
it by ftp, tex it on your system, and you will see how an archive splits
into it's original files.
\item{2)} make sure the uncommented line at the end of the {\tt psbox.tex}
file corresponds to your particular way of translating \TeX{}
output into PostScript:
$$\vbox{\halign{\tt\\ps#\hfil&\qquad#\hfil\cr
fortextures& for TeXtures on the Macintosh\cr
foroztex& for OzTeX shareware soft on the Macintosh\cr
fordvitops& for IBM mainframes dvi to postscript converter DVITOPS\cr
fordvips& for Unix, PC and VAX dvi to postscript converter DVIPS\cr
%fordvitps& for dvitps from the TeXPS package under UNIX.\cr
fordvialw& for Unix free converter (part GNU software)\cr
onlyboxes& for poor people without any of these\cr
}}
$$
\item{3)} in the
beginning of your \TeX{} file, type {\tt\\input psbox.tex}
in order to load the relevant \TeX{} macros;
If you get the wrong postscript
converter, you will just get extremely white(!) figures but the
formatting of your text will be exactly the same.
Now you can get your graphics where you want in the text by
just typing:
$$
\hbox{\tt\$\$\\psbox\{box.ps\}\$\$}
$$
And this is what you get:
$$
\psbox{box.ps}
$$
The {\tt\\psbox\{EPSFilename\}} macro makes a \TeX{} \\vbox
having the right size to contain the graphics and issues a \\special
command for the postscript printer to put the EPSF graphics at the
right place.
\section{Scalings}
You can moreover use Postscript to resize your graphics. This can be
done via the {\tt\\psboxto} macro: here you
specify the dimensions and \TeX{} uniformly scales the graphics to fit
entirely in the given box. For instance
$$\eqalign{\hbox{\tt\$\$}
&\hbox{\tt\\boxit\{\\psboxto(3cm;7cm)\{box.ps\}\}}\cr
&\hbox{\tt\\boxit\{\\psboxto(7cm;3cm)\{box.ps\}\}\$\$}\cr}
$$
gives
$$
\boxit{\psboxto(3cm;7cm){box.ps}}
\boxit{\psboxto(7cm;3cm){box.ps}}
$$
(we have here materialized the \TeX boxes by the
{\tt\\boxit\{anybox\}} command which can be useful for
boxing not only psboxes, but any kind of text boxes. To
control the thickness of the line and to have some white space
between your box and it's framing, you can use
{\tt\\frameit\{LineThickness\} \{WhiteSpaceThickness\} \{\\anybox\}}).
If you specify one zero dimension in {\tt\\psboxto}, you get a box
proportional to the natural one for your drawing, but with the scale
specified by the non-zero dimension: $$\eqalign{\hbox{\tt\$\$}
&\hbox{\tt\\boxit\{\\psboxto(3cm;0cm)\{box.ps\}\}}\cr
&\hbox{\tt\\boxit\{\\psboxto(0cm;3cm)\{box.ps\}\}\$\$}\cr} $$ yields
$$ \boxit{\psboxto(3cm;0cm){box.ps}} \boxit{\psboxto(0cm;3cm){box.ps}}
$$
Altenatively, you can specify a scale factor%
\footnote{*}{This way
you can be sure to get exactly the same size for the \TeX{} and EPSF
box: with {\tt\\psboxto}, you can have the \TeX box 1/1000 too large
because of rounding errors unavoidable for compatibility reasons}
($\times1000$ in the usual \TeX{} way):
$$\hbox{\tt\\psboxscaled\{250\}\{box.ps\}:}\psboxscaled{250}{box.ps}
$$
On certain occasions, the way PostScript computes it's BoundingBox may
may be too conservative: the box turns out to be too large because of
some invisible control point lying outside the visual bounding box.
For most purposes, this won't harm. Certain perfectionists will
nevertheless appreciate the possibility of correcting the bounding
box by specifying an offset ({\tt\\psxoffset, \\psyoffset})
for the lower left corner and incrementing the width and height
({\tt\\pswdincr, \\pshtincr}) of the graphics. For instance,
$$\hbox{\tt\\psxoffset=1cm\\psyoffset=20pt\\pswdincr=1cm\\pshtincr=20pt}
$$
will {\bf raise} the figure by 12pt, shift it to the right by
0.3cm and change it's size so that it still fits. These dimensions
get reset after each use of {\tt\\psbox...} so
you should type this just before the one you want to modify. These
dimensions also get scaled together with the figure if you later
decide to
use {\tt\\psboxto or \\psboxscaled}:
$$
\psxoffset=1cm\psyoffset=20pt
\pswdincr=1cm\pshtincr=20pt
\boxit{\psboxscaled{1200}{box.ps}}\kern2cm
\psxoffset=1cm\psyoffset=20pt
\pswdincr=1cm\pshtincr=20pt
\boxit{\psboxto(3cm;0cm){box.ps}}
$$
Since a {\tt\\psbox} is a true \TeX box, nothing prevents you to have
\psboxto(0cm;1em){box.ps} it in the middle of a line..(?) More
seriously, if you want your graphics to be as large as possible, you
can type
$$\hbox{\tt\$\$\\psboxto(\\hsize;0cm)\{box.ps\}\$\$}
$$
which gives
$$\psboxto(\hsize;0cm){box.ps}
$$
\section{Annotations}
For certain figures, you might want to add something on top of the
graphics (eg. a greek letter to name an axis, or other math symbols
you use in the text). This is what
{\tt\\psannotate\{\\psbox...\}\{annotation\}} was made for. For
instance if you type
$$\hbox{\tt\$\$%
\\psannotate\{\\psboxto(10cm;3cm)\{box.ps\}\}%
\{\\fillinggrid\\at(3\\pscm;1\\pscm)\{A sample at.\}\}\$\$}
$$
you get
$$\psannotate{\psboxto(10cm;3cm){box.ps}} {\fillinggrid
\at(3\pscm;1\pscm){A sample at.}}
$$
This example displays the 2 possible annotations:
\item{-}{\tt\\at((xdim;ydim)\{annotation text\}} will place {\tt
annotation text} xdim to the right of, and ydim higher than the
current point without actually moving it (this may prove useful in
other circumstances). The dimensions may be expressed in any valid
\TeX{} unit, but here we used {\tt\\pscm} meaning scaled centimeters
in order for the annotation to keep the same relative position inside
the figure, whatever rescaling you might do later on.
\item{-}{\tt\\fillinggrid}: in order to help you in the tedious task
of determining the position of your annotations, you can use
{\tt\\fillinggrid} as one particular annotation. This will produce a
1\\pscm by 1\\pscm grid that roughly fills your figure. You will of
course have to delete these in your final document\footnote{*} {To
suppress all these grids at once in your final document, you may type
{\tt\\let\\fillinggrid=\\relax} just after the line where you
{\tt\\input psbox.tex}.}.
\section{Figure Environment For Plain\TeX}
If you have many large figures, the probability that \TeX{}
barks at you about ``overfull or underfull vbox...'' becomes
significant, because you give it a hard time trying to cut pages
into a document that has many large unbreakable units. To
overcome this problem, La\TeX{} users simply have to type:\hfil\break
{\tt\\begin\{figure\}[hbt]\hfil\break
\\begin\{center\}\\mbox\{\\psbox...\}\\end\{center\}\hfil\break
\\caption\{Some caption\}\hfil\break \\end\{figure\}\hfil\break}
In Plain\TeX{} you should use
{\tt\\centinsert\{\\psbox...\}} instead of {\tt\$\$\\psbox...\$\$}.
This will get your graphics precisely where you typed it except if
there is not enough room in the current page, in which case you'll get
it on top of the next one.
However, you will then probably want to have a caption, in case your
graphics and explanatory text get separated. You should then
use {\tt\\pscaption\{\\psbox...\}\{caption\}}, for instance
$$\vbox{\hsize=10cm\tt\hbox{
\\centinsert\{%
\\pscaption\{%
\\psannotate\{%
\\psboxto(6cm;0cm)\{box.ps\}\}\{%
}
\hbox{\qquad\\fillinggrid\\at(3\\pscm;1\\pscm)\{A sample at.\}\}\}\{%
Figure 1: this is ...
\}\}
}}
$$
in order to get:
\centinsert{
\pscaption{
\psannotate{
\psboxto(6cm;0cm){box.ps}}{
\fillinggrid\at(3\pscm;1\pscm){A sample at.}}}{%
Figure 1: this is probably the most stupid caption I can think of
but it can still be useful for illustrative purposes.
}}%
If your caption is short, it will automatically get centered:
$$\pscaption{\psboxto(3cm;0cm){box.ps}}{\bf Figure 327.}
$$
When typing in the commands for catpion, annotations, etc, you may end
up with long lines which you don't know how to break (a line break is
essentially a space in \TeX, remember?). If you don't want these
spurious spaces to sneek in your text, you should simply add \%{} just
before the line break.
\section{Multiple Files Management}
Suppose you now have a few figures together with a paper, plus your favorite
macros and reference files. You want to communicate the fruits of your hard
work to the entire world, but you don't want to send ten separate files to
each collaborator/potentially interested scientist. So you create a "master"
file containing (you hope) all the files needed to re\TeX{} your paper. The
receiver will also have to do some electronic cutting and pasting. Very
quickly, it starts being a nuisance for everybody to assemble and disassemble
a large file into it's constituents. This is why I thought the following
macros might prove handy:
\item{a.}{\tt\\joinfiles filename1, filename2, ..., filenamen \\into%
\{JOINTFIL.TEX\}}\hfil\break
joins several files into a big one that can be split later on. Since
the goal here is universality, you should remember that PC's still form
the majority of personal computers, and they like filenames of the form
12345678.123 where you can only replace digits by a letter (no
*,\&,\$,', etc...), without distinction between upper-case and
lower-case. So, if you want portability, save your texts as
{\tt12345678.tex} and your figures as {\tt12345678.eps} (ie. no
empty extensions): this will save you from later troubles!
The file {\tt JOINTFIL.TEX} has a header explaining how to split
it (see below) and is in fact auto-splittable. Namely, you just have to
run \TeX, or \LaTeX{} depending of what is required by the first file in
the list. This should first split the file and then tex it while
including properly the figures. You can edit the ``archive'' {\tt
JOINTFIL.TEX}, for instance to change the header, or to modify the names
under which files will be stored when split. For this you may need to
know that each file in the archive has a header line containing it's
name, eg:\hfil\break
{\tt\%Beginning-Of-File-Named:box.ps}.
\item{b.} {\tt\\autojoin}:\hfil\break
since it is painful to remember the list of all figure's names, you can
generate a joint file called {\tt psbjoint.tex} by simply typing
{\tt\\autojoin} close to the end (ie. after all {\tt\\psbox...} and
{\tt\\input ...} have been issued) of the file you want to tex. This
will first close and then read in a file called {\tt psbjoin.aux} that is
always generated automatically and that basically contains the list of
all your inclusions (both figures and macro files {\tt\\input}ted). If
you never say {\tt\\autojoin}, the file {\tt psbjoin.aux} will
nevertheless be created and will by the end of the day contain the list
of files needed for your texing session. This list will appear as an
incomplete {\tt\\joinfiles}-command, which you can complete and tex to
do the joining. Notice: all these macro and figure files do not need to
be in the same directory to be found. If \TeX{} is able to find them
for {\tt\\input} or {\tt\\psbox} (because they are in some directory
named {\tt TeX Inputs} or pointed at by an environment variable {\tt
TEXINPUTS}), it will be able to join them too. Unix users should resist
the temptation of specifying explicit path in filenames (eg: {\tt
../../TeX/mymacros.tex}): this makes their \TeX{} files non-portable.
They should rather add an entry in their {\tt TEXINPUTS} list of paths.
\item{c.}{\tt\\splitfile\{JOINTFIL.TEX\}}\hfil\break
splits {\tt JOINTFIL.TEX} into it's constituents. Anything before the
first {\tt\%Beginning-Of-File-Named:} line is trashed into a special
file called {\tt TrashMe}: never store precious info in such a file
anyhow! You may fear what happens if one of the constituent-file
names coincides with a previoulsy existing file on your disk. Does it
silently replace it? Well, no, relax, all output produced by these
macros use {\tt\\warnopenout} instead of the standard {\tt\\openout},
which will give you a chance to break precisely in this case. Notice
{\tt\\warnopenout} is sometimes too cautious: it can warn you before
erasing a file that doesn't exist! This is because a file with the same
name exists in some directory \TeX{} is searching in for input files,
but relax, it will only write files in the same directory as {\tt
JOINTFIL.TEX}. Finally,
notice you can say {\tt\\splitfile \{\\jobname\}} in which case you will
split the very file that issued such a command (this is in fact what
makes the output of {\tt\\joinfiles} auto-splittable). However,
watchout: {\tt\\jobname} has peculiar and machine-dependent
definition. It gives the name of the file currently texed MINUS it's
{\tt.tex} extension if it has one (and on most machines, minus any
extension your filename could have). So, \TeX{} will not
be able to read in from the file named {\tt\\jobname} (without
extension). But it always tries to read in {\tt\\jobname.tex} (in fact,
on IBM \& VAX machines, it doesn't even try to read {\tt\\jobname}
without extension). This mess explains the
precaution taken in the header of a joint file, reproduced below:
{\obeylines\tt\def
{\hfil\break}
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\% To decompose and tex it:
\%-save this with a filename CONTAINING ONLY LETTERS and a .TEX
\% extension (say, JOINTFIL.TEX), in some uncrowded directory;
\%-make sure you can \string\input\space psbox.tex (version>=1.3);
\% (else ftp cs.nyu.edu(=128.122.140.24):pub/TeX/psbox/, then get
\% and tex the file psboxall.tex; more info in psbREAD.ME)
\%-tex JOINTFIL.TEX using Plain, or LaTeX, or whatever is needed by
\% the first file in the joining (after splitting JOINTFIL.TEX into
\% it's constituents, TeX will try to process it as it stands).
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\\splitfile\{\\jobname\}
\\let\\autojoin\\=\\relax
}
\joinfiles psbREAD.ME, psboxOK.tex\into{TrashMe}
\section{Errors}
\message{RELAX!!!
The following error messages should not frighten you, they are
intentional tests. Just continue and see what comes out!}
If \TeX{} cannot find the file you specified, you will get the following
output:
$$\psbox{in_exist.ps}$$
On the other hand, an existing file which is not EPSF will produce:
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\autojoin
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%Beginning-Of-File-Named:psbREAD.ME
% PSBOX READ-ME
% -------------
% WHAT IS IT:
% psbox is a set of machine-independent TeX macros to
% 1) allow (Encapsulated) PostScript figure inclusion in all versions
% of TeX (Plain, LaTeX) on all machines using a PostScript printer
% 2) facilitate the communication (e-mail, ftp, ...) of all the files
% (text, macros, figs) needed to reproduce a TeX document by grouping
% them together into a single, TeXable file.
%
% HOW TO GET IT TO WORK:
% 1) get the file psboxall.tex by one of the following ways:
% -from outside CERN: ftp cs.nyu.edu(=128.122.140.24):pub/TeX/psbox/
% -(if all else fails) send me a mail ([email protected]);
% 2) tex psboxall.tex: this will produce a complete documentation dvi and a
% set of files, including the raw macros named psbox.tex;
% 3) adapt your psbox.tex to your system by uncommenting the appropriate
% %\psfor...-line at the end of the file;
% 4) put it in your TeX Inputs directory
%
% MAJOR COMMANDS:
% \psbox{fname.eps}
% makes a box having the right size to enclose the figure fname.eps;
% \psboxto(xdim;ydim){fn.eps}
% makes a box of the given size and rescales fn.eps so that it just fits;
% \psboxto(\hsize;0pt){fn.eps}
% has the maximal width & a height computed from a uniformal rescaling;
% \centinsert{\pscaption{\psbox{fn.eps}}{Fig 1: the caption...}}
% recommended way to include a graphics between 2 paragraphs;
% \begin{figure}[hbt]\begin{center}\mbox{\psbox{fn.eps}}\caption{Fig 1:}
% \end{figure}
% recommended way in LaTeX;
% \autojoin
% makes a single file called psbjoint.tex containing the currently tex'd
% file plus all the files (macros & figs) included since the \input of
% psbox.tex. Texing psbjoint.tex will split it into all these files with
% their original names (so think of PC's:12345678.123!!) and tex the
% first one (generally the one that issued \autojoin).
%Beginning-Of-File-Named:psbug.tex
PSBOX bug-report form
---------------------
From:
To: [email protected] (Jean Orloff)
Subject: psbox BUG
YOU Name:
Email:
PSBOX version no:
source:
MACHINE type: (NeXT, Mac LC,...)
Operating system:
TEX name:
version:
TEX->PS name: (dvips, TeXtures,...)
version:
DRAWING program: (Adobe Illustrator, xfig,...)
version:
PRINTER type:
PostScript version:
PREVIEW for postscript (if any): (ghostscript,...)
Command(s) incriminated: (\psbox,\splitfile,...)
Problem description:
Log (TeX, TeX->PS, Printer) file(s) where you got insulted:
%Beginning-Of-File-Named:psboxOK.tex
PSBOX ANTI-bug report form
--------------------------
From:
To: [email protected] (Jean Orloff)
Subject: psbox ANIT-BUG
PSBOX has been checked to work in the following environment:
MACHINE TEX TEX->PS PRINTER/PREVIEWER
------- --- ------- -----------------
Macintosh*.* TeXtures*.* Apple LaserWriter (ALW)
" OzTeX 1.3 ALW
UniX workst: TeX 3.14t3 dvips 5.47 ALW
SUN4 " " ALW
NeXT " " Preview
" dvialw ALW
IBM370(VM/CMS) TeX3.14/CMS1.3 DVItoPS ALW
" " dvips 5.483 ALW
DOS PC emTeX dvips GhostScript
If your system is not listed here but nevertheless works fine, please
add in a line, fill in the detailed form below and send it to me.
YOU Name:
Email:
PSBOX version no:
source:
MACHINE type: (NeXT, Mac LC,...)
Operating system:
TEX name:
version:
TEX->PS name: (dvips, TeXtures,...)
version:
DRAWING program: (Adobe Illustrator, xfig,...)
version:
PRINTER type:
version of PostScript used:
PREVIEW for postscript (if any): (ghostscript,...)
|
https://ctan.math.washington.edu/tex-archive/info/examples/Math-E/07-09-2.ltx | washington.edu | CC-MAIN-2022-27 | text/x-tex | text/x-matlab | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656104668059.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20220706060502-20220706090502-00496.warc.gz | 218,433,085 | 1,164 | %%
%% An UIT Edition example
%%
%% Example 07-09-2 on page 142.
%%
%% Copyright (C) 2010 Herbert Voss
%%
%% It may be distributed and/or modified under the conditions
%% of the LaTeX Project Public License, either version 1.3
%% of this license or (at your option) any later version.
%%
%% See http://www.latex-project.org/lppl.txt for details.
%%
%%
%% ====
% Show page(s) 1
%%
\documentclass[]{exasymbol}
\pagestyle{empty}
\setlength\textwidth{375.57637pt}
\AtBeginDocument{\setlength\parindent{0pt}}
\StartShownPreambleCommands
\usepackage{array,wasysym}
\def\arraystretch{1.1}
\StopShownPreambleCommands
\begin{document}
\begin{tabular}{@{}*{4}{r@{\kern3pt}l}r@{\kern3pt}l@{}l@{}}
\mathsymbol{apprge}\mathsymbol{apprle} \mathsymbol{Box} \mathsymbol{Diamond} \mathsymbol{invneg} \\
\mathsymbol{Join} \mathsymbol{leadsto}\mathsymbol{lhd} \mathsymbol{LHD} \mathsymbol{logof} \\
\mathsymbol{mho} \mathsymbol{ocircle}\mathsymbol{rhd} \mathsymbol{RHD} \mathsymbol{sqsubset}\\
\mathsymbol{sqsupset}\mathsymbol{unlhd} \mathsymbol{unrhd} \mathsymbol{varangle} \mathsymbol{wasypropto}\\
\mathsymbol{wasytherefore}
\end{tabular}
\end{document}
|
http://refbase.athabascau.ca/search.php?sqlQuery=SELECT%20author%2C%20title%2C%20type%2C%20year%2C%20publication%2C%20abbrev_journal%2C%20volume%2C%20issue%2C%20pages%2C%20keywords%2C%20abstract%2C%20thesis%2C%20editor%2C%20publisher%2C%20place%2C%20abbrev_series_title%2C%20series_title%2C%20series_editor%2C%20series_volume%2C%20series_issue%2C%20edition%2C%20language%2C%20author_count%2C%20online_publication%2C%20online_citation%2C%20doi%2C%20serial%2C%20notes%20FROM%20refs%20WHERE%20serial%20%3D%20104%20ORDER%20BY%20type%20ASC%2C%20thesis%20DESC%2C%20year%20DESC%2C%20first_author%2C%20author_count%2C%20author%2C%20title&client=&formType=sqlSearch&submit=Cite&viewType=&showQuery=0&showLinks=1&showRows=5&rowOffset=&wrapResults=1&citeOrder=type-year&citeStyle=APA&exportFormat=RIS&exportType=html&exportStylesheet=&citeType=LaTeX&headerMsg=¢er=fst | athabascau.ca | CC-MAIN-2018-51 | application/x-latex | application/x-latex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376823445.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20181210212544-20181210234044-00518.warc.gz | 250,611,456 | 1,311 | %&LaTeX
\documentclass{article}
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage{textcomp}
\begin{document}
\section*{Conference Proceedings}
\subsection*{2010}
Boskovic, M., Mussbacher, G., Bagheri, E., Amyot, D., Gasevic, D., \& Hatala, M. (2010). Aspect-oriented Feature Models. In \textit{15th Int{\textquoteright}l Workshop on Aspect-Oriented Modeling at MoDELS{\textquoteright}10} (pp. 110--124). Norway: Springe.
\end{document}
|
https://dev.thep.lu.se/yat/export/1837/tags/0.3.1/doc/Statistics.tex | lu.se | CC-MAIN-2023-14 | text/x-latex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296945433.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20230326044821-20230326074821-00598.warc.gz | 246,409,601 | 6,267 | \documentclass[12pt]{article}
% $Id: Statistics.tex 831 2007-03-27 13:22:09Z peter $
%
% Copyright (C) 2005 Peter Johansson
% Copyright (C) 2006 Jari Häkkinen, Markus Ringnér, Peter Johansson
% Copyright (C) 2007 Peter Johansson
%
% This file is part of the yat library, http://lev.thep.lu.se/trac/yat
%
% The yat library is free software; you can redistribute it and/or
% modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as
% published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the
% License, or (at your option) any later version.
%
% The yat library is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
% but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
% MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU
% General Public License for more details.
%
% You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
% along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software
% Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA
% 02111-1307, USA.
\flushbottom
\footskip 54pt
\headheight 0pt
\headsep 0pt
\oddsidemargin 0pt
\parindent 0pt
\parskip 2ex
\textheight 230mm
\textwidth 165mm
\topmargin 0pt
\renewcommand{\baselinestretch} {1.0}
\renewcommand{\textfraction} {0.1}
\renewcommand{\topfraction} {1.0}
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\renewcommand{\floatpagefraction} {1.0}
\renewcommand{\d}{{\mathrm{d}}}
\newcommand{\nd}{$^{\mathrm{nd}}$}
\newcommand{\eg}{{\it {e.g.}}}
\newcommand{\ie}{{\it {i.e., }}}
\newcommand{\etal}{{\it {et al.}}}
\newcommand{\eref}[1]{Eq.~(\ref{e:#1})}
\newcommand{\fref}[1]{Fig.~\ref{f:#1}}
\newcommand{\ovr}[2]{\left(\begin{array}{c} #1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right)}
\begin{document}
\large
{\bf Weighted Statistics}
\normalsize
\tableofcontents
\clearpage
\section{Introduction}
There are several different reasons why a statistical analysis needs
to adjust for weighting. In literature reasons are mainly diveded in
to groups.
The first group is when some of the measurements are known to be more
precise than others. The more precise a measurement is, the larger
weight it is given. The simplest case is when the weight are given
before the measurements and they can be treated as deterministic. It
becomes more complicated when the weight can be determined not until
afterwards, and even more complicated if the weight depends on the
value of the observable.
The second group of situations is when calculating averages over one
distribution and sampling from another distribution. Compensating for
this discrepency weights are introduced to the analysis. A simple
example may be that we are interviewing people but for economical
reasons we choose to interview more people from the city than from the
countryside. When summarizing the statistics the answers from the city
are given a smaller weight. In this example we are choosing the
proportions of people from countryside and people from city being
intervied. Hence, we can determine the weights before and consider
them to be deterministic. In other situations the proportions are not
deterministic, but rather a result from the sampling and the weights
must be treated as stochastic and only in rare situations the weights
can be treated as independent of the observable.
Since there are various origins for a weight occuring in a statistical
analysis, there are various ways to treat the weights and in general
the analysis should be tailored to treat the weights correctly. We
have not chosen one situation for our implementations, so see specific
function documentation for what assumtions are made. Though, common
for implementations are the following:
\begin{itemize}
\item Setting all weights to unity yields the same result as the
non-weighted version.
\item Rescaling the weights does not change any function.
\item Setting a weight to zero is equivalent to removing the data point.
\end{itemize}
An important case is when weights are binary (either 1 or 0). Then we
get the same result using the weighted version as using the data with
weight not equal to zero and the non-weighted version. Hence, using
binary weights and the weighted version missing values can be treated
in a proper way.
\section{AveragerWeighted}
\subsection{Mean}
For any situation the weight is always designed so the weighted mean
is calculated as $m=\frac{\sum w_ix_i}{\sum w_i}$, which obviously
fulfills the conditions above.
In the case of varying measurement error, it could be motivated that
the weight shall be $w_i = 1/\sigma_i^2$. We assume measurement error
to be Gaussian and the likelihood to get our measurements is
$L(m)=\prod
(2\pi\sigma_i^2)^{-1/2}e^{-\frac{(x_i-m)^2}{2\sigma_i^2}}$. We
maximize the likelihood by taking the derivity with respect to $m$ on
the logarithm of the likelihood $\frac{d\ln L(m)}{dm}=\sum
\frac{x_i-m}{\sigma_i^2}$. Hence, the Maximum Likelihood method yields
the estimator $m=\frac{\sum w_i/\sigma_i^2}{\sum 1/\sigma_i^2}$.
\subsection{Variance}
In case of varying variance, there is no point estimating a variance
since it is different for each data point.
Instead we look at the case when we want to estimate the variance over
$f$ but are sampling from $f'$. For the mean of an observable $O$ we
have $\widehat O=\sum\frac{f}{f'}O_i=\frac{\sum w_iO_i}{\sum
w_i}$. Hence, an estimator of the variance of $X$ is
\begin{eqnarray}
\sigma^2=<X^2>-<X>^2=
\\\frac{\sum w_ix_i^2}{\sum w_i}-\frac{(\sum w_ix_i)^2}{(\sum w_i)^2}=
\\\frac{\sum w_i(x_i^2-m^2)}{\sum w_i}=
\\\frac{\sum w_i(x_i^2-2mx_i+m^2)}{\sum w_i}=
\\\frac{\sum w_i(x_i-m)^2}{\sum w_i}
\end{eqnarray}
This estimator fulfills that it is invariant under a rescaling and
having a weight equal to zero is equivalent to removing the data
point. Having all weights equal to unity we get $\sigma=\frac{\sum
(x_i-m)^2}{N}$, which is the same as returned from Averager. Hence,
this estimator is slightly biased, but still very efficient.
\subsection{Standard Error}
The standard error squared is equal to the expexted squared error of
the estimation of $m$. The squared error consists of two parts, the
variance of the estimator and the squared
bias. $<m-\mu>^2=<m-<m>+<m>-\mu>^2=<m-<m>>^2+(<m>-\mu)^2$. In the
case when weights are included in analysis due to varying measurement
errors and the weights can be treated as deterministic ,we have
\begin{equation}
Var(m)=\frac{\sum w_i^2\sigma_i^2}{\left(\sum w_i\right)^2}=
\frac{\sum w_i^2\frac{\sigma_0^2}{w_i}}{\left(\sum w_i\right)^2}=
\frac{\sigma_0^2}{\sum w_i},
\end{equation}
where we need to estimate $\sigma_0^2$. Again we have the likelihood
$L(\sigma_0^2)=\prod\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi\sigma_0^2/w_i}}\exp{-\frac{w_i(x-m)^2}{2\sigma_0^2}}$
and taking the derivity with respect to $\sigma_o^2$, $\frac{d\ln
L}{d\sigma_i^2}=\sum
-\frac{1}{2\sigma_0^2}+\frac{w_i(x-m)^2}{2\sigma_0^2\sigma_o^2}$ which
yields an estimator $\sigma_0^2=\frac{1}{N}\sum w_i(x-m)^2$. This
estimator is not ignoring weights equal to zero, because deviation is
most often smaller than the expected infinity. Therefore, we modify
the expression as follows $\sigma_0^2=\frac{\sum w_i^2}{\left(\sum
w_i\right)^2}\sum w_i(x-m)^2$ and we get the following estimator of
the variance of the mean $\sigma_0^2=\frac{\sum w_i^2}{\left(\sum
w_i\right)^3}\sum w_i(x-m)^2$. This estimator fulfills the conditions
above: adding a weight zero does not change it: rescaling the weights
does not change it, and setting all weights to unity yields the same
expression as in the non-weighted case.
In a case when it is not a good approximation to treat the weights as
deterministic, there are two ways to get a better estimation. The
first one is to linearize the expression $\left<\frac{\sum
w_ix_i}{\sum w_i}\right>$. The second method when the situation is
more complicated is to estimate the standard error using a
bootstrapping method.
\section{AveragerPairWeighted}
Here data points come in pairs (x,y). We are sampling from $f'_{XY}$
but want to measure from $f_{XY}$. To compensate for this decrepency,
averages of $g(x,y)$ are taken as $\sum \frac{f}{f'}g(x,y)$. Even
though, $X$ and $Y$ are not independent $(f_{XY}\neq f_Xf_Y)$ we
assume that we can factorize the ratio and get $\frac{\sum
w_xw_yg(x,y)}{\sum w_xw_y}$
\subsection{Covariance}
Following the variance calculations for AveragerWeighted we have
$Cov=\frac{\sum w_xw_y(x-m_x)(y-m_y)}{\sum w_xw_y}$ where
$m_x=\frac{\sum w_xw_yx}{\sum w_xw_y}$
\subsection{correlation}
As the mean is estimated as $m_x=\frac{\sum w_xw_yx}{\sum w_xw_y}$,
the variance is estimated as $\sigma_x^2=\frac{\sum
w_xw_y(x-m_x)^2}{\sum w_xw_y}$. As in the non-weighted case we define
the correlation to be the ratio between the covariance and geometrical
average of the variances
$\frac{\sum w_xw_y(x-m_x)(y-m_y)}{\sqrt{\sum w_xw_y(x-m_x)^2\sum
w_xw_y(y-m_y)^2}}$.
This expression fulfills the following
\begin{itemize}
\item Having N weights the expression reduces to the non-weighted expression.
\item Adding a pair of data, in which one weight is zero is equivalent
to ignoring the data pair.
\item Correlation is equal to unity if and only if $x$ is equal to
$y$. Otherwise the correlation is between -1 and 1.
\end{itemize}
\section{Score}
\subsection{Pearson}
$\frac{\sum w(x-m_x)(y-m_y)}{\sqrt{\sum w(x-m_x)^2\sum w(y-m_y)^2}}$.
See AveragerPairWeighted correlation.
\subsection{ROC}
An interpretation of the ROC curve area is the probability that if we
take one sample from class $+$ and one sample from class $-$, what is
the probability that the sample from class $+$ has greater value. The
ROC curve area calculates the ratio of pairs fulfilling this
\begin{equation}
\frac{\sum_{\{i,j\}:x^-_i<x^+_j}1}{\sum_{i,j}1}.
\end{equation}
An geometrical interpretation is to have a number of squares where
each square correspond to a pair of samples. The ROC curve follows the
border between pairs in which the samples from class $+$ has a greater
value and pairs in which this is not fulfilled. The ROC curve area is
the area of those latter squares and a natural extension is to weight
each pair with its two weights and consequently the weighted ROC curve
area becomes
\begin{equation}
\frac{\sum_{\{i,j\}:x^-_i<x^+_j}w^-_iw^+_j}{\sum_{i,j}w^-_iw^+_j}
\end{equation}
This expression is invariant under a rescaling of weight. Adding a
data value with weight zero adds nothing to the exprssion, and having
all weight equal to unity yields the non-weighted ROC curve area.
\subsection{tScore}
Assume that $x$ and $y$ originate from the same distribution
$N(\mu,\sigma_i^2)$ where $\sigma_i^2=\frac{\sigma_0^2}{w_i}$. We then
estimate $\sigma_0^2$ as
\begin{equation}
\frac{\sum w(x-m_x)^2+\sum w(y-m_y)^2}
{\frac{\left(\sum w_x\right)^2}{\sum w_x^2}+
\frac{\left(\sum w_y\right)^2}{\sum w_y^2}-2}
\end{equation}
The variance of difference of the means becomes
\begin{eqnarray}
Var(m_x)+Var(m_y)=\\\frac{\sum w_i^2Var(x_i)}{\left(\sum
w_i\right)^2}+\frac{\sum w_i^2Var(y_i)}{\left(\sum w_i\right)^2}=
\frac{\sigma_0^2}{\sum w_i}+\frac{\sigma_0^2}{\sum w_i},
\end{eqnarray}
and consequently the t-score becomes
\begin{equation}
\frac{\sum w(x-m_x)^2+\sum w(y-m_y)^2}
{\frac{\left(\sum w_x\right)^2}{\sum w_x^2}+
\frac{\left(\sum w_y\right)^2}{\sum w_y^2}-2}
\left(\frac{1}{\sum w_i}+\frac{1}{\sum w_i}\right),
\end{equation}
For a $w_i=w$ we this expression get condensed down to
\begin{equation}
\frac{w\sum (x-m_x)^2+w\sum (y-m_y)^2}
{n_x+n_y-2}
\left(\frac{1}{wn_x}+\frac{1}{wn_y}\right),
\end{equation}
in other words the good old expression as for non-weighted.
\subsection{FoldChange}
Fold-Change is simply the difference between the weighted mean of the
two groups //$\frac{\sum w_xx}{\sum w_x}-\frac{\sum w_yy}{\sum w_y}$
\subsection{WilcoxonFoldChange}
Taking all pair samples (one from class $+$ and one from class $-$)
and calculating the weighted median of the distances.
\section{Kernel}
\subsection{Polynomial Kernel}
The polynomial kernel of degree $N$ is defined as $(1+<x,y>)^N$, where
$<x,y>$ is the linear kernel (usual scalar product). For the weighted
case we define the linear kernel to be $<x,y>=\sum {w_xw_yxy}$ and the
polynomial kernel can be calculated as before
$(1+<x,y>)^N$. Is this kernel a proper kernel (always being semi
positive definite). Yes, because $<x,y>$ is obviously a proper kernel
as it is a scalar product. Adding a positive constant to a kernel
yields another kernel so $1+<x,y>$ is still a proper kernel. Then also
$(1+<x,y>)^N$ is a proper kernel because taking a proper kernel to the
$Nth$ power yields a new proper kernel (see any good book on SVM).
\subsection{Gaussian Kernel}
We define the weighted Gaussian kernel as $\exp\left(-\frac{\sum
w_xw_y(x-y)^2}{\sum w_xw_y}\right)$, which fulfills the conditions
listed in the introduction.
Is this kernel a proper kernel? Yes, following the proof of the
non-weighted kernel we see that $K=\exp\left(-\frac{\sum
w_xw_yx^2}{\sum w_xw_y}\right)\exp\left(-\frac{\sum w_xw_yy^2}{\sum
w_xw_y}\right)\exp\left(\frac{\sum w_xw_yxy}{\sum w_xw_y}\right)$,
which is a product of two proper kernels. $\exp\left(-\frac{\sum
w_xw_yx^2}{\sum w_xw_y}\right)\exp\left(-\frac{\sum w_xw_yy^2}{\sum
w_xw_y}\right)$ is a proper kernel, because it is a scalar product and
$\exp\left(\frac{\sum w_xw_yxy}{\sum w_xw_y}\right)$ is a proper
kernel, because it a polynomial of the linear kernel with positive
coefficients. As product of two kernel also is a kernel, the Gaussian
kernel is a proper kernel.
\section{Distance}
\section{Regression}
\subsection{Naive}
\subsection{Linear}
We have the model
\begin{equation}
y_i=\alpha+\beta (x-m_x)+\epsilon_i,
\end{equation}
where $\epsilon_i$ is the noise. The variance of the noise is
inversely proportional to the weight,
$Var(\epsilon_i)=\frac{\sigma^2}{w_i}$. In order to determine the
model parameters, we minimimize the sum of quadratic errors.
\begin{equation}
Q_0 = \sum \epsilon_i^2
\end{equation}
Taking the derivity with respect to $\alpha$ and $\beta$ yields two conditions
\begin{equation}
\frac{\partial Q_0}{\partial \alpha} = -2 \sum w_i(y_i - \alpha -
\beta (x_i-m_x)=0
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation} \frac{\partial Q_0}{\partial \beta} = -2 \sum
w_i(x_i-m_x)(y_i-\alpha-\beta(x_i-m_x)=0
\end{equation}
or equivalently
\begin{equation}
\alpha = \frac{\sum w_iy_i}{\sum w_i}=m_y
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation} \beta=\frac{\sum w_i(x_i-m_x)(y-m_y)}{\sum
w_i(x_i-m_x)^2}=\frac{Cov(x,y)}{Var(x)}
\end{equation}
Note, by having all weights equal we get back the unweighted
case. Furthermore, we calculate the variance of the estimators of
$\alpha$ and $\beta$.
\begin{equation}
\textrm{Var}(\alpha )=\frac{w_i^2\frac{\sigma^2}{w_i}}{(\sum w_i)^2}=
\frac{\sigma^2}{\sum w_i}
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
\textrm{Var}(\beta )= \frac{w_i^2(x_i-m_x)^2\frac{\sigma^2}{w_i}}
{(\sum w_i(x_i-m_x)^2)^2}=
\frac{\sigma^2}{\sum w_i(x_i-m_x)^2}
\end{equation}
Finally, we estimate the level of noise, $\sigma^2$. Inspired by the
unweighted estimation
\begin{equation}
s^2=\frac{\sum (y_i-\alpha-\beta (x_i-m_x))^2}{n-2}
\end{equation}
we suggest the following estimator
\begin{equation} s^2=\frac{\sum w_i(y_i-\alpha-\beta (x_i-m_x))^2}{\sum
w_i-2\frac{\sum w_i^2}{\sum w_i}} \end{equation}
\section{Outlook}
\subsection{Hierarchical clustering}
A hierarchical clustering consists of two things: finding the two
closest data points, merge these two data points two a new data point
and calculate the new distances from this point to all other points.
In the first item, we need a distance matrix, and if we use Euclidean
distanses the natural modification of the expression would be
\begin{equation}
d(x,y)=\frac{\sum w_i^xw_j^y(x_i-y_i)^2}{\sum w_i^xw_j^y}
\end{equation}
For the second item, inspired by average linkage, we suggest
\begin{equation}
d(xy,z)=\frac{\sum w_i^xw_j^z(x_i-z_i)^2+\sum
w_i^yw_j^z(y_i-z_i)^2}{\sum w_i^xw_j^z+\sum w_i^yw_j^z}
\end{equation}
to be the distance between the new merged point $xy$ and $z$, and we
also calculate new weights for this point: $w^{xy}_i=w^x_i+w^y_i$
\end{document}
|
http://mirror.hmc.edu/ctan/info/lshort/finnish/src/symbolit.tex | hmc.edu | CC-MAIN-2016-22 | application/x-tex | null | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-22/segments/1464053209501.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160524012649-00085-ip-10-185-217-139.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 188,644,221 | 4,416 | %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% Contents: TeX and LaTeX and AMS symbols for Maths
% $Id: symbolit.tex,v 1.2 2004/03/30 08:05:09 hellgren Exp $
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\section{Matemaattisten symbolien lista} \label{symbols}
Seuraavista taulukoista löytyvät kaikki \emph{matematiikkatilassa}
normaalisti saatavilla olevat symbolit.
%
% Conditional Text in case the AMS Fonts are installed
%
Jotta taulukoissa~\ref{AMSD}--\ref{AMSNBR},\footnote{Nämä
taulukot on otettu David Carlislen tiedostosta \texttt{symbols.tex}, jota on muutettu
Josef Tkadlecin ehdotusten mukaisesti.} listattuja symboleja voidaan
käyttää on dokumentin esittelyosassa ladattava makropakkaus \pai{amssymb}
ja AMS:n matematiikkakirjasinten on oltava asennettuina järjestelmään.
Mikäli AMS:n makroja ja kirjasimia ei ole asennettu, katso\\
\CTANref|macros/latex/packages/amslatex|. Vielä tätäkin täydellisempi
lista löytyy osoitteesta \CTANref|info/symbols/comprehensive|.
\begin{table}[!h]
\caption{Matematiikkatilan aksentit} \label{mathacc}
\begin{symbols}{*4{cl}}
\W{\hat}{a} & \W{\check}{a} & \W{\tilde}{a} & \W{\acute}{a} \\
\W{\grave}{a} & \W{\dot}{a} & \W{\ddot}{a} & \W{\breve}{a} \\
\W{\bar}{a} &\W{\vec}{a} &\W{\widehat}{A}&\W{\widetilde}{A}\\
\end{symbols}
\end{table}
\begin{table}[!h]
\caption{Pienet kreikkalaiset kirjaimet}
\begin{symbols}{*4{cl}}
\X{\alpha} & \X{\theta} & \X{o} & \X{\upsilon} \\
\X{\beta} & \X{\vartheta} & \X{\pi} & \X{\phi} \\
\X{\gamma} & \X{\iota} & \X{\varpi} & \X{\varphi} \\
\X{\delta} & \X{\kappa} & \X{\rho} & \X{\chi} \\
\X{\epsilon} & \X{\lambda} & \X{\varrho} & \X{\psi} \\
\X{\varepsilon}& \X{\mu} & \X{\sigma} & \X{\omega} \\
\X{\zeta} & \X{\nu} & \X{\varsigma} & & \\
\X{\eta} & \X{\xi} & \X{\tau}
\end{symbols}
\end{table}
\begin{table}[!h]
\caption{Isot kreikkalaiset kirjaimet}
\begin{symbols}{*4{cl}}
\X{\Gamma} & \X{\Lambda} & \X{\Sigma} & \X{\Psi} \\
\X{\Delta} & \X{\Xi} & \X{\Upsilon} & \X{\Omega} \\
\X{\Theta} & \X{\Pi} & \X{\Phi}
\end{symbols}
\end{table}
\clearpage
\begin{table}[!tbp]
\caption{Binäärirelaatiot}
\bigskip
Vastaavat negaatiot saadaan lisäämällä \ci{not}-komento symbolin
eteen.
\begin{symbols}{*3{cl}}
\X{<} & \X{>} & \X{=} \\
\X{\leq}or \verb|\le| & \X{\geq}or \verb|\ge| & \X{\equiv} \\
\X{\ll} & \X{\gg} & \X{\doteq} \\
\X{\prec} & \X{\succ} & \X{\sim} \\
\X{\preceq} & \X{\succeq} & \X{\simeq} \\
\X{\subset} & \X{\supset} & \X{\approx} \\
\X{\subseteq} & \X{\supseteq} & \X{\cong} \\
\X{\sqsubset}$^a$ & \X{\sqsupset}$^a$ & \X{\Join}$^a$ \\
\X{\sqsubseteq} & \X{\sqsupseteq} & \X{\bowtie} \\
\X{\in} & \X{\ni}, \verb|\owns| & \X{\propto} \\
\X{\vdash} & \X{\dashv} & \X{\models} \\
\X{\mid} & \X{\parallel} & \X{\perp} \\
\X{\smile} & \X{\frown} & \X{\asymp} \\
\X{:} & \X{\notin} & \X{\neq}or \verb|\ne|
\end{symbols}
\centerline{\footnotesize $^a$Käytä \textsf{latexsym}-pakkausta tämän symbolin
saamiseksi}
\end{table}
\begin{table}[!tbp]
\caption{Binäärioperaattorit}
\begin{symbols}{*3{cl}}
\X{+} & \X{-} & & \\
\X{\pm} & \X{\mp} & \X{\triangleleft} \\
\X{\cdot} & \X{\div} & \X{\triangleright}\\
\X{\times} & \X{\setminus} & \X{\star} \\
\X{\cup} & \X{\cap} & \X{\ast} \\
\X{\sqcup} & \X{\sqcap} & \X{\circ} \\
\X{\vee}, \verb|\lor| & \X{\wedge}, \verb|\land| & \X{\bullet} \\
\X{\oplus} & \X{\ominus} & \X{\diamond} \\
\X{\odot} & \X{\oslash} & \X{\uplus} \\
\X{\otimes} & \X{\bigcirc} & \X{\amalg} \\
\X{\bigtriangleup} &\X{\bigtriangledown}& \X{\dagger} \\
\X{\lhd}$^a$ & \X{\rhd}$^a$ & \X{\ddagger} \\
\X{\unlhd}$^a$ & \X{\unrhd}$^a$ & \X{\wr}
\end{symbols}
\end{table}
\begin{table}[!tbp]
\caption{ISOT operaattorit}
\begin{symbols}{*4{cl}}
\X{\sum} & \X{\bigcup} & \X{\bigvee} & \X{\bigoplus}\\
\X{\prod} & \X{\bigcap} & \X{\bigwedge} &\X{\bigotimes}\\
\X{\coprod} & \X{\bigsqcup} & & & \X{\bigodot} \\
\X{\int} & \X{\oint} & & & \X{\biguplus}
\end{symbols}
\end{table}
\begin{table}[!tbp]
\caption{Nuolet}
\begin{symbols}{*3{cl}}
\X{\leftarrow}or \verb|\gets|& \X{\longleftarrow} & \X{\uparrow} \\
\X{\rightarrow}or \verb|\to|& \X{\longrightarrow} & \X{\downarrow} \\
\X{\leftrightarrow} & \X{\longleftrightarrow}& \X{\updownarrow} \\
\X{\Leftarrow} & \X{\Longleftarrow} & \X{\Uparrow} \\
\X{\Rightarrow} & \X{\Longrightarrow} & \X{\Downarrow} \\
\X{\Leftrightarrow} & \X{\Longleftrightarrow}& \X{\Updownarrow} \\
\X{\mapsto} & \X{\longmapsto} & \X{\nearrow} \\
\X{\hookleftarrow} & \X{\hookrightarrow} & \X{\searrow} \\
\X{\leftharpoonup} & \X{\rightharpoonup} & \X{\swarrow} \\
\X{\leftharpoondown} & \X{\rightharpoondown} & \X{\nwarrow} \\
\X{\rightleftharpoons} & \X{\iff}(bigger spaces)& \X{\leadsto}$^a$
\end{symbols}
\centerline{\footnotesize $^a$Käytä \textsf{latexsym}-pakkausta tämän symbolin
saamiseksi}
\end{table}
\begin{table}[!tbp]
\caption{Erottimet}\label{tab:delimiters}
\begin{symbols}{*4{cl}}
\X{(} & \X{)} & \X{\uparrow} & \X{\Uparrow} \\
\X{[}or \verb|\lbrack| & \X{]}or \verb|\rbrack| & \X{\downarrow} & \X{\Downarrow} \\
\X{\{}or \verb|\lbrace| & \X{\}}or \verb|\rbrace| & \X{\updownarrow} & \X{\Updownarrow}\\
\X{\langle} & \X{\rangle} & \X{|}or \verb|\vert| &\X{\|}or \verb|\Vert|\\
\X{\lfloor} & \X{\rfloor} & \X{\lceil} & \X{\rceil} \\
\X{/} & \X{\backslash} & &. (dual. tyhjä)
\end{symbols}
\end{table}
\begin{table}[!tbp]
\caption{Isot erottimet}
\begin{symbols}{*4{cl}}
\Y{\lgroup} & \Y{\rgroup} & \Y{\lmoustache} & \Y{\rmoustache} \\
\Y{\arrowvert} & \Y{\Arrowvert} & \Y{\bracevert}
\end{symbols}
\end{table}
\begin{table}[!tbp]
\caption{Sekalaisia symboleja}
\begin{symbols}{*4{cl}}
\X{\dots} & \X{\cdots} & \X{\vdots} & \X{\ddots} \\
\X{\hbar} & \X{\imath} & \X{\jmath} & \X{\ell} \\
\X{\Re} & \X{\Im} & \X{\aleph} & \X{\wp} \\
\X{\forall} & \X{\exists} & \X{\mho}$^a$ & \X{\partial} \\
\X{'} & \X{\prime} & \X{\emptyset} & \X{\infty} \\
\X{\nabla} & \X{\triangle} & \X{\Box}$^a$ & \X{\Diamond}$^a$ \\
\X{\bot} & \X{\top} & \X{\angle} & \X{\surd} \\
\X{\diamondsuit} & \X{\heartsuit} & \X{\clubsuit} & \X{\spadesuit} \\
\X{\neg}or \verb|\lnot| & \X{\flat} & \X{\natural} & \X{\sharp}
\end{symbols}
\centerline{\footnotesize $^a$Käytä \textsf{latexsym}-pakkausta tämän
symbolin saamiseksi}
\end{table}
\begin{table}[!tbp]
\caption{Ei-matemaattisia symboleja}
\bigskip
Näitä symboleja voidaan käyttää myös tekstitilassa.
\begin{symbols}{*4{cl}}
\SC{\dag} & \SC{\S} & \SC{\copyright} & \SC{\textregistered} \\
\SC{\ddag} & \SC{\P} & \SC{\pounds} & \SC{\%} \\
\end{symbols}
\end{table}
%
%
% If the AMS Stuff is not available, we drop out right here :-)
%
\begin{table}[!tbp]
\caption{AMS:n rajoittimet}\label{AMSD}
\bigskip
\begin{symbols}{*4{cl}}
\X{\ulcorner}&\X{\urcorner}&\X{\llcorner}&\X{\lrcorner}\\
\X{\lvert}&\X{\rvert}&\X{\lVert}&\X{\rVert}
\end{symbols}
\end{table}
\begin{table}[!tbp]
\caption{AMS:n kreikkalaiset ja heprealaiset kirjaimet}
\begin{symbols}{*5{cl}}
\X{\digamma} &\X{\varkappa} & \X{\beth}& \X{\daleth} &\X{\gimel}
\end{symbols}
\end{table}
\begin{table}[!tbp]
\caption{AMS:n binäärirelaatiot}
\begin{symbols}{*3{cl}}
\X{\lessdot} & \X{\gtrdot} & \X{\doteqdot}or \verb|\Doteq| \\
\X{\leqslant} & \X{\geqslant} & \X{\risingdotseq} \\
\X{\eqslantless} & \X{\eqslantgtr} & \X{\fallingdotseq} \\
\X{\leqq} & \X{\geqq} & \X{\eqcirc} \\
\X{\lll}or \verb|\llless| & \X{\ggg}or \verb|\gggtr| & \X{\circeq} \\
\X{\lesssim} & \X{\gtrsim} & \X{\triangleq} \\
\X{\lessapprox} & \X{\gtrapprox} & \X{\bumpeq} \\
\X{\lessgtr} & \X{\gtrless} & \X{\Bumpeq} \\
\X{\lesseqgtr} & \X{\gtreqless} & \X{\thicksim} \\
\X{\lesseqqgtr} & \X{\gtreqqless} & \X{\thickapprox} \\
\X{\preccurlyeq} & \X{\succcurlyeq} & \X{\approxeq} \\
\X{\curlyeqprec} & \X{\curlyeqsucc} & \X{\backsim} \\
\X{\precsim} & \X{\succsim} & \X{\backsimeq} \\
\X{\precapprox} & \X{\succapprox} & \X{\vDash} \\
\X{\subseteqq} & \X{\supseteqq} & \X{\Vdash} \\
\X{\Subset} & \X{\Supset} & \X{\Vvdash} \\
\X{\sqsubset} & \X{\sqsupset} & \X{\backepsilon} \\
\X{\therefore} & \X{\because} & \X{\varpropto} \\
\X{\shortmid} & \X{\shortparallel} & \X{\between} \\
\X{\smallsmile} & \X{\smallfrown} & \X{\pitchfork} \\
\X{\vartriangleleft} & \X{\vartriangleright} & \X{\blacktriangleleft}\\
\X{\trianglelefteq} & \X{\trianglerighteq} &\X{\blacktriangleright}
\end{symbols}
\end{table}
\begin{table}[!tbp]
\caption{AMS:n nuolet}
\begin{symbols}{*3{cl}}
\X{\dashleftarrow} & \X{\dashrightarrow} & \X{\multimap} \\
\X{\leftleftarrows} & \X{\rightrightarrows} & \X{\upuparrows} \\
\X{\leftrightarrows} & \X{\rightleftarrows} & \X{\downdownarrows} \\
\X{\Lleftarrow} & \X{\Rrightarrow} & \X{\upharpoonleft} \\
\X{\twoheadleftarrow} & \X{\twoheadrightarrow} & \X{\upharpoonright} \\
\X{\leftarrowtail} & \X{\rightarrowtail} & \X{\downharpoonleft} \\
\X{\leftrightharpoons} & \X{\rightleftharpoons} & \X{\downharpoonright} \\
\X{\Lsh} & \X{\Rsh} & \X{\rightsquigarrow} \\
\X{\looparrowleft} & \X{\looparrowright} &\X{\leftrightsquigarrow}\\
\X{\curvearrowleft} & \X{\curvearrowright} & & \\
\X{\circlearrowleft} & \X{\circlearrowright} & &
\end{symbols}
\end{table}
\begin{table}[!tbp]
\caption{AMS:n binäärirelaatiot ja nuolet negaatiolla}\label{AMSNBR}
\begin{symbols}{*3{cl}}
\X{\nless} & \X{\ngtr} & \X{\varsubsetneqq} \\
\X{\lneq} & \X{\gneq} & \X{\varsupsetneqq} \\
\X{\nleq} & \X{\ngeq} & \X{\nsubseteqq} \\
\X{\nleqslant} & \X{\ngeqslant} & \X{\nsupseteqq} \\
\X{\lneqq} & \X{\gneqq} & \X{\nmid} \\
\X{\lvertneqq} & \X{\gvertneqq} & \X{\nparallel} \\
\X{\nleqq} & \X{\ngeqq} & \X{\nshortmid} \\
\X{\lnsim} & \X{\gnsim} & \X{\nshortparallel} \\
\X{\lnapprox} & \X{\gnapprox} & \X{\nsim} \\
\X{\nprec} & \X{\nsucc} & \X{\ncong} \\
\X{\npreceq} & \X{\nsucceq} & \X{\nvdash} \\
\X{\precneqq} & \X{\succneqq} & \X{\nvDash} \\
\X{\precnsim} & \X{\succnsim} & \X{\nVdash} \\
\X{\precnapprox} & \X{\succnapprox} & \X{\nVDash} \\
\X{\subsetneq} & \X{\supsetneq} & \X{\ntriangleleft} \\
\X{\varsubsetneq} & \X{\varsupsetneq} & \X{\ntriangleright} \\
\X{\nsubseteq} & \X{\nsupseteq} & \X{\ntrianglelefteq}\\
\X{\subsetneqq} & \X{\supsetneqq} &\X{\ntrianglerighteq}\\[0.5ex]
\X{\nleftarrow} & \X{\nrightarrow} & \X{\nleftrightarrow}\\
\X{\nLeftarrow} & \X{\nRightarrow} & \X{\nLeftrightarrow}
\end{symbols}
\end{table}
\begin{table}[!tbp]
\caption{AMS:n binäärioperaattorit}
\begin{symbols}{*3{cl}}
\X{\dotplus} & \X{\centerdot} & \X{\intercal} \\
\X{\ltimes} & \X{\rtimes} & \X{\divideontimes} \\
\X{\Cup}or \verb|\doublecup|& \X{\Cap}or \verb|\doublecap|& \X{\smallsetminus} \\
\X{\veebar} & \X{\barwedge} & \X{\doublebarwedge}\\
\X{\boxplus} & \X{\boxminus} & \X{\circleddash} \\
\X{\boxtimes} & \X{\boxdot} & \X{\circledcirc} \\
\X{\leftthreetimes} & \X{\rightthreetimes}& \X{\circledast} \\
\X{\curlyvee} & \X{\curlywedge}
\end{symbols}
\end{table}
\begin{table}[!tbp]
\caption{AMS:n sekalaiset symbolit}
\begin{symbols}{*3{cl}}
\X{\hbar} & \X{\hslash} & \X{\Bbbk} \\
\X{\square} & \X{\blacksquare} & \X{\circledS} \\
\X{\vartriangle} & \X{\blacktriangle} & \X{\complement} \\
\X{\triangledown} &\X{\blacktriangledown} & \X{\Game} \\
\X{\lozenge} & \X{\blacklozenge} & \X{\bigstar} \\
\X{\angle} & \X{\measuredangle} & \X{\sphericalangle} \\
\X{\diagup} & \X{\diagdown} & \X{\backprime} \\
\X{\nexists} & \X{\Finv} & \X{\varnothing} \\
\X{\eth} & \X{\mho}
\end{symbols}
\end{table}
\begin{table}[!tbp]
\caption{Matemaattiset kirjaimistot.}
\begin{symbols}{@{}*3l@{}}
Esimerkki& Komento &Tarvittava makropakkaus\\
\hline
\rule{0pt}{1.05em}$\mathrm{ABCDE abcde 1234}$
& \verb|\mathrm{ABCDE abcde 1234}|
& \\
$\mathit{ABCDE abcde 1234}$
& \verb|\mathit{ABCDE abcde 1234}|
& \\
$\mathnormal{ABCDE abcde 1234}$
& \verb|\mathnormal{ABCDE abcde 1234}|
& \\
$\mathcal{ABCDE abcde 1234}$
& \verb|\mathcal{ABCDE abcde 1234}|
& \\
$\mathscr{ABCDE abcde 1234}$
&\verb|\mathscr{ABCDE abcde 1234}|
&\pai{mathrsfs}\\
$\mathfrak{ABCDE abcde 1234}$
& \verb|\mathfrak{ABCDE abcde 1234}|
&\pai{amsfonts} tai \textsf{amssymb} \\
$\mathbb{ABCDE abcde 1234}$
& \verb|\mathbb{ABCDE abcde 1234}|
&\pai{amsfonts} tai \textsf{amssymb} \\
\end{symbols}
\end{table}
\endinput
%%% Local Variables:
%%% mode: latex
%%% TeX-master: "lyhyt2e"
%%% End:
|
https://jorgefernandezherce.es/proyectos/angulo/temas/temag/ecu_tex/tex_g6b.tex | jorgefernandezherce.es | CC-MAIN-2019-13 | text/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-13/segments/1552912202924.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20190323181713-20190323203713-00506.warc.gz | 529,195,823 | 753 | \documentclass{article}
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage{amsfonts}
\begin{document}
\[
\overline {DC} = \frac{b}
{2}\; \Rightarrow \;\overline {AD} = b\frac{{\sqrt 5 }}
{2} + \frac{b}
{2} = b\;\varphi
\]
\end{document}
% ----------------------------------------------------------------
|
https://people.math.gatech.edu/~bide3/2552/problems-ch8.tex | gatech.edu | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | application/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964361064.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20211201234046-20211202024046-00448.warc.gz | 507,328,390 | 1,292 | \documentclass[12pt]{article}
\usepackage[margin=1in]{geometry}
\usepackage{enumitem}
\setlist[enumerate,1]{label=\bfseries\arabic*.}
\setlist[enumerate,2]{label=\bfseries\alph*.}
\usepackage{tabularx}
\usepackage{mathtools}
\begin{document}
% Header
\hspace{-18px}\begin{tabularx}{\textwidth}{lXr}
\textbf{Math 2552 -- Differential Equations} & & \textbf{Chapter 8 problems} \\
Georgia Institute of Technology & & \\
\end{tabularx}
\hrule
\vspace{0.2in}
% Problems
Choose and copy problems from below into the template to make a worksheet that is relevant to your recitation. If you intend for students to work the problems on the same sheet, be sure to use vfill and newpage where appropriate.
\subsubsection*{Section 8.1--8.2}
\begin{enumerate}
\item[] For all problems, do the following:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Find approximate values of the solution of the given IVP at
$t=0.1,\,0.2,\,0.3,\,0.4$ using the Euler method with $h=0.1$.
\item Repeat part \textbf{a} with $h=0.05$.
\item Compare \textbf{1} and \textbf{2} to the true solution $\phi(t)$.
\item Find a formula for the local truncation error in terms of
$t$ and the solution $\phi$ for both values of $h$.
\end{enumerate}
\item $y'=2y-1,\quad y(0)=1$
\item $y'=2-t+2y,\quad y(0)=1$
\item $y'=5-3\sqrt{y},\quad y(0)=2$
\end{enumerate}
\end{document} |
http://dlmf.nist.gov/13.3.E23.tex | nist.gov | CC-MAIN-2016-50 | application/x-tex | null | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-50/segments/1480698541426.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20161202170901-00463-ip-10-31-129-80.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 72,413,702 | 634 | \[\frac{{d}^{n}}{{dz}^{n}}\mathop{U\/}\nolimits\!\left(a,b,z\right)=(-1)^{n}%
\left(a\right)_{n}\mathop{U\/}\nolimits\!\left(a+n,b+n,z\right),\] |
http://www.mathematik.tu-dortmund.de/lsiii/cms/bibtex/40001092.tex | tu-dortmund.de | CC-MAIN-2020-10 | application/x-tex | application/x-bibtex-text-file | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-10/segments/1581875145657.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200222085018-20200222115018-00423.warc.gz | 204,815,452 | 764 | @TECHREPORT{Hackbusch1981,
author = {Hackbusch, W.},
title = {On Multi--grid methods for variational inequalities},
year = {1981},
institution = {Fakult\"{a}t f\"{u}r Mathematik, TU Dortmund},
note = {Ergebnisberichte des Instituts f\"{u}r Angewandte Mathematik, Nummer 057},
}
|
http://hgm.nubati.net/cgi-bin/gitweb.cgi?p=xboard.git;a=blob_plain;f=xboard.texi;hb=bf46b046e8fb8c92755baa90dfabcca634014e77 | nubati.net | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | application/x-texinfo | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571869.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20220813021048-20220813051048-00492.warc.gz | 21,566,554 | 73,320 | \input texinfo @c -*-texinfo-*-
@c %**start of header
@setfilename xboard.info
@settitle XBoard
@c %**end of header
@include version.texi
@ifinfo
@format
INFO-DIR-SECTION Games
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* xboard: (xboard). An X Window System graphical chessboard.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
@end format
@end ifinfo
@titlepage
@title XBoard
@page
@vskip 0pt plus 1filll
@include copyright.texi
@end titlepage
@ifset man
.TH xboard 6 "$Date: " "GNU"
.SH NAME
.PP
xboard @- X graphical user interface for chess
.SH SYNOPSIS
.PP
.B xboard [options]
.br
.B xboard -ics -icshost hostname [options]
.br
.B xboard -ncp [options]
.br
.B |pxboard
.br
.B cmail [options]
@end ifset
@node Top
@top Introduction
@cindex introduction
@ifset man
.SH DESCRIPTION
@end ifset
XBoard is a graphical chessboard that can serve as a
user interface to chess engines (such as GNU Chess), the
Internet Chess Servers,
electronic mail correspondence chess, or your own collection of saved games.
This manual documents version @value{VERSION} of XBoard.
@menu
* Major modes:: The main things XBoard can do.
* Basic operation:: Mouse and keyboard functions.
* Menus:: Menus, buttons, and keys.
* Options:: Command options supported by XBoard.
* Chess Servers:: Using XBoard with an Internet Chess Server (ICS).
* Firewalls:: Connecting to a chess server through a firewall.
* Environment:: Environment variables.
* Limitations:: Known limitations and/or bugs.
* Problems:: How and where to report any problems you run into.
* Contributors:: People who have helped developing XBoard.
* CMail:: Using XBoard for electronic correspondence chess.
* Other programs:: Other programs you can use with XBoard.
@ifnottex
* Copyright:: Copyright notice for this manual.
@end ifnottex
* Copying:: The GNU General Public License.
* Index:: Index of concepts and symbol names.
@end menu
@node Major modes
@chapter Major modes
@cindex Major modes
XBoard always runs in one of four major modes. You select the
major mode from the command line when you start up XBoard.
@table @asis
@item xboard [options]
As an interface to GNU Chess or another chess engine running on your
machine, XBoard lets you play a game against the machine,
set up arbitrary positions, force variations, watch a game between two
chess engines, interactively analyze your stored games or set up and
analyze arbitrary positions.
To run engines that use the UCI standard XBoard will draw upon
the Polyglot adapter fully transparently, but you will need to have
the polyglot package installed for this to work.
@item xboard -ics -icshost hostname [options]
As Internet Chess Server (ICS) interface, XBoard
lets you play against other ICS users, observe games
they are playing, or review games that have recently finished. Most
of the ICS "wild" chess variants are supported, including bughouse.
@item xboard -ncp [options]
XBoard can also be used simply
as an electronic chessboard to play through games. It will read and
write game files and allow you to play through variations
manually. You can use it to browse games off the net or review games
you have saved. These features are also available in the other modes.
@item |pxboard
If you want to pipe games into XBoard, use the supplied shell
script @file{pxboard}. For example, from the news reader @file{xrn},
find a message with one or more games in it, click the Save button,
and type @samp{|pxboard} as the file name.
@item cmail [options]
As an interface to electronic mail correspondence chess, XBoard
works with the cmail program. See @ref{CMail} below for
instructions.
@end table
@node Basic operation
@chapter Basic operation
@cindex Basic operation
To move a piece, you can drag it with the left mouse button, or you
can click the left mouse button once on the piece, then once more on
the destination square. To under-promote a Pawn you can drag it backwards
until it morphs into the piece you want to promote to, after which you
drag that forward to the promotion square.
Or after selecting the pawn with a first click you can then click
the promotion square and move the mouse while keeping the button down
until the piece that you want appears in the promotion square.
To castle you move the King to its destination or, in Chess960,
on top of the Rook you want to castle with.
In crazyhouse, bughouse or shogi you can
drag and drop pieces to the board from the holdings squares
displayed next to the board.
Old behavior, where right-clicking a square brings up a menu
where you can select what piece to drop on it can still be
selected through the @samp{Drop Menu} option.
Only in Edit Position mode right and middle clicking a square is still used to
put a piece on it, and the piece to drop is selected by sweeping
the mouse vertically with the button held down.
The default function of the right mouse button in other modes is
to display the position the chess program thinks it will end up in.
While moving the mouse vertically with this button pressed
XBoard will step through the principal variation to show how
this position will be reached.
Lines of play displayed in the engine-output window,
or PGN variations in the comment window can similarly
be played out on the board, by right-clicking on them.
Only in Analysis mode, when you walk along a PV,
releasing the mouse button might forward the game upto that point,
like you entered all previous PV moves.
As the display of the PV in that case starts after the first move
a simple right-click will play the move the engine indicates.
In Analysis mode you can also make a move by grabbing the piece
with a double-click of the left mouse button
(or while keeping the @kbd{Ctrl} key pressed).
In this case the move you enter will not be played,
but will be excluded from the analysis of the current position.
(Or included if it was already excluded; it is a toggle.)
This only works for engines that support this feature.
When connected to an ICS, it is possible to call up a graphical
representation of players seeking a game in stead of the chess board,
when the latter is not in use
(i.e. when you are not playing or observing).
Left-clicking the display area will switch between this 'seek graph'
and the chess board.
Hovering the mouse pointer over a dot will show the details of the
seek ad in the message field above the board.
Left-clicking the dot will challenge that player.
Right-clicking a dot will 'push it to the back',
to reveal any dots that were hidden behind it.
Right-clicking off dots will refresh the graph.
Most other XBoard commands are available from the menu bar. The most
frequently used commands also have shortcut keys or on-screen buttons.
These shortcut keystrokes are mostly non-printable characters.
Typing a letter or digit while the board window has focus
will bring up a type-in box with the typed letter already in it.
You can use that to type a move in situations where it is your
turn to enter a move,
type a move number to call up the position after that move
in the display,
or, in Edit Position mode, type a FEN.
Some rarely used parameters can only be set through options on the
command line used to invoke XBoard.
XBoard uses a settings file, in which it can remember any changes to
the settings that are made through menus or command-line options,
so they will still apply when you restart XBoard for another session.
The settings can be saved into this file automatically when XBoard exits,
or on explicit request of the user.
Note that the board window can be sized by the user, but that this
will not affect the size of the clocks above it, and won't be remembered
in the settings file.
To persistently change the size of the clocks, use the @code{size}
command-line option when starting XBoard.
The default name for the settings file is /etc/xboard/xboard.conf,
but in a standard install this file is only used as a master settings
file that determines the system-wide default settings,
and defers reading and writing of user settings to a user-specific
file like ~/.xboardrc in the user's home directory.
When XBoard is iconized, its graphical icon is a white knight if
it is White's turn to move, a black knight if it is Black's turn.
@node Menus
@chapter Menus, buttons, and keys
@cindex Menus
@menu
* File Menu:: Accessing external games and positions.
* Edit Menu:: Altering games, positions, PGN tags or comments.
* View Menu:: Controlling XBoard's shape and looks.
* Mode Menu:: Selecting XBoard's mode.
* Action Menu:: Talking to the chess engine or ICS opponents.
* Engine Menu:: Controlling settings and actions of the engine(s).
* Options Menu:: User preferences.
* Help Menu:: Getting help.
* Keys:: Other shortcut keys.
@end menu
@node File Menu
@section File Menu
@cindex File Menu
@cindex Menu, File
@table @asis
@item New Game
@cindex New Game, Menu Item
Resets XBoard and the chess engine to the beginning of a new chess
game. The @kbd{Ctrl-N} key is a keyboard equivalent. In Internet Chess
Server mode, clears the current state of XBoard, then
resynchronizes with the ICS by sending a refresh command. If you want to
stop playing, observing, or examining an ICS game, use an
appropriate command from the Action menu, not @samp{New Game}.
@xref{Action Menu}.
@item New Shuffle Game
@cindex New Shuffle Game, Menu Item
Similar to @samp{New Game}, but allows you to specify a particular initial position
(according to a standardized numbering system)
in chess variants which use randomized opening positions (e.g. Chess960).
@item shuffle
@cindex shuffle, Menu Item
Ticking @samp{shuffle} will cause the current variant to be played
with shuffled initial position.
Shuffling will preserve the possibility to castle in the way allowed by the variant.
@item Fischer castling
@cindex Fischer castling, menu item
Ticking @samp{Fischer castling} will allow castling with Kings and Rooks
that did not start in their normal place, as in Chess960.
@item Start-position number
@itemx randomize
@itemx pick fixed
@cindex randomize, Menu Item
@cindex pick fixed, Menu Item
@cindex Start-position number, Menu Item
The @samp{Start-position number} selects a particular start position
from all allowed shufflings, which will then be used for every new game.
Setting this to -1 (which can be done by pressing the @samp{randomize} button)
will cause a fresh random position to be picked for every new game.
Pressing the @samp{pick fixed} button causes @samp{Start-position number}
to be set to a random value, to be used for all subsequent games.
@item New Variant
@cindex New variant, Menu Item
Allows you to select a new chess variant in non-ICS mode.
(In ICS play, the ICS is responsible for deciding which variant will be played,
and XBoard adapts automatically.) The shifted @kbd{Alt+V} key is a
keyboard equivalent. If you play with an engine, the engine must
be able to play the selected variant, or the corresponding choice will be disabled.
XBoard supports all major variants, such as xiangqi, shogi, chess, chess960,
makruk, Capablanca Chess, shatranj, crazyhouse, bughouse.
You can overrule the default board format of the selected variant,
(e.g. to play suicide chess on a 6 x 6 board),
in this dialog, but normally you would not do that,
and leave them at '-1', which means 'default' for the chosen variant.
@item Load Game
@cindex Load Game, Menu Item
Plays a game from a record file. The @kbd{Ctrl-O} key is a keyboard equivalent.
A pop-up dialog prompts you for the file name. If the file contains more
than one game, a second pop-up dialog
displays a list of games (with information drawn from their PGN tags, if
any), and you can select the one you want. Alternatively, you can load the
Nth game in the file directly, by typing the number @kbd{N} after the
file name, separated by a space.
The game-file parser will accept PGN (portable game notation),
or in fact almost any file that contains moves in algebraic
notation.
Notation of the form @samp{P@@f7}
is accepted for piece-drops in bughouse games;
this is a nonstandard extension to PGN.
If the file includes a PGN position (FEN tag), or an old-style
XBoard position diagram bracketed by @samp{[--} and @samp{--]}
before the first move, the game starts from that position. Text
enclosed in parentheses, square brackets, or curly braces is assumed to
be commentary and is displayed in a pop-up window. Any other
text in the file is ignored. PGN variations (enclosed in
parentheses) also are treated as comments;
however, if you rights-click them in the comment window,
XBoard will shelve the current line, and load the the selected variation,
so you can step through it.
You can later revert to the previous line with the @samp{Revert} command.
This way you can walk quite complex varation trees with XBoard.
The nonstandard PGN tag [Variant "varname"] functions similarly to
the -variant command-line option (see below), allowing games in certain chess
variants to be loaded.
Note that it must appear before any FEN tag for XBoard to recognize
variant FENs appropriately.
There is also a heuristic to
recognize chess variants from the Event tag, by looking for the strings
that the Internet Chess Servers put there when saving variant ("wild") games.
@item Load Position
@cindex Load Position, Menu Item
Sets up a position from a position file. A pop-up dialog prompts
you for the file name. The shifted @kbd{Ctrl-O} key is a keyboard
equivalent. If the file contains more than one saved
position, and you want to load the Nth one, type the number N
after the file name, separated by a space. Position files must
be in FEN (Forsythe-Edwards notation), or in the format that the
Save Position command writes when oldSaveStyle is turned on.
@item Load Next Position
@cindex Load Next Position, Menu Item
Loads the next position from the last position file you loaded.
The shifted @kbd{PgDn} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Load Previous Position
@cindex Load Previous Position, Menu Item
Loads the previous position from the last position file you
loaded. The shifted @kbd{PgUp} key is a keyboard equivalent.
Not available if the last position was loaded from a pipe.
@item Save Game
@cindex Save Game, Menu Item
Appends a record of the current game to a file.
The @kbd{Ctrl-S} key is a keyboard equivalent.
A pop-up dialog
prompts you for the file name. If the game did not begin with
the standard starting position, the game file includes the
starting position used. Games are saved in the PGN (portable
game notation) format, unless the oldSaveStyle option is true,
in which case they are saved in an older format that is specific
to XBoard. Both formats are human-readable, and both can be
read back by the @samp{Load Game} command.
Notation of the form @samp{P@@f7}
is accepted for piece-drops in bughouse games;
this is a nonstandard extension to PGN.
@item Save Position
@cindex Save Position, Menu Item
Appends a diagram of the current position to a file.
The shifted @kbd{Ctrl+S} key is a keyboard equivalent.
A pop-up dialog prompts you for the file name. Positions are saved in
FEN (Forsythe-Edwards notation) format unless the @code{oldSaveStyle}
option is true, in which case they are saved in an older,
human-readable format that is specific to XBoard. Both formats
can be read back by the @samp{Load Position} command.
@item Save Selected Games
@cindex Save Selected Games
Will cause all games selected for display in the current Game List
to be appended to a file of the user's choice.
@item Save Games as Book
@cindex Save Games as Book, Menu Item
Creates an opening book from the currently loaded game file,
incorporating only the games currently selected in the Game List.
The book will be saved on the file specified in the @samp{Common Engine}
options dialog.
The value of @samp{Book Depth} specified in that same dialog will
be used to determine how many moves of each game will be added to
the internal book buffer.
This command can take a long time to process,
and the size of the buffer is currently limited.
At the end the buffer will be saved as a Polyglot book,
but the buffer will not be cleared,
so that you can continue adding games from other game files.
@item Mail Move
@itemx Reload CMail Message
@cindex Mail Move, Menu Item
@cindex Reload CMail Message, Menu Item
See @ref{CMail}.
@item Exit
@cindex Exit, Menu Item
Exits from XBoard. The @kbd{Ctrl-Q} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@end table
@node Edit Menu
@section Edit Menu
@cindex Menu, Edit
@cindex Edit Menu
@table @asis
@item Copy Game
@cindex Copy Game, Menu Item
Copies a record of the current game to an internal clipboard in PGN
format and sets the X selection to the game text. The @kbd{Ctrl-C}
key is a keyboard equivalent. The game can be
pasted to another application (such as a text editor or another copy
of XBoard) using that application's paste command. In many X
applications, such as xterm and emacs, the middle mouse button can be
used for pasting; in XBoard, you must use the Paste Game command.
@item Copy Position
@cindex Copy Position, Menu Item
Copies the current position to an internal clipboard in FEN format and
sets the X selection to the position text. The shifted @kbd{Ctrl-C} key
is a keyboard equivalent. The position can be pasted
to another application (such as a text editor or another copy of
XBoard) using that application's paste command. In many X
applications, such as xterm and emacs, the middle mouse button can be
used for pasting; in XBoard, you must use the Paste Position command.
@item Copy Game List
@cindex Copy Game List, Menu Item
Copies the current game list to the clipboard,
and sets the X selection to this text.
A format of comma-separated double-quoted strings is used,
including all tags,
so it can be easily imported into spread-sheet programs.
@item Paste Game
@cindex Paste Game, Menu Item
Interprets the current X selection as a game record and loads it, as
with Load Game. The @kbd{Ctrl-V} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Paste Position
@cindex Paste Position, Menu Item
Interprets the current X selection as a FEN position and loads it, as
with Load Position. The shifted @kbd{Ctrl-V} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Edit Game
@cindex Edit Game, Menu Item
Allows you to make moves for both Black and White, and to change
moves after backing up with the @samp{Backward} command. The clocks do
not run. The @kbd{Ctrl-E} key is a keyboard equivalent.
In chess engine mode, the chess engine continues to check moves for legality
but does not participate in the game. You can bring the chess engine
into the game by selecting @samp{Machine White}, @samp{Machine Black},
or @samp{Two Machines}.
In ICS mode, the moves are not sent to the ICS: @samp{Edit Game} takes
XBoard out of ICS Client mode and lets you edit games locally.
If you want to edit games on ICS in a way that other ICS users
can see, use the ICS @kbd{examine} command or start an ICS match
against yourself.
@item Edit Position
@cindex Edit Position, Menu Item
Lets you set up an arbitrary board position.
The shifted @kbd{Ctrl-E} key is a keyboard equivalent.
Use mouse button 1 to drag pieces to new squares, or to delete a piece
by dragging it off the board or dragging an empty square on top of it.
When you do this keeping the @kbd{Ctrl} key pressed,
or start dragging with a double-click,
you will move a copy of the piece, leaving the piece itself where it was.
In variants where pieces can promote (such as Shogi),
left-clicking an already selected piece promotes or demotes it.
To drop a new piece on a square, press mouse button 2 or 3 over the
square.
This puts a white or black pawn in the square, respectively,
but you can change that to any other piece type by dragging the
mouse down before you release the button.
You will then see the piece on the originally clicked square
cycle through the available pieces
(including those of opposite color),
and can release the button when you see the piece you want.
(Note you can swap the function of button 2 and 3 by pressing
the shift key, and that there is an option @code{monoMouse}
to combine al functions in one button, which then acts as
button 3 over an empty square, and as button 1 over a piece.)
To alter the side to move, you can click the clock
(the words White and Black above the board)
of the side you want to give the move to.
To clear the board you can click the clock of the side that
already has the move (which is highlighted in black).
If you repeat this the board will cycle from empty to a
@code{pallette board} containing every piece once to the initial
position to the one before clearing.
The quickest way to set up a position is usually to start
with the pallette board, and move the pieces to were you
want them, duplicating them where necessary by using the
@kbd{Ctrl} key, dragging those you don't want off board,
and use static button 2 or 3 clicks to place the Pawns.
The old behavior with a piece menu can still be configured
with the aid of the @code{pieceMenu} option.
Dragging empty squares off board can create boards with
holes (inaccessible black squares) in them.
Selecting @samp{Edit Position} causes XBoard to discard
all remembered moves in the current game.
In ICS mode, changes made to the position by @samp{Edit Position} are
not sent to the ICS: @samp{Edit Position} takes XBoard out of
@samp{ICS Client} mode and lets you edit positions locally. If you want to
edit positions on ICS in a way that other ICS users can see, use
the ICS @kbd{examine} command, or start an ICS match against yourself.
(See also the ICS Client topic above.)
@item Edit Tags
@cindex Edit Tags, Menu Item
Lets you edit the PGN (portable game notation)
tags for the current game. After editing, the tags must still conform to
the PGN tag syntax:
@example
<tag-section> ::= <tag-pair> <tag-section>
<empty>
<tag-pair> ::= [ <tag-name> <tag-value> ]
<tag-name> ::= <identifier>
<tag-value> ::= <string>
@end example
@noindent
See the PGN Standard for full details. Here is an example:
@example
[Event "Portoroz Interzonal"]
[Site "Portoroz, Yugoslavia"]
[Date "1958.08.16"]
[Round "8"]
[White "Robert J. Fischer"]
[Black "Bent Larsen"]
[Result "1-0"]
@end example
@noindent
Any characters that do not match this syntax are silently ignored. Note that
the PGN standard requires all games to have at least the seven tags shown
above. Any that you omit will be filled in by XBoard
with @samp{?} (unknown value), or @samp{-} (inapplicable value).
@item Edit Comment
@cindex Edit Comment, Menu Item
Adds or modifies a comment on the current position. Comments are
saved by @samp{Save Game} and are displayed by @samp{Load Game},
PGN variations will also be printed in this window,
and can be promoted to main line by right-clicking them.
@samp{Forward}, and @samp{Backward}.
@item Edit Book
@cindex Edit Book, Menu Item
Pops up a window listing the moves available in the GUI book
(specified in the @samp{Common Engine Settings} dialog)
from the currently displayed position,
together with their weights and (optionally in braces) learn info.
You can then edit this list, and the new list will be stored
back into the book when you press 'save changes'.
When you press the button 'add next move', and play a move
on the board, that move will be added to the list with weight 1.
Note that the listed percentages are neither used, nor updated when
you change the weights; they are just there as an optical aid.
When you right-click a move in the list it will be played.
@item Revert
@itemx Annotate
@cindex Revert, Menu Item
@cindex Annotate, Menu Item
If you are examining an ICS game and Pause mode is off,
Revert issues the ICS command @samp{revert}.
In local mode, when you were editing or analyzing a game,
and the @code{-variations} command-line option is switched on,
you can start a new variation by holding the Shift key down while
entering a move not at the end of the game.
Variations can also become the currently displayed line by
clicking a PGN variation displayed in the Comment window.
This can be applied recursively,
so that you can analyze variations on variations;
each time you create a new variation by entering an alternative move
with Shift pressed, or select a new one from the Comment window,
the current variation will be shelved.
@samp{Revert} allows you to return to the most recently shelved variation.
The difference between @samp{Revert} and @samp{Annotate}
is that with the latter,
the variation you are now abandoning will be added as a comment
(in PGN variation syntax, i.e. between parentheses)
to the original move where you deviated, for later recalling.
The @kbd{Home} key is a keyboard equivalent to @samp{Revert}.
@item Truncate Game
@cindex Truncate Game, Menu Item
Discards all remembered moves of the game beyond the current
position. Puts XBoard into @samp{Edit Game} mode if it was not there
already.
The @kbd{End} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Backward
@itemx <
@cindex Backward, Menu Item
@cindex <, Button
Steps backward through a series of remembered moves.
The @samp{[<]} button and the @kbd{Alt+LeftArrow} key are equivalents,
as is turning the mouse wheel towards you.
In addition, pressing the ??? key steps back one move, and releasing
it steps forward again.
In most modes, @samp{Backward} only lets you look back at old positions;
it does not retract moves. This is the case if you are playing against
a chess engine, playing or observing a game on an ICS, or loading a game.
If you select @samp{Backward} in any of these situations, you will not
be allowed to make a different move. Use @samp{Retract Move} or
@samp{Edit Game} if you want to change past moves.
If you are examining an ICS game, the behavior of @samp{Backward}
depends on whether XBoard is in Pause mode. If Pause mode is
off, @samp{Backward} issues the ICS backward command, which backs up
everyone's view of the game and allows you to make a different
move. If Pause mode is on, @samp{Backward} only backs up your local
view.
@item Forward
@itemx >
@cindex Forward, Menu Item
@cindex >, Button
Steps forward through a series of remembered moves (undoing the
effect of @samp{Backward}) or forward through a game file. The
@samp{[>]} button and the @kbd{Alt+RightArrow} key are equivalents,
as is turning the mouse wheel away from you.
If you are examining an ICS game, the behavior of Forward
depends on whether XBoard is in Pause mode. If Pause mode is
off, @samp{Forward} issues the ICS forward command, which moves
everyone's view of the game forward along the current line. If
Pause mode is on, @samp{Forward} only moves your local view forward,
and it will not go past the position that the game was in when
you paused.
@item Back to Start
@itemx <<
@cindex Back to Start, Menu Item
@cindex <<, Button
Jumps backward to the first remembered position in the game.
The @samp{[<<]} button and the @kbd{Alt+Home} key are equivalents.
In most modes, Back to Start only lets you look back at old
positions; it does not retract moves. This is the case if you
are playing against a local chess engine, playing or observing a game on
a chess server, or loading a game. If you select @samp{Back to Start} in any
of these situations, you will not be allowed to make different
moves. Use @samp{Retract Move} or @samp{Edit Game} if you want to change past
moves; or use Reset to start a new game.
If you are examining an ICS game, the behavior of @samp{Back to
Start} depends on whether XBoard is in Pause mode. If Pause mode
is off, @samp{Back to Start} issues the ICS @samp{backward 999999}
command, which backs up everyone's view of the game to the start and
allows you to make different moves. If Pause mode is on, @samp{Back
to Start} only backs up your local view.
@item Forward to End
@itemx >>
@cindex Forward to End, Menu Item
@cindex >>, Button
Jumps forward to the last remembered position in the game. The
@samp{[>>]} button and the @kbd{Alt+End} key are equivalents.
If you are examining an ICS game, the behavior of @samp{Forward to
End} depends on whether XBoard is in Pause mode. If Pause mode
is off, @samp{Forward to End} issues the ICS @samp{forward 999999}
command, which moves everyone's view of the game forward to the end of
the current line. If Pause mode is on, @samp{Forward to End} only moves
your local view forward, and it will not go past the position
that the game was in when you paused.
@end table
@node View Menu
@section View Menu
@cindex Menu, View
@cindex View Menu
@table @asis
@item Flip View
@cindex Flip View, Menu Item
Inverts your view of the chess board for the duration of the
current game. Starting a new game returns the board to normal.
The @kbd{F2} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Show Engine Output
@cindex Show Engine Output, Menu Item
Shows or hides a window in which the thinking output of any loaded engines
is displayed. The shifted @kbd{Alt+O} key is a keyboard equivalent.
XBoard will display lines of thinking output of the same depth ordered by score,
(highest score on top), rather than in the order the engine produced them.
Usually this amounts to the same, as a normal engine search will only find new PV
(and emit it as thinking output)
when it searches a move with a higher score than the previous variation.
But when the engine is in multi-variation mode this needs not always be true,
and it is more convenient for someone analyzing games to see the moves sorted by score.
The order in which the engine found them is only of interest to the engine author,
and can still be deduced from the time or node count printed with the line.
Right-clicking a line in this window, and then moving the mouse vertically with the
right button kept down, will make XBoard play through the PV listed there.
The use of the board window as 'variation board' will normally end when
you release the right button,
or when the opponent plays a move.
But beware: in Analysis mode, moves thus played out might be added to the game,
depending on the setting of the option 'Play moves of clicked PV',
when you initiate the click left of the PV in the score area.
The Engine-Output pane for each engine will contain a header displaying the
multi-PV status and a list of excluded moves in Analysis mode,
which are also responsive to right-clicking:
Clicking the words 'fewer' or 'more' will alter the number of variations
shown at each depth, through the engine's MultiPV option,
while clicking in between those and moving the mouse horizontally adjust
the option 'Multi-PV Margin'. (In so far the engines support those.)
@item Show Move History
@cindex Show Move History, Menu Item
Shows or hides a list of moves of the current game.
The shifted @kbd{Alt+H} key is a keyboard equivalent.
This list allows you to move the display to any earlier position in the game
by clicking on the corresponding move.
@item Show Evaluation Graph
@cindex Show Evaluation Graph, Menu Item
Shows or hides a window which displays a graph of how the engine score(s)
evolved as a function of the move number.
The shifted @kbd{Alt+E} key is a keyboard equivalent.
The title bar shows the score (and search depth at which it was obtained)
of the currently displayed position numerically.
Clicking on the graph will bring
the corresponding position in the board display.
A button 3 click will toggle the display mode between plain and differential
(showing the difference in score between successive half moves).
Using the mouse wheel over the window will change the scale of the
low-score region (from -1 to +1).
@item Show Game List
@cindex Show Game List, Menu Item
Shows or hides the list of games generated by the last @samp{Load Game}
command. The shifted @kbd{Alt+G} key is a keyboard equivalent.
The line describing each game is built from a selection of the PGN tags.
Which tags contribute, and in what order, can be changed by the @samp{Game list tags}
menu dialog, which can be popped up through the @samp{Tags} button below the Game List.
Display can be restricted to a sub-set of the games meeting certain criteria.
A text entry below the game list allows you to type a text that the game lines
must contain in order to be displayed.
Games can also be selected based on their Elo PGN tag,
as set in the @samp{Load Game Options} dialog, which can be popped up through the
@samp{Thresholds} button below the Game List.
Finally they can be selected based on containing a position similar to the one
currently displayed in the main window, by pressing the 'Position' button below
the Game List, (which searches the entire list for the position), or the 'Narrow'
button (which only searches the already-selected games).
What counts as similar enough to be selected can also be set in the
@samp{Load Game Options} dialog, and ranges from an exact match to just the
same material.
@item Tags
@cindex Tags, Menu Item
Pops up a window which shows the PGN (portable game notation)
tags for the current game.
For now this is a duplicate of the @samp{Edit Tags} item in the @samp{Edit} menu.
@item Comments
@cindex Comments, Menu Item
Pops up a window which shows any comments to or variations on the current move.
For now this is a duplicate of the @samp{Edit Comment} item in the @samp{Edit} menu.
@item ICS Input Box
@cindex ICS Input Box, Menu Item
If this option is set in ICS mode,
XBoard
creates an extra window that you can use for typing in ICS commands.
The input box is especially useful if you want to type in something long or do
some editing on your input, because output from ICS doesn't get mixed
in with your typing as it would in the main terminal window.
@item ICS/Chat Console
@cindex ICS Chat/Console, Menu Item
This menu item opens a window in which you can interact with the ICS,
so you don't have to use the messy xterm from which you launched XBoard
for that.
The window has a text entry at the bottom where you can type your
commands and messages unhindered by the stream of ICS output.
The latter will be displayed in a large pane above the input field,
the ICS Console.
Up and down arrow keys can be used to recall previous input lines.
Typing an <Esc> character in the input field transfers focus back
to the board window (so you could operate the menus there
through accelerator keys).
Typing a printable character in the board window transfers focus
back to the input field of the @samp{ICS Chat/Console} window.
@item Chats
@cindex Chats
There is a row of buttons at the top of the @samp{ICS Chat/Console} dialog,
which can be used to navigate between upto 5 'chats'
with other ICS users (or channels).
These will switch the window to 'chat mode',
where the ICS output pane is vertically split to divert messages from
a specific user or ICS channel to the lower half.
Lines typed in the input field will then be interpreted as messages
to be sent to that user or channel,
(automatically prefixed with the apporpriate ICS command and user name)
rather than as commands to the ICS.
Chats will keep collecting ICS output intended for them even when not displayed,
and their buttons will turn orange to alert the user there has been activity.
Typing <Tab> in the input field will switch to another active chat,
giving priority to those with content you have not seen yet.
@item New Chat
@cindex New Chat, Menu Item
Buttons for chats currently not assigned to a user or channel
will carry the text @samp{New Chat}, and pressing them will
switch to chat mode, enabling you to enter the user name or channel number
you want to use it for.
Typing Ctrl-N in the input field is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Chat partner
@cindex Chat partner, Menu Item
To (re-)assign a chat, write the name of your chat partner, the channel number,
or the words 'shouts', 'whispers', 'cshouts' in the @samp{Chat partner} text entry
(ending with <Enter>!).
Typing Ctrl-O in the input field at the bottom of the window will
open a chat with the person that last sent you a 'tell' that was printed
in the ICS Console output pane.
The @samp{ICS text menu} can contain a button @samp{Open Chat (name)}
that can be used to open a chat with as partner the word/number you
right-clicked in the output pane to pop up this menu.
@item End Chat
@cindex End Chat, Menu Item
This button, only visible when the chat pane is open,
will clear the @samp{Chat partner} field, so that the chat can be
assigned to a new user or channel.
Typing Ctrl-E in the input field is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Hide
@cindex Hide, Menu Item
This button, only visible when the chat pane is open,
will close the latter, so you can use the input field
to give commands to the ICS again.
Typing Ctrl-H in the input field is a keyboard equivalent.
@item ICS text menu
@cindex ICS text menu, Menu Item
Brings up a menu that is user-configurable through the @code{icsMenu} option.
Buttons in this menu can sent pre-configured commands directly to the ICS,
or can put partial commands in the input field of the @samp{ICS Chat/Console}
window, so that you can complete those with some text of your own before
sending them to the ICS by pressing Enter.
This menu item can also be popped up by right-clicking in the text memos
of the ICS Chat/Console window.
In that case the word that was clicked can be incorporated in the message
sent to the ICS. E.g. to challenge a player whose name you click for a game,
or prepare for sending him a message through a 'tell' commands.
@item Edit ICS menu
@cindex Edit ICS menu, Menu Item
Brings up an edit box with the definition of the @samp{ICS text menu},
so you can adapt its appearance to your needs.
The menu is defined by a semi-colon-separated list,
each button through a pair of items in it.
The first item of each pair is the text on the button,
the second the text to be sent when the button is pressed.
The word '$input' in the text will put that text in the input field
of the @samp{ICS Chat/Console} with the cursor in that place,
the word '$name' will be replaced by the word right-clicked
to pop up the text menu.
@item Edit Theme List
@cindex Edit Theme List
Brings up an edit box with the definitions of the themes
shown in the listbox of the @samp{Board} dialog,
so you can delete, re-order or alter themes defined previously.
@item Board
@cindex Board, Menu Item
Summons a dialog where you can customize the look of the chess board.
@item White Piece Color
@itemx Black Piece Color
@itemx Light Square Color
@itemx Dark Square Color
@itemx Highlight Color
@itemx Premove Highlight Color
@cindex Piece Color, Menu Item
@cindex Square Color, Menu Item
@cindex Highlight Color, Menu Item
These items set the color of pieces, board squares and move highlights
(borders or arrow).
Square colors are only used when the @samp{Use Board Textures} option is off,
the piece colors only when @samp{Use piece bitmaps with their own colors} is off.
You can type the color as hexadecimally encoded RGB value preceded by '#',
or adjust it through the R, G, B and D buttons to make it redder, greener, bluer
or darker.
A sample of the adjusted color will be displayed behind its text description;
pressing this colored button restores the default value for the color.
@item Flip Pieces Shogi Style
@cindex Flip Pieces Shogi Style, Menu Item
With this option on XBoard will swap white and black pieces,
when you flip the view of the board to make white play downward.
This should be used with piece themes that do not distinguish sides by color,
but by orientation.
@item Mono Mode
@cindex Mono Mode, Menu Item
This option sets XBoard to pure black-and-white display
(no grey scales, and thus no anti-aliasing).
@item Logo Size
@cindex Logo Size, Menu Item
Specifies the width of the engine logos displayed next to the clocks, in pixels.
Setting it to 0 suppresses the display of such logos.
The height of the logo will be half its width.
In the GTK build of XBoard any non-zero value is equivalent,
and the logos are always sized to 1/4 of the board width.
@item Line Gap
@cindex Line Gap, Menu Item
This option specifies the width of the grid lines that separate the squares,
which change color on highlighting the move.
Setting it to 0 suppresses these lines, which in general looks better,
but hides the square-border highlights,
so that you would have to rely on other forms of highlighting.
Setting the value to -1 makes XBoard choose a width by itself,
depending on the square size.
@item Use Board Textures
@itemx Light-Squares Texture File
@itemx Dark-Squares Texture File
@cindex Use Board Texture, Menu Item
@cindex Texture Files, Menu Item
When the option @samp{Use Board Textures} is set,
the squares will not be drawn as evenly colored surfaces,
but will be cut from a texture image, as specified by the
@samp{Texture Files}.
Separate images can be used for light and dark squares.
XBoard will try to cut the squares out of the texture image
with as little overlap as possible, so they all look different.
The name of the texture file can contain a size hint,
e.g. @code{xqboard-9x10.png}, alerting XBoard to the fact that
it contains a whole-board image, out of which squares have to
be cut in register with the nominal sub-division.
@item Use external piece bitmaps with their own color
@cindex Draw pieces with their own colors, Menu Item
When this option is on XBoard will ignore the piece-color settings,
and draw the piece images in their original colors.
The piece-color settings would only work well for evenly colored
pieces, such as the default theme.
@item Directory with Pieces Images
@cindex Piece-Image Directory, Menu Item
When a directory is specified here, XBoard will first look for
piece images (SVG or PNG files) in that directory,
and fall back on the image from the default theme only for
images it cannot find there.
An image file called White/BlackTile in the directory will be prefered
as fall-back for missing pieces over the default image, however.
@item Selectable themes
@itemx New name for current theme
@cindex Board Themes, Menu Item
@cindex Theme name, Menu Item
When a theme name is specified while pressing 'OK',
the combination of settings specified in the dialog
will be stored in XBoard's list of themes,
which will be saved with the other options in the settings file
(as the @code{themeNames} option).
This name will then appear in the selection listbox next time
you open the dialog,
so that you can recall the entire combination of settings
by double-clicking it.
Here you can specify the directory from which piece images should be taken,
when you don't want to use the built-in piece images
(see @code{pieceImageDirectory} option),
external images to be used for the board squares
(@code{liteBackTextureFile} and @code{darkBackTextureFile} options),
and square and piece colors for the default pieces.
The current combination of these settings can be assigned a 'theme' name
by typing one in the text entry in the lower-left of the dialog,
and closing the latter with OK.
It will then appear in the themes listbox next time you open the dialog,
where you can recall the complete settings combination with a double-click.
@item Fonts
@cindex Fonts, Menu Item
Pops up a dialog where you can set the fonts used in the main elements of various windows.
Pango font names can be typed for each window type,
and behind each text entry there are buttons to adjust the point size,
and toggle the 'bold' or 'italic' attributes of the font.
@item Game List Tags
@cindex Game List Tags, Menu Item
a duplicate of the Game List dialog in the Options menu.
@end table
@node Mode Menu
@section Mode Menu
@cindex Menu, Mode
@cindex Mode Menu
@table @asis
@item Machine White
@cindex Machine White, Menu Item
Tells the chess engine to play White.
The @kbd{Ctrl-W} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Machine Black
@cindex Machine Black, Menu Item
Tells the chess engine to play Black.
The @kbd{Ctrl-B} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Two Machines
@cindex Two Machines, Menu Item
Plays a game between two chess engines.
The @kbd{Ctrl-T} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Analysis Mode
@cindex Analysis Mode, Menu Item
@cindex null move
@cindex move exclusion
XBoard tells the chess engine to start analyzing the current game/position
and shows you the analysis as you move pieces around.
The @kbd{Ctrl-A} key is a keyboard equivalent.
Note: Some chess engines do not support Analysis mode.
To set up a position to analyze, you do the following:
1. Set up the position by any means. (E.g. using @samp{Edit Position}
mode, pasing a FEN or loading a game and stepping to the position.)
2. Select Analysis Mode from the Mode Menu to start the analysis.
You can now play legal moves to create follow-up positions for the
engine to analyze, while the moves will be remembered as a stored game,
and then step backward through this game to take the moves back.
Note that you can also click on the clocks to set the opposite
side to move (adding a so-called @samp{null move} to the game).
You can also tell the engine to exclude some moves from analysis.
(Engines that do not support the exclude-moves feature will
ignore this, however.)
The general way to do this is to play the move you want to exclude
starting with a double click on the piece.
When you use drag-drop moving, the piece you grab with a double click
will also remain on its square, to show you that you are not really
making the move, but just forbid it from the current position.
Playing a thus excluded move a second time will include it again.
Excluded moves will be listed as text in a header line in the
Engine Output window, and you can also re-include them by
right-clicking them there.
This header line will also contain the words 'best' and 'tail';
right-clicking those will exclude the currently best move,
or all moves not explicitly listed in the header line.
Once you leave the current position all memory of excluded
moves will be lost when you return there.
Selecting this menu item while already in @samp{Analysis Mode} will
toggle the participation of the second engine in the analysis.
The output of this engine will then be shown in the lower pane
of the Engine Output window.
The analysis function can also be used when observing games on an ICS
with an engine loaded (zippy mode); the engine then will analyze
the positions as they occur in the observed game.
@item Analyze Game
@cindex Analyze Game, Menu Item
This option subjects the currently loaded game to automatic
analysis by the loaded engine.
The @kbd{Ctrl-G} key is a keyboard equivalent.
XBoard will start auto-playing the game from the currently displayed position,
while the engine is analyzing the current position.
The game will be annotated with the results of these analyses.
In particlar, the score and depth will be added as a comment,
and the PV will be added as a variation.
Normally the analysis would stop after reaching the end of the game.
But when a game is loaded from a multi-game file
while @samp{Analyze Game} was already switched on,
the analysis will continue with the next game in the file
until the end of the file is reached (or you switch to another mode).
The time the engine spends on analyzing each move can be controlled
through the command-line option @samp{-timeDelay},
which can also be set from the @samp{Load Game Options} menu dialog.
Note: Some chess engines do not support Analysis mode.
@item Edit Game
Duplicate of the item in the Edit menu.
Note that @samp{Edit Game} is the idle mode of XBoard, and can be used
to get you out of other modes. E.g. to stop analyzing, stop a game
between two engines or stop editing a position.
@item Edit Position
Duplicate of the item in the Edit menu.
@item Training
@cindex Training, Menu Item
Training mode lets you interactively guess the moves of a game for one
of the players. You guess the next move of the game by playing the
move on the board. If the move played matches the next move of the
game, the move is accepted and the opponent's response is auto-played.
If the move played is incorrect, an error message is displayed. You
can select this mode only while loading a game (that is, after
selecting @samp{Load Game} from the File menu). While XBoard is in
@samp{Training} mode, the navigation buttons are disabled.
@item ICS Client
@cindex ICS Client, Menu Item
This is the normal mode when XBoard
is connected to a chess server. If you have moved into
Edit Game or Edit Position mode, you can select this option to get out.
To use xboard in ICS mode, run it in the foreground with the -ics
option, and use the terminal you started it from to type commands and
receive text responses from the chess server. See
@ref{Chess Servers} below for more information.
XBoard activates some special position/game editing features when you
use the @kbd{examine} or @kbd{bsetup} commands on ICS and you have
@samp{ICS Client} selected on the Mode menu. First, you can issue the
ICS position-editing commands with the mouse. Move pieces by dragging
with mouse button 1. To drop a new piece on a square, press mouse
button 2 or 3 over the square. This brings up a menu of white pieces
(button 2) or black pieces (button 3). Additional menu choices let
you empty the square or clear the board. Click on the White or Black
clock to set the side to play. You cannot set the side to play or
drag pieces to arbitrary squares while examining on ICC, but you can
do so in @kbd{bsetup} mode on FICS. In addition, the menu commands
@samp{Forward}, @samp{Backward}, @samp{Pause}, and @samp{Stop Examining}
have special functions in this mode; see below.
@item Machine Match
@cindex Machine match, Menu Item
Starts a match between two chess programs,
with a number of games and other parameters set through
the @samp{Tournament Options} menu dialog.
When a match is already running, selecting this item will make
XBoard drop out of match mode after the current game finishes.
@item Pause
@cindex Pause, Menu Item
Pauses updates to the board, and if you are playing against a chess engine,
also pauses your clock. To continue, select @samp{Pause} again, and the
display will automatically update to the latest position.
The @samp{P} button and keyboard @kbd{Pause} key are equivalents.
If you select Pause when you are playing against a chess engine and
it is not your move, the chess engine's clock
will continue to run and it will eventually make a move, at which point
both clocks will stop. Since board updates are paused, however,
you will not see the move until you exit from Pause mode (or select Forward).
This behavior is meant to simulate adjournment with a sealed move.
If you select Pause while you are observing or examining a game on a
chess server, you can step backward and forward in the current history
of the examined game without affecting the other observers and
examiners, and without having your display jump forward to the latest
position each time a move is made. Select Pause again to reconnect
yourself to the current state of the game on ICS.
If you select @samp{Pause} while you are loading a game, the game stops
loading. You can load more moves manually by selecting @samp{Forward}, or
resume automatic loading by selecting @samp{Pause} again.
@end table
@node Action Menu
@section Action Menu
@cindex Menu, Action
@cindex Action, Menu
@table @asis
@item Accept
@cindex Accept, Menu Item
Accepts a pending match offer.
The @kbd{F3} key is a keyboard equivalent.
If there is more than one offer
pending, you will have to type in a more specific command
instead of using this menu choice.
@item Decline
@cindex Decline, Menu Item
Declines a pending offer (match, draw, adjourn, etc.).
The @kbd{F4} key is a keyboard equivalent. If there
is more than one offer pending, you will have to type in a more
specific command instead of using this menu choice.
@item Call Flag
@cindex Call Flag, Menu Item
Calls your opponent's flag, claiming a win on time, or claiming
a draw if you are both out of time.
The @kbd{F5} key is a keyboard equivalent.
You can also call your
opponent's flag by clicking on his clock.
@item Draw
@cindex Draw, Menu Item
Offers a draw to your opponent, accepts a pending draw offer
from your opponent, or claims a draw by repetition or the 50-move
rule, as appropriate. The @kbd{F6} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Adjourn
@cindex Adjourn, Menu Item
Asks your opponent to agree to adjourning the current game, or
agrees to a pending adjournment offer from your opponent.
The @kbd{F7} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Abort
@cindex Abort, Menu Item
Asks your opponent to agree to aborting the current game, or
agrees to a pending abort offer from your opponent.
The @kbd{F8} key is a keyboard equivalent. An aborted
game ends immediately without affecting either player's rating.
@item Resign
@cindex Resign, Menu Item
Resigns the game to your opponent. The @kbd{F9} key is a
keyboard equivalent.
@item Stop Observing
@cindex Stop Observing, Menu Item
Ends your participation in observing a game, by issuing the ICS
observe command with no arguments. ICS mode only.
The @kbd{F10} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Stop Examining
@cindex Stop Examining, Menu Item
Ends your participation in examining a game, by issuing the ICS
unexamine command. ICS mode only.
The @kbd{F11} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Upload to Examine
@cindex Upload to Examine, Menu Item
Create an examined game of the proper variant on the ICS,
and send the game there that is currenty loaded in XBoard
(e.g. through pasting or loading from file).
You must be connected to an ICS for this to work.
@item Adjudicate to White
@itemx Adjudicate to Black
@itemx Adjudicate Draw
@cindex Adjudicate to White, Menu Item
@cindex Adjudicate to Black, Menu Item
@cindex Adjudicate Draw, Menu Item
Terminate an ongoing game in Two-Machines mode (including match mode),
with as result a win for white, for black, or a draw, respectively.
The PGN file of the game will accompany the result string
by the comment "user adjudication".
@end table
@node Engine Menu
@section Engine Menu
@cindex Engine Menu
@cindex Menu, Engine
@table @asis
@item Edit Engine List
@cindex Edit Engine List, Menu Item
Opens a window that shows the list of engines registered for use
by XBoard, together with the options that would be used with them
when you would select them from the @samp{Load Engine} dialogs.
You can then edit this list, e.g. for re-ordering the engines,
or adding uncommon options needed by this engine
(e.g. to cure non-compliant behavior).
By editing you can also organize the engines into collapsible groups.
By sandwiching a number of engine lines between lines "# NAME" and "# end",
the thus enclosed engines will not initially appear in engine listboxes
of other dialogs, but only the single line "# NAME"
(where NAME can be an arbitrary text) will appear in their place.
Selecting that line will then show the enclosed engines in the listbox,
which recursively can contain other groups.
The line with the group name will still present as a header,
and selecting that line will collapse the group again,
and makes the listbox go back to displaying the surrounding group.
@item Load New 1st Engine
@itemx Load New 2nd Engine
@cindex Load New Engine, Menu Item
Pops up a dialog where you can select or specify an engine to be loaded.
You can even replace engines during a game, without disturbing that game.
(Beware that after loading an engine, XBoard will always be in Edit Game mode,
so you will have to tell the new engine what to do before it does anything!)
@table @asis
@item Select engine from list
@cindex Select engine, Menu Item
The listbox shows the engines registered for use with XBoard before.
(This means XBoard has information on the engine type, whether it plays book etc.
in the engine list stored in its settings file.)
Double-clicking an engine here will load it and close the dialog.
The list can also contain groups, indicated by a starting '#' sign.
Double-clicking such a group will 'open' it,
and show the group contents in the listbox instead of the total list,
with the group name as header.
Double-clicking the header will 'close' the group again.
@item Nickname
@itemx Use nickname in PGN player tags of engine-engine games
@cindex Nickname, Menu Item
When a @samp{Nickname} is specified, the engine will appear under this name
in the @samp{Select Engine} listbox.
Otherwise the name there will be a tidied version of the engine command.
The user can specify if the nickname is also to be used in PGN tags;
normally the name engines report theselves would be used there.
@item Engine Command
@cindex Engine Command, Menu Item
The command needed to start the engine from the command line.
For compliantly installed engine this is usually just a single word,
the name of the engine package (e.g. 'crafty' or 'stockfish').
Some engines need additional parameters on the command line.
For engines that are not in a place where the system would expect them
a full pathname can be specified, and usually the browse button
for this oprion is the easiest way to obtain that.
@item Engine Directory
@cindex Engine Directory, Menu Item
Compliant engines could run from any directory,
and by default this option is proposed as '.', the current directory.
If a (path)name is specified here, XBoard will start the engine
in that directory.
If you make the field empty, it will try to derive the directory
from the engine command (if that was a path name).
@item UCI
@cindex UCI, Menu Item
When the @samp{UCI} checkbox is ticked XBoard will assume
the engine is of UCI type, and will invoke the corresponding adapter
(as specified in the @code{adapterCommand} option stored in its
settings file)to use it.
By default this adapter is Polyglot,
which must be installed from a separate package!
@item USI/UCCI
@cindex USI/UCCI, Menu Item
Ticking this checkbox informs XBoard that the engine is of USI or UCCI type
(as Shogi or Xiangqi engines often are).
This makes XBoard invoke an adapter to run the engines,
as specified by the @code{uxiAdapter} option stored in its settings file.
The UCI2WB program is an adapter that can handle both these engine types,
as well as UCI.
@item WB protocol v1
@cindex WB protocol v1, Menu Item
Ticking this checkbox informs XBoard the engine is using an old version (1)
of the communication protocol, so that it won't respond to a request
to interrogate its properties.
XBoard then won't even try that, saving you a wait of several seconds
each time the engine is started.
Do not use this on state-of-the-art engines,
as it would prevent XBoard from interrogating its capabilities,
so that many of its features might not work!
@item Must not use GUI book
@cindex Use GUI book, Menu Item
By default XBoard assumes engines are responsible for their own opening book,
but unticking this option makes XBoard consult its own book
(as per @samp{Opening-Book Filename}) on behalf of the engine.
@item Add this engine to the list
@cindex Add engine, Menu Item
By default XBoard would add the engine you specified,
with all the given options to its list of registered engines
(kept in its settings file), when you press 'OK'.
Next time you could then simply select it from the listbox,
or use the command "xboard -fe NICKNAME" to start XBoard with the
engine and accompanying options.
New engines are always added at the end of the existing list,
or, when you have opened a group in the @samp{Select Engine} listbox,
at the end of that group.
But can be re-ordered later with the aid
of the @samp{Edit Engine List} menu item.
When you untick this checkbox before pressing 'OK'
the engine will be loaded, but will not be added to the engine list.
@item Force current variant with this engine
@cindex Force variant with engine, Menu Item
Ticking this option will make XBoard automatically start the engine
in the current variant, even when XBoard was set for a different
variant when you loaded the engine.
Useful when the engine plays multiple variants,
and you specifically want to play one different from its primary one.
@end table
@item Engine #1 Settings
@itemx Engine #2 Settings
@cindex Engine #N Settings, Menu Item
Pop up a menu dialog to alter the settings specific to the applicable engine.
For each parameter the engine allows to be set,
a control element will appear in this dialog that can be used to alter the value.
Depending on the type of parameter (text string, number, multiple choice,
on/off switch, instantaneous signal) the appropriate control will appear,
with a description next to it.
XBoard has no idea what these values mean; it just passes them on to the engine.
How this dialog looks is completely determined by the engine,
and XBoard just passes it on to the user.
Many engines do not have any parameters that can be set by the user,
and in that case the dialog will be empty (except for the OK and cancel buttons).
UCI engines usually have many parameters. (But these are only visible with
a sufficiently modern version of the Polyglot adapter needed to run UCI engines,
e.g. Polyglot 2.0.1.) For native XBoard engines this is less common.
@item Common Settings
@cindex Common Settings, Menu Item
Pops up a menu dialog where you can set some engine parameters common to most engines,
such as hash-table size, tablebase cache size, maximum number of processors
that SMP engines can use.
The shifted @kbd{Alt+U} key is a keyboard equivalent.
Older XBoard/WinBoard engines might not respond to these settings,
but UCI engines always should.
@item Maximum Number of CPUs per Engine
@cindex Max. Number of CPUs, Menu Item
Specifies the number of search threads any engine can maximally use.
Do not set it to a number larger than the number of cores your computer has.
(Or half of it when you want two engines to run simultaneously,
as in a Two-Machines game with @samp{Ponder Next Move} on.)
@item Polyglot Directory
@item Hash-Table Size
@cindex Hash-Table Size
Specifies the maximum amount of memory (RAM) each engine is allowed to use
for storing info on positions it already searched,
so it would not have to search them again.
Do not set it so that it is more than half
(or if you use two engines, more than a quarter)
of the memory your computer has,
or it would slow the engines down by an extreme amount.
@item EGTB Path
@cindex EGTB Path, Menu Item
Sets the value of the @code{egtFormats} option, which specifies
where on your computer the files for End-Game Tables are stored.
It must be a comma-separated list of path names,
the path for each EGT flavor prefixed with the name of the latter
and a colon. E.g. "nalimov:/home/egt/dtm,syzygy:/home/egt/dtz50".
The path names after the colon will be sent to the engines
that say they can use the corresponding EGT flavor.
@item EGTB Cache Size
@cindex EGTB Cache Size, Menu Item
Specifies the amount of memory the engine should use to
buffer end-game information.
Together with the @samp{Hash-Table Size} this determines how
much memory the engine is allowed to use in total.
@item Use GUI Book
@itemx Opening-Book Filename
@cindex Use GUI Book, Menu Item
@cindex Opening-Book Filename, Menu Item
The @samp{Opening-Book Filename} specifies an opening book
in Polyglot format (usually a .bin file),
from which XBoard can play moves on behalf of the engine.
This is also the book file on which the @samp{Edit Book}
and @samp{Save Games as Book} menu items operate.
A checkbox @samp{Use GUI Book} can be used to temporarily
disable the book without losing the setting.
(This does not prevent editing or saving games on it!)
@item Book Depth
@itemx Book Variety
@cindex Book Depth, Menu Item
@cindex Book Variety, Menu Item
The way moves are selected from the book can be controlled by two options.
@samp{Book Depth} controls for how deep into the game the book
will be consulted (measured in full moves).
@samp{Book Variety} controls the likelihood of playing weaker moves.
When the variety is set to 50, moves will be played with the probability
specified in the book.
When set to 0, only the move(s) with the highest probability will be played.
When set to 100, all listed moves will be played with equal pobability.
Other settings interpolate between that.
@item Engine #1 Has Own Book
@itemx Engine #2 Has Own Book
@cindex Engine Has Own Book
These checkboxes control on a per-engine basis
whether XBoard will consult the opening book for them.
If ticked, XBoard will never play moves from its GUI book,
giving the engine the opportunity to use its own.
These options are automatically set whenever you load an engine,
based on the setting of @samp{Must not use GUI book}
when you installed that through the @samp{Load Engine} menu dialog.
@item Hint
@cindex Hint, Menu Item
Displays a move hint from the chess engine.
@item Book
@cindex Book, Menu Item
Displays a list of possible moves from the chess engine's opening
book. The exact format depends on what chess engine you are using.
With GNU Chess 4, the first column gives moves, the second column
gives one possible response for each move, and the third column shows
the number of lines in the book that include the move from the first
column. If you select this option and nothing happens, the chess
engine is out of its book or does not support this feature.
@item Move Now
@cindex Move Now, Menu Item
Forces the chess engine to move immediately. Chess engine mode only.
The @kbd{Ctrl-M} key is a keyboard equivalent.
Many engines won't respond to this.
@item Retract Move
@cindex Retract Move, Menu Item
Retracts your last move. In chess engine mode, you can do this only
after the chess engine has replied to your move; if the chess engine is still
thinking, use @samp{Move Now} first. In ICS mode, @samp{Retract Move}
issues the command @samp{takeback 1} or @samp{takeback 2}
depending on whether it is your opponent's move or yours.
The @kbd{Ctrl-X} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Recently Used Engines
@cindex Recently Used Engines, In Menu
At the bottom of the engine menu there can be a list of names
of engines that you recently loaded through the Load Engine menu dialog
in previous sessions.
Clicking on such a name will load that engine as first engine,
so you won't have to search for it in your list of installed engines,
if that is very long.
The maximum number of displayed engine names is set by the
@code{recentEngines} command-line option.
@end table
@node Options Menu
@section Options Menu
@cindex Menu, Options
@cindex Options Menu
@section Mute all Sounds
@cindex Mute sounds, Menu Item
Ticking this menu item toggles all sounds XBoard can make on or off,
without losing their definitions.
@section General Options
@cindex General Options, Menu Item
The following items to set option values appear in the dialog
summoned by the general Options menu item.
@table @asis
@item Absolute Analysis Scores
@cindex Absolute Analysis Scores, Menu Item
Controls if scores on the Engine Output window during analysis
will be printed from the white or the side-to-move point-of-view.
@item Almost Always Queen
@cindex Almost Always Queen, Menu Item
If this option is on, 7th-rank pawns automatically change into
Queens when you pick them up,
and when you drag them to the promotion square and release them there,
they will promote to that.
But when you drag such a pawn backwards first,
its identity will start to cycle through the other available pieces.
This will continue until you start to move it forward;
at which point the identity of the piece will be fixed,
so that you can safely put it down on the promotion square.
If this option is off, what happens depends on the
option @code{alwaysPromoteToQueen},
which would force promotion to Queen when true.
Otherwise XBoard would bring up a dialog
box whenever you move a pawn to the last rank, asking what piece
you want to promote to.
@item Animate Dragging
@cindex Animate Dragging, Menu Item
If Animate Dragging is on, while you are dragging a piece with the
mouse, an image of the piece follows the mouse cursor.
If Animate Dragging is off, there is no visual feedback while you are
dragging a piece, but if Animate Moving is on, the move will be
animated when it is complete.
@item Animate Moving
@cindex Animate Moving, Menu Item
If Animate Moving is on, all piece moves are animated. An image of the
piece is shown moving from the old square to the new square when the
move is completed (unless the move was already animated by Animate Dragging).
If Animate Moving is off, a moved piece instantly disappears from its
old square and reappears on its new square when the move is complete.
The shifted @kbd{Ctrl-A} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Auto Flag
@cindex Auto Flag, Menu Item
If this option is on and one player runs out of time
before the other,
XBoard
will automatically call his flag, claiming a win on time.
The shifted @kbd{Ctrl-F} key is a keyboard equivalent.
In ICS mode, Auto Flag will only call your opponent's flag, not yours,
and the ICS may award you a draw instead of a win if you have
insufficient mating material. In local chess engine mode,
XBoard
may call either player's flag.
@item Auto Flip View
@cindex Auto Flip View, Menu Item
If the Auto Flip View option is on when you start a game, the board
will be automatically oriented so that your pawns move from the bottom
of the window towards the top.
If you are playing a game on an ICS, the board is always
oriented at the start of the game so that your pawns move from
the bottom of the window towards the top. Otherwise, the starting
orientation is determined by the @code{flipView} command line option;
if it is false (the default), White's pawns move from bottom to top
at the start of each game; if it is true, Black's pawns move from
bottom to top. @xref{User interface options}.
@item Blindfold
@cindex Blindfold, Menu Item
If this option is on, XBoard displays the board as usual but does
not display pieces or move highlights. You can still move in the
usual way (with the mouse or by typing moves in ICS mode), even though
the pieces are invisible.
@item Drop Menu
@cindex Drop Menu, Menu Item
Controls if right-clicking the board in crazyhouse / bughouse
will pop up a menu to drop a piece on the clicked square
(old, deprecated behavior)
or allow you to step through an engine PV
(new, recommended behavior).
@item Enable Variation Trees
@cindex Enable Variation Trees, Menu Item
If this option is on, playing a move in Edit Game or Analyze mode
while keeping the Shift key pressed will start a new variation.
You can then recall the previous line through the @samp{Revert} menu item.
When off, playing a move will truncate the game and append the move
irreversibly.
@item Headers in Engine Output Window
@cindex Headers in Engine Output Window, Menu Item
Controls the presence of column headers above the variations and
associated information printed by the engine, on which you can issue
button 3 clicks to open or close the columns.
Available columns are search depth, score, node count, time used,
tablebase hits, search speed and selective search depth.
@item Hide Thinking
@cindex Hide Thinking, Menu Item
If this option is off, the chess engine's notion of the score and best
line of play from the current position is displayed as it is
thinking. The score indicates how many pawns ahead (or if negative,
behind) the chess engine thinks it is. In matches between two
machines, the score is prefixed by @samp{W} or @samp{B} to indicate
whether it is showing White's thinking or Black's, and only the thinking
of the engine that is on move is shown.
The shifted @kbd{Ctrl-H} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Highlight Last Move
@cindex Highlight Last Move, Menu Item
If Highlight Last Move is on, after a move is made, the starting and
ending squares remain highlighted. In addition, after you use Backward
or Back to Start, the starting and ending squares of the last move to
be unmade are highlighted.
@item Highlight with Arrow
@cindex Highlight with Arrow, Menu Item
Causes the highlighting described in Highlight Last Move to be done
by drawing an arrow between the highlighted squares,
so that it is visible even when the width of the grid lines is set to zero.
@item One-Click Moving
@cindex One-Click Moving, Menu Item
If this option is on, XBoard does not wait for you to click both the
from- and the to-square, or drag the piece, but performs a move as soon
as it is uniqely specified.
This applies to clicking an own piece that only has a single legal move,
clicking an empty square or opponent piece where only one of your pieces
can move (or capture) to.
Furthermore, a double-click on a piece that can only make a single capture
will cause that capture to be made.
Promoting a Pawn by clicking its to-square will suppress the promotion
popup or other methods for selecting an under-promotion,
and make it promote to Queen.
@item Periodic Updates
@cindex Periodic Updates, Menu Item
If this option is off (or if
you are using a chess engine that does not support periodic updates),
the analysis window
will only be updated when the analysis changes. If this option is
on, the Analysis Window will be updated every two seconds.
@item Play Move(s) of Clicked PV
@cindex Play Move(s) of Clicked PV, Menu Item
If this option is on, right-clicking on the first move of a PV
or on the data fields left of it in the Engine Output window
during Analyze mode will cause the first move of that PV to be played.
You could also play more than one (or no) PV move by moving the mouse
to engage in the PV walk such a right-click will start,
to seek out another position along the PV where you want to continue
the analysis, before releasing the mouse button.
Clicking on later moves of the PV only temporarily show the moves
for as long you keep the mouse button down,
without adding them to the game.
@item Ponder Next Move
@cindex Ponder Next Move, Menu Item
If this option is off, the chess engine will think only when it is on
move. If the option is on, the engine will also think while waiting
for you to make your move.
The shifted @kbd{Ctrl-P} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@item Popup Exit Message
@cindex Popup Exit Message, Menu Item
If this option is on, when XBoard wants to display a message just
before exiting, it brings up a modal dialog box and waits for you to
click OK before exiting. If the option is off, XBoard prints the
message to standard error (the terminal) and exits immediately.
@item Popup Move Errors
@cindex Popup Move Errors, Menu Item
If this option is off, when you make an error in moving (such as
attempting an illegal move or moving the wrong color piece), the
error message is displayed in the message area. If the option is
on, move errors are displayed in small pop-up windows like other errors.
You can dismiss an error pop-up either by clicking its OK button or by
clicking anywhere on the board, including down-clicking to start a move.
@item Scores in Move List
@cindex Scores in Move List, Menu Item
If this option is on, XBoard will display the depth and score
of engine moves in the Move List, in the format of a PGN comment.
@item Show Coords
@cindex Show Coords, Menu Item
If this option is on, XBoard displays algebraic coordinates
along the board's left and bottom edges.
@item Show Target Squares
@cindex Show Target Squares, Menu Item
If this option is on, all squares a piece that is 'picked up' with the mouse
can legally move to are highighted with a fat colored dot in
yellow (non-captures) or red (captures).
Special moves might have other colors
(e.g. magenta for promotion, cyan for a partial move).
Legality testing must be on for XBoard to know how the piece moves,
but with legality testing off some engines would offer this information.
@item Sticky Windows
@cindex Sticky Windows, Menu Item
Controls whether the auxiliary windows such as Engine Output, Move History
and Evaluation Graph should keep touching XBoard's main window when
you move the latter.
@item Test Legality
@cindex Test Legality, Menu Item
If this option is on, XBoard tests whether the moves you try to make
with the mouse are legal and refuses to let you make an illegal move.
The shifted @kbd{Ctrl-L} key is a keyboard equivalent.
Moves loaded from a file with @samp{Load Game} are also checked. If
the option is off, all moves are accepted, but if a local chess engine
or the ICS is active, they will still reject illegal moves. Turning
off this option is useful if you are playing a chess variant with
rules that XBoard does not understand. (Bughouse, suicide, and wild
variants where the king may castle after starting on the d file are
generally supported with Test Legality on.)
@item Top-Level Dialogs
@cindex Top-Level Dialogs, Menu Item
Controls whether the auxiliary windows will appear as icons in the
task bar and independently controllable, or whether they open and
minimize all together with the main window.
@item Flash Moves
@itemx Flash Rate
@cindex Flash Moves, Menu Item
@cindex Flash Rate, Menu Item
If this option is non-zero, whenever a move is completed,
the moved piece flashes the specified number of times.
The flash-rate setting determines how rapidly this flashing occurs.
@item Animation Speed
@cindex Animation Speed, Menu Item
Determines the duration (in msec) of an animation step,
when @samp{Animate Moving} is swiched on.
@item Zoom factor in Evaluation Graph
@cindex Zoom factor in Evaluation Graph, Menu Item
Sets the value of the @code{evalZoom} option,
indicating the factor by which the score interval (-1,1) should be
blown up on the vertical axis of the Evaluation Graph.
@end table
@section Time Control
@cindex Time Control, Menu Item
Pops up a sub-menu where you can set the time-control parameters interactively.
The shifted @kbd{Alt+T} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@table @asis
@item classical
@cindex classical, Menu Item
Selects classical TC,
where the game is devided into sessions of a certain number of moves,
and after each session the start time is again added to the clocks.
@item incremental
@cindex incremental, Menu Item
Selects a TC mode where the game will start with a base time on the clocks,
and after every move an 'increment' will be added to it.
@item fixed max
@cindex fixed max, Menu Item
Selects a TC mode where you have to make each move within a given time,
and any left-over time is not carried over to the next move.
@item Divide entered times by 60
@cindex Divide entered times by 60, Menu Item
To allow entering of sub-minute initial time or sub-second increment,
you can tick this checkbox.
The initial time can then be entered in seconds,
and the increment in units of 1/60 second.
@item Moves per session
@cindex Moves per session, Menu Item
Sets the duration of a session for classical time control.
@item Initial time
@cindex Initial time, Menu Item
Time initially on the clock in classical or incremental time controls.
In classical time controls this time will also be added to the clock
at the start of ach new session.
@item Increment or max
@cindex Increment or max, Menu Item
Time to be added to the clock after every move in incremental TC mode.
Fore 'fixed maximum' TC mode, the clock will be set to this time
before every move, irrespective of how much was left on that clock.
@item Time-Odds factors
@cindex Time-Odds factors, Menu Item
When these options are set to 1 the clocks of the players will be set
according to the other specified TC parameters.
Players can be given unequal times by specifying a time-odds factor
for one of them (or a different factor for both of them).
Any time received by that player will then be divided by that factor.
@end table
@section Adjudications
@cindex Adjudications, Menu Item
Pops up a sub-menu where you can enable or disable various adjudications
that XBoard can perform in engine-engine games.
The shifted @kbd{Alt+J} key is a keyboard equivalent.
@table @asis
@item Detect all Mates
@cindex Detect all Mates, Menu Item
When this option is set
XBoard will terminate the game on checkmate or stalemate,
even if the engines would not do so.
Only works when @samp{Test Legality} is on.
@item Verify Engine Result Claims
@cindex Verify Engine Result Claims, Menu Item
When this option is set
XBoard will verify engine result claims,
(forfeiting engines that make false claims),
rather than naively beleiving the engine.
Only works when @samp{Test Legality} is on.
@item Draw if Insufficient Mating Material
@cindex Draw if Insufficient Mating Material, Menu Item
When this option is set
XBoard will terminate games with a draw result
when so little material is left
that checkmate is not longer possible.
In normal Chess this applies to KK, KNK, KBK
and some positions with multiple Bishops all on the same
square shade.
Only works when @samp{Test Legality} is on.
@item Adjudicate Trivial Draws
@cindex Adjudicate Trivial Draws, Menu Item
When this option is set
XBoard will terminate games with a draw result
in positions that could only be won against an idiot.
In normal Chess this applies to KNNK, KRKR, KBKN, KNKN,
and KBKB with Bishops on different square shades.
KQKQ will also be adjudicated a draw (possibly unjustly so).
Only works when @samp{Test Legality} is on.
@item N-Move Rule
@cindex N-Move Rule, Menu Item
When this option is set to a value differnt from zero
XBoard will terminate games with a draw result
after the specified number of reversible moves
(i.e. without captures or pawn pushes) is made.
@item N-fold Repeats
@cindex N-fold Repeats, Menu Item
When this option is set to a value larger than 1,
XBoard will terminate games with a draw result when
the same position has occurred the specified number of times.
@item Draw after N Moves Total
@cindex Draw after N Moves Total, Menu Item
When this option is set to a value different from zero,
XBoard will terminate games with a draw result
after that many moves have been played.
Useful in automated engine-engine matches,
to prevent one game between stubborn engines will soak up
all your computer time.
@item Win / Loss Threshold
@cindex Win / Loss Threshold, Menu Item
When this option is set to a value different from zero,
XBoard will terminate games as a win when both engines
agree the score is above the specified value
(interpreted as centi-Pawn)
for three successive moves.
@item Negate Score of Engine #1
@itemx Negate Score of Engine #2
@cindex Negate Score of Engine, Menu Item
These options should be used with engines
that report scores from the white point of view,
rather than the side-to-move POV as XBoard would otherwise
assume when adjudicating games based on the engine score.
When the engine is installed with the extra option
@code{firstScoreIsAbs} true in the engine list
the option would be automatically set when the engine is
loaded throuhgh the Engine menu,
or with the @code{fe} or @code{se} command-line option.
@end table
@section ICS Options
@cindex ICS Options, Menu Item
Pops up a menu dialog where options can be set that affect
playing against an Internet Chess Server.
@table @asis
@item Auto-Kibitz
@cindex Auto-Kibitz, Menu Item
Setting this option when playing with or aginst a chess program on an ICS
will cause the last line of thinking output of the engine before its move
to be sent to the ICS in a kibitz command.
In addition, any kibitz message received through the ICS from
an opponent chess program will be diverted to the engine-output window,
(and suppressed in the console),
where you can play through its PV by right-clicking it.
@item Auto-Comment
@cindex Auto-Comment, Menu Item
If this option is on, any remarks made on ICS while you are observing or
playing a game are recorded as a comment on the current move. This includes
remarks made with the ICS commands @kbd{say}, @kbd{tell}, @kbd{whisper},
and @kbd{kibitz}.
Limitation: remarks that you type yourself are not recognized;
XBoard scans only the output from ICS, not the input you type to it.
@item Auto-Observe
@cindex Auto-Observe, Menu Item
If this option is on and you add a player to your @code{gnotify}
list on ICS, XBoard will automatically observe all of that
player's games, unless you are doing something else (such as
observing or playing a game of your own) when one starts.
The games are displayed
from the point of view of the player on your gnotify list; that is, his
pawns move from the bottom of the window towards the top.
Exceptions: If both players in a game are on your gnotify list, if
your ICS
@code{highlight}
variable is set to 0, or if the ICS you are using does not
properly support observing from Black's point of view,
you will see the game from White's point of view.
@item Auto-Raise Board
@cindex Auto Raise Board, Menu Item
If this option is on, whenever a new game begins, the chessboard window
is deiconized (if necessary) and raised to the top of the stack of windows.
@item Auto Save
@cindex Auto Save, Menu Item
If this option is true, at the end of every game XBoard prompts
you for a file name and appends a record of the game to the file
you specify.
Disabled if the @code{saveGameFile} command-line
option is set, as in that case all games are saved to the specified file.
@xref{Load and Save options}.
@item Background Observe while Playing
@cindex Background Observe while Playing, Menu Item
Setting this option will make XBoard suppress display of any boards
from observed games while you are playing.
Instead the last such board will be remembered,
and shown to you when you right-click the board.
This allows you to peek at your bughouse partner's game when you want,
without disturbing your own game too much.
@item Dual Board for Background-Observed Game
@cindex Dual Board for Background-Observed Game, Menu Item
Setting this option in combination with @samp{Background Observe}
will display boards of observed games while you are playing
on a second board next to that of your own game.
@item Get Move List
@cindex Get Move List, Menu Item
If this option is on, whenever XBoard
receives the first board of a new ICS game (or a different game from
the one it is currently displaying), it
retrieves the list of past moves from the ICS.
You can then review the moves with the @samp{Forward} and @samp{Backward}
commands
or save them with @samp{Save Game}. You might want to
turn off this option if you are observing several blitz games at once,
to keep from wasting time and network bandwidth fetching the move lists over
and over.
When you turn this option on from the menu, XBoard
immediately fetches the move list of the current game (if any).
@item Quiet Play
@cindex Quiet Play, Menu Item
If this option is on, XBoard will automatically issue an ICS
@kbd{set shout 0}
command whenever you start a game and a
@kbd{set shout 1}
command whenever you finish one. Thus, you will not be distracted
by shouts from other ICS users while playing.
@item Seek Graph
@cindex Seek Graph, Menu Item
Setting this option will cause XBoard to display an graph of
currently active seek ads when you left-click the board
while idle and logged on to an ICS.
@item Auto-Refresh Seek Graph
@cindex Auto-Refresh Seek Graph, Menu Item
In combination with the @samp{Seek Graph} option this
will cause automatic update of the seek graph while it is up.
This only works on FICS and ICC,
and requires a lot of bandwidth on a busy server.
@item Auto-InputBox PopUp
@cindex Auto-InputBox PopUp, Menu Item
Controls whether the ICS Input Box will pop up automatically when
you type a printable character to the board window in ICS mode.
@item Quit After Game
@cindex Quit After Game, Menu Item
Controls whether XBoard will automatically disconnect from the ICS
and close when the game currently in progress finishes.
@item Premove
@itemx Premove for White
@itemx Premove for Black
@itemx First White Move
@itemx First Black Move
@cindex Premove, Menu Item
@cindex Premove for White, Menu Item
@cindex Premove for Black, Menu Item
@cindex First White Move, Menu Item
@cindex First Black Move, Menu Item
If the @samp{Premove} option is on while playing a game on an ICS,
you can register your next planned move before it is your turn.
Move the piece with
the mouse in the ordinary way, and the starting and ending squares
will be highlighted with a special color (red by default). When it is
your turn, if your registered move is legal, XBoard will send it to
ICS immediately; if not, it will be ignored and you can make a
different move. If you change your mind about your premove, either
make a different move, or double-click on any piece to cancel the move
entirely.
You can also enter premoves for the first white and black moves
of the game.
@item Alarm
@itemx Alarm Time
@cindex Alarm, Menu Item
@cindex Alarm Time, Menu Item
When this option is on, an alarm sound is played when your clock
counts down to the @samp{Alarm Time} in an ICS game.
(By default, the time is 5 seconds, but you can specify other values
with the Alarm Time spin control.)
For games with time controls that include an increment, the
alarm will sound each time the clock counts down to the icsAlarmTime.
By default, the alarm sound is the terminal bell, but on some systems
you can change it to a sound file using the soundIcsAlarm option; see
below.
@item Colorize Messages
@cindex Colorize Messages, Menu Item
Ticking this options causes various types of ICS messages do be
displayed with different foreground or background colors in the console.
The colors can be individually selected for each type,
through the accompanying text edits.
@item -icsMenu string
@cindex icsMenu, option
The string defines buttons for the @samp{ICS text menu}.
Each button definition consists of two semi-colon-terminated pieces of text,
the first giving the label to be written on the button,
the second the text that should be sent to the ICS when that button is pressed.
This second part (the 'message') can contain linefeeds, so that you can send
multiple ICS commands with one button.
Some message in the text, all starting with a $-sign, are treated special.
When the message contains '$input', it will not be sent directly to the ICS,
but will be put in the input field of the @samp{ICS Chat/Console},
with the text cursor at the indicated place, so you can addsome text to
the message before sending it off.
If such a message starts with '$add' it will be placed behind any text
that is already present in the input field, otherwise this field will
be cleared first.
The word '$name' occurring in the message will be replaced by the word
that was clicked (through button 3) in the ICS Chat/Console.
There are two special messages: '$chat' will open a new chat with
the clicked word in the chat-partner field,
while '$copy' will copy the text that is currently-selected
in the ICS Console to the clipboard.
An example of a text menu as it might occur in your settings file
(where you could edit it):
@example
-icsMenu @{copy;$copy;
list players;who;
list games;games;
finger (player);finger $name;
bullet (player);match $name 1 1 r;
blitz (player);match $name 5 1 r;
rapid (player);match $name 30 0 r;
open chat (player);$chat;
tell (player);tell $name $input;
ask pieces;ptell Please give me a $input;
P;$add Pawn $input;
N;$add Knight $input;
B;$add Bishop $input;
R;$add Rook $input;
Q;$add Queen $input;
@}
@end example
@end table
@section Tournament Options
@cindex Tournament Options, Menu Item
Summons a dialog where you can set options important for playing automatic
matches between two or more chess programs
(e.g. by using the @samp{Machine Match} menu item in the @samp{Mode} menu).
@table @asis
@item Tournament file
@cindex Tournament file, Menu item
To run a tournament, XBoard needs a file to record its progress,
so it can resume the tourney when it is interrupted.
When you want to conduct anything more complex than a simple
two-player match with the currently loaded engines,
(i.e. when you select a list of participants),
you must not leave this field blank.
When you enter the name of an existing tournament file,
XBoard will ignore all other input specified in the dialog,
and will take the corresponding info from that tournament file.
This resumes an interrupted tournament, or adds another XBoard
agent playing games for it to those that are already doing so.
Specifying a not-yet-existing file will cause XBoard to create it,
according to the tournament parameters specified in the rest of the dialog,
before it starts the tournament on ‘OK’.
Provided that you specify participants;
without participants no tournament file will be made, but other entered values
(e.g. for the file with opening positions) will take effect.
Default: configured by the @code{defaultTourneyName} option.
@item Sync after round
@itemx Sync after cycle
@cindex Sync after round, Menu Item
@cindex Sync after cycle, Menu Item
The sync options, when on, will cause WinBoard to refrain from starting games
of the next round or cycle before all games of the previous round or cycle are finished.
This guarantees correct ordering in the games file,
even when multiple XBoard instances are concurrently playing games for the same tourney.
Default: sync after cycle, but not after round.
@item Select Engine
@itemx Tourney participants
@cindex Select Engine, Menu Item
@cindex Tourney participants, Menu Item
From the Select Engine listbox you can pick an engine from your list
of engines registered in the settings file, to be added to the tournament.
The engines selected so far will be listed in the ‘Tourney participants’ memo.
The latter is a normal text edit, so you can use normal text-editing functions
to delete engines you selected accidentally, or change their order.
Typing names here yourself is not recommended, because names that do not exactly match
one of the names from the selection listbox will lead to undefined behavior.
@item Tourney type
@cindex Tourney type, Menu Item
Here you can specify the type of tournament you want.
XBoard’s intrinsic tournament manager support round-robins (type = 0),
where each participant plays every other participant, and (multi-)gauntlets,
where one (or a few) so-called ‘gauntlet engines’ play an independent set of opponents.
In the latter case, you specify the number of gauntlet engines.
E.g. if you specified 10 engines, and tourney type = 2,
the first 2 engines each play the remaining 8.
A value of -1 instructs XBoard to play Swiss; for this to work an external
pairing engine must be specified through the @code{pairingEngine} option.
Each Swiss round will be considered a tourney cycle in that case.
Default:0
@item Number of tourney cycles
@itemx Default Number of Games in Match
@cindex Number of tourney cycles, Menu Item
@cindex Number of Games in Match, Menu Item
You can specify tourneys where every two opponents play each other multiple times.
Such multiple games can be played in a row,
as specified by the ‘number of games per pairing’,
or by repeating the entire tournament schedule a number of times
(specified by the ‘number of tourney cycles’).
The total number of times two engines meet will be the product of these two.
Default is 1 cycle;
the number of games per pairing is the same as the default number of match games,
stored in your settings file through the @code{defaultMatchGames} option.
@item Pause between Match Games
@cindex Pause between Match Games, Menu Item
Time (in milliseconds) XBoard waits before starting a new game after
a previous match or tournament game finishes.
Such a waiting period is important for engines that do not support 'ping',
as these sometimes still produce a move long after the game finished because
of the opponent resigning, which would be mistaken for a move in the next
game if that had already started.
@item Save Tourney Games on
@cindex Save Tourney Games, Menu Item
File where the tournament games are saved
(duplicate of the item in the @samp{Save Game Options}).
@item Game File with Opening Lines
@itemx File with Start Positions
@itemx Game Number
@itemx Position Number
@itemx Rewind Index after this many Games
@cindex Game File with Opening Lines, Menu Item
@cindex File with Start Positions, Menu Item
@cindex Game Number, Menu Item
@cindex Position Number, Menu Item
@cindex Rewind Index after, Menu Item
These items optionally specify the file with move sequences or board positions the tourney
games should start from.
The corresponding numbers specify the number of the game or position in the file.
Here a value -1 means automatic stepping through all games on the file,
-2 automatic stepping every two games.
The Rewind-Index parameter causes a stepping index to reset to one after reaching
a specified value.
A setting of -2 for the game number will also be effective in a tournament without
specifying a game file, but playing from the GUI book instead.
In this case the first (odd) games will randomly select from the book,
but the second (even) games will select the same moves from the book as the previous game.
(Note this leads to the same opening only if both engines use the GUI book!)
Default: No game or position file will be used. The default index if such a file is used is 1.
@item Disable own engine books by default
@cindex Disable own engine books by default, Menu Item
Setting this option reverses the default situation for use of the GUI opening book
in tournaments from what it normally is, namely not using it.
So unless the engine is installed with an option to explicitly specify it should
not use the GUI book (i.e. @code{-firstHasOwnBookUCI true}),
it will be made to use the GUI book.
@item Replace Engine
@itemx Upgrade Engine
@cindex Replace Engine, Menu Item
@cindex Upgrade Engine, Menu Item
With these two buttons you can alter the participants of an already running tournament.
After opening the Match Options dialog on an XBoard that is playing for the tourney,
you will see all the tourney parameters in the dialog fields.
You can then replace the name of one engine by that of another
by editing the @samp{participants} field.
(But preserve the order of the others!)
Pressing the button after that will cause the substitution.
With the @samp{Upgrade Engine} button the substitution will only affect future games.
With @samp{Replace Engine} all games the substituted engine has already played will
be invalidated, and they will be replayed with the substitute engine.
In this latter case the engine must not be playing when you do this,
but otherwise there is no need to pause the tournament play
for making a substitution.
@item Clone Tourney
@cindex CloneTourney, Menu Item
Pressing this button after you have specified an existing tournament file
will copy the contents of the latter to the dialog,
and then puts the originally proposed name for the tourney file back.
You can then run a tourney with the same parameters
(possibly after changing the proposed name of the tourney file for the new tourney)
by pressing 'OK'.
@item Continue Later
@cindex Continue Later, Menu Item
Pressing the @samp{Continue Later} button confirms the current value of all
items in the dialog and closes it,
but will not automatically start the tournament.
This allows you to return to the dialog later without losing the settings you
already entered, to adjust paramenters through other menu dialogs.
(The @samp{Common Engine Setting}, @samp{Time Control} and @samp{General Options}
dialogs can be accessed without closing the @samp{Tournament Options} dialog
through the respective buttons at the bottom of the latter.)
@end table
@section Load Game Options
@cindex Load Game Options, Menu Item
Summons a dialog where you can set options that control loading of games.
@table @asis
@item Auto-Display Tags
@cindex Auto-Display Tags, Menu Item
Setting this option causes a window to pop up on loading a game,
displaying the PGN Tags for that game.
@item Auto-Display Comment
@cindex Auto-Display Comment, Menu Item
Setting this option causes a window to pop up whenever there
is a comment to (or variation on) the currently displayed move.
@item Auto-Play speed of loaded games
@cindex Auto-Play speed, Menu Item
This option sets the number of seconds between moves
when a newly loaded game is auto-playing.
A decimal fraction on the number is understood.
Setting it to -1 disables auto-play, staying in the start position
of the game after the loading completes.
Setting it to 0 will instantly move to the final position of the game.
The @samp{Auto-Play speed} is also used to determine the
analysis time for each move during @samp{Analyze Game}.
Note that auto-playing (including game analysis) can be stopped at any
time through the @samp{P} button above the board.
@item options to use in game-viewer mode
@cindex Game-Viewer options, Menu Item
Specifies the options automatically set when XBoard is invoked
with the option @code{-viewer} on its command line,
as will happen when it is started in response to clicking a PGN game file.
The default setting would start XBoard without engine
(due to the @code{-ncp} option),
but if you want it to automatically start with your favorite engine,
and automatically start analyzing, you could include the necessary
options for that here (e.g. @code{-fe <engine> -initialMode analysis}).
@item Thresholds for position filtering in game list
@cindex Thresholds for game selection, Menu Item
The following options can be set to limit the display of games
in the @samp{Game List} window to a sub-set,
meeting the specified criteria.
@item Elo of strongest player at least
@item Elo of weakest player at least
@cindex Elo limits, Menu Item
Games with an Elo tag specifying a lower rating for the mentioned player
will not be diplayed in the @samp{Game List}.
@item No games before year
@cindex Date limit, Menu item
Games with a Date tag before the specified year
will not be diplayed in the @samp{Game List}.
@item Final nr of pieces
@cindex Final number of pieces, Menu Item
A single number or a range (like 8-10) can be entered here,
and will cause only games where the number of men in the final
position is in the given range
will be diplayed in the @samp{Game List}.
@item Minimum nr consecutive positions
@cindex Consecutive positions, Menu Item
Specifies for how many consecutive positions the more fuzzy
position-matching criteria have to be satisfied
in order to count as a match.
@item Search mode
@itemx find position
@cindex Search mode, Menu Item
@cindex find position, Menu Item
XBoard can select games for display in the @samp{Game List}
based on whether (in addition to the conditions on the PGN tags)
they contain a position that matches the
position currently displayed on the board,
by pressing the @samp{find position}
or @samp{narrow} buttons in the @samp{Game List} window.
The @samp{Search mode} setting determines what counts as match.
You can search for an exact match,
a position that has all shown material in the same place,
but might contain additional material,
a position that has all Pawns in the same place,
but can have the shown material anywhere,
a position that can have all shown material anywhere,
or a position that has material between certain limits anywhere.
For the latter you have to place the material that must minimally be present
in the four lowest ranks of the board,
and optional additional material in the four highest ranks of the board.
You can request the optional material to be balanced,
i.e. equal for white and black.
@item narrow
@cindex narrow, Menu Item
The @samp{narrow} button is similar in fuction to the @samp{find position} button,
but only searches in the already selected games,
rather than the complete game file,
and can thus be used to refine a search based on multiple criteria.
@item Also match reversed colors
@itemx Also match left-right flipped position
@cindex Match reversed colors, Menu Item
@cindex Match left-right flipped position, Menu Item
When looking for matching positions rather than by material,
these settings determine whether mirror images
(in case of a vertical flip in combination with color reversal)
will be also considered a match.
The left-right flipping is only useful after all castling rights
have expired (or in Xiangqi).
@end table
@section Save Game Options
@cindex Save Game Options, Menu Item
Summons a dialog where you can specify whether XBoard should
automatically save files of games when they finish,
and where and how to do that.
@table @asis
@item Auto-Save Games
@cindex Auto-Save Games, Menu Item
When set XBoard will automatically save games on a file as they finish.
(Not when you abort them by pressing @samp{New Game}, though!)
It will either prompt you for a filename,
or use the file specified by the @code{saveGameFile} option.
@item Own Games Only
@cindex Own Games Only, Menu Item
Setting this option will exclude games by others observed on an
Internet Chess Server from automatic saving.
@item Save Games on File
@cindex Save Games on File, Menu Item
Name of the file on which games should be saved automatically.
Games are always appended to the file,
and will never overwrite anything.
@item Save Final Position on File
@cindex Save Final Position on File, Menu Item
When a name is defined, the final position of each game
is appended to the mentioned file.
@item PGN Event Header
@cindex PGN Event Header, Menu Item
Specifies the name of the event used in the PGN event tag
of new games that you create.
@item Old Save Style
@cindex Old Save Style, Menu Item
Saves games in an obsolete and now long forgotten format,
rather than as PGN. Never use this for orthodox Chess!
@item Include Number Tag in tourney PGN
@cindex Include Number Tag in tourney PGN, Menu Item
When on this option will cause the non-standard 'Number' tag
to be written in any game saved in PGN format.
It will contain the unique number of the game in the tourney.
(As opposed to the 'Round' tag, which can be shared by many games.)
@item Save Score/Depth Info in PGN
@cindex Save Score/Depth in PGN, Menu Item
When on this option will cause the score and depth at which it was
calculated by an engine, and (when available) thinking time
to be saved with the move as a comment to the move,
in the format @{score/depth time@}.
Here 'score'is in pawn units from the point of view of the player
that made the move, with two digits behind the decimal Pawn.
'Time' is in seconds, or min:sec.
@item Save Out-of-Book Info in PGN
@cindex Save Out-of-Book Info in PGN, Menu Item
When on this option causes the score of the first move
the engine made after coming out of book in an 'Annotator' PGN tag.
@end table
@section Game List
@cindex Game List Tags, Menu Item
Pops up a dialog where you can select the PGN tags that should appear
on the lines in the @samp{Game List}, and their order.
@section Sound Options
@cindex Sound Options, Menu Item
Summons a dialog where you can specify the sounds that should accompany
various events that can occur in XBoard.
Most events are only relevant to ICS play,
but the move sound is an important exception.
For each event listed in the dialog,
you can select a standard sound from a menu.
@table @asis
@item Sound Program
@cindex Sound Program, Menu Item
Specifies the command XBoard should invoke to play sounds.
The specified text will be suffixed by the name of the sound file,
and then run as a command.
@item Sounds Directory
@cindex Sounds Directory, Menu Item
Specifies the directory where XBoard will look for files with
the names of the standard sounds.
@item User WAV File
@cindex User WAV File, Menu Item
When we type a filename here, it can be assigned to the events
by selecting @samp{Above WAV File} from the drop downs.
@item Try-Out Sound
@itemx Play
@cindex Try-Out Sound, Menu Item
The 'event' triggering the Try-Out sound is pressing
of the @samp{Play} button behind it.
This allows you to judge the sounds.
@end table
@section Save Settings Now
@cindex Save Settings Now, Menu Item
Selecting this menu item causes the current XBoard settings to be
written to the settings file, (.xboardrc in your home directory),
so they will also apply in future sessions.
Note that some settings are 'volatile', and are not saved,
because XBoard considers it too unlikely that you want those to apply
next time.
In particular this applies to the Chess program, and all options
giving information on those Chess programs (such as their directory,
if they have their own opening book, if they are UCI or native XBoard),
or the variant you are playing.
Such options would still be understood when they appear in the settings
file in case they were put there with the aid of a text editor, but they
would disappear from the file as soon as you save the settings.
Note that XBoard no longer pays attention to options values specified
in the .Xresources file.
(Specifying key bindings there will still work, though.)
To alter the default of volatile options, you can use the following method:
Rename your ~/.xboardrc settings file (to ~/.yboardrc, say), and create
a new file ~/.xboardrc, which only contains the options
@example
-settingsFile ~/.yboardrc
-saveSettingsFile ~/.yboardrc
@end example
@noindent
This will cause your settings to be saved on ~/.yboardrc in the future,
so that ~/.xboardrc is no longer overwritten.
You can then safely specify volatile options in ~/.xboardrc, either
before or after the settingsFile options.
Note that when you specify persistent options after the settingsFile options
in this ~/.xboardrc, you will essentially turn them into volatile options
with the specified value as default, because that value will overrule
the value loaded from the settings file (being read later).
@section Save Settings on Exit
@cindex Save Settings on Exit, Menu Item
Setting this option has no immediate effect, but causes the settings
to be saved when you quit XBoard. What happens then is otherwise
identical to what happens when you use select "Save Settings Now",
see there.
@node Help Menu
@section Help Menu
@cindex Menu, Help
@cindex Help Menu
@table @asis
@item Info XBoard
@cindex Info XBoard, Menu Item
Displays the XBoard documentation in info format. For this feature to
work, you must have the GNU info program installed on your system, and
the file @file{xboard.info} must either be present in the current
working directory, or have been installed by the @samp{make install}
command when you built XBoard.
@item Man XBoard
@cindex Man XBoard, Menu Item
Displays the XBoard documentation in man page format.
The @kbd{F1} key is a keyboard equivalent. For this
feature to work, the file @file{xboard.6} must have been installed by
the @samp{make install} command when you built XBoard, and the
directory it was placed in must be on the search path for your
system's @samp{man} command.
@item About XBoard
@cindex About XBoard, Menu Item
Shows the current XBoard version number.
@end table
@node Keys
@section Other Shortcut Keys
@cindex Keys
@cindex Shortcut keys
@table @asis
@item Show Last Move
@cindex Show Last Move, Shortcut Key
By hitting @kbd{Enter} the last move will be re-animated.
@item Load Next Game
@cindex Load Next Game, Menu Item
Loads the next game from the last game record file you loaded.
The @kbd{Alt+PgDn} key triggers this action.
@item Load Previous Game
@cindex Load Previous Game, Menu Item
Loads the previous game from the last game record file you
loaded. The @kbd{Alt+PgUp} key triggers this action.
Not available if the last game was loaded from a pipe.
@item Reload Same Game
@cindex Reload Same Game, Menu Item
Reloads the last game you loaded.
Not available if the last game was loaded from a pipe.
Currently no keystroke is assigned to this ReloadGameProc.
@item Reload Same Position
@cindex Reload Same Position, Menu Item
Reloads the last position you loaded.
Not available if the last position was loaded from a pipe.
Currently no keystroke is assigned to this ReloadPositionProc.
@end table
In the Xaw build of XBoard you can add or remove shortcut keys
using the X resources @code{paneA.translations}.
Here is an example of what could go into your
@file{.Xdefaults} file:
@example
XBoard*paneA.translations: \
Shift<Key>?: MenuItem(Help.About) \n\
Ctrl<Key>y: MenuItem(Action.Accept) \n\
Ctrl<Key>n: MenuItem(Action.Decline) \n\
Ctrl<Key>i: MenuItem(Nothing)
@end example
@noindent
So the key should always be bound to the action 'MenuItem',
with the (hierarchical) name of the menu item as argument.
There are a few actions available for which no menu item exists:
Binding a key to @code{Nothing} makes it do nothing, thus removing
it as a shortcut key. Other such functions that can be bound to keys
are:
@example
AboutGame, DebugProc (switches the -debug option on or off),
LoadNextGame, LoadPrevGame, ReloadGame, ReloadPosition.
@end example
@node Options
@chapter Options
@cindex Options
@cindex Options
This section documents the command-line options to XBoard. You can
set these options in two ways: by typing them on the shell command
line you use to start XBoard, or by editing the settings file
(usually ~/.xboardrc) to alter the value of the setting that was
saved there. Some of the options
cannot be changed while XBoard is running; others set the initial
state of items that can be changed with the @ref{Options} menu.
Most of the options have both a long name and a short name. To turn a
boolean option on or off from the command line, either give its long
name followed by the value true or false
(@samp{-longOptionName true}), or give just the short name to turn the
option on (@samp{-opt}), or the short name preceded by @samp{x} to
turn the option off (@samp{-xopt}). For options that take strings or
numbers as values, you can use the long or short option names
interchangeably.
@menu
* Chess engine options:: Controlling the chess engine.
* UCI + WB Engine Settings:: Setting some very common engine parameters
* Tournament options:: Running tournaments and matches between engines.
* ICS options:: Connecting to and using ICS.
* Load and Save options:: Input/output options.
* User interface options:: Look and feel options.
* Adjudication Options:: Control adjudication of engine-engine games.
* Install options:: Maintaining and extending the XBoard install.
* Other options:: Miscellaneous.
@end menu
@node Chess engine options
@section Chess Engine Options
@cindex options, Chess engine
@cindex Chess engine options
@table @asis
@item -tc or -timeControl minutes[:seconds]
@cindex tc, option
@cindex timeControl, option
Each player begins with his clock set to the @code{timeControl} period.
Default: 5 minutes.
The additional options @code{movesPerSession} and @code{timeIncrement}
are mutually exclusive.
@item -mps or -movesPerSession moves
@cindex mps, option
@cindex movesPerSession, option
When both players have made @code{movesPerSession} moves, a
new @code{timeControl} period is added to both clocks. Default: 40 moves.
@item -inc or -timeIncrement seconds
@cindex inc, option
@cindex timeIncrement, option
If this option is specified, @code{movesPerSession} is ignored.
Instead, after each player's move, @code{timeIncrement} seconds are
added to his clock.
Use @samp{-inc 0} if you want to require the entire
game to be played in one @code{timeControl} period, with no increment.
Default: -1, which specifies @code{movesPerSession} mode.
@item -clock/-xclock or -clockMode true/false
@cindex clock, option
@cindex clockMode, option
Determines whether or not to display the chess clocks. If clockMode is
false, the clocks are not shown, but the side that is to play next
is still highlighted. Also, unless @code{searchTime}
is set, the chess engine still keeps track of the clock time and uses it to
determine how fast to make its moves.
@item -shoMoveTime true/false
@cindex showMoveTime, option
When this option is set the time that has been thought about the current move
will be displayed behind the remaining time in parentheses (in seconds).
Default: false.
@item -st or -searchTime minutes[:seconds]
@cindex st, option
@cindex searchTime, option
Tells the chess engine to spend at most the given amount of time
searching for each of its moves. Without this option, the chess engine
chooses its search time based on the number of moves and amount
of time remaining until the next time control.
Setting this option also sets clockMode to false.
@item -depth or -searchDepth number
@cindex sd, option
@cindex searchDepth, option
Tells the chess engine to look ahead at most the given number of moves
when searching for a move to make. Without this option, the chess
engine chooses its search depth based on the number of moves and
amount of time remaining until the next time control. With the option,
the engine will cut off its search early if it reaches the specified depth.
@item -firstNPS number
@itemx -secondNPS number
@cindex firstNPS, option
@cindex secondNPS, option
Tells the chess engine to use an internal time standard based on its node count,
rather then wall-clock time, to make its timing decisions.
The time in virtual seconds should be obtained by dividing the node count
through the given number, like the number was a rate in nodes per second.
Xboard will manage the clocks in accordance with this, relying on the number
of nodes reported by the engine in its thinking output. If the given number equals zero,
it can obviously not be used to convert nodes to seconds, and the time reported
by the engine is used to decrement the XBoard clock in stead. The engine is supposed to
report in CPU time it uses, rather than wall-clock time, in this mode. This option
can provide fairer conditions for engine-engine matches on heavily loaded machines,
or with very fast games (where the wall clock is too inaccurate).
@code{showThinking} must be on for this option to work. Default: -1 (off).
Not many engines might support this yet!
@item -firstTimeOdds factor
@itemx -secondTimeOdds factor
@cindex firstTimeOdds, option
@cindex secondTimeOdds, option
Reduces the time given to the mentioned engine by the given factor.
If pondering is off, the effect is indistinguishable from what would happen
if the engine was running on an n-times slower machine. Default: 1.
@item -timeOddsMode mode
@cindex timeOddsMode, option
This option determines how the case is handled where both engines have a time-odds handicap.
If mode=1, the engine that gets the most time will always get the nominal time,
as specified by the time-control options, and its opponent's time is renormalized accordingly.
If mode=0, both play with reduced time. Default: 0.
@item -hideThinkingFromHuman true/false
Controls the Hide Thinking option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: true.
(Replaces the Show-Thinking option of older xboard versions.)
@item -thinking/-xthinking or -showThinking true/false
@cindex thinking, option
@cindex showThinking, option
Forces the engine to send thinking output to xboard.
Used to be the only way to control if thinking output was displayed
in older xboard versions,
but as the thinking output in xboard 4.3 is also used for several other
purposes (adjudication, storing in PGN file) the display of it is now controlled
by the new option Hide Thinking. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: false.
(But if xboard needs the thinking output for some purpose,
it makes the engine send it despite the setting of this option.)
@item -ponder/-xponder or -ponderNextMove true/false
@cindex ponder, option
@cindex ponderNextMove, option
Sets the Ponder Next Move menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: true.
@item -smpCores number
Specifies the maximum number of CPUs an SMP engine is allowed to use.
Only works for engines that support the XBoard/WinBoard-protocol cores feature.
@item -mg or -matchGames n
@cindex mg, option
@cindex matchGames, option
Automatically runs an n-game match between two chess engines,
with alternating colors.
If the @code{loadGameFile} or @code{loadPositionFile} option is set,
XBoard
starts each game with the given opening moves or the given position;
otherwise, the games start with the standard initial chess position.
If the @code{saveGameFile} option is set, a move record for the
match is appended to the specified file. If the @code{savePositionFile}
option is set, the final position reached in each game of the match is appended
to the specified file. When the match is over, XBoard
displays the match score and exits. Default: 0 (do not run a match).
@item -mm/-xmm or -matchMode true/false
@cindex mm, option
@cindex matchMode, option
Setting @code{matchMode} to true is equivalent to setting
@code{matchGames} to 1.
@item -sameColorGames n
@cindex sameColorGames, option
Automatically runs an n-game match between two chess engines,
without alternating colors.
Otherwise the same applies as for the @samp{-matchGames} option,
over which it takes precedence if both are specified. (See there.)
Default: 0 (do not run a match).
@item -epd
@cindex epd, option
This option puts XBoard in a special mode for solving EPD test-suites,
for the entire duration of the session.
In this mode games are aborted after a single move,
and that move will be compared with the best-move or avoid-move
from the EPD position description from which the 'game' was started.
Playing a best move counts as a win, playing an avoid move as a loss,
and playing any other move counts as a draw.
This option should be used in combination with match mode,
and an EPD file of starting positions with an auto-incrementing index.
Color assignment will be such that the first engine plays all moves,
and the second engine will be never involved.
The results for individual positions,
as well as the time used for solving them,
will be reported in the lower pane of the Engine Output window.
@item -fcp or -firstChessProgram program
@itemx -scp or -secondChessProgram program
@cindex fcp, option
@cindex firstChessProgram, option
@cindex scp, option
@cindex secondChessProgram, option
Name of first and second chess engine, respectively.
A second chess engine is started only in Two Machines (match) mode,
or in Analyze mode with two engines.
The second engine is by default the same as the first.
Default for the first engine: @file{fairymax}.
@item -fe or -firstEngine nickname
@itemx -se or -secondEngine nickname
@cindex se, option
@cindex secondEngine, option
@cindex fe, option
@cindex firstEngine, option
This is an alternative to the @code{fcp} and @code{scp} options
for specifying the first and second engine,
for engines that were already registered (using the @samp{Load Engine} dialog)
in XBoard's settings file.
It will not only retrieve the real name of the engine,
but also all options configured with it.
(E.g. if it is UCI, whether it should use book.)
@item -fb/-xfb or -firstPlaysBlack true/false
@cindex fb, option
@cindex firstPlaysBlack, option
In games between two chess engines, firstChessProgram normally plays
white. If this option is true, firstChessProgram plays black. In a
multi-game match, this option affects the colors only for the first
game; they still alternate in subsequent games.
@item -fh or -firstHost host
@itemx -sh or -secondHost host
@cindex fh, option
@cindex firstHost, option
@cindex sh, option
@cindex secondHost, option
Hosts on which the chess engines are to run. The default for
each is @file{localhost}. If you specify another host, XBoard
uses @file{rsh} to run the chess engine there. (You can substitute a
different remote shell program for rsh using the @code{remoteShell}
option described below.)
@item -fd or -firstDirectory dir
@itemx -sd or -secondDirectory dir
@cindex fd, option
@cindex firstDirectory, option
@cindex sd, option
@cindex secondDirectory, option
Working directories in which the chess engines are to be run.
The default is "", which means to run the chess engine
in the same working directory as XBoard
itself. (See the CHESSDIR environment variable.)
This option is effective only when the chess engine is being run
on the local host; it does not work if the engine is run remotely
using the -fh or -sh option.
@item -initString string or -firstInitString
@itemx -secondInitString string
@cindex initString, option
@cindex firstInitString, option
@cindex secondInitString, option
The string that is sent to initialize each chess engine for a new game.
Default:
@example
new
random
@end example
@noindent
Setting this option from the command line is tricky, because you must
type in real newline characters, including one at the very end.
In most shells you can do this by
entering a @samp{\} character followed by a newline.
Using the character sequence @samp{\n} in the string should work too, though.
If you change this option, don't remove the @samp{new}
command; it is required by all chess engines to
start a new game.
You can remove the @samp{random} command if you like; including it
causes GNU Chess 4 to randomize its move selection slightly so that it
doesn't play the same moves in every game. Even without
@samp{random}, GNU Chess 4 randomizes its choice of moves from its
opening book. Many other chess engines ignore this command entirely
and always (or never) randomize.
You can also try adding other commands to the initString; see the
documentation of the chess engine you are using for details.
@item -firstComputerString string
@itemx -secondComputerString string
@cindex firstComputerString, option
@cindex secondComputerString, option
The string that is sent to the chess engine if its opponent is another
computer chess engine. The default is @samp{computer\n}. Probably the
only useful alternative is the empty string (@samp{}), which keeps the
engine from knowing that it is playing another computer.
@item -reuse/-xreuse or -reuseFirst true/false
@itemx -reuse2/-xreuse2 or -reuseSecond true/false
@cindex reuse, option
@cindex reuseFirst, option
@cindex reuse2, option
@cindex reuseSecond, option
If the option is false,
XBoard kills off the chess engine after every game and starts
it again for the next game.
If the option is true (the default),
XBoard starts the chess engine only once
and uses it repeatedly to play multiple games.
Some old chess engines may not work properly when
reuse is turned on, but otherwise games will start faster if it is left on.
@item -firstProtocolVersion version-number
@itemx -secondProtocolVersion version-number
@cindex firstProtocolVersion, option
@cindex secondProtocolVersion, option
This option specifies which version of the chess engine communication
protocol to use. By default, version-number is 2. In version 1, the
"protover" command is not sent to the engine; since version 1 is a
subset of version 2, nothing else changes. Other values for
version-number are not supported.
@item -firstScoreAbs true/false
@itemx -secondScoreAbs true/false
@cindex firstScoreAbs, option
@cindex secondScoreAbs, option
If this option is set, the score reported by the engine is taken to be
that in favor of white, even when the engine plays black.
Important when XBoard uses the score for adjudications, or in PGN reporting.
@item -niceEngines priority
@cindex niceEngines, option
This option allows you to lower the priority of the engine processes,
so that the generally insatiable hunger for CPU time of chess engines does not interfere so much
with smooth operation of XBoard (or the rest of your system).
Negative values could increase the engine priority, which is not recommended.
@item -firstOptions string
@itemx -secondOptions string
@cindex firstOptions, option
@cindex secondOptions, option
The given string is a comma-separated list of (option name=option value) pairs,
like the following example: "style=Karpov,blunder rate=0".
If an option announced by the engine at startup through the feature commands of the XBoard/WinBoard protocol
matches one of the option names (i.e. "style" or "blunder rate"),
it would be set to the given value (i.e. "Karpov" or 0)
through a corresponding option command to the engine.
This provided that the type of the value (text or numeric) matches as well.
@item -firstNeedsNoncompliantFEN string
@itemx -secondNeedsNoncompliantFEN string
@cindex firstNeedsNoncompliantFEN, option
@cindex secondNeedsNoncompliantFEN, option
The castling rights and e.p. fields of the FEN sent to the mentioned engine
with the setboard command will be replaced by the given string. This can for
instance be used to run engines that do not understand Chess960 FENs in
variant fischerandom, to make them at least understand the opening position,
through setting the string to "KQkq -". (Note you also have to give the e.p. field!)
Other possible applications are to provide work-arounds for engines that want to see
castling and e.p. fields in variants that do not have castling or e.p.
(shatranj, courier, xiangqi, shogi) so that XBoard would normally omit them
(string = "- -"), or to add variant-specific fields that are not yet supported by XBoard
(e.g. to indicate the number of checks in 3check).
@item -shuffleOpenings
@cindex shuffleOpenings, option
Forces shuffling of the opening setup in variants that normally have a fixed initial position.
Shufflings are symmetric for black and white, and exempt King and Rooks in variants
with normal castling.
Remains in force until a new variant is selected.
@item -fischerCastling
@cindex fischerCastling, option
Specifies Fischer castling (as in Chess960) should be enabled in variants
that normally would not have it.
Remains in force until a new variant is selected.
@end table
@node UCI + WB Engine Settings
@section UCI + WB Engine Settings
@cindex Engine Settings
@cindex Settings, Engine
@table @asis
@item -fUCI or -firstIsUCI true/false
@itemx -sUCI or -secondIsUCI true/false
@cindex fUCI, option
@cindex sUCI, option
@cindex firstIsUCI, option
@cindex secondIsUCI, option
Indicates if the mentioned engine executable file is a UCI engine,
and should be run with the aid of the Polyglot adapter rather than directly.
Xboard will then pass the other UCI options and engine name to Polyglot
on its command line, according to the option @code{adapterCommand}.
@item -fUCCI
@itemx -sUCCI
@itemx -fUSI
@itemx -sUSI
@cindex fUCCI, option
@cindex sUCCI, option
@cindex fUSI, option
@cindex sUSI, option
Options similar to @code{fUCI} and @code{sUCI}, except that they
use the indicated engine with the protocol adapter specified in
the @samp{uxiAdapter} option.
This can then be configured for running a UCCI or USI adapter,
as the need arises.
@item -adapterCommand string
@cindex adapterCommand, option
The string contains the command that should be issued by XBoard
to start an engine that is accompanied by the @code{fUCI} option.
Any identifier following a percent sign in the command (e.g. %fcp)
will be considered the name of an XBoard option, and be replaced
by the value of that option at the time the engine is started.
For starting the second engine, any leading "f" or "first" in
the option name will first be replaced by "s" or "second",
before finding its value.
Default: 'polyglot -noini -ec "%fcp" -ed "%fd"'
@item -uxiAdapter string
@cindex uxiAdapter, option
Similar to @code{adapterCommand}, but used for engines accompanied
by the @code{fUCCI} or @code{fUSI} option, so you can configure
XBoard to be ready to handle more than one flavor of non-native protocols.
Default: ""
@item -polyglotDir filename
@cindex polyglotDir, option
Gives the name of the directory in which the Polyglot adapter for UCI engines resides.
Default: "".
@item -usePolyglotBook true/false
@cindex usePolyglotBook, option
Specifies if the Polyglot book should be used as GUI book.
@item -polyglotBook filename
@cindex polyglotBook, option
Gives the filename of the opening book.
The book is only used when the @code{usePolyglotBook} option is set to true,
and the option @code{firstHasOwnBookUCI} or @code{secondHasOwnBookUCI}
applying to the engine is set to false.
The engine will be kept in force mode as long as the current position is in book,
and XBoard will select the book moves for it. Default: "".
@item -fNoOwnBookUCI or -firstXBook or -firstHasOwnBookUCI true/false
@itemx -sNoOwnBookUCI or -secondXBook or -secondHasOwnBookUCI true/false
@cindex fNoOwnBookUCI, option
@cindex sNoOwnBookUCI, option
@cindex firstHasOwnBookUCI, option
@cindex secondHasOwnBookUCI, option
@cindex firstXBook, option
@cindex secondXBook, option
Indicates if the mentioned engine has its own opening book it should play from,
rather than using the external book through XBoard.
Default: depends on setting of the option @code{discourageOwnBooks}.
@item -discourageOwnBooks true/false
@cindex discourageOwnBooks, option
When set, newly loaded engines will be assumed to use the GUI book,
unless they explicitly specify differently.
Otherwise they will be assumed to not use the GUI book,
unless the specify differently (e.g. with @code{firstXBook}).
Default: false.
@item -bookDepth n
@cindex bookDepth, option
Limits the use of the GUI book to the first n moves of each side.
Default: 12.
@item -bookVariation n
@cindex bookVariation, option
A value n from 0 to 100 tunes the choice of moves from the GUI books
from totally random to best-only. Default: 50
@item -mcBookMode
@cindex mcBookMode, option
When this volatile option is specified, the probing algorithm of the
GUI book is altered to always select the move that is most under-represented
based on its performance.
When all moves are played in approximately the right proportion,
a book miss will be reported, to give the engine opportunity to
explore a new move.
In addition score of the moves will be kept track of during the session
in a book buffer.
By playing an match in this mode, a book will be built from scratch.
The only output are the saved games, which can be converted to an
actual book later, with the @samp{Save Games as Book} command.
The latter command can also be used to pre-fill the book buffer
before adding new games based on the probing algorithm.
@item -fn string or -firstPgnName string
@itemx -sn string or -secondPgnName string
@cindex firstPgnName, option
@cindex secondPgnName, option
@cindex fn, option
@cindex sn, option
Indicates the name that should be used for the engine in PGN tags of
engine-engine games.
Intended to allow you to install versions of the same engine with different settings,
and still distinguish them.
Default: "".
@item -defaultHashSize n
@cindex defaultHashSize, option
Sets the size of the hash table to n MegaBytes. Together with the EGTB cache size
this number is also used to calculate the memory setting of XBoard/WinBoard engines,
for those that support the memory feature of the XBoard/WinBoard protocol. Default: 64.
@item -defaultCacheSizeEGTB n
@cindex defaultCacheSizeEGTB, option
Sets the size of the EGTB cache to n MegaBytes. Together with the hash-table size
this number is also used to calculate the memory setting of XBoard/WinBoard engines,
for those that support the memory feature of the XBoard/WinBoard protocol. Default: 4.
@item -defaultPathEGTB filename
@cindex defaultPathEGTB, option
Gives the name of the directory where the end-game tablebases are installed, for UCI engines.
Default: "/usr/local/share/egtb".
@item -egtFormats string
@cindex egtFormats, option
Specifies which end-game tables are installed on the computer, and where.
The argument is a comma-separated list of format specifications,
each specification consisting of a format name, a colon, and a directory path name,
e.g. "nalimov:/usr/local/share/egtb".
If the name part matches that of a format that the engine requests through a feature command,
xboard will relay the path name for this format to the engine through an egtpath command.
One egtpath command for each matching format will be sent.
Popular formats are "nalimov" and "gaviota" DTM tablebases,
syzygy DTZ tablebases and "scorpio" bitbases.
Default: "".
@item -firstChessProgramNames=@{names@}
@cindex firstChessProgramNames, option
This option lets you customize the listbox with chess-engine names
that appears in the @samp{Load Engine} and @samp{Tournament Options} dialog.
It consists of a list of strings, one per line.
When an engine is loaded, the corresponding line is prefixed with "-fcp ",
and processed like it appeared on the command line.
That means that apart from the engine command,
it can contain any number of XBoard options you want to use with this engine.
(Commonly used options here are -fd, -firstXBook, -fUCI, -variant.)
The value of this option is gradually built as you load new engines
through the @samp{Load Engine} menu dialog, with @samp{Add to list} ticked.
To change it in other ways, (e.g. deleting engines),
use the menu item @samp{Edit Engine List} in the @samp{Engine} menu.
@end table
@node Tournament options
@section Tournament options
@cindex Tournament Options
@cindex Options, Tournament
@table @asis
@item -defaultMatchGames n
@cindex defaultMatchGames, option
Sets the number of games that will be used for a match between two engines
started from the menu to n. Also used as games per pairing in other tournament
formats. Default: 10.
@item -matchPause n
@cindex matchPause, option
Specifies the duration of the pause between two games of a match or tournament
between engines as n milliseconds.
Especially engines that do not support ping need this option,
to prevent that the move they are thinking on when an opponent unexpectedly
resigns will be counted for the next game, (leading to illegal moves there).
Default: 10000.
@item -tf filename or -tourneyFile filename
@cindex tf, option
@cindex tourneyFile, option
Specifies the name of the tournament file used in match mode
to conduct a multi-player tournament.
This file is a special settings file,
which stores the description of the tournament (including progress info),
through normal options (e.g. for time control, load and save files),
and through some special-purpose options listed below.
@item -tt number or -tourneyType number
@cindex tt, option
@cindex tourneyType, option
Specifies the type of tourney: 0 = round-robin,
N>0 = (multi-)gauntlet with N gauntlet engines,
-1 = Swiss through external pairing engine.
Volatile option, but stored in tourney file.
@item -cy number or -tourneyCycles number
@cindex cy, option
@cindex tourneyCycles, option
Specifies the number of cycles in a tourney.
Volatile option, but stored in tourney file.
@item -participants list
@cindex participants, option
The list is a multi-line text string that specifies engines
occurring in the @code{firstChesProgramNames} list
in the settings file by their (implied or explicitly given) nicknames,
one engine per line.
The mentioned engines will play in the tourney.
Volatile option, but stored in tourney file.
@item -results string
@cindex results, option
The string of +=- characters lists the result of all played games in a tourney.
Games currently playing are listed as *,
while a space indicates a game that is not yet played.
Volatile option, but stored in tourney file.
@item -defaultTourneyName string
@cindex defaultTourneyName, option
Specifies the name of the tournament file XBoard should propose
when the @samp{Match Options} dialog is opened.
Any %y, %M, %d, %h, %m, %s in the string are replaced by the current
year, month, day of the month, hours, minutes, seconds of the current time,
respectively, as two-digit number.
A %Y would be replaced by the year as 4-digit number. Default: empty string.
@item -pairingEngine filename
@cindex pairingEngine, option
Specifies the external program to be used to pair the participants in Swiss tourneys.
XBoard communicates with this engine in the same way as it communicates with Chess engines.
The only commands sent to the pairing engine are “results N string”,
(where N is the number of participants,
and string the results so far in the format of the results option),
and “pairing N”, (where N is the number of the tourney game).
To the latter the pairing engine should answer with “A-B”,
where A and B are participant numbers (in the range 1-N).
(There should be no reply to the results command.) Default: empty string.
@item -afterGame string
@itemx -afterTourney string
@cindex afterGame, option
@cindex afterTourney, option
When non-empty, the given string will be executed as a system command
after each tournament game, or after the tourney completes, respectively.
This can be used, for example, to autmatically run a cross-table generator
on the PGN file where games are saved, to update the tourney standings.
Default: ""
@item -syncAfterRound true/false
@itemx -syncAfterCycle true/false
@cindex syncAfterRound, option
@cindex syncAfterCycle, option
Controls whether different instances of XBoard concurrently running the
same tournament will wait for each other.
Defaults: sync after cycle, but not after round.
@item -seedBase number
@cindex seedBase, option
Used to store the seed of the pseudo-random-number generator in the
tourneyFile, so that separate instances of XBoard working on the same
tourney can take coherent 'random' decisions, such as picking an
opening for a given game number.
@end table
@node ICS options
@section ICS options
@cindex ICS options
@cindex Options, ICS
@table @asis
@item -ics/-xics or -internetChessServerMode true/false
@cindex ics, option
@cindex internetChessServerMode, option
Connect with an Internet Chess Server to play chess against its
other users, observe games they are playing, or review games
that have recently finished. Default: false.
@item -icshost or -internetChessServerHost host
@cindex icshost, option
@cindex internetChessServerHost, option
The Internet host name or address of the chess server to connect
to when in ICS mode. Default: @code{chessclub.com}.
Another popular chess server to try is @code{freechess.org}.
If your site doesn't have a working Internet name server, try
specifying the host address in numeric form.
You may also need
to specify the numeric address when using the icshelper option
with timestamp or timeseal (see below).
@item -icsport or -internetChessServerPort port-number
@cindex icsport, option
@cindex internetChessServerPort, option
The port number to use when connecting to a chess server in ICS
mode. Default: 5000.
@item -icshelper or -internetChessServerHelper prog-name
@cindex icshelper, option
@cindex internetChessServerHelper, option
An external helper program used to communicate with the chess server.
You would set it to "timestamp" for ICC (chessclub.com) or
"timeseal" for FICS (freechess.org), after
obtaining the correct version of timestamp or timeseal for your
computer. See "help timestamp" on ICC and "help timeseal" on FICS.
This option is shorthand for @code{-useTelnet -telnetProgram program}.
@item -telnet/-xtelnet or -useTelnet true/false
@cindex telnet, option
@cindex useTelnet, option
This option is poorly named; it should be called useHelper.
If set to true, it instructs XBoard to run an external
program to communicate with the Internet Chess Server.
The program to use is given by the telnetProgram option.
If the option is
false (the default), XBoard opens a TCP socket and uses its own
internal implementation of the telnet protocol to communicate with the
ICS. @xref{Firewalls}.
@item -telnetProgram prog-name
@cindex telnetProgram, option
This option is poorly named; it should be called helperProgram.
It gives the name of the telnet program to be used with
the @code{gateway} and @code{useTelnet} options. The default is
@file{telnet}. The telnet program is invoked with the value of
@code{internetChessServerHost} as its first argument and the value
of @code{internetChessServerPort} as its second argument.
@xref{Firewalls}.
@item -gateway host-name
@cindex gateway, option
If this option is set to a host name, XBoard communicates with the
Internet Chess Server by using @file{rsh} to run
the @code{telnetProgram} on the given host,
instead of using its own internal implementation
of the telnet protocol. You can substitute a different remote shell
program for @file{rsh} using the @code{remoteShell} option described below.
@xref{Firewalls}.
@item -internetChessServerCommPort or -icscomm dev-name
@cindex internetChessServerCommPort, option
@cindex icscomm, option
If this option is set, XBoard communicates with the ICS through
the given character I/O device instead of opening a TCP connection.
Use this option if your system does not have any kind of
Internet connection itself (not even a SLIP or PPP connection),
but you do have dial-up access (or a hardwired terminal line) to
an Internet service provider from which you can telnet to the ICS.
The support for this option in XBoard is minimal. You need to
set all communication parameters and tty modes before you enter
XBoard.
Use a script something like this:
@example
stty raw -echo 9600 > /dev/tty00
xboard -ics -icscomm /dev/tty00
@end example
Here replace @samp{/dev/tty00} with the name of the device that your
modem is connected to. You might have to add several more
options to these stty commands. See the man pages for @file{stty}
and @code{tty} if you run into problems. Also, on many systems stty
works on its standard input instead of standard output, so you
have to use @samp{<} instead of @samp{>}.
If you are using linux, try starting with the script below.
Change it as necessary for your installation.
@example
#!/bin/sh -f
# configure modem and fire up XBoard
# configure modem
(
stty 2400 ; stty raw ; stty hupcl ; stty -clocal
stty ignbrk ; stty ignpar ; stty ixon ; stty ixoff
stty -iexten ; stty -echo
) < /dev/modem
xboard -ics -icscomm /dev/modem
@end example
@noindent
After you start XBoard in this way, type whatever commands are
necessary to dial out to your Internet provider and log in.
Then telnet to ICS, using a command like
@kbd{telnet chessclub.com 5000}.
Important: See the paragraph below about extra echoes,
in @ref{Limitations}.
@item -icslogon or -internetChessServerLogonScript file-name
@cindex icslogon, option
@cindex internetChessServerLogonScript, option
@cindex .icsrc
Whenever XBoard connects to the Internet Chess Server,
if it finds a file with the name given in this option, it feeds the
file's contents to the ICS as commands. The default file name
is @file{.icsrc}.
Usually the first two lines of the file should be
your ICS user name and password.
The file can be either in $CHESSDIR, in XBoard's working
directory if CHESSDIR is not set, or in your home directory.
@item -msLoginDelay delay
@cindex msLoginDelay, option
If you experience trouble logging on to an ICS when using the
@code{-icslogon} option, inserting some delay between characters
of the logon script may help. This option adds @code{delay}
milliseconds of delay between characters. Good values to try
are 100 and 250.
@item -icsinput/-xicsinput or -internetChessServerInputBox true/false
@cindex icsinput, option
@cindex internetChessServerInputBox, option
Sets the ICS Input Box menu option. @xref{Mode Menu}. Default: false.
@item -autocomm/-xautocomm or -autoComment true/false
@cindex autocomm, option
@cindex autoComment, option
Sets the Auto Comment menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: false.
@item -autoflag/-xautoflag or -autoCallFlag true/false
@cindex autoflag, option
@cindex autoCallFlag, option
Sets the Auto Flag menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: false.
@item -autobs/-xautobs or -autoObserve true/false
@cindex autobs, option
@cindex autoObserve, option
Sets the Auto Observe menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: false.
@item -autoKibitz
@cindex autoKibitz, option
Enables kibitzing of the engines last thinking output (depth, score, time, speed, PV)
before it moved
to the ICS, in zippy mode. The option @code{showThinking} must be switched on for
this option to work.
Also diverts similar kibitz information of an opponent engine that is playing you
through the ICS to the engine-output window, as if the engine was playing locally.
@item -seekGraph true/false or -sg
@cindex seekGraph, option
@cindex sg, option
Enables displaying of the seek graph by left-clicking the board when
you are logged on to an ICS and currently idle.
The seek graph show all players currently seeking games on the ICS,
plotted according to their rating and the time control of the game they seek,
in three different colors (for rated, unrated and wild games).
Computer ads are displayed as squares, human ads are dots.
Default: false.
@item -autoRefresh true/false
@cindex autoRefresh, option
Enables automatic updating of the seek graph,
by having the ICS send a running update of all newly placed
and removed seek ads.
This consumes a substantial amount of communication bandwidth,
and is only supported for FICS and ICC.
Default: false.
@item -backgroundObserve true/false
@cindex backgroundObserve, option
When true, boards sent to you by the ICS from other games while you are playing
(e.g. because you are observing them)
will not be automatically displayed.
Only a summary of time left and material of both players will appear
in the message field above the board.
XBoard will remember the last board it has received this way,
and will display it instead of the position in your own game
when you press the right mouse button.
No other information is stored on such games observed in the background;
you cannot save such a game later, or step through its moves.
This feature is provided solely for the benefit of bughouse players,
to enable them to peek at their partner's game without the need
to logon twice.
Default: false.
@item -dualBoard true/false
@cindex dualBoard, option
In combination with -backgroundObserve true, this option will display
the board of the background game side by side with that of your own game,
so you can have it in view permanently.
Any board or holdings info coming in will be displayed on the secondary
board immediately.
This feature is still experimental and largely unfinished.
There is no animation or highlighting of moves on the secondary board.
Default: false.
@item -disguisePromotedPieces true/false
@cindex disguisePromotedPieces, option
When set promoted Pawns in crazyhouse/bughouse are displayed identical
to primordial pieces of the same type, rather than distinguishable.
Default: true.
@item -moves/-xmoves or -getMoveList true/false
@cindex moves, option
@cindex getMoveList, option
Sets the Get Move List menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: true.
@item -alarm/-xalarm or -icsAlarm true/false
@cindex alarm, option
@cindex icsAlarm, option
Sets the ICS Alarm menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: true.
@item -icsAlarmTime ms
@cindex icsAlarmTime, option
Sets the time in milliseconds for the ICS Alarm menu option.
@xref{Options Menu}. Default: 5000.
@item lowTimeWarning true/false
@cindex lowTimeWarning, option
Controls a color change of the board as a warning your time is running out.
@xref{Options Menu}. Default: false.
@item -pre/-xpre \fRor\fB -premove true/false
@cindex pre, option
@cindex premove, option
Sets the Premove menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: true.
@item -prewhite/-xprewhite or -premoveWhite
@itemx -preblack/-xpreblack or -premoveBlack
@itemx -premoveWhiteText string
@itemx -premoveBlackText string
@cindex prewhite, option
@cindex premoveWhite, option
@cindex preblack, option
@cindex premoveBlack, option
@cindex premoveWhiteText, option
@cindex premoveBlackText, option
Set the menu options for specifying the first move for either color.
@xref{Options Menu}. Defaults: false and empty strings, so no pre-moves.
@item -quiet/-xquiet or -quietPlay true/false
@cindex quiet, option
@cindex quietPlay, option
Sets the Quiet Play menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: false.
@item -colorizeMessages or -colorize/-xcolorize
@cindex Colors
@cindex colorize, option
@cindex colorizeMessages, option
Setting colorizeMessages
to true tells XBoard to colorize the messages received from
the ICS. Colorization works only if your xterm
supports ISO 6429 escape sequences for changing text colors.
Default: true.
@item -colorShout foreground,background,bold
@itemx -colorSShout foreground,background,bold
@itemx -colorCShout foreground,background,bold
@itemx -colorChannel1 foreground,background,bold
@itemx -colorChannel foreground,background,bold
@itemx -colorKibitz foreground,background,bold
@itemx -colorTell foreground,background,bold
@itemx -colorChallege foreground,background,bold
@itemx -colorRequest foreground,background,bold
@itemx -colorSeek foreground,background,bold
@itemx -colorNormal foreground,background,bold
@cindex Colors
@cindex colorShout, option
@cindex colorSShout, option
@cindex colorCShout, option
@cindex colorChannel1, option
@cindex colorChannel, option
@cindex colorKibitz, option
@cindex colorTell, option
@cindex colorChallenge, option
@cindex colorRequest, option
@cindex colorSeek, option
@cindex colorNormal, option
These options set the colors used when colorizing ICS messages.
All ICS messages are grouped into one of these categories:
shout, sshout, channel 1, other channel, kibitz, tell, challenge,
request (including abort, adjourn, draw, pause, and takeback), or
normal (all other messages).
Each foreground or background argument can be one of the following:
black, red, green, yellow, blue, magenta, cyan, white, or default.
Here ``default'' means the default foreground or background color of
your xterm. Bold can be 1 or 0. If background is omitted, ``default''
is assumed; if bold is omitted, 0 is assumed.
@item -soundProgram progname
@cindex soundProgram, option
@cindex Sounds
If this option is set to a sound-playing program that is installed and
working on your system, XBoard can play sound files when certain
events occur, listed below. The default program name is "play". If
any of the sound options is set to "$", the event rings the terminal
bell by sending a ^G character to standard output, instead of playing
a sound file. If an option is set to the empty string "", no sound is
played for that event.
@item -soundDirectory directoryname
@cindex soundDirectory, option
@cindex Sounds
This option specifies where XBoard will look for sound files,
when these are not given as an absolute path name.
@item -soundShout filename
@itemx -soundSShout filename
@itemx -soundCShout filename
@itemx -soundChannel filename
@itemx -soundChannel1 filename
@itemx -soundKibitz filename
@itemx -soundTell filename
@itemx -soundChallenge filename
@itemx -soundRequest filename
@itemx -soundSeek filename
@cindex soundShout, option
@cindex soundSShout, option
@cindex soundCShout, option
@cindex soundChannel, option
@cindex soundChannel1, option
@cindex soundKibitz, option
@cindex soundTell, option
@cindex soundChallenge, option
@cindex soundRequest, option
@cindex soundSeek, option
These sounds are triggered in the same way as the colorization events
described above. They all default to "", no sound. They are played
only if the colorizeMessages is on.
CShout is synonymous with SShout.
@item -soundMove filename
@cindex soundMove, option
This sound is played when a player other than yourself makes a move.
Default: "$".
@item -soundRoar filename
@cindex soundRoar, option
This sound is played when a Lion makes a hit-and-run or double capture/
Default: "" (no sound).
@item -soundIcsAlarm filename
@cindex soundIcsAlarm, option
This sound is used by the ICS Alarm menu option. Default: "$".
@item -soundIcsWin filename
@cindex soundIcsWin, option
This sound is played when you win an ICS game. Default: "" (no sound).
@item -soundIcsLoss filename
@cindex soundIcsLoss, option
This sound is played when you lose an ICS game. Default: "" (no sound).
@item -soundIcsDraw filename
@cindex soundIcsDraw, option
This sound is played when you draw an ICS game. Default: "" (no sound).
@item -soundIcsUnfinished filename
@cindex soundIcsUnfinished, option
This sound is played when an ICS game that you are participating in is
aborted, adjourned, or otherwise ends inconclusively. Default: "" (no
sound).
@end table
@node Load and Save options
@section Load and Save options
@cindex Options, Load and Save
@cindex Load and Save options
@table @asis
@item -lgf or -loadGameFile file
@itemx -lgi or -loadGameIndex index
@cindex lgf, option
@cindex loadGameFile, option
@cindex lgi, option
@cindex loadGameIndex, option
If the @code{loadGameFile} option is set, XBoard loads the specified
game file at startup. The file name @file{-} specifies the standard
input. If there is more than one game in the file, XBoard
pops up a menu of the available games, with entries based on their PGN
(Portable Game Notation) tags.
If the @code{loadGameIndex} option is set to @samp{N}, the menu is suppressed
and the N th game found in the file is loaded immediately.
The menu is also suppressed if @code{matchMode} is enabled or if the game file
is a pipe; in these cases the first game in the file is loaded immediately.
Use the @file{pxboard} shell script provided with XBoard if you
want to pipe in files containing multiple games and still see the menu.
If the loadGameIndex specifies an index -1, this triggers auto-increment
of the index in @code{matchMode}, which means that after every game the
index is incremented by one, causing each game of the match to be played
from the next game in the file. Similarly, specifying an index value of -2
causes the index to be incremented every two games, so that each game
in the file is used twice (with reversed colors).
The @code{rewindIndex} option causes the index to be reset to the
first game of the file when it has reached a specified value.
@item -rewindIndex n
Causes a position file or game file to be rewound to its beginning after n
positions or games in auto-increment @code{matchMode}.
See @code{loadPositionIndex} and @code{loadGameIndex}.
default: 0 (no rewind).
@item -td or -timeDelay seconds
@cindex td, option
@cindex timeDelay, option
Time delay between moves during @samp{Load Game} or @samp{Analyze File}.
Fractional seconds are allowed; try @samp{-td 0.4}.
A time delay value of -1 tells
XBoard not to step through game files automatically. Default: 1 second.
@item -sgf or -saveGameFile file
@cindex sgf, option
@cindex saveGameFile, option
If this option is set, XBoard appends a record of every game
played to the specified file. The file name @file{-} specifies the
standard output.
@item -autosave/-xautosave or -autoSaveGames true/false
@cindex autosave, option
@cindex autoSaveGames, option
Sets the Auto Save menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: false.
Ignored if @code{saveGameFile} is set.
@item -onlyOwnGames true/false
@cindex onlyOwnGames, option
Suppresses auto-saving of ICS observed games. Default: false.
@item -lpf or -loadPositionFile file
@itemx -lpi or -loadPositionIndex index
@cindex lpf, option
@cindex loadPositionFile, option
@cindex lpi, option
@cindex loadPositionIndex, option
If the @code{loadPositionFile} option is set, XBoard loads the
specified position file at startup. The file name @file{-} specifies the
standard input. If the @code{loadPositionIndex} option is set to N,
the Nth position found in the file is loaded; otherwise the
first position is loaded.
If the loadPositionIndex specifies an index -1, this triggers auto-increment
of the index in @code{matchMode}, which means that after every game the
index is incremented by one, causing each game of the match to be played
from the next position in the file. Similarly, specifying an index value of -2
causes the index to be incremented every two games, so that each position
in the file is used twice (with the engines playing opposite colors).
The @code{rewindIndex} option causes the index to be reset to the
first position of the file when it has reached a specified value.
@item -spf or -savePositionFile file
@cindex spf, option
@cindex savePositionFile, option
If this option is set, XBoard appends the final position reached
in every game played to the specified file. The file name @file{-}
specifies the standard output.
@item -positionDir directory
@cindex positionDir, option
Specifies the directory where file browsing should start when using
the @samp{Load Position} menu item.
@item -pgnExtendedInfo true/false
@cindex pgnExtendedInfo, option
If this option is set, XBoard saves depth, score and time used for each
move that the engine found as a comment in the PGN file.
Default: false.
@item -pgnTimeLeft true/false
@cindex pgnTimeLeft, option
If this option is set, XBoard will save the remaining clock time for
the player that has just moved as part of the @samp{pgnExtendedInfo},
rather than the time that player thought about his latest move.
Default: false.
@item -pgnEventHeader string
Default: false.
@cindex pgnEventHeader, option
Sets the name used in the PGN event tag to string.
Default: "Computer Chess Game".
@item -pgnNumberTag true/false
@cindex pgnNumberTag, option
Include the (unique) sequence number of a tournament game into the saved
PGN file as a 'number' tag.
Default: false.
@item -saveOutOfBookInfo true/false
@cindex saveOutOfBookInfo, option
Include the information on how the engine(s) game out of its opening book
in a special 'annotator' tag with the PGN file.
Default: true.
@item -oldsave/-xoldsave or -oldSaveStyle true/false
@cindex oldsave, option
@cindex oldSaveStyle, option
Sets the Old Save Style menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: false.
@item -gameListTags string
@cindex gameListTags, option
The character string lists the PGN tags that should be printed in the
Game List, and their order. The meaning of the codes is e=event,
s=site, d=date, o=round, p=players, r=result, w=white Elo, b=black Elo,
t=time control, v=variant, a=out-of-book info, c=result comment.
Default: "eprd"
@item -ini or -settingsFile filename
@itemx -saveSettingsFile filename
@itemx @@filename
@cindex saveSettingsFile, option
@cindex SettingsFile, option
@cindex init, option
@cindex at sign, option
When XBoard encounters an option -settingsFile (or -ini for short),
or @@filename, it tries to read the mentioned file,
and substitutes the contents of it (presumaby more command-line options)
in place of the option.
In the case of -ini or -settingsFile, the name of a successfully read
settings file is also remembered as the file to use for saving settings
(automatically on exit, or on user command).
An option of the form @@filename does not affect saving.
The option -saveSettingsFile does specify a name of the file to use
for saving, without reading any options from it, and is thus also effective
when the file did not exist yet.
So the settings will be saved to the file specified in the last
-saveSettingsFile or succesfull -settingsFile / -ini command,
if any, and in /etc/xboard/xboard.conf otherwise.
Usualy the latter is only accessible for the system administrator, though,
and will be used to contain system-wide default settings, amongst which
a -saveSettingsFile and -settingsFile options to specify a settings file
accessible to the individual user, such as ~/.xboardrc in the user's
home directory.
@item -saveSettingsOnExit true/false
@cindex saveSettingsOnExit, option
Controls saving of options on the settings file. @xref{Options Menu}.
Default: true.
@end table
@node User interface options
@section User interface options
@cindex User interface options
@cindex Options, User interface
@table @asis
@item -noGUI
@cindex noGUI, option
Suppresses all GUI functions of XBoard
(to speed up automated ultra-fast engine-engine games, which you don't want to watch).
There will be no board or clock updates, no printing of moves,
and no update of the icon on the task bar in this mode.
@item -logoSize N
@cindex logoSize, option
This option controls the drawing of player logos next to the clocks.
The integer N specifies the width of the logo in pixels;
the logo height will always be half the width.
When N = 0, no logos will be diplayed.
Default: 0.
@item -firstLogo imagefile
@itemx -secondLogo imagefile
@cindex firstLogo, option
@cindex secondLogo, option
Specify the images to be used as player logos when @code{logoSize}
is non-zero, next to the white and black clocks, respectively.
@item -autoLogo true/false
@itemx -logoDir filename
@cindex autoLogo, option
@cindex logoDir, option
When @code{autoLogo} is set, XBoard will search for a PNG image file
with the name of the engine or ICS in the directory specified
by @code{logoDir}.
For a human player it will look for a file <username>.png in this
directory, but only when ~/.logo.png does not provide one.
@item -recentEngines number
@itemx -recentEngineList list
@cindex recentEngines, option
@cindex recentEngineList, option
When the number is larger than zero, it determines how many recently
used engines will be appended at the bottom of the @samp{Engines} menu.
The engines will be saved in your settings file as the option
@code{recentEngineList}, by their nicknames,
and the most recently used one will always be sorted to the top.
If the list after that is longer than the specified number,
the last one is discarded.
Changes in the list will only become visible the next session,
provided you saved the settings.
Default: 6.
@item -oneClickMove true/false
@cindex oneClickMove, option
When set, this option allows you to enter moves by only clicking the to-
or from-square, when only a single legal move to or from that square
is possible.
Double-clicking a piece (or clicking an already selected piece)
will instruct that piece to make the only capture it can legally do.
Default: false.
@item -monoMouse true/false
@cindex monoMouse, option
When set button 1 clicks on empty squares in Edit Position mode
will be interpreted as button 3 clicks, so they place a piece.
Default: false.
@item -movesound/-xmovesound or -ringBellAfterMoves true/false
@cindex movesound, option
@cindex bell, option
@cindex ringBellAfterMoves, option
Sets the Move Sound menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: false.
For compatibility with old XBoard versions, -bell/-xbell are also
accepted as abbreviations for this option.
@item -analysisBell N
@cindex analysisBell, option
When N is non-zero, the Move Sound will be played whenever a new
PV arrives in analysis mode after more than N seconds of analysis.
Default: 0.
@item -exit/-xexit or -popupExitMessage true/false
@cindex exit, option
@cindex popupExitMessage, option
Sets the Popup Exit Message menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: true.
@item -popup/-xpopup or -popupMoveErrors true/false
@cindex popup, option
@cindex popupMoveErrors, option
Sets the Popup Move Errors menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: false.
@item -queen/-xqueen or -alwaysPromoteToQueen true/false
@cindex queen, option
@cindex alwaysPromoteToQueen, option
Sets the Always Queen menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: false.
@item -sweepPromotions true/false
@cindex sweepPromotion, option
Sets the @samp{Almost Always Promote to Queen} menu option.
@xref{Options Menu}. Default: false.
@item -legal/-xlegal or -testLegality true/false
@cindex legal, option
@cindex testLegality, option
Sets the Test Legality menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: true.
@item -size or -boardSize (sizeName | n1,n2,n3,n4,n5,n6,n7)
@cindex size, option
@cindex boardSize, option
@cindex board size
Determines how large the board will be, by selecting the pixel size
of the pieces and setting a few related parameters.
The sizeName can be one of: Titanic, giving 129x129 pixel pieces,
Colossal 116x116, Giant 108x108, Huge 95x95, Big 87x87, Large 80x80, Bulky 72x72,
Medium 64x64, Moderate 58x58, Average 54x54, Middling 49x49, Mediocre
45x45, Small 40x40, Slim 37x37, Petite 33x33, Dinky 29x29, Teeny 25x25,
or Tiny 21x21.
Xboard installs with a set of scalable (svg) piece images,
which it scales to any of the requested sizes.
The square size can further be continuously scaled by sizing the board window,
but this only adapts the size of the pieces,
and has no effect on the width of the grid lines or the font choice
(both of which would depend on he selected boardSize).
The default depends on the size of your screen; it is approximately the
largest size that will fit without clipping.
You can select other sizes or vary other layout parameters by providing
a list of comma-separated values (with no spaces) as the argument.
You do not need to provide all the values; for any you omit from the
end of the list, defaults are taken from the nearest built-in size.
The value @code{n1} gives the piece size, @code{n2} the width of the
black border
between squares, @code{n3} the desired size for the
clockFont, @code{n4} the desired size for the coordFont,
@code{n5} the desired size for the messageFont,
@code{n6} the smallLayout flag (0 or 1),
and @code{n7} the tinyLayout flag (0 or 1).
All dimensions are in pixels.
If the border between squares is eliminated (0 width), the various
highlight options will not work, as there is nowhere to draw the highlight.
If smallLayout is 1 and @code{titleInWindow} is true,
the window layout is rearranged to make more room for the title.
If tinyLayout is 1, the labels on the menu bar are abbreviated
to one character each and the buttons in the button bar are made narrower.
@item -overrideLineGap n
@cindex overrideLineGap, option
When n >= 0, this forces the width of the black border between squares
to n pixels for any board size. Mostly used to suppress the grid
entirely by setting n = 0, e.g. in xiangqi or just getting a prettier
picture. When n < 0 this the size-dependent width of the grid lines
is used. Default: -1.
@item -coords/-xcoords or -showCoords true/false
@cindex coords, option
@cindex showCoords, option
Sets the Show Coords menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: false.
The @code{coordFont} option specifies what font to use.
@item -autoraise/-xautoraise or -autoRaiseBoard true/false
@cindex autoraise, option
@cindex autoRaiseBoard, option
Sets the Auto Raise Board menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: true.
@item -autoflip/-xautoflip or -autoFlipView true/false
@cindex autoflip, option
@cindex autoFlipView, option
Sets the Auto Flip View menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: true.
@item -flip/-xflip or -flipView true/false
@cindex flip, option
@cindex flipView, option
If Auto Flip View is not set, or if you are observing but not participating
in a game, then the positioning of the board at the start of each game
depends on the flipView option. If flipView is false (the default),
the board is positioned so that the white pawns move from the bottom to the
top; if true, the black pawns move from the bottom to the top.
In any case, the Flip menu option (see @ref{Options Menu})
can be used to flip the board after
the game starts.
@item -title/-xtitle or -titleInWindow true/false
@cindex title, option
@cindex titleInWindow, option
If this option is true, XBoard displays player names (for ICS
games) and game file names (for @samp{Load Game}) inside its main
window. If the option is false (the default), this information is
displayed only in the window banner. You probably won't want to
set this option unless the information is not showing up in the
banner, as happens with a few X window managers.
@item -buttons/-xbuttons or -showButtonBar True/False
@cindex buttons, option
@cindex showButtonBar, option
If this option is False, xboard omits the [<<] [<] [P] [>] [>>] button
bar from the window, allowing the message line to be wider. You can
still get the functions of these buttons using the menus or their keyboard
shortcuts. Default: true.
@item -evalZoom factor
@cindex evalZoom, option
The score interval (-1,1) is blown up on the vertical axis of
the Evaluation Graph by the given factor.
Default: 1
@item -evalThreshold n
@cindex evalThreshold, option
Score below n (centiPawn) are plotted as 0 in the Evaluation Graph.
Default: 25
@item -mono/-xmono or -monoMode true/false
@cindex mono, option
@cindex monoMode, option
Determines whether XBoard displays its pieces and squares with
two colors (true) or four (false). You shouldn't have to
specify @code{monoMode}; XBoard will determine if it is necessary.
@item -showTargetSquares true/false
@cindex showTargetSquares, option
Determines whether XBoard can highlight the squares a piece has
legal moves to, when you grab that piece with the mouse.
Default: false.
@item -flashCount count
@itemx -flashRate rate
@itemx -flash/-xflash
@cindex flashCount, option
@cindex flashRate, option
@cindex flash, option
@cindex xflash, option
These options enable flashing of pieces when they
land on their destination square.
@code{flashCount}
tells XBoard how many times to flash a piece after it
lands on its destination square.
@code{flashRate}
controls the rate of flashing (flashes/sec).
Abbreviations:
@code{flash}
sets flashCount to 3.
@code{xflash}
sets flashCount to 0.
Defaults: flashCount=0 (no flashing), flashRate=5.
@item -highlight/-xhighlight or -highlightLastMove true/false
@cindex highlight, option
@cindex highlightLastMove, option
Sets the Highlight Last Move menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: false.
@item -highlightMoveWithArrow true/false
@cindex highlight Arrow, option
@cindex highlightMoveWithArrow, option
Sets the Highlight with Arrow menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: false.
@item -blind/-xblind or -blindfold true/false
@cindex blind, option
@cindex blindfold, option
Sets the Blindfold menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: false.
@item -periodic/-xperiodic or -periodicUpdates true/false
@cindex periodic, option
@cindex periodicUpdates, option
Controls updating of current move andnode counts in analysis mode. Default: true.
@item -fSAN
@itemx -sSAN
@cindex fSAN, option
@cindex sSAN, option
Causes the PV in thinking output of the mentioned engine to be converted
to SAN before it is further processed.
Warning: this might lose engine output not understood by the parser,
and uses a lot of CPU power.
Default: the PV is displayed exactly as the engine produced it.
@item -showEvalInMoveHistory true/false
@cindex showEvalInMoveHistory, option
Controls whether the evaluation scores and search depth of engine moves
are displayed with the move in the move-history window.
Default: true.
@item -clockFont font
@cindex clockFont, option
@cindex Font, clock
The font used for the clocks. If the option value is a pattern
that does not specify the font size, XBoard tries to choose an
appropriate font for the board size being used.
Default Xaw: -*-helvetica-bold-r-normal--*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*.
Default GTK: Sans Bold %d.
@item -coordFont font
@cindex coordFont, option
@cindex Font, coordinates
The font used for rank and file coordinate labels if @code{showCoords}
is true. If the option value is a pattern that does not specify
the font size, XBoard tries to choose an appropriate font for
the board size being used.
Default Xaw: -*-helvetica-bold-r-normal--*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*.
Default GTK: Sans Bold %d.
@item -messageFont font
@cindex messageFont, option
@cindex Font, message
The font used for popup dialogs, menus, etc.
If the option value is a pattern that does not specify
the font size, XBoard tries to choose an appropriate font for
the board size being used.
Default Xaw: -*-helvetica-medium-r-normal--*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*.
Default GTK: Sans Bold %d
@item -tagsFont font
@cindex tagsFont, option
@cindex Font, tags
The font used in the Edit Tags dialog.
If the option value contains %d, XBoard will replace it by
an appropriate font for the board size being used.
(Only used in GTK build.)
Default: Sans Normal %d.
@item -commentFont font
@cindex commentFont, option
@cindex Font, comment
The font used in the Edit Comment dialog.
If the option value contains %d, XBoard will replace it by
an appropriate font for the board size being used.
(Only used in GTK build.)
Default: Sans Normal %d.
@item -icsFont font
@cindex icsFont, option
@cindex Font, ics
The font used to display ICS output in the ICS Chat window.
As ICS output often contains tables aligned by spaces,
a mono-space font is recommended here.
If the option value contains %d, XBoard will replace it by
an appropriate font for the board size being used.
(Only used in GTK build.)
Default: Monospace Normal %d.
@item -moveHistoryFont font
@cindex moveHistoryFont, option
@cindex Font, moveHistory
The font used in Move History and Engine Output windows.
As these windows display mainly moves,
one could use a figurine font here.
If the option value contains %d, XBoard will replace it by
an appropriate font for the board size being used.
(Only used in GTK build.)
Default: Sans Normal %d.
@item -gameListFont font
@cindex gameListFont, option
@cindex Font, gameList
The font used in the listbox of the Game List window.
If the option value contains %d, XBoard will replace it by
an appropriate font for the board size being used.
(Only used in GTK build.)
Default: Sans Bold %d.
@item -fontSizeTolerance tol
@cindex fontSizeTolerance, option
In the font selection algorithm, a nonscalable font will be preferred
over a scalable font if the nonscalable font's size differs
by @code{tol} pixels
or less from the desired size. A value of -1 will force
a scalable font to always be used if available; a value of 0 will
use a nonscalable font only if it is exactly the right size;
a large value (say 1000) will force a nonscalable font to always be
used if available. Default: 4.
@item -pid or -pieceImageDirectory dir
@cindex pid, option
@cindex pieceImageDirectory, option
This options control what piece images xboard uses.
XBoard will look in the specified directory for an image in png
or svg format for every piece type, with names like BlackQueen.svg,
WhiteKnight.svg etc.
When neither of these is found (or no valid directory is specified)
XBoard will first ty to use an image White/BlackTile.svg in that same
directory, and if that is not present either
use the svg piece that was installed with it
(from the source-tree directory @samp{svg}).
Both svg and png images will be scaled by XBoard to the required size,
but the png pieces lose much in quality when scaled too much.
Default: "".
@item -inscriptions utf8string
@cindex inscriptions, option
The positions in the utf8string correspond to XBoard's piece types,
and for each type a glyph can be defined.
This glyph will then be rendered on top of the image for the piece.
This is useful in combination with the White/BlackTile.svg images,
which could be the image of a blank Shogi tile, for writing the
kanji piece name on top of it on the fly.
Default: "".
@item -whitePieceColor color
@itemx -blackPieceColor color
@itemx -lightSquareColor color
@itemx -darkSquareColor color
@itemx -highlightSquareColor color
@itemx -preoveHighlightColor color
@itemx -lowTimeWarningColor color
@cindex Colors
@cindex whitePieceColor, option
@cindex blackPieceColor, option
@cindex lightSquareColor, option
@cindex darkSquareColor, option
@cindex highlightSquareColor, option
@cindex premoveHighlightColor, option
@cindex lowTimeWarningColor, option
Colors to use for the pieces, squares, and square highlights.
Defaults:
@example
-whitePieceColor #FFFFCC
-blackPieceColor #202020
-lightSquareColor #C8C365
-darkSquareColor #77A26D
-highlightSquareColor #FFFF00
-premoveHighlightColor #FF0000
-lowTimeWarningColor #FF0000
@end example
On a grayscale monitor you might prefer:
@example
-whitePieceColor gray100
-blackPieceColor gray0
-lightSquareColor gray80
-darkSquareColor gray60
-highlightSquareColor gray100
-premoveHighlightColor gray70
-lowTimeWarningColor gray70
@end example
The PieceColor options only work properly if the image files
defining the pieces were pure black & white
(possibly anti-aliased to produce gray scales
and semi-transparancy),
like the pieces images that come with the install.
Their effect on colored pieces is undefined.
The SquareColor option only have an effect
when no board textures are used.
@item -trueColors true/false
@cindex trueColors, option
When set, this option suppresses the effect of the
PieceColor options mentioned above.
This is recommended for images that are already colored.
@item -useBoardTexture true/false
@itemx -liteBackTextureFile filename
@itemx -darkBackTextureFile filename
@cindex useBoardTexture, option
@cindex liteBackTextureFile, option
@cindex darkBackTextureFile, option
Indicate the png image files to be used for drawing the board squares,
and if they should be used rather than using simple colors.
The algorithm for cutting squares out of a given bitmap is such that
the picture is perfectly reproduced when a bitmap the size of
the complete board is given.
If the filename ends in "-NxM.png", with integer N and M,
it is assumed to contain a bitmap of a complete board of N files
and M ranks, and XBoard will scale it to exactly match the
current square size.
If N=M=0 it scales the entire bitmap to the size of the board,
irrespective of the number of files and ranks of the latter.
Without any -NxM suffix textures are only blown up by an integer
factor when they are smaller than the square size, or,
when the name starts with "xq", too small to cover the
complete Xiangqi board.
Default: false and ""
@item -drag/-xdrag or -animateDragging true/false
@cindex drag, option
@cindex animateDragging, option
Sets the Animate Dragging menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: true.
@item -animate/-xanimate or -animateMoving true/false
@cindex animate, option
@cindex animateMoving, option
Sets the Animate Moving menu option. @xref{Options Menu}. Default: true.
@item -animateSpeed n
@cindex -animateSpeed, option
Number of milliseconds delay between each animation frame when Animate
Moves is on.
@item -autoDisplayComment true/false
@itemx -autoDisplayTags true/false
@cindex -autoDisplayComment, option
@cindex -autoDisplayTags, option
If set to true, these options cause the window with the move comments,
and the window with PGN tags, respectively, to pop up automatically when
such tags or comments are encountered during the replaying a stored or
loaded game. Default: true.
@item -pasteSelection true/false
@cindex -pasteSelection, option
If this option is set to true, the Paste Position and Paste Game
options paste from the currently selected text. If false, they paste
from the clipboard. Default: false.
@item -autoCopyPV true|false
@cindex autoCopyPV, option
When this option is set, the position displayed on the board when
you terminate a PV walk
(initiated by a right-click on board or engine-output window)
will be automatically put on the clipboard as FEN.
Default: false.
@item -dropMenu true|false
@cindex dropMenu, option
This option allows you to emulate old behavior,
where the right mouse button brings up the (now deprecated) drop menu
rather than displaying the position at the end of the principal variation.
Default: False.
@item -pieceMenu true|false
@cindex pieceMenu, option
This option allows you to emulate old behavior,
where the right mouse button brings up the (now deprecated) piece menu
in Edit Position mode.
From this menu you can select the piece to put on the square you
clicked to bring up the menu,
or select items such as @kbd{clear board}.
You can also @kbd{promote} or @kbd{demote} a clicked piece to convert
it into an unorthodox piece that is not directly in the menu,
or give the move to @kbd{black} or @kbd{white}.
@item -variations true|false
@cindex variations, option
When this option is on, you can start new variations in Edit Game or
Analyze mode by holding the Shift key down while entering a move.
When it is off, the Shift key will be ignored.
Default: False.
@item -appendPV true|false
@cindex appendPV, option
When this option is on, a button 3 click left of a PV in the Engine
Output window will play the first move of that PV in Analyze mode,
or as many moves as you walk through it by moving the mouse.
Default: False.
@item -absoluteAnalysisScores true|false
@cindex absoluteAnalysisScores, option
When true, scores on the Engine Output window during analysis
will be printed from the white point-of-view, rather than the
side-to-move point-of-view.
Default: False.
@item -scoreWhite true|false
@cindex scoreWhite, option
When true, scores will always be printed from the white point-of-view,
rather than the side-to-move point-of-view.
Default: False.
@item -memoHeaders true|false
@cindex memoHeaders, option
When true, column headers will be displayed in the Engine Output window
for the depth, score, time and nodes data.
A button 3 click on these headers will hide or show the corresponding data.
(Not intended for dynamic use, as already printed data of the current search
will not be affected!)
Defaul: False.
@end table
@node Adjudication Options
@section Adjudication Options
@cindex Options, adjudication
@table @asis
@item -adjudicateLossThreshold n
@cindex adjudicateLossThreshold, option
If the given value is non-zero, XBoard adjudicates the game as a loss
if both engines agree for a duration of 6 consecutive ply that the score
is below the given score threshold for that engine. Make sure the score
is interpreted properly by XBoard,
using @code{-firstScoreAbs} and @code{-secondScoreAbs} if needed.
Default: 0 (no adjudication)
@item -adjudicateDrawMoves n
@cindex adjudicateDrawMoves, option
If the given value is non-zero, XBoard adjudicates the game as a draw
if after the given number of moves it was not yet decided. Default: 0 (no adjudication)
@item -checkMates true/false
@cindex checkMates, option
If this option is set, XBoard detects all checkmates and stalemates,
and ends the game as soon as they occur.
Legality-testing must be switched on for this option to work.
Default: true
@item -testClaims true/false
@cindex testClaims, option
If this option is set, XBoard verifies all result claims made by engines,
and those who send false claims will forfeit the game because of it.
Legality-testing must be switched on for this option to work. Default: true
@item -materialDraws true/false
@cindex materialDraws, option
If this option is set, XBoard adjudicates games as draws when there is
no sufficient material left to inflict a checkmate.
This applies to KBKB with like bishops (any number, actually), and to KBK, KNK and KK.
Legality-testing must be switched on for this option to work. Default: true
@item -trivialDraws true/false
@cindex trivialDraws, option
If this option is set, XBoard adjudicates games as draws that cannot be
usually won without opponent cooperation. This applies to KBKB with unlike bishops,
and to KBKN, KNKN, KNNK, KRKR and KQKQ. The draw is called after 6 ply into these end-games,
to allow quick mates that can occur in some exceptional positions to be found by the engines.
KQKQ does not really belong in this category, and might be taken out in the future.
(When bitbase-based adjudications are implemented.)
Legality-testing must be on for this option to work. Default: false
@item -ruleMoves n
@cindex ruleMoves, option
If the given value is non-zero, XBoard adjudicates the game as a draw after the given
number of consecutive reversible moves. Engine draw claims are always accepted after 50 moves,
irrespective of the given value of n.
@item -repeatsToDraw n
If the given value is non-zero, xboard adjudicates the game as a draw if a position
is repeated the given number of times. Engines draw claims are always accepted after 3 repeats,
(on the 3rd occurrence, actually), irrespective of the value of n.
Beware that positions that have different castling or en-passant rights do not count
as repeats, XBoard is fully e.p. and castling aware!
@end table
@node Install options
@section Install options
@cindex Options, install
@table @asis
@item --show-config parameter
@cindex show-config, option
When called with this option, XBoard will close immediately after printing the
value of the indicated configuration parameter, or, when no parameter was given,
after printing a list of all such parameters.
Currently the only valid values for parameter are Datadir and Sysconfdir.
This option can be used by install scripts for board themes
to figure out where the currently active XBoard stores its data.
@item -date timestamp
@itemx -saveDate timestamp
@cindex date, option
@cindex saveDate, option
These options specify an epoch as an integer number.
The @code{saveDate} option is written by XBoard in the settings file every time the
settings are saved, with the current time, so that later runs of XBoard can know this.
The @code{date} option can be included in settings files to indicate when lines
following it were added to those files.
Some options will be ignored if the epoch specified by the latest @code{date} option
predates the -saveDate setting (implying they must have been seen before).
@item -autoInstall list
@cindex autoInstall, option
When the list is set to a non-empty string, XBoard will scan the
operating system's plugin directory for engines supporting UCI
and XBoard protocol at startup.
When it finds an engine that was installed after it last saved
its settings, a line to launch that engine (as per specs in
the plugin file) is appended to the -firstChessProgramNames
list of installed engines.
In the future it will be possible to use the autoInstall list to limit
this automatic adding of engines based on the chess variant they play.
@item -addMasterOption string
@cindex addMasterOption, option
Adds the mentioned string as an additional line of XBoard's master settings file,
after adding a line with a @code{date} option to timestamp it.
Intended to add options of the 'install' type (see below) to the master file,
which will then be processed by any XBoard that has not seen them since
it last saved its settings.
@item -autoClose
@cindex autoClose, option
The presence of this option cause XBoard to close immediately after processing
all its options (from settings file and command line).
Typically used from install scripts together with options that change XBoard's
settings files, so that XBoard can be run in batch mode rather than interactively.
@item -installEngine string
@cindex installEngine, option
Adds the given string as an additional line to the value of the
@code{firstChessProgramNames} option when the -saveDate setting preceeds the -date setting.
Intended for adding to the master settings file with the aid of -addMasterOption
in the install script of engines, as a method for broadcasting the presence
of a new engine to all users,
which would then see it automatically registered with XBoard.
Made obsolete by the advent of the plugin standard (see the @code{autoInstall} option),
which broadcasts such presence in a non-XBoard-specific way
by dropping *.eng files in a certain system directory.
@item -installTheme string
@cindex installTheme, option
Adds the given string as an additional line to the value of the
-themeNames option when the -saveDate setting preceeds the -date setting.
Intended for adding to the master settings file with the aid of -addMasterOption
in the install script of board graphics themes,
as a method for broadcasting the availability of a new theme to all users,
who would then see the theme appear automatically in the listbox in the
View Board menu dialog next time they run XBoard.
@end table
@node Other options
@section Other options
@cindex Options, miscellaneous
@table @asis
@item -ncp/-xncp or -noChessProgram true/false
@cindex ncp, option
@cindex noChessProgram, option
If this option is true, XBoard acts as a passive chessboard; it
does not start a chess engine at all. Turning on this option
also turns off clockMode. Default: false.
@item -viewer
@itemx -viewerOptions string
@cindex viewer, option
@cindex viewerOptions, option
Presence of the volatile option @code{viewer} on the command line
will cause the value of the persistent option @code{viewerOptions}
as stored in the settings file to be appended to the command line.
The @code{view} option will be used by desktop associations with
game or position file types, so that @code{viewerOptions} can be
used to configure the exact mode XBoard will start in when it
should act on such a file (e.g. in -ncp mode, or analyzing
with your favorite engine). The options are also automatically
appended when Board is invoked with a single argument not being
an option name, which is then assumed to be the name of a
@code{loadGameFile} or (when the name ends in .fen) a
@code{loadPositionFile}.
Default: "-ncp -engineOutputUp false -saveSettingsOnExit false".
@item -tourneyOptions string
@cindex tourneyOptions, option
When XBoard is invoked with a single argument that is a file
with .trn extension, it will assume this argument to be the value
of a @code{tourneyFile} option,
and append the value of the persistent option @code{tourneyOptions}
as stored in the settings file to the command line.
Thus the value of @code{tourneyOptions} can be
used to configure XBoard to automatically start running a
tournament when it should act on such a file.
Default: "-ncp -mm -saveSettingsOnExit false".
@item -mode or -initialMode modename
@cindex mode, option
@cindex initalMode, option
If this option is given, XBoard selects the given modename
from the Mode menu after starting and (if applicable) processing the
loadGameFile or loadPositionFile option. Default: "" (no selection).
Other supported values are
MachineWhite, MachineBlack, TwoMachines, Analysis,
AnalyzeFile, EditGame, EditPosition, and Training.
@item -variant varname
@cindex variant, option
Activates (sometimes partial) support for playing chess variants
against a local engine or editing variant games. This flag is not
needed in ICS mode. Recognized variant names are:
@example
normal Normal chess
wildcastle Shuffle chess, king can castle from d file
nocastle Shuffle chess, no castling allowed
fischerandom Fischer Random shuffle chess
bughouse Bughouse, ICC/FICS rules
crazyhouse Crazyhouse, ICC/FICS rules
losers Lose all pieces or get mated (ICC wild 17)
suicide Lose all pieces including king (FICS)
giveaway Try to have no legal moves (ICC wild 26)
twokings Weird ICC wild 9
kriegspiel Opponent's pieces are invisible
atomic Capturing piece explodes (ICC wild 27)
3check Win by giving check 3 times (ICC wild 25)
shatranj An ancient precursor of chess (ICC wild 28)
xiangqi Chinese Chess (on a 9x10 board)
shogi Japanese Chess (on a 9x9 board & piece drops)
capablanca Capablanca Chess (10x8 board, with Archbishop
and Chancellor pieces)
gothic similar, with a better initial position
caparandom An FRC-like version of Capablanca Chess (10x8)
janus A game with two Archbishops (10x8 board)
courier Medieval intermediate between shatranj and
modern Chess (on 12x8 board)
falcon Patented 10x8 variant with two Falcon pieces
berolina Pawns capture straight ahead, and move diagonally
cylinder Pieces wrap around the board edge
knightmate King moves as Knight, and vice versa
super Superchess (shuffle variant with 4 exo-pieces)
makruk Thai Chess (shatranj-like, P promotes on 6th rank)
asean ASEAN Chess (a modernized version of Makruk)
spartan Spartan Chess (black has unorthodox pieces)
great Great Shatranj, a 10x8 variant without sliders
grand Grand Chess, on 10x10 with Capablanca pieces
lion Mighty-Lion Chess, with a multi-capturing Lion
elven Eleven Chess, with Lion and crowned sliders on 10x10
chu Chu Shogi, historic 12x12 variant with 2x46 pieces
fairy A catchall variant in which all piece types
known to XBoard can participate (8x8)
unknown Catchall for other unknown variants
@end example
In the shuffle variants, XBoard does shuffle the pieces, although
you can still do it by hand using Edit Position. Some variants are
supported only in ICS mode, including bughouse, and
kriegspiel.
Berolina and cylinder chess are only partially supported,
and can only be played with legality testing off.
Apart from these standard variants, engines can define variants
of arbitrary names, briefing XBoard transparently on the rules
for piece movement, board size and initial setup,
so that they work nearly as well as fully-supported standard variants.
(But obviously only while using that engine.)
The user might have to alter the adjudication settings for some
variants, however. E.g. it makes no sense to adjudicate a draw
after 50 reversible moves in variants that have a 64-move rule,
or no similar rule at all.
Default: "normal". Except when the first engine gave an explicit list
of variants it supports, and 'normal' is not amongst those.
In that case the first variant the engine mentioned it did play will
be chosen.
@item -boardHeight N
@cindex boardHeight, option
Allows you to set a non-standard number of board ranks in any variant.
If the height is given as -1, the default height for the variant is used.
Default: -1
@item -boardWidth N
@cindex boardWidth, option
Allows you to set a non-standard number of board files in any variant.
If the width is given as -1, the default width for the variant is used.
With a non-standard width, the initial position will always be an empty board,
as the usual opening array will not fit.
Default: -1
@item -holdingsSize N
@cindex holdingsSize, option
Allows you to set a non-standard size for the holdings in any variant.
If the size is given as -1, the default holdings size for the variant is used.
The first N piece types will go into the holdings on capture, and you will be
able to drop them on the board in stead of making a normal move. If size equals 0,
there will be no holdings.
Default: -1
@item -defaultFrcPosition N
@cindex defaultFrcPosition, option
Specifies the number of the opening position in shuffle games like Chess960.
A value of -1 means the position is randomly generated by XBoard
at the beginning of every game.
Default: -1
@item -pieceToCharTable string
@cindex pieceToCharTable, option
The characters that are used to represent the piece types XBoard knows in FEN
diagrams and SAN moves.
You should not have to use this option often: each variant has its own default
setting for the piece representation in FEN, which should be sufficient in normal use.
The string argument has to specify an even number of pieces
(or it will be ignored), as white and black pieces have to be given separately
(in that order). The last letter for each color will be the King.
The letters before that will be PNBRQ and then a whole host of fairy pieces
in an order that has not fully crystallized yet (currently FEACWMOHIJGDVLSU,
F=Ferz, Elephant, A=Archbishop, C=Chancellor, W=Wazir, M=Commoner, O=Cannon,
H=Nightrider). You should list at least all pieces that occur in the variant
you are playing. If you have fewer characters in the string than XBoard has
pieces, the pieces not mentioned will get assigned a period,
and will not be usable in the variant.
You can also explicitly assign pieces a period, in which case they
will not be counted in deciding which captured pieces can go into the holdings.
A tilde '~' as a piece name does mean this piece is used to represent a promoted
Pawn in crazyhouse-like games, i.e. on capture it turns back to a Pawn.
A '+' similarly indicates the piece is a shogi-style promoted piece, that should
revert to its non-promoted version on capture (rather than to a Pawn).
By default the second 11 pieces known to XBoard are the promoted forms of the first 11.
A piece specified by the character combination ^ plus letter will be assumed
to be the promoted form of the piece indicated by that letter,
and get a '+' assigned.
To get around the limitation of the alphabet,
piece IDs can also be 'dressed letters', i.e. a single letter
(upper case for white, lower case for black)
followed by a single quote or an exclamation point.
Default: "" (meaning the default for the variant is used).
@item -pieceNickNames string
@cindex pieceNickNames, option
The characters in the string are interpreted the same way as in the
@code{pieceToCharTable} option. But on input, piece-ID letters are
first looked up in the nicknames, and only if not defined there,
in the normal pieceToCharTable. This allows you to have two letters
designate the same piece, (e.g. N as an alternative to H for Horse
in Xiangqi), to make reading of non-compliant notations easier.
Default: ""
@item -colorNickNames string
@cindex colorNickNames, option
The side-to-move field in a FEN will be first matched against the letters
in the string (first character for white, second for black),
before it is matched to the regular 'w' and 'b'.
This makes it easier to read non-compliant FENs,
which, say, use 'r' for white.
Default: ""
@item -debug/-xdebug or -debugMode true/false
@cindex debug, option
@cindex debugMode, option
Turns on debugging printout.
@item -debugFile filename or -nameOfDebugFile filename
@cindex debugFile, option
@cindex nameOfDebugFile, option
Sets the name of the file to which XBoard saves debug information
(including all communication to and from the engines).
A @kbd{%d} in the given file name (e.g. game%d.debug) will be replaced
by the unique sequence number of a tournament game,
so that the debug output of each game will be written on a separate file.
@item -engineDebugOutput number
@cindex engineDebugOutput, option
Specifies how XBoard should handle unsolicited output from the engine,
with respect to saving it in the debug file.
The output is further (hopefully) ignored.
If number=0, XBoard refrains from writing such spurious output to the debug file.
If number=1, all engine output is written faithfully to the debug file.
If number=2, any protocol-violating line is prefixed with a '#' character,
as the engine itself should have done if it wanted to submit info for inclusion in the debug file.
This option is provided for the benefit of applications that use the debug file
as a source of information, such as the broadcaster of live games TLCV / TLCS.
Such applications can be protected from spurious engine output that might otherwise confuse them.
@item -rsh or -remoteShell shell-name
@cindex rsh, option
@cindex remoteShell, option
Name of the command used to run programs remotely. The default
is @file{rsh} or @file{remsh}, determined when XBoard is
configured and compiled.
@item -ruser or -remoteUser user-name
@cindex ruser, option
@cindex remoteUser, option
User name on the remote system when running programs with the
@code{remoteShell}. The default is your local user name.
@item -userName username
@cindex userName, option
Name under which the Human player will be listed in the PGN file.
Default is the login name on your local computer.
@item -delayBeforeQuit number
@itemx -delayAfterQuit number
@cindex delayBeforeQuit, option
@cindex delayAfterQuit, option
These options order pauses before and after sending the "quit" command to an engine that must be terminated.
The pause between quit and the previous command is specified in milliseconds.
The pause after quit is used to schedule a kill signal to be sent to the engine process after the
number of specified seconds plus one.
This signal is a different one as the terminiation signal described in the protocol specs
which engines can suppress or ignore, and which is sent directly after the "quit" command.
Setting @code{delayAfterQuit} to -1 will suppress sending of the kill signal.
Default: 0
@item -searchMode n
@cindex searchMode, option
The integer n encodes the mode for the @samp{find position} function.
Default: 1 (= Exact position match)
@item -eloThresholdBoth elo
@itemx -eloThresholdAny elo
@cindex eloThresholdBoth, option
@cindex eloThresholdAny, option
Defines a lower limit for the Elo rating, which has to be surpassed
before a game will be considered when searching for a board position.
Default: 0
@item -dateThreshold year
@cindex dateThreshold, option
Only games not played before the given year will be considered when
searching for a board position
@end table
@node Chess Servers
@chapter Chess Servers
@cindex ICS
@cindex ICS, addresses
@cindex Internet Chess Server
An @dfn{Internet Chess Server}, or @dfn{ICS}, is a place on the
Internet where people can get together to play chess, watch other
people's games, or just chat. You can use either @code{telnet} or a
client program like XBoard to connect to the server. There are
thousands of registered users on the different ICS hosts, and it is
not unusual to meet 200 on both chessclub.com and freechess.org.
Most people can just type @kbd{xboard -ics} to start XBoard as an ICS
client. Invoking XBoard in this way connects you to the Internet
Chess Club (ICC), a commercial ICS. You can log in there as a guest
even if you do not have a paid account. To connect to the largest
Free ICS (FICS), use the command @kbd{xboard -ics -icshost freechess.org}
instead, or substitute a different host name to connect to your
favorite ICS.
For a full description of command-line options that control
the connection to ICS and change the default values of ICS options, see
@ref{ICS options}.
While you are running XBoard as an ICS client,
you use the terminal window that you started XBoard from
as a place to type in commands and read information that is
not available on the chessboard.
The first time you need to use the terminal is to enter your login name
and password, if you are a registered player. (You don't need to do
this manually; the @code{icsLogon} option can do it for you.
@pxref{ICS options}.) If you are not registered,
enter @kbd{g} as your name, and the server will pick a
unique guest name for you.
Some useful ICS commands
include
@table @kbd
@item help <topic>
@cindex help, ICS command
to get help on the given <topic>. To get a list of possible topics type
@dfn{help} without topic. Try the help command before you ask other
people on the server for help.
For example @kbd{help register} tells you how to become a registered
ICS player.
@item who <flags>
@cindex who, ICS command
to see a list of people who are logged on. Administrators
(people you should talk to if you have a problem) are marked
with the character @samp{*}, an asterisk. The <flags> allow you to
display only selected players: For example, @kbd{who of} shows a
list of players who are interested in playing but do not have
an opponent.
@item games
@cindex games, ICS command
to see what games are being played
@item match <player> [<mins>] [<inc>]
to challenge another player to a game. Both opponents get <mins> minutes
for the game, and <inc> seconds will be added after each move.
If another player challenges you, the server asks if you want to
accept the challenge; use the @kbd{accept} or @kbd{decline} commands
to answer.
@item accept
@itemx decline
@cindex accept, ICS command
@cindex decline, ICS command
to accept or decline another player's offer.
The offer may be to start a new game, or to agree to a
@kbd{draw}, @kbd{adjourn} or @kbd{abort} the current game. @xref{Action Menu}.
If you have more than one pending offer (for example, if more than one player
is challenging you, or if your opponent offers both a draw and to adjourn the
game), you have to supply additional information, by typing something
like @kbd{accept <player>}, @kbd{accept draw}, or @kbd{draw}.
@item draw
@itemx adjourn
@itemx abort
@cindex draw, ICS command
@cindex adjourn, ICS command
@cindex abort, ICS command
asks your opponent to terminate a game by mutual agreement. Adjourned
games can be continued later.
Your opponent can either @kbd{decline} your offer or accept it (by typing the
same command or typing @kbd{accept}). In some cases these commands work
immediately, without asking your opponent to agree. For example, you can
abort the game unilaterally if your opponent is out of time, and you can claim
a draw by repetition or the 50-move rule if available simply by typing
@kbd{draw}.
@item finger <player>
@cindex finger, ICS command
to get information about the given <player>. (Default: yourself.)
@item vars
@cindex vars, ICS command
to get a list of personal settings
@item set <var> <value>
@cindex set, ICS command
to modify these settings
@item observe <player>
@cindex observe, ICS command
to observe an ongoing game of the given <player>.
@item examine
@itemx oldmoves
@cindex examine, ICS command
@cindex oldmoves, ICS command
to review a recently completed game
@end table
Some special XBoard features are activated when you are
in examine mode on ICS. See the descriptions of the menu commands
@samp{Forward}, @samp{Backward}, @samp{Pause}, @samp{ICS Client},
and @samp{Stop Examining} on the @ref{Edit Menu}, @ref{Mode Menu}, and
@ref{Action Menu}.
@node Firewalls
@chapter Firewalls
By default, XBoard communicates with an Internet Chess Server
by opening a TCP socket directly from the machine it is running on
to the ICS. If there is a firewall between your machine and the ICS,
this won't work. Here are some recipes for getting around common
kinds of firewalls using special options to XBoard.
Important: See the paragraph in the below about extra echoes, in
@ref{Limitations}.
Suppose that you can't telnet directly to ICS, but you can telnet
to a firewall host, log in, and then telnet from there to ICS.
Let's say the firewall is called @samp{firewall.example.com}. Set
command-line options as follows:
@example
xboard -ics -icshost firewall.example.com -icsport 23
@end example
@noindent
Then when you run XBoard in ICS mode, you will be prompted
to log in to the firewall host. This works because port 23 is the
standard telnet login service. Do so, then telnet to ICS, using a
command like @samp{telnet chessclub.com 5000}, or whatever command
the firewall provides for telnetting to port 5000.
If your firewall lets you telnet (or rlogin) to remote hosts but
doesn't let you telnet to port 5000, you may be able to connect to the
chess server on port 23 instead, which is the port the telnet program
uses by default. Some chess servers support this (including
chessclub.com and freechess.org), while some do not.
If your chess server does not allow connections on port 23 and your
firewall does not allow you to connect to other ports, you may be able
to connect by hopping through another host outside the firewall that
you have an account on. For instance, suppose you have a shell
account at @samp{foo.edu}. Follow the recipe above, but instead of
typing @samp{telnet chessclub.com 5000} to the firewall, type
@samp{telnet foo.edu} (or @samp{rlogin foo.edu}), log in there, and
then type @samp{telnet chessclub.com 5000}.
Suppose that you can't telnet directly to ICS, but you can use rsh
to run programs on a firewall host, and that host can telnet to ICS.
Let's say the firewall is called @samp{rsh.example.com}. Set
command-line options as follows:
@example
xboard -ics -gateway rsh.example.com -icshost chessclub.com
@end example
@noindent
Then when you run XBoard in ICS mode, it will connect to
the ICS by using @file{rsh} to run the command
@samp{telnet chessclub.com 5000} on host @samp{rsh.example.com}.
Suppose that you can telnet anywhere you want, but you have to
run a special program called @file{ptelnet} to do so.
First, we'll consider the easy case, in which
@samp{ptelnet chessclub.com 5000} gets you to the chess server.
In this case set command line options as follows:
@example
xboard -ics -telnet -telnetProgram ptelnet
@end example
@noindent
Then when you run XBoard in ICS mode, it will issue the
command @samp{ptelnet chessclub.com 5000} to connect to the ICS.
Next, suppose that @samp{ptelnet chessclub.com 5000} doesn't work;
that is, your @file{ptelnet} program doesn't let you connect to
alternative ports. As noted above, your chess server may allow you to
connect on port 23 instead. In that case, just add the option
@samp{-icsport ""} to the above command.
But if your chess server doesn't let you connect on port 23, you will have
to find some other host outside the firewall and hop through it. For
instance, suppose you have a shell account at @samp{foo.edu}. Set
command line options as follows:
@example
xboard -ics -telnet -telnetProgram ptelnet -icshost foo.edu -icsport ""
@end example
@noindent
Then when you run XBoard in ICS mode, it will issue the
command @samp{ptelnet foo.edu} to connect to your account at
@samp{foo.edu}. Log in there, then type @samp{telnet chessclub.com 5000}.
ICC timestamp and FICS timeseal do not work through some
firewalls. You can use them only if your firewall gives a clean TCP
connection with a full 8-bit wide path. If your firewall allows you
to get out only by running a special telnet program, you can't use
timestamp or timeseal across it. But if you have access to a
computer just outside your firewall, and you have much lower netlag
when talking to that computer than to the ICS, it might be worthwhile
running timestamp there. Follow the instructions above for hopping
through a host outside the firewall (foo.edu in the example),
but run timestamp or timeseal on that host instead of telnet.
Suppose that you have a SOCKS firewall that will give you a clean
8-bit wide TCP connection to the chess server, but only after you
authenticate yourself via the SOCKS protocol. In that case, you could
make a socksified version of XBoard and run that. If you are using
timestamp or timeseal, you will to socksify it, not XBoard; this may
be difficult seeing that ICC and FICS do not provide source code for
these programs. Socksification is beyond the scope of this document,
but see the SOCKS Web site at http://www.socks.permeo.com/.
If you are missing SOCKS, try http://www.funbureau.com/.
@node Environment
@chapter Environment variables
@cindex Environment variables
@cindex CHESSDIR
Game and position files are found in a directory named by the
@code{CHESSDIR} environment variable. If this variable is not set, the
current working directory is used. If @code{CHESSDIR} is set,
XBoard actually changes its working directory to
@code{$CHESSDIR}, so any files written by the chess engine
will be placed there too.
@node Limitations
@chapter Limitations and known bugs
@cindex Limitations
@cindex Bugs
There is no way for two people running copies of XBoard to play
each other without going through an Internet Chess Server.
Under some circumstances, your ICS password may be echoed when you log on.
If you are connecting to the ICS by running telnet on an Internet
provider or firewall host, you may find that each line you type is
echoed back an extra time after you hit @key{Enter}. If your Internet
provider is a Unix system, you can probably turn its echo off by
typing @kbd{stty -echo} after you log in, and/or typing
@key{^E}@key{Enter} (Ctrl+E followed by the Enter key) to the telnet
program after you have logged into ICS. It is a good idea to do this
if you can, because the extra echo can occasionally confuse XBoard's
parsing routines.
The game parser recognizes only algebraic notation.
Many of the following points used to be limitations in XBoard 4.2.7 and earlier,
but are now fixed:
The internal move legality tester in XBoard 4.3.xx does look at the game history,
and is fully aware of castling or en-passant-capture rights. It permits castling with
the king on the d file because this is possible in some "wild 1" games on ICS.
The piece-drop menu does not check piece drops in bughouse to see if you actually hold
the piece you are trying to drop. But this way of dropping pieces should be considered
an obsolete feature, now that pieces can be dropped by dragging them from the holdings
to the board. Anyway, if you would attempt an illegal move when using a chess engine or the ICS,
XBoard will accept the error message that comes back, undo the move, and let you try another.
FEN positions saved by XBoard do include correct information about whether castling or
en passant are legal, and also handle the 50-move counter.
The mate detector does not understand that non-contact mate is not really mate in bughouse.
The only problem this causes while playing is minor: a "#" (mate indicator) character will
show up after a non-contact mating move in the move list. XBoard will not assume the game
is over at that point, not even when the option Detect Mates is on.
Edit Game mode always uses the rules of the selected variant,
which can be a variant that uses piece drops.
You can load and edit games that contain piece drops.
The (obsolete) piece menus are not active,
but you can perform piece drops by dragging pieces from the holdings.
Fischer Random castling is fully understood.
You can enter castlings by dragging the King on top of your Rook.
You can probably also play Fischer Random successfully on ICS by typing
castling moves into the ICS Interaction window.
The menus may not work if your keyboard is in Caps Lock or Num Lock mode.
This seems to be a problem with the Athena menu widget,
not an XBoard bug.
Also see the ToDo file included with the distribution for many other
possible bugs, limitations, and ideas for improvement that have been
suggested.
@node Problems
@chapter Reporting problems
@cindex Bugs
@cindex Bug reports
@cindex Reporting bugs
@cindex Problems
@cindex Reporting problems
You can report bugs and problems with XBoard using
the bug tracker at @code{https://savannah.gnu.org/projects/xboard/}
or by sending mail to @code{<bug-xboard@@gnu.org>}. It can also
be useful to report or discuss bugs in the WinBoard Forum at
@code{http://www.open-aurec.com/wbforum/},
WinBoard development section.
Please use the @file{script} program to start a typescript, run
XBoard with the @samp{-debug} option, and include the typescript
output in your message.
Also tell us what kind of machine and what operating system version
you are using. The command @samp{uname -a} will often tell you this.
If you improve XBoard, please send a message about your changes,
and we will get in touch with you about merging them in
to the main line of development.
@node Contributors
@chapter Authors and contributors
@cindex Authors
@cindex Contributors
Chris Sears and Dan Sears wrote the original XBoard. They were
responsible for versions 1.0 through 1.2. The color scheme was taken
from Wayne Christopher's @code{XChess} program.
Tim Mann was primarily responsible for XBoard versions 1.3 through
4.2.7, and for WinBoard (a port of XBoard to Microsoft Win32) from its
inception through version 4.2.7.
John Chanak contributed the initial implementation of ICS mode. Evan
Welsh wrote @code{CMail}, and Patrick Surry helped in designing,
testing, and documenting it. Elmar Bartel contributed the new piece
bitmaps introduced in version 3.2. Jochen Wiedmann converted the
documentation to texinfo. Frank McIngvale added click/click moving,
the Analysis modes, piece flashing, ZIICS import, and ICS text
colorization to XBoard. Hugh Fisher added animated piece movement to
XBoard, and Henrik Gram added it to WinBoard. Mark Williams
contributed the initial (WinBoard-only) implementation of many new
features added to both XBoard and WinBoard in version 4.1.0, including
copy/paste, premove, icsAlarm, autoFlipView, training mode, auto
raise, and blindfold. Ben Nye contributed X copy/paste code for
XBoard.
In a fork from version 4.2.7, Alessandro Scotti added many elements to
the user interface of WinBoard, including the board textures and
font-based rendering, the evaluation-graph, move-history and
engine-output window. He was also responsible for adding the UCI
support.
H. G. Muller continued this fork of the project, producing version
4.3. He made WinBoard castling- and e.p.-aware, added variant support
with adjustable board sizes, the crazyhouse holdings, and the fairy
pieces. In addition he added most of the adjudication options, made
WinBoard more robust in dealing with buggy and crashing engines, and
extended time control with a time-odds and node-count-based modes.
Most of the options that initially were WinBoard only have now been
back-ported to XBoard.
Michel van den Bergh provided the code for reading Polyglot opening books.
Meanwhile, some work continued on the GNU XBoard project maintained at
savannah.gnu.org, but version 4.2.8 was never released. Daniel
Mehrmann was responsible for much of this work.
Most recently, Arun Persaud worked with H. G. Muller to merge all
the features of the never-released XBoard/WinBoard 4.2.8 of the GNU
XBoard project and the never-released 4.3.16 from H. G.'s fork into a
unified XBoard/WinBoard 4.4, which is now available both from the
savannah.gnu.org web site and the WinBoard forum.
@node CMail
@chapter CMail
@cindex cmail
The @file{cmail} program can help you play chess by email with opponents of
your choice using XBoard as an interface.
You will usually run @file{cmail} without giving any options.
@menu
* CMail options:: Invoking CMail.
* CMail game:: Starting a CMail game.
* CMail answer:: Answering a move.
* CMail multi:: Multiple games in one message.
* CMail completion:: Completing a game.
* CMail trouble:: Known CMail problems.
@end menu
@node CMail options
@section CMail options
@table @asis
@item -h
Displays @file{cmail} usage information.
@item -c
Shows the conditions of the GNU General Public License.
@xref{Copying}.
@item -w
Shows the warranty notice of the GNU General Public License.
@xref{Copying}.
@item -v
@itemx -xv
Provides or inhibits verbose output from @file{cmail} and XBoard,
useful for debugging. The
@code{-xv}
form also inhibits the cmail introduction message.
@item -mail
@itemx -xmail
Invokes or inhibits the sending of a mail message containing the move.
@item -xboard
@itemx -xxboard
Invokes or inhibits the running of XBoard on the game file.
@item -reuse
@itemx -xreuse
Invokes or inhibits the reuse of an existing XBoard to display the
current game.
@item -remail
Resends the last mail message for that game. This inhibits running
XBoard.
@item -game <name>
The name of the game to be processed.
@item -wgames <number>
@itemx -bgames <number>
@itemx -games <number>
Number of games to start as White, as Black or in total. Default is 1 as
white and none as black. If only one color is specified then none of the
other color is assumed. If no color is specified then equal numbers of
White and Black games are started, with the extra game being as White if an
odd number of total games is specified.
@item -me <short name>
@itemx -opp <short name>
A one-word alias for yourself or your opponent.
@item -wname <full name>
@itemx -bname <full name>
@itemx -myname <full name>
@itemx -oppname <full name>
The full name of White, Black, yourself or your opponent.
@item -wna <net address>
@itemx -bna <net address>
@itemx -na <net address>
@itemx -oppna <net address>
The email address of White, Black, yourself or your opponent.
@item -dir <directory>
The directory in which @file{cmail} keeps its files. This defaults to the
environment variable @code{$CMAIL_DIR} or failing that, @code{$CHESSDIR},
@file{$HOME/Chess} or @file{~/Chess}. It will be created if it does not exist.
@item -arcdir <directory>
The directory in which @file{cmail} archives completed games. Defaults to
the environment variable @code{$CMAIL_ARCDIR} or, in its absence, the same
directory as cmail keeps its working files (above).
@item -mailprog <mail program>
The program used by cmail to send email messages. This defaults to the
environment variable @code{$CMAIL_MAILPROG} or failing that
@file{/usr/ucb/Mail}, @file{/usr/ucb/mail} or @file{Mail}. You will need
to set this variable if none of the above paths fit your system.
@item -logFile <file>
A file in which to dump verbose debugging messages that are invoked with
the @samp{-v}
option.
@item -event <event>
The PGN Event tag (default @samp{Email correspondence game}).
@item -site <site>
The PGN Site tag (default @samp{NET}).
@item -round <round>
The PGN Round tag (default @samp{-}, not applicable).
@item -mode <mode>
The PGN Mode tag (default @samp{EM}, Electronic Mail).
@item Other options
Any option flags not listed above are passed through to XBoard.
Invoking XBoard through CMail changes the default values of two XBoard
options: The default value for @samp{-noChessProgram} is changed to
true; that is, by default no chess engine is started. The default
value for @samp{-timeDelay} is changed to 0; that is, by default
XBoard immediately goes to the end of the game as played so far,
rather than stepping through the moves one by one. You can still set
these options to whatever values you prefer by supplying them on
CMail's command line. @xref{Options}.
@end table
@node CMail game
@section Starting a CMail Game
Type @file{cmail} from a shell to start a game as white. After an opening
message, you will be prompted for a game name, which is optional---if you
simply press @key{Enter}, the game name will take the form
@samp{you-VS-opponent}. You will next be prompted for the short name
of your opponent. If you haven't played this person before, you will also
be prompted for his/her email address. @file{cmail} will then invoke
XBoard in the background. Make your first move and select
@samp{Mail Move} from the @samp{File} menu. @xref{File Menu}. If all is well,
@file{cmail} will mail a copy of the move to your opponent. If you select
@samp{Exit} without having selected @samp{Mail Move} then no move will be
made.
@node CMail answer
@section Answering a Move
When you receive a message from an opponent containing a move in one of
your games, simply pipe the message through @file{cmail}. In some mailers
this is as simple as typing @kbd{| cmail} when viewing the message, while in
others you may have to save the message to a file and do @kbd{cmail < file}
at the command line. In either case @file{cmail} will display the game using
XBoard. If you didn't exit XBoard when you made your first move
then @file{cmail} will do its best to use the existing XBoard instead
of starting a new one. As before, simply make a move and select
@samp{Mail Move} from the @samp{File} menu. @xref{File Menu}. @file{cmail}
will try to use the
XBoard that was most recently used to display the current game. This
means that many games can be in progress simultaneously, each with its own
active XBoard.
If you want to look at the history or explore a variation, go ahead, but
you must return to the current position before XBoard will allow you
to mail a move. If you edit the game's history you must select
@samp{Reload Same Game} from the @samp{File} menu to get back to the original
position, then make the move you want and select @samp{Mail Move}.
As before, if you decide you aren't ready to make a move just yet you can
either select @samp{Exit} without sending a move or just leave
XBoard running until you are ready.
@node CMail multi
@section Multi-Game Messages
It is possible to have a @file{cmail} message carry more than one game.
This feature was implemented to handle IECG (International Email Chess
Group) matches, where a match consists of one game as white and one as black,
with moves transmitted simultaneously. In case there are more general uses,
@file{cmail} itself places no limit on the number of black/white games
contained in a message; however, XBoard does.
@node CMail completion
@section Completing a Game
Because XBoard can detect checkmate and stalemate, @file{cmail}
handles game termination sensibly. As well as resignation, the
@samp{Action} menu allows draws to be offered and accepted for
@file{cmail} games.
For multi-game messages, only unfinished and just-finished games will be
included in email messages. When all the games are finished, they are
archived in the user's archive directory, and similarly in the opponent's
when he or she pipes the final message through @file{cmail}. The archive
file name includes the date the game was started.
@node CMail trouble
@section Known CMail Problems
It's possible that a strange conjunction of conditions may occasionally
mean that @file{cmail} has trouble reactivating an existing
XBoard. If this should happen, simply trying it again should work.
If not, remove the file that stores the XBoard's PID
(@file{game.pid}) or use the @samp{-xreuse} option to force
@file{cmail} to start a new XBoard.
Versions of @file{cmail} after 2.16 no longer understand the old file format
that XBoard used to use and so cannot be used to correspond with
anyone using an older version.
Versions of @file{cmail} older than 2.11 do not handle multi-game messages,
so multi-game correspondence is not possible with opponents using an older
version.
@node Other programs
@chapter Other programs you can use with XBoard
@cindex Other programs
Here are some other programs you can use with XBoard
@menu
* GNU Chess:: The GNU Chess engine.
* Fairy-Max:: The Fairy-Max chess engine.
* HoiChess:: The HoiChess chess engine.
* Crafty:: The Crafty chess engine.
@end menu
@node GNU Chess
@section GNU Chess
The GNU Chess engine is available from:
ftp://ftp.gnu.org/gnu/gnuchess/
You can use XBoard to play a game against GNU Chess, or to
interface GNU Chess to an ICS.
@node Fairy-Max
@section Fairy-Max
Fairy-Max is a derivative from the once World's smallest Chess program micro-Max,
which measures only about 100 lines of source code.
The main difference with micro-Max is that Fairy-Max loads its move-generator
tables from a file, so that the rules for piece movement can be easily configured
to implement unorthodox pieces.
Fairy-Max can therefore play a large number of variants, normal Chess being one of those.
In addition it plays Knightmate, Capablanca and Gothic Chess, Shatranj, Courier Chess,
Cylinder chess, Berolina Chess, while the user can easily define new variants.
It can be obtained from:
http://home.hccnet.nl/h.g.muller/dwnldpage.html
@node HoiChess
@section HoiChess
HoiChess is a not-so-very-strong Chess engine, which comes with a derivative HoiXiangqi,
able to play Chinese Chess. It can be obtained from the standard Linux repositories
through:
sudo apt-get install hoichess
@node Crafty
@section Crafty
Crafty is a chess engine written by Bob Hyatt.
You can use XBoard to play a game against Crafty, hook Crafty up
to an ICS, or use Crafty to interactively analyze games and positions
for you.
Crafty is a strong, rapidly evolving chess program. This rapid
pace of development is good, because it means Crafty is always
getting better. This can sometimes cause problems with
backwards compatibility, but usually the latest version of Crafty
will work well with the latest version of XBoard.
Crafty can be obtained from its author's FTP site:
ftp://ftp.cis.uab.edu/hyatt/.
To use Crafty with XBoard, give the -fcp and -fd options as follows, where
<crafty's directory> is the directory in which you installed Crafty
and placed its book and other support files.
@ifnottex
@node Copyright
@unnumbered Copyright
@include copyright.texi
@end ifnottex
@node Copying
@unnumbered GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
@include gpl.texinfo
@c noman
@node Index
@unnumbered Index
@printindex cp
@contents
@c end noman
@bye
|
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\title{Prioritetna komunikacija}
\date{1962.}
\author{Situacionistička internacionala}
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\chapter{Prioritetna komunikacija}
Sociološke i kulturološke teorije tako dobro prikrivaju pitanje moći, da eksperti mogu da ispišu na hiljade stranica o komunikaciji ili sredstvima masovne komunikacije u modernom društvu, a da nijednom ne spomenu da je komunikacija o kojoj govore jednosmerna, na koju \emph{potrošači komunikacije} ne mogu nikako da uzvrate. U toj navodnoj komunikaciji, prisutna je stroga podela rada, koja se na kraju podudara sa onom opštijom podelom na organizatore i potrošače vremena u industrijskom društvu (koje obuhvata i oblikuje celokupno radno i slobodno vreme). Oni koji ne zabrinjava tiranija koja se, \emph{na tom nivou}, sprovodi nad životom, ne znaju ništa o savremenom društvu; samim tim, savršeno su kvalifikovani da sociološkim freskama dodaju svoje poteze. Svi oni koji zabrinuto ili zapanjeno stoje pred ovom masovnom kulturom, koja, pomoću globalno povezanih masovnih medija, kultiviše mase i, u isti mah, „omasovljuje“ takozvanu „visoku kulturu“, zaboravljaju da je kultura, čak i ona visoka, danas sahranjena u muzejima, i da to važi i za njene izraze revolta i autodestrukcije. Zaboravljaju i da se mase – kojima, najzad, svi pripadamo – drže podalje od života (od učešća u životu), od slobodnog delovanja, na nivou preživljavanja, u režimu spektakla. Važeći zakon nalaže da svako konzumira najveću moguću količinu ništavila, uključujući i časno ništavilo stare kulture, potpuno odsečeno od svog izvornog značenja (progresivni kretenizam uvek očekuje da vidi televizijsku verziju nekog Rasinovog komada ili Jakute koji čitaju Balzaka: neki drugi ljudski progres jednostavno ne dolazi u obzir).
Rečiti pojam „bombardovanja informacijama“ treba shvatiti u najširem smislu. Stanovništvo je danas izloženo neprekidnom bombardovanju smećem, koje nema nikakve veze s masovnim medijima. I nema ničeg promašenijeg, ničeg tipičnijeg za prepotopsku levicu, od ideje da se masovni mediji nadmeću sa ostalim sferama modernog društvenog života, u kojima se pravi problemi ljudi postavljaju na ozbiljan način. Univerzitet, crkve, konvencije tradicionalne politike ili arhitektura, takođe emituju zbrku nepovezanih trivijalnosti, koja na anarhičan, ali opet zapovedni način, teži da oblikuje sve stavove svakodnevnog življenja (kako se oblačiti, s kim se viđati, kako biti zadovoljan). Svaki sociolog „komunikacije“, koji ne propušta priliku da otuđenju zaposlenih u masovnim medijima suprotstavi zadovoljstvo umetnika, koga poistovećuje s njegovim delom i opravdava njime, samo večito podilazi sopstvenoj euforičnoj nesposobnosti da umetničko otuđenje vidi onakvim kakvo zaista jeste.
Informatička teorija glatko previđa glavnu snagu jezika, koja se, na njegovom poetskom planu, ispoljava kao suprotstavljanje i prevazilaženje. Pisanje koje doseže prazninu, savršenu neutralnost forme i sadržaja, može se upražnjavati samo kao funkcija nekog matematičkog eksperimenta (kao „potencijalna književnost“, ta poslednja tačka na dugačkoj beloj stranici koju ispisuje Keno).\footnote{Aluzija na književne eksperimente pisaca i matematičara iz neformalne grupe OULIPO (OUvroir de LIttérature POtentielle; „Ulipo“, Radionica potencijalne književnosti), osnovane 1962, na inicijativu Rejmona Kenoa (Raymond Queneau) i Fransoa Le Lionea (François Le Lionnais, hemičar i pisac). Među istaknutijim članovima tog kruga bili su i Žorž Perek (Georges Perec) i Italo Kalvino (Calvino). Eksperimenti su se sastojali u pisanju u skladu s raznim jezičkim i formalnim ograničenjima. (Sve napomene: AG.)} Uprkos veličanstvenim hipotezama o „poetici informacija“ (Abraham Moles),\footnote{Abraham Moles, „Structures du message poétique et niveaux de la sensibilité. Pour une ’poétique informationnelle’“, \emph{Médiations}, N° 1, str.161–172, Paris 1961.} uprkos dirljivoj sigurnosti s kojom iskrivljuju Švitersa (Kurt Schwitters) i Caru (Tristan Tzara), tehničari jezika nikada neće razumeti ništa osim jezika \emph{tehnike}. Oni i ne slute ko tu vodi glavnu reč.
Kada se sagleda u svom punom bogatstvu, u odnosu na celinu ljudske prakse, a ne samo u odnosu na ubrzavanje obrade poštanskih čekova pomoću bušenih kartica, komunikacija se oduvek mogla naći samo u zajedničkim akcijama. Stoga su najupečatljiviji ekscesi nerazumevanja oni povezani s viškom neintervencije. Nijedan primer ne može biti jasniji od duge i patetične istorije francuske levice u suočavanju s narodnim ustankom u Alžiru. Dokaz smrti stare politike u Francuskoj nije samo skoro potpuno uzdržavanje radnika već, bez sumnje, u još većoj meri, politička glupost manjine rešene da deluje: tako se iluzije o Narodnom frontu aktivista s krajnje levice mogu opisati kao drugostepene, prvo, zato što je ta formula bila krajnje nepraktična još u ono vreme, ali i zato što se posle 1936. pokazala kao vrlo pouzdano oružje kontrarevolucije. Ako su se mistifikacije starih političkih organizacija očigledno urušile, s druge strane se nije pojavila nijedna nova politika. Alžirski problem se u stvari javlja kao jedan od francuskih arhaizama, budući da je glavni trend u Francuskoj dosezanje standarda modernog kapitalizma. Još uvek nepriznati fenomen „divljih štrajkova“, zabušavanja i neposlušnosti, koji prati taj razvoj, ne opaža se kao povezan s borbom nerazvijenih Alžiraca. Za one koji ne mogu da predvide zajedničku radikalnu borbu, današnje zajedništvo naizgled raznorodnih interesa može da počiva samo na diktatu sećanja (sećanja na ono što je stari radnički pokret uradio – ili, češće, što je trebalo da uradi – da bi podržao eksploatisane iz kolonija). To ide dotle da jedina pojmljiva solidarnost počiva na određenim refleksima, koji su i sami postali zastareli i zato apstraktni: ostaje nam samo da čekamo trenutak u kojem će večna, mitološka francuska levica – PC, PSU, SFIO (komunisti, socijalisti, Francuska sekcija Radničke internacionale) – i GPRA (Privremena vlada Republike Alžir), početi da deluju kao dve sekcije Treće internacionale (imajući u vidu njihove različite „greške“ i „izdaje“). Ipak, sve što se dešavalo posle 1920. izgleda pokazuje da se suštinska kritika tih pristupa svuda nameće kao neizbežna; i to su, na direktan i snažan način, pokazali Alžirci, svojom oružanom borbom. Prava internacionalna solidarnost, koja se neće srozati na nivo moralizma levih hrišćana, može biti samo ona između revolucionara dveju zemalja. To očigledno podrazumeva da se takvi revolucionarni mogu pronaći u Francuskoj; i da će u Alžirci moći da prepoznaju svoje interese, kada se sadašnji nacionalni front, u bliskoj budućnosti, suoči s odlukom o prirodi svoje moći.
Oni koji su, u tom periodu, u Francuskoj pokušavali da preduzmu avangardnu akciju, bili su rastrzani između, s jedne strane, svog straha od potpunog odsecanja od starih političkih zajednica (iako su bili svesni njihove uznapredovale glacijacije) ili, u svakom slučaju, od njihovog \emph{jezika}; a s druge, prezira prema iskrenim osećanjima koji su pokazivali neki sektori zainteresovani za borbu protiv kolonijalističkog ekstremizma – studenti, na primer – zbog njihove slabosti prema antologijama političkih arhaizama (kao što je jedinstvo inkluzivne akcije protiv fašizma, itd.).
Nijedna grupa nije uspela da iskoristi tu priliku na egzemplaran način, tako što bi povezala \emph{maksimalan program} potencijalne pobune u kapitalističkom društvu sa maksimalnim programom aktuelnog bunta kolonizovanih; to se, naravno, može objasniti slabošću tih grupa; ali, ta slabost se ne sme posmatrati kao izgovor: naprotiv, reč je o manjku odgovarajućeg delovanja i strogosti. Nezamislivo je da neka organizacija koja predstavlja živ otpor ljudi, i koja je u stanju da im o tome priča, bude slaba, čak i u uslovima najsurovije represije.
Potpuno odvajanje radnika iz Francuske i Alžira, koje se mora shvatiti ne kao prevashodno prostorno već \emph{temporalno}, dovelo je do ovog delirijuma informacija, čak i na „levici“, što se moglo videti dan posle 8. februara (1962), kada je policija ubila devet francuskih demonstranata, o čemu su novine pisale kao o najkrvavijim sukobima u Parizu \emph{još od} 1934, ne pomišljajući da je pre manje od četiri meseca, 18. oktobra 1961, bilo izmasakrirano na desetine alžirskih demonstranata.\footnote{Demonstracije od 8. II 1962 („Massacre du 17 octobre 1961“), protiv delovanja OAS u Alžiru (Organisation armée secrète, militantna desničarska organizacija, koja je sebe nazivala „kontraterorističkom“), u kojima je ubijeno devet članova sindikata CGT (Confédération générale du travail), uglavnom komunista, Francuza; i demonstracije od 17. (18) X 1961 („Affaire de la station de métro Charonne“), protiv brutalne policijske racije nad celom alžirskom populacijom Pariza, zbog bombaških napada Fronta za nacionalno oslobođenje Alžira (FLN), koja je proglašena 5. X, kada je policija ubila na desetine alžirskih demonstranata. Procene se kreću od nekoliko desetina do 200 ubijenih ljudi, uz one ubijene od početke racije, u samoj akciji ili po raznim policijskim stanicama.} Primer je i plakat „Antifašističkog komiteta Sen-Žermen-de-Prea“, koji počinje rečima, „Narod Francuske i narod Alžira nametnuli su pregovore\dots{}“, a da ih pri tom ne sahrane od sprdnje, zbog takvog nabrajanja te dve sile, i to baš tim redosledom.
U vreme kada je stvarnost komunikacije trula do srži, nimalo ne čudi to što sociologija razvija mineralošku studiju okamenjene komunikacije. Kao što, u umetnosti, ne čudi ni to što neodadistički ološ ponovo otkriva značaj dadaističkog pokreta, kao pozitivnu formalnu činjenicu koju treba \emph{opet} eksploatisati, posle svega što su, još od dvadesetih godina, iz nje izvukli toliki drugi modernistički pokreti. Iz sve snage se upinju da zaborave da je pravi dadaizam bio onaj nemački i do koje je mere ovaj bio povezan sa usponom revolucije u Nemačkoj, posle primirja iz 1918. Za one koji danas stvaraju novu kulturnu poziciju, nužnost takve veze sigurno nije izgubila na značaju. Prosto rečeno, ono novo mora se otkriti u \emph{isto vreme} i u umetnosti i u politici.
Prosta antikomunikacija, koju danas od dadaizma pozajmljuju najreakcionarniji branioci vladajuće laži, nema nikakvu vrednost u epohi u kojoj se kao najhitnije pitanje, na svim nivoima prakse, od najprostijih do najsloženijih, postavlja stvaranje nove komunikacije. Najdostojniji nastavak dadaizma, njegovo pravo nasleđe, moramo prepoznati u Kongu, iz leta 1960.\footnote{Početak „Krize u Kongu“, 1960–1965, niza krvavih prevrata, revolucija i kontrarevolucija, koje su pratile pokušaj oslobađanja tog dela Afrike od belgijske i francuske kolonijalne vladavine, uz brojne međufrakcijske obračune.} Spontana pobuna naroda, više nego igde drugde smatranog za infantilan, u trenutku kada se racionalnost, više nego igde drugde, našla uzdrmanom zbog same njegove eksploatacije, odmah je znala kako da sabotira (détourner) strani jezik gospodara, kao poeziju i oblik akcije. Potrebno je da s dužnom pažnjom proučimo izraz Kongoanaca iz tog perioda – na primer, ulogu pesnika Lumumbe (Patrice Lumumba, 1925–1961) – da bismo shvatili veličinu i delotvornost jedine moguće komunikacije koja, u svakom slučaju, svojom intervencijom nad zbivanjima, utire put promeni sveta.
Iako se publika snažno podstiče da misli suprotno – i to ne samo preko masovnih medija – doslednost akcije Kongoanaca, sve dok se ne odriču svoje avangarde, kao i izvanredna upotreba oskudnih sredstava koja im stoje na raspolaganju, predstavljaju suštu suprotnost suštinskoj nedoslednosti društvene organizacije svake razvijene zemlje i njenoj opasnoj nesposobnosti da pronađe prihvatljivu upotrebu svojih tehničkih snaga. Sartr, pravi predstavnik svoje izgubljene generacije, utoliko što mu je, kao nikom drugom, uspelo da nasedne na \emph{sve} mistifikacije među kojima njegovi savremenici prosto prebiraju, nedavno je, u jednoj napomeni iz drugog broja \emph{Meditacija},\footnote{Jean-Paul Sartre, „Le peintre sans privilèges“, \emph{Médiations}, n. 2, 1961.} zaključio kako se ne može govoriti o rastakanju umetničkog jezika, koje bi odgovaralo vremenu rastakanja, zato što „jedno doba gradi više nego što razara“. Pijačna vaga možda preteže u korist ovog drugog, ali samo zbog brkanja izgradnje s proizvodnjom. Sartr je sigurno primetio da uprkos svim torpedima, na morima ima više brodskih tona nego ikad; da uprkos svim požarima i udesima, ima više zgrada i automobila. Više je i knjiga, od kada je tu i Sartr. A ipak su razlozi za život jednog društva razoreni. Varijante koje predstavljaju neku iluzornu promenu, imaju isti rok trajanja kao i neki šef policije, da bi se onda i one utopile u opšte rastakanje starog sveta. Jedini koristan posao koji ostaje da se obavi jeste rekonstrukcija društva i života na drugim osnovama. Razni neofilozofi, koji su tako dugo vladali pustinjom takozvane moderne i progresivne misli, jednostavno ne mogu da obezbede tu osnovu. Ti veliki ljudi nisu dobri ni za muzeje, zato što se pokazalo da je njihovo doba suviše šuplje čak i za muzeje. Svi oni su tako slični; to su identični proizvodi ogromnog poraza pokreta za ljudsko oslobođenje, iz prve trećine ovog veka. Oni su taj poraz prihvatili, to je ono što ih potpuno određuje. I ti specijalisti za greške braniće svoju specijalizaciju do kraja. Ali, u sadašnjoj promeni klime, ti dinosauri pseudoobjašnjenja nemaju više gde da se napasaju. San dijalektičkog razuma rađa čudovišta.\footnote{Francisco Goya (1746–1828), „El sueño de la razón produce monstruos“ (San razuma stvara čudovišta), ciklus \emph{Los caprichos}, gravura 43 (od 80), 1799.}
Sve jednostrane ideje o komunikaciji očigledno su bile ideje o jednostranoj komunikaciji. One odgovaraju pogledu na svet i interesima sociologije, stare umetnosti i političkih rukovodilaca. To je ono što će se promeniti. Svesni smo „nekompatibilnosti našeg programa, kao izraza, s raspoloživim sredstvima izražavanja i recepcije“ (Kotány, „Sledeća faza“).\footnote{Attila Kotányi, „L’étage suivant“, \emph{Internationale situationniste}, n. 7, 1962, str. 47–48. Tekst iz istog broja SI .} To je stvar istovremenog sagledavanja onoga što bi moglo da posluži za komunikaciju i onoga \emph{čemu} bi komunikacija mogla da posluži. Postojeći oblici komunikacije, kao i njihova sadašnja kriza, mogu se shvatiti i opravdati samo sa stanovišta njihovog prevazilaženja. Umetnost ili književnost ne treba poštovati do te mere da bismo im se potpuno predali. Kao što ni istoriju umetnosti ili moderne filozofije ne treba prezirati do te mere da se pravimo kao da se ništa nije dogodilo. Naše rasuđivanje je lišeno iluzija, zato što je \emph{istorijsko}. Za nas, svaka upotreba dopuštenih oblika komunikacije mora, prema tome, i biti i ne biti odbijanje te komunikacije: komunikacija koja sadrži sopstveno odbijanje; odbijanje koje sadrži komunikaciju, to jest, izokretanje tog odbijanja u pozitivan projekat. Sve to mora da vodi nekud. Komunikacija će od sada uključivati i \emph{sopstvenu kritiku}.
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1962.
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Anarhistička biblioteka
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Situacionistička internacionala
Prioritetna komunikacija
1962.
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„Communication prioritaire“ (Guy Debord), \emph{Internationale Situationniste}, n. 7, april 1962, str. 20–24.
Preveo Aleksa Golijanin, 2015. \href{http://anarhija-blok45.net}{http:\Slash{}\Slash{}anarhija-blok45.net}
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https://www.emis.de/journals/JIS/VOL14/Barry5/barry112.tex | emis.de | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | text/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662594414.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20220525213545-20220526003545-00567.warc.gz | 868,310,086 | 9,802 | \documentclass[12pt,reqno]{article}
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\begin{center}
\vskip 1cm{\LARGE\bf Combinatorial Polynomials as Moments, \\
\vskip -0.00in
Hankel Transforms, \\
\vskip .1in and Exponential Riordan Arrays}
\vskip 1cm
\large
Paul Barry\\
School of Science\\
Waterford Institute of Technology\\
Ireland\\
\href{mailto:[email protected]}{\tt [email protected]} \\
\end{center}
\vskip .2 in
\begin{abstract} In the case of two combinatorial polynomials, we show
that they can exhibited as moments of paramaterized families of
orthogonal polynomials, and hence derive their Hankel transforms.
Exponential Riordan arrays are the main vehicles used for this.
\end{abstract}
\section{Introduction}
Let $[n]={1,2,\ldots,n}$, and let $\mathsf{SP}_n$ be the set of set-partitions of $[n]$. For a set-partition
$\pi \in \mathsf{SP}_n$, let $|\pi|$ be the number of parts in $\pi$. Then the $n$-th exponential polynomial, also known as the $n$-th
Touchard polynomial (and sometimes called the $n$-th Bell polynomial \cite{Bell}), is given by
$$e_n(z)=\sum_{\pi} z^{|\pi|}=\sum_{k=0}^n S(n,k)z^k,$$ where $$S(n,k)=\frac{1}{k!}\sum_{j=0}^k (-1)^{k-j}\binom{k}{j}j^n$$ is the
general element of the exponential Riordan array
$$\left[1, e^x-1\right].$$ This is the matrix of Stirling numbers of the second kind \seqnum{A008277}, which begins
\begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 1 & 0 &
0
& 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 1
& 1 & 0 & 0 &
0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 1 & 3 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 1 & 7
& 6 & 1 & 0 & \ldots \\0 & 1 & 15 & 25 & 10 & 1
&\ldots\\
\vdots &
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\ddots\end{array}\right).\end{displaymath}
It is well known \cite{Kratt, Rad, Siva} that the Hankel transform of these polynomials is given by
$$z^{\binom{n+1}{2}}\prod_{k=1}^n k!.$$
\noindent Now let $$A(n,k)=\sum_{k=0}^k (-1)^j (k-j)^n \binom{n+1}{j}$$ be the general term of the triangle of Eulerian numbers. The
matrix of these numbers \seqnum{A008292} begins
\begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 1 & 0 &
0
& 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 1
& 1 & 0 & 0 &
0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 1 & 4 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 1 & 11
& 11 & 1 & 0 & \ldots \\0 & 1 & 26 & 66 & 26 & 1
&\ldots\\
\vdots &
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\ddots\end{array}\right).\end{displaymath} $A(n,k)$ is the number of permutations in $\mathfrak{S}_n$ with $k$ excedances. The
Eulerian
polynomials $\mathsf{EU}_n(z)$ are defined by
$$\mathsf{EU}_n(z)=\sum_{k=0}^n A(n,k)z^k.$$
It is shown in \cite{Siva} that the Hankel transform of these polynomials is given by
$$z^{\binom{n+1}{2}}\prod_{k=1}^n k!^2.$$ These two results are consequences of the following two theorems.
\begin{theorem}\label{Thm1}
The polynomials $e_n(z)$ are moments of the family of orthogonal polynomials whose coefficient array is given by the
inverse of the exponential Riordan array
$$\left[e^{z(e^x-1)}, e^x-1\right].$$
\end{theorem}
\begin{theorem} \label{Thm2} The polynomials $\mathsf{EU}_n(z)$ are moments of the family of orthogonal polynomials whose coefficient
array is given by the
inverse of the exponential Riordan array
$$\left[\frac{e^{zx}(1-z)}{e^{zx}-ze^x},\frac{e^{x}-e^{zx}}{e^{zx}-ze^x}\right].$$
\end{theorem}
Note that in the case $z=1$, the above matrix is taken to be $\left[\frac{1}{1-x},\frac{x}{1-x}\right]$, whose inverse is the
coefficient array of the Laguerre polynomials \cite{Lah}.
While partly expository in nature, this note assumes a certain
familiarity with integer sequences, generating functions, orthogonal polynomials \cite{Chihara, wgautschi, Szego}, Riordan arrays
\cite{SGWW, Spru}, production matrices \cite{ProdMat, P_W}, and the integer Hankel transform \cite{BRP, CRI, Layman}. Many interesting
examples of sequences and Riordan arrays can be found in Neil Sloane's On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences (OEIS), \cite{SL1,
SL2}. Sequences are frequently referred to by their OEIS number. For instance, the binomial matrix $\mathbf{B}$ (``Pascal's
triangle'')
is \seqnum{A007318}.
\noindent The plan of the paper is as follows: \begin{enumerate} \item This Introduction \item
Integer
sequences, Hankel transforms, exponential Riordan arrays, orthogonal polynomials \item Proof of Theorem \ref{Thm1}
\item Proof of Theorem \ref{Thm2} \end{enumerate}
\section{Integer
sequences, Hankel transforms, exponential Riordan arrays, orthogonal polynomials} In this section, we recall known results on integer
sequences, Hankel transforms, exponential Riordan arrays and orthogonal polynomials that will be useful for the sequel.
For an integer sequence $a_n$, that is, an element of
$\mathbb{Z}^\mathbb{N}$, the power series $f_o(x)=\sum_{k=0}^{\infty}a_k x^k$ is called the \emph{ordinary generating function} or
g.f.
of the sequence, while $f_e(x)=\sum_{k=0}^{\infty}\frac{a_k}{k!} x^k$ is called the \emph{exponential generating function} or e.g.f.
of
the sequence. $a_n$ is thus the coefficient of $x^n$ in $f_o(x)$. We denote this by $a_n=[x^n]f_o(x)$. Similarly, $a_n=n![x^n]f_e(x)$.
For instance, $F_n=[x^n]\frac{x}{1-x-x^2}$ is the $n$-th Fibonacci number \seqnum{A000045}, while $n!=n![x^n]\frac{1}{1-x}$, which
says
that $\frac{1}{1-x}$ is the e.g.f. of $n!$ \seqnum{A000142}. For a power series $f(x)=\sum_{n=0}^{\infty}a_n x^n$ with $f(0)=0$ and
$f'(0)\neq 0$ we
define the reversion or compositional inverse of $f$ to be the power series $\bar{f}(x)=f^{[-1]}(x)$ such that $f(\bar{f}(x))=x$. We
sometimes write $\bar{f}= \text{Rev}f$.
The {\it
Hankel
transform} \cite{Layman} of a given sequence
$A=\{a_0,a_1,a_2,...\}$ is the
sequence of Hankel determinants $\{h_0, h_1, h_2,\dots \}$
where
$h_{n}=|a_{i+j}|_{i,j=0}^{n}$, i.e
\begin{center} \begin{equation}
\label{gen1}
A=\{a_n\}_{n\in\mathbb N_0}\quad \rightarrow \quad
h=\{h_n\}_{n\in\mathbb N_0}:\quad
h_n=\left| \begin{array}{ccccc}
a_0\ & a_1\ & \cdots & a_n & \\
a_1\ & a_2\ & & a_{n+1} \\
\vdots & & \ddots & \\
a_n\ & a_{n+1}\ & & a_{2n}
\end{array} \right|. \end{equation} \end{center} The Hankel
transform of a sequence $a_n$ and its binomial transform are
equal.
In the case that $a_n$ has g.f. $g(x)$ expressible in the form
$$g(x)=\cfrac{a_0}{1-\alpha_0 x-
\cfrac{\beta_1 x^2}{1-\alpha_1 x-
\cfrac{\beta_2 x^2}{1-\alpha_2 x-
\cfrac{\beta_3 x^2}{1-\alpha_3 x-\cdots}}}}$$ (with $\beta_i \neq 0$ for all $i$) then
we have \cite{Kratt, Kratt1, Wall}
\begin{equation}h_n = a_0^n \beta_1^{n-1}\beta_2^{n-2}\cdots \beta_{n-1}^2\beta_n=a_0^n\prod_{k=1}^n
\beta_k^{n-k+1}.\end{equation}
Note that this is independent from $\alpha_n$. In general $\alpha_n$ and $\beta_n$ are not integers.
Such a continued fraction is associated to a monic family of orthogonal polynomials which obey the three term recurrence
$$p_{n+1}(x)=(x-\alpha_n)p_n(x)-\beta_n p_{n-1}(x), \qquad
p_0(x)=1,\qquad p_1(x)=x-\alpha_0.$$
\noindent The terms appearing in the first column of the inverse of the coefficient array of these polynomials are the moments of
the family.
The \emph{exponential Riordan group} \cite {PasTri,DeutschShap,ProdMat}, is a set of infinite
lower-triangular integer matrices, where each matrix is defined by a pair of generating functions $g(x)=g_0+g_1x+g_2x^2+\ldots$ and
$f(x)=f_1x+f_2x^2+\ldots$ where $f_1\ne 0$. The associated matrix is the matrix whose $i$-th column has exponential generating
function
$g(x)f(x)^i/i!$ (the first column being indexed by 0). The matrix corresponding to the pair $f, g$ is denoted by $[g, f]$. It is
\emph{monic} if $g_0=1$. The group law is given by \begin{displaymath} [g, f]*[h, l]=[g(h\circ f), l\circ f].\end{displaymath} The
identity for this law is $I=[1,x]$ and the inverse of $[g, f]$ is $[g, f]^{-1}=[1/(g\circ \bar{f}), \bar{f}]$ where $\bar{f}$ is the
compositional inverse of $f$. We use the notation $\mathit{e}\mathcal{R}$ to denote this group. If $\mathbf{M}$ is the matrix $[g,f]$,
and $\mathbf{u}=(u_n)_{n \ge 0}$ is an integer sequence with exponential generating function $\mathcal{U}$ $(x)$, then the sequence
$\mathbf{M}\mathbf{u}$ has exponential generating function $g(x)\mathcal{U}(f(x))$. Thus the row sums of the array $[g,f]$ are given
by
$g(x)e^{f(x)}$ since the sequence $1,1,1,\ldots$ has exponential generating function $e^x$. \begin{example} The \emph{binomial matrix}
is the matrix with general term $\binom{n}{k}$. It is realized by Pascal's triangle. As an exponential Riordan array, it is given by
$[e^x,x]$. We further have $$([e^x,x])^m=[e^{mx},x].$$
\end{example}
\begin{example} We have
$$\left[ e^{z(e^x-1)}, e^x-1\right]=\left[e^{z(e^x-1)},x\right]\cdot \left[1, e^x-1\right].$$
\end{example} A more interesting factorization is given by
\begin{proposition} The general term of the matrix $\mathbf{L}=\left[ e^{z(e^x-1)}, e^x-1\right]$ is given by
$$L_{n,k}=\sum_{j=0}^n S(n,j)\binom{j}{k}z^{j-k}.$$
\end{proposition}
\begin{proof} A straight-forward calculation shows that
$$\left[ e^{z(e^x-1)}, e^x-1\right]=\left[1,e^x-1\right]\cdot \left[e^{zx},x\right].$$
The assertion now follows since the general term of $\left[1,e^x-1\right]$ is $S(n,k)$ and that of
$\left[e^{zx},x\right]$ is $\binom{n}{k}z^{n-k}$.
\end{proof}
\noindent As an example of the calculation of an inverse, we have
the following proposition.
\begin{proposition} $$\left[e^{z(e^x-1)},e^x-1\right]^{-1}=\left[e^{-zx},\ln(1+x)\right].$$
\end{proposition} \begin{proof} This follows since with $$f(x)=e^x-1$$ we have $$\bar{f}(x)=\ln(1+x).$$ \end{proof}
\begin{proposition}
$$\left[\frac{e^{zx}(1-z)}{e^{zx}-ze^x},\frac{e^{x}-e^{zx}}{e^{zx}-ze^x}\right]^{-1}=\left[1+zx,
\frac{1}{z-1}\ln\left(\frac{1+zx}{1+x}\right)\right].$$ Note that in the case $z=1$, we have
$$\left[\frac{1}{1-x},\frac{x}{1-x}\right]^{-1}=\left[\frac{1}{1+x},\frac{x}{1+x}\right].$$
\end{proposition}
\begin{proof} This follows since with $$f(x)=\frac{e^{zx}(1-z)}{e^{zx}-ze^x}$$ we have
$$\bar{f}(x)=\frac{1}{z-1}\ln\left(\frac{1+zx}{1+x}\right).$$ \end{proof}
An important concept for the sequel is that of production matrix. The concept of a \emph{production matrix}
\cite{ProdMat_0, ProdMat} is a general one, but for this note we find it convenient to review it in the context of Riordan arrays.
Thus
let $P$ be an infinite matrix (most often it will have integer entries). Letting $\mathbf{r}_0$ be the row vector
$$\mathbf{r}_0=(1,0,0,0,\ldots),$$ we define $\mathbf{r}_i=\mathbf{r}_{i-1}P$, $i \ge 1$. Stacking these rows leads to another
infinite
matrix which we denote by $A_P$. Then $P$ is said to be the \emph{production matrix} for $A_P$. \noindent If we let
$$u^T=(1,0,0,0,\ldots,0,\ldots)$$ then we have $$A_P=\left(\begin{array}{c} u^T\\u^TP\\u^TP^2\\\vdots\end{array}\right)$$ and
$$DA_P=A_PP$$ where $D=(\delta_{i,j+1})_{i,j \ge 0}$ (where $\delta$ is the usual Kronecker symbol). In \cite{P_W} $P$ is
called the Stieltjes matrix associated to $A_P$. In \cite{ProdMat}, we find the following result concerning matrices that are
production matrices for exponential Riordan arrays. \begin{proposition} Let $A=\left(a_{n,k}\right)_{n,k \ge 0}=[g(x),f(x)]$ be an
exponential Riordan array and let \begin{equation}\label{seq_def} c(y)=c_0 + c_1 y +c_2 y^2 + \ldots, \qquad r(y)=r_0 + r_1 y + r_2
y^2
+ \ldots\end{equation} be two formal power series that that \begin{eqnarray}\label{r_def} r(f(x))&=&f'(x) \\ \label{c_def}
c(f(x))&=&\frac{g'(x)}{g(x)}. \end{eqnarray} Then \begin{eqnarray} (i)\qquad a_{n+1,0}&=&\sum_{i} i! c_i a_{n,i} \\ (ii)\qquad
a_{n+1,k}&=& r_0 a_{n,k-1}+\frac{1}{k!} \sum_{i\ge k}i!(c_{i-k}+k r_{i-k+1})a_{n,i} \end{eqnarray} or, defining $c_{-1}=0$,
\begin{equation}\label{array_def} a_{n+1,k}=\frac{1}{k!}\sum_{i\ge k-1} i!(c_{i-k}+k r_{i-k+1})a_{n,i}.\end{equation} Conversely,
starting from the sequences defined by (\ref{seq_def}), the infinite array $\left(a_{n,k}\right)_{n,k\ge 0}$ defined by
(\ref{array_def}) is an exponential Riordan array. \end{proposition} \noindent A consequence of this proposition is that
$P=\left(p_{i,j}\right)_{i,j\ge 0}$ where $$p_{i,j}=\frac{i!}{j!}(c_{i-j}+jr_{r-j+1}) \qquad (c_{-1}=0).$$ Furthermore, the bivariate
exponential generating function $$\phi_P(t,z)=\sum_{n,k} p_{n,k}t^k \frac{z^n}{n!}$$ of the matrix $P$ is given by $$\phi_P(t,z) =
e^{tz}(c(z)+t r(z)).$$ Note in particular that we have $$r(x)=f'(\bar{f}(x))$$ and $$c(x)=\frac{g'(\bar{f}(x))}{g(\bar{f}(x))}.$$
\begin{example} We consider the exponential Riordan array $[\frac{1}{1-x},x]$, \seqnum{A094587}. This array \cite{Lah} has elements
\begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 2 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 0 &
0 & \ldots \\ 6 & 6 & 3 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 24 & 24 & 12 & 4 & 1 & 0 & \ldots \\120 & 120 & 60 & 20 & 5 & 1 &\ldots\\ \vdots &
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots\end{array}\right)\end{displaymath} and general term $[k \le n] \frac{n!}{k!}$ with
inverse \begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\-1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & -2 & 1
& 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 0 & -3 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 0 & 0& -4 & 1 & 0 & \ldots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & -5 & 1 &\ldots\\ \vdots &
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots\end{array}\right)\end{displaymath} which is the array $[1-x,x]$. In particular, we
note that the row sums of the inverse, which begin $1,0,-1,-2,-3,\ldots$ (that is, $1-n$), have e.g.f. $(1-x)\exp(x)$. This sequence
is
thus the binomial transform of the sequence with e.g.f. $(1-x)$ (which is the sequence starting $1,-1,0,0,0,\ldots$). In order to
calculate the production matrix $\mathbf{P}$ of $[\frac{1}{1-x},x]$ we note that $f(x)=x$, and hence we have $f'(x)=1$ so
$f'(\bar{f}(x))=1$. Also $g(x)=\frac{1}{1-x}$ leads to $g'(x)=\frac{1}{(1-x)^2}$, and so, since $\bar{f}({x})=x$, we get
$$\frac{g'(\bar{f}(x))}{g(\bar{f}(x))}=\frac{1}{1-x}.$$ Thus the generating function for $\mathbf{P}$ is
$$e^{tz}\left(\frac{1}{1-z}+t\right).$$ Thus $\mathbf{P}$ is the matrix $[\frac{1}{1-x},x]$ with its first row removed. \end{example}
\begin{example} We consider the exponential Riordan array $[1, \frac{x}{1-x}]$. The general term of this matrix \cite{Lah} may be
calculated as
follows: \begin{eqnarray*}T_{n,k}&=&\frac{n!}{k!}[x^n]\frac{x^k}{(1-x)^k}\\ &=&\frac{n!}{k!}[x^{n-k}](1-x)^{-k}\\
&=&\frac{n!}{k!}[x^{n-k}]\sum_{j=0}^{\infty}\binom{-k}{j}(-1)^jx^j\\ &=&\frac{n!}{k!}[x^{n-k}]\sum_{j=0}^{\infty}\binom{k+j-1}{j}x^j\\
&=&\frac{n!}{k!}\binom{k+n-k-1}{n-k}\\ &=&\frac{n!}{k!}\binom{n-1}{n-k}.\end{eqnarray*} Thus its row sums, which have e.g.f. $\exp
\left(\frac{x}{1-x}\right)$, have general term $\sum_{k=0}^n \frac{n!}{k!}\binom{n-1}{n-k}$. This is \seqnum{A000262}, the `number of
``sets of lists": the number of partitions of $\{1,..,n\}$ into any number of lists, where a list means an ordered subset'. Its
general
term is equal to $(n-1)!L_{n-1}(1,-1)$. The inverse of $\left[1, \frac{x}{1-x}\right]$ is the exponential Riordan array
$\left[1,\frac{x}{1+x}\right]$, \seqnum{A111596}. The row sums of this sequence have e.g.f. $\exp\left(\frac{x}{1+x}\right)$, and
start
$1, 1, -1, 1, 1, -19, 151, \ldots$. This is \seqnum{A111884}. To calculate the production matrix of $\left[1,\frac{x}{1+x}\right]$ we
note that $g'(x)=0$, while $\bar{f}(x)=\frac{x}{1+x}$ with $f'(x)=\frac{1}{(1+x)^2}$. Thus $$f'(\bar{f}(x))=(1+x)^2,$$ and so the
generating function of the production matrix is given by $$ e^{tz}t(1+z)^2.$$ \noindent The production matrix of the inverse
begins \begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\0 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 2 & 4 &
1
& 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 0 & 6 & 6 & 1 & 0 & \ldots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 12 & 8 & 1 & \ldots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 20 & 10 &\ldots\\ \vdots &
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots\end{array}\right).\end{displaymath} \end{example} \begin{example} The exponential
Riordan array $\mathbf{A}= \left[\frac{1}{1-x},\frac{x}{1-x}\right]$, or \begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0
& 0 & 0 & \ldots \\1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 2 & 4 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 6 & 18 & 9 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 24 & 96 & 72
& 16 & 1 & 0 & \ldots \\120 & 600 & 600 & 200 & 25 & 1 &\ldots\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\ddots\end{array}\right),\end{displaymath} has general term $$ T_{n,k}=\frac{n!}{k!}\binom{n}{k}.$$ Its inverse is
$\left[\frac{1}{1+x},\frac{x}{1+x}\right]$ with general term
$(-1)^{n-k}\frac{n!}{k!}\binom{n}{k}$. This is \seqnum{A021009}, the triangle of coefficients of the Laguerre polynomials $L_n(x)$.
The
production matrix $\left[\frac{1}{1-x},\frac{x}{1-x}\right]$ is given by \begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 1 & 1 & 0 &
0
& 0 & 0 &
\ldots \\1 & 3 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 4 & 5 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 0 & 9 & 7 & 1 & 0 & \ldots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 16 & 9 & 1 &
\ldots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 25 & 11 &\ldots\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\ddots\end{array}\right).\end{displaymath} \end{example} \begin{example} The exponential Riordan array
$\left[e^x,\ln\left(\frac{1}{1-x}\right)\right]$, or \begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots
\\1
& 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 1 & 3 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 1 & 8 & 6 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 1 & 24 & 29 & 10 & 1 & 0 & \ldots
\\1 & 89 & 145 & 75 & 15 & 1 &\ldots\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots\end{array}\right)\end{displaymath}
is the coefficient array for the polynomials $$_2F_0(-n,x;-1)$$ which are an unsigned version of the Charlier polynomials (of order
$0$) \cite{wgautschi, Roman, Szego}. This is \seqnum{A094816}. It is equal to $$[e^x,x]\left[ 1,
\ln\left(\frac{1}{1-x}\right)\right],$$ or the product of the binomial array $\mathbf{B}$ and the array of (unsigned) Stirling numbers
of the first kind. The production matrix of the inverse of this matrix is given by \begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} -1
&
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\1 & -2 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 2 & -3 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 0 & 3 & -4 & 1 & 0 & \ldots \\0
& 0 & 0 & 4 & -5 & 1 & \ldots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 5 & -6 &\ldots\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\ddots\end{array}\right)\end{displaymath} which indicates the orthogonal nature of these polynomials. We can prove this as follows. We
have $$\left[e^x, \ln\left(\frac{1}{1-x}\right)\right]^{-1}=\left[e^{-(1-e^{-x})},1-e^{-x}\right].$$ Hence $g(x)=e^{-(1-e^{-x})}$ and
$f(x)=1-e^{-x}$. We are thus led to the equations \begin{eqnarray*} r(1-e^{-x})&=&\,e^{-x},\\ c(1-e^{-x})&=&-e^{-x},\end{eqnarray*}
with solutions $r(x)=1-x$, $c(x)=x-1$. Thus the bivariate generating function for the production matrix of the inverse array is
$$e^{tz}(z-1+t(1-z)),$$ which is what is required. \end{example}
\section{Proof of Theorem \ref{Thm1}}
\begin{proof} We show first that with $\mathbf{L}=\left[e^{z(e^x-1)},e^x-1\right]$, the matrix $\mathbf{L}^{-1}$ which is given by
$$\mathbf{L}^{-1}=\left[e^{z(e^x-1)},e^x-1\right]^{-1}=\left[e^{-zx},\ln(1+x)\right],$$ is the coefficient array of a family of
orthogonal polynomials. To this end, we calculate the production array of $\left[e^{z(e^x-1)},e^x-1\right]$.
We have $f(x)=e^x-1$, $f'(x)=e^x$ and $\bar{f}(x)=\ln(1+x)$. Thus
$$c(x)=f'(\bar{f}(x))=1+x.$$
Similarly, for $g(x)=e^{z(e^x-1)}$, we have $g'(x)=ze^{z(e^x-1)+x}$ and so
$$r(x)=\frac{g'(\bar{f}(x))}{g(\bar{f}(x))}=\frac{ze^{zx}(1+x)}{e^{zx}}=z(1+x).$$
Thus the production matrix sought has generating function
$$e^{tw}(c(w)+t r(w))=e^{tw}(1+w+t(z(1+w))).$$ Thus the production array $\mathbf{P}_{\mathbf{L}}$ is tri-diagonal, beginning
\begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} z &
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\z & z+1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 2z & z+2 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 0 & 3z & z+3 & 1 & 0 &
\ldots
\\0
& 0 & 0 & 4z & z+4 & 1 & \ldots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 5z & z+5 &\ldots\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\ddots\end{array}\right).\end{displaymath}
Now it is well known that $$\sum_{k=0}^n \frac{e_k(z)}{k!} x^k = e^{z(e^x-1)},$$ and hence the polynomials $e_n(z)$ are the moments
of the
family of orthogonal polynomials whose coefficient array is $\mathbf{L}^{-1}.$
\end{proof}
\begin{corollary} The Hankel transform of $e_n(z)$ is $z^{\binom{n+1}{2}}\prod_{k=1}^n k!$.
\end{corollary}
\begin{proof} From the above, we have that the generating function of $e_n(z)$ is given by the continued fraction
$$\cfrac{1}{1-zx-
\cfrac{zx^2}{1-(z+1)x-
\cfrac{2zx^2}{1-(z+2)x-
\cfrac{3zx^2}{1-\cdots}}}}.$$ In other words, $\beta_n=nz$. Thus
the Hankel transform of $e_n(z)$ is given by
$$\prod_{k=1}^n \beta_k^{n-k+1}=\prod_{k=1}^n (kz)^{n-k+1}=z^{\binom{n+1}{2}}\prod_{k=1}^n k!.$$
\end{proof}
\noindent We note that the Hankel transform of the row sums of $\mathbf{L}=\left[e^{z(e^x-1)},e^x-1\right]$ is equal to
$$(z+1)^{\binom{n+1}{2}}\prod_{k=1}^n k!.$$
\noindent Note also that if we take $z=e^t$, we obtain a solution to the restricted Toda chain \cite{Toda}.
\section{Proof of Theorem \ref{Thm2} }
\begin{proof}
We show first that with $\mathbf{L}=\left[\frac{e^{zx}(1-z)}{e^{zx}-ze^x},\frac{e^{x}-e^{zx}}{e^{zx}-ze^x}\right]$, the matrix
$\mathbf{L}^{-1}$ which is given by
$$\mathbf{L}^{-1}=\left[\frac{e^{zx}(1-z)}{e^{zx}-ze^x},\frac{e^{x}-e^{zx}}{e^{zx}-ze^x}\right]^{-1}=\left[1+zx,
\frac{1}{z-1}\ln\left(\frac{1+zx}{1+x}\right)\right],$$ is the coefficient array of a family of orthogonal polynomials. To this end,
we
calculate the production array of $\mathbf{L}=\left[\frac{e^{zx}(1-z)}{e^{zx}-ze^x},\frac{e^{x}-e^{zx}}{e^{zx}-ze^x}\right]$.
We have $f(x)=\frac{e^{x}-e^{zx}}{e^{zx}-ze^x}$, $\bar{f}(x)=\frac{1}{z-1}\ln\left(\frac{1+zx}{1+x}\right)$ and
$$f'(x)=\frac{(1-z)^2e^{x(1+z)}}{(e^{zx}-ze^x)^2}.$$
Thus $$c(x)=f'(\bar{f}(x))=(1+x)(1+zx).$$
Also $g(x)=\frac{e^{zx}(1-z)}{e^{zx}-ze^x}$, which implies that $g'(x)=xf'(x)$ and so
$$r(x)=\frac{g'(\bar{f}(x))}{g(\bar{f}(x))}=z(1+x).$$
Thus the generating function of $\mathbf{P}_{\mathbf{L}}$ is given by
$$e^{tw}(c(w)+t r(w))=e^{tw}((1+w)(1+zw)+t(z(1+w))).$$
Thus the production array $\mathbf{P}_{\mathbf{L}}$ is tri-diagonal, beginning
\begin{displaymath}\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc} z &
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\z & 2z+1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 4z & 3z+2 & 1 & 0 & 0 & \ldots \\ 0 & 0 & 9z & 4z+3 & 1 & 0 &
\ldots \\0
& 0 & 0 & 16z & 5z+4 & 1 & \ldots \\0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 25z & 6z+5 &\ldots\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\ddots\end{array}\right).\end{displaymath} Now it is known that $$\sum_{k=0}^n \frac{\mathsf{EU}_k(z)}{k!} x^k =
\frac{e^{zx}(1-z)}{e^{zx}-ze^x},$$ and hence the polynomials $e_n(z)$
are the moments of the family of orthogonal polynomials whose
coefficient array is $\mathbf{L}^{-1}.$
\end{proof}
\begin{corollary} The Hankel transform of $\mathsf{EU}_n(z)$ is $z^{\binom{n+1}{2}}\prod_{k=1}^n k!^2$.
\end{corollary}
\begin{proof} From the above, we have that the generating function of $\mathsf{EU}_n(z)$ is given by the continued fraction
$$\cfrac{1}{1-zx-
\cfrac{zx^2}{1-(2z+1)x-
\cfrac{4zx^2}{1-(3z+2)x-
\cfrac{9zx^2}{1-\cdots}}}}.$$ In other words, $\beta_n=n^2z$. Thus
the Hankel transform of $\mathsf{EU}_n(z)$ is given by
$$\prod_{k=1}^n \beta_k^{n-k+1}=\prod_{k=1}^n (k^2z)^{n-k+1}=z^{\binom{n+1}{2}}\prod_{k=1}^n k!^2.$$
\end{proof}
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\bibitem{Bell} E. W. Weisstein, Bell Polynomial, \emph{From
MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource}, available electronically at
\href{http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BellPolynomial.html}{\tt http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BellPolynomial.html}, 2011.
\bibitem{Wall} H.~S. Wall, \emph{Analytic Theory of
Continued Fractions}, AMS Chelsea Publishing, 2000.
\end{thebibliography}
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\noindent 2010 {\it Mathematics Subject Classification}: Primary
11B83; Secondary 05A15, 11C20, 15B05, 15B36, 42C05.
\noindent \emph{Keywords:} Integer sequence, exponential Riordan array,
Touchard polynomial, exponential polynomial, moments, orthogonal
polynomials, Hankel determinant, Hankel transform.
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\noindent (Concerned with sequences
\seqnum{A000045},
\seqnum{A000142},
\seqnum{A000262},
\seqnum{A007318},
\seqnum{A008277},
\seqnum{A008292},
\seqnum{A021009},
\seqnum{A094587},
\seqnum{A094816},
\seqnum{A111596}, and
\seqnum{A111884}.)
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\vspace*{+.1in}
\noindent
Received July 1 2010;
revised version received May 31 2011.
Published in {\it Journal of Integer Sequences}, June 10 2011.
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\noindent
Return to
\htmladdnormallink{Journal of Integer Sequences home page}{http://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/}.
\vskip .1in
\end{document}
|
https://www.zentralblatt-math.org/matheduc/en/?id=73637&type=tex | zentralblatt-math.org | CC-MAIN-2019-51 | text/plain | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-51/segments/1575540484477.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20191206023204-20191206051204-00305.warc.gz | 937,797,194 | 1,756 | \input zb-basic
\input zb-matheduc
\iteman{ZMATH 2002e.04374}
\itemau{Pag\`es, Gilles; Bouzitat, Claude; Petit, Fr\'ed\'erique; Carrance, Fabrice}
\itemti{By accident..probability in everyday life. (En passant par hasard .. Les probabilit\'es de tous les jours.)}
\itemso{Vuibert, Paris (ISBN 2-7117-5258-5). 268 p. (2000).}
\itemab
D\'ebutant par un avertissement et un avant propos consacr\'e \`a un court historique des probabilit\'es, l'ouvrage est ensuite d\'ecoup\'e en quatre parties, chacune \'etant consacr\'ee \`a un th\`eme transversal : (1) La premi\`ere "Au hasard des probl\`emes" traite de probl\`emes tr\`es divers : les jeux t\'el\'evis\'es, les sondages, la pr\'esence dans Horace de Corneille d'un acrostiche est -elle volontaire, le surbooking des places d'avion et les simulations, comment obtenir une collection compl\`ete d'images et les probl\`emes math\'ematiques complexes qui s'y rattachent. (2) La deuxi\`eme "En voiture" traite des probl\`emes de parkings et flux de circulation. (3) La troisi\`eme "L'\'etat Casino" analyse les diff\'erents jeux de la "Fran\c caise des jeux" et le "Lotto belge" ; les auteurs d\'enoncent en autres les fausses martingales. (4) La quatri\`eme "La bourse ou la vie" propose une initiation aux m\'ethodes probabilistes de la finance. Un chapitre est consacr\'e \`a une pr\'esentation des march\'es financiers d'option. Les deux suivants d\'eveloppent respectivement les mod\`eles \`a temps continu conduisant \`a la formule de Black et Scholes sur un mod\`ele semi-heuristique et les mod\`eles \`a temps discret. Au d\'ebut de chaque chapitre est indiqu\'e le niveau math\'ematique requis :niveau 0 - aucun ;niveau 1 - terminale S ; niveau 2 - 1er cycle universitaire ( math\'ematiques ou physique), niveau 3 - 2\`eme cycle universitaire (math\'ematiques ). De nombreux dessins humoristiques agr\'ementent l'ouvrage.
\itemrv{~}
\itemcc{K50}
\itemut{black and scholes}
\itemli{}
\end |
http://build.openvpn.net/doxygen/latex/structroute__bypass.tex | openvpn.net | CC-MAIN-2018-09 | application/octet-stream | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-09/segments/1518891811795.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20180218081112-20180218101112-00582.warc.gz | 49,656,455 | 1,199 | \hypertarget{structroute__bypass}{}\subsection{route\+\_\+bypass Struct Reference}
\label{structroute__bypass}\index{route\+\_\+bypass@{route\+\_\+bypass}}
{\ttfamily \#include $<$route.\+h$>$}
\subsubsection*{Data Fields}
\begin{DoxyCompactItemize}
\item
int \hyperlink{structroute__bypass_a6cc77fdcdd9adfcfb1f67919697e5d99}{n\+\_\+bypass}
\item
\hyperlink{config-msvc_8h_a64ca7e440847b0f5d19cbe94f9e114bd}{in\+\_\+addr\+\_\+t} \hyperlink{structroute__bypass_a7cfb89101551414be212ea4394b8e283}{bypass} \mbox{[}\hyperlink{route_8h_acf661cefbfb4628727e3c9d60f1771af}{N\+\_\+\+R\+O\+U\+T\+E\+\_\+\+B\+Y\+P\+A\+SS}\mbox{]}
\end{DoxyCompactItemize}
\subsubsection{Detailed Description}
Definition at line 52 of file route.\+h.
\subsubsection{Field Documentation}
\mbox{\Hypertarget{structroute__bypass_a7cfb89101551414be212ea4394b8e283}\label{structroute__bypass_a7cfb89101551414be212ea4394b8e283}}
\index{route\+\_\+bypass@{route\+\_\+bypass}!bypass@{bypass}}
\index{bypass@{bypass}!route\+\_\+bypass@{route\+\_\+bypass}}
\paragraph{\texorpdfstring{bypass}{bypass}}
{\footnotesize\ttfamily \hyperlink{config-msvc_8h_a64ca7e440847b0f5d19cbe94f9e114bd}{in\+\_\+addr\+\_\+t} route\+\_\+bypass\+::bypass\mbox{[}\hyperlink{route_8h_acf661cefbfb4628727e3c9d60f1771af}{N\+\_\+\+R\+O\+U\+T\+E\+\_\+\+B\+Y\+P\+A\+SS}\mbox{]}}
Definition at line 56 of file route.\+h.
Referenced by add\+\_\+bypass\+\_\+address(), add\+\_\+bypass\+\_\+routes(), and del\+\_\+bypass\+\_\+routes().
\mbox{\Hypertarget{structroute__bypass_a6cc77fdcdd9adfcfb1f67919697e5d99}\label{structroute__bypass_a6cc77fdcdd9adfcfb1f67919697e5d99}}
\index{route\+\_\+bypass@{route\+\_\+bypass}!n\+\_\+bypass@{n\+\_\+bypass}}
\index{n\+\_\+bypass@{n\+\_\+bypass}!route\+\_\+bypass@{route\+\_\+bypass}}
\paragraph{\texorpdfstring{n\+\_\+bypass}{n\_bypass}}
{\footnotesize\ttfamily int route\+\_\+bypass\+::n\+\_\+bypass}
Definition at line 55 of file route.\+h.
Referenced by add\+\_\+bypass\+\_\+address(), add\+\_\+bypass\+\_\+routes(), and del\+\_\+bypass\+\_\+routes().
The documentation for this struct was generated from the following file\+:\begin{DoxyCompactItemize}
\item
/root/openvpn/src/openvpn/\hyperlink{route_8h}{route.\+h}\end{DoxyCompactItemize}
|
http://morpho.aalto.fi/events/morphochallenge2007/CLEF2007template.tex | aalto.fi | CC-MAIN-2020-50 | text/x-tex | text/x-matlab | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-50/segments/1606141171077.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20201124025131-20201124055131-00135.warc.gz | 69,723,771 | 2,714 | % Approximate sample template for CLEF 2007 Notebook Proceedings.
% It satisfies the following formatting instructions:
%
% size: A4
% borders: top, left right 2.5 cm ; bottom 3 cm
% text size: 16 x 24 cm
% author(s): Times 10 pt centered
% abstract: Times 10 pt justified
% body text: Times 10 pt justified
% Emphasis: Times 10 pt italic
% Title: bold centered
% Section Headings: bold left aligned
% PLEASE DO NOT NUMBER THE PAGES
%
% I am not sure whether this template satisfies these other formatting
% instructions, but it should be close anyway:
%
% title: Times 14 pt
% Section Headings: Times 12 pt
\documentclass[10pt]{article}
\usepackage{a4wide}
\setlength{\rightmargin}{2.5cm}
\setlength{\leftmargin}{2.5cm}
\makeatletter
\newcommand{\keywords}[1]{
\subsection*{Keywords}
#1}
\newcommand{\terms}[1]{
\subsection*{General Terms}
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\if!#3!\else #3\kern\z@---\hskip\z@\fi
\textit{#4}%
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}
\makeatother
\title{{\bf The Title of Your CLEF 2007 Contribution}}
\author{{\normalsize This is the author}\\
{\normalsize This is the affiliation} \\
{\normalsize {\tt e-mail@address}}}
\date{}
\pagestyle{empty}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
\thispagestyle{empty}
\begin{abstract}
\normalsize\noindent This is the abstract. The abstract should be
as complete as possible. It should provide the main details of
your experiments including tasks performed, approach used,
resources employed, results obtained. The abstract should not
exceed 250 words. The full Working Notes will be prepared in
digital form only. We will extract the abstract from the text of
your paper and will print a separate Book of Abstracts for
distribution at the Workshop. Do not lock or password protect your
pdf file.
\end{abstract}
% % metadata
% % definitions taken from ACM style file
\category{H.3}{Information Storage and Retrieval}{H.3.1 Content Analysis
and Indexing; H.3.3 Information Search and Retrieval; H.3.4 Systems
and Software; H.3.7 Digital Libraries}
\category{H.2.3}{Database Managment}{Languages}[Query Languages]
\terms{Measurement, Performance, Experimentation}
\keywords{Question answering, Questions beyond factoids}
% % %
\section{Introduction}
Consult http://www.acm.org/class/1998/ for details on assigning
categories, terms, and keywords to your paper. The above are only
examples.
\section{Etcetera}
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Nullam ac
dolor. Sed lectus nisl, tempus sit amet, porttitor imperdiet,
sollicitudin vitae, eros. In diam nulla, pharetra eget, tincidunt sit
amet, viverra eget, odio. Cras rutrum, felis ac consequat viverra,
ante purus elementum pede, eu suscipit lacus ligula et pede. Morbi in
massa. Cras risus. Nam commodo turpis nec metus. Nunc a nibh
sodales massa posuere interdum. Maecenas sagittis consectetuer magna.
Aenean vel turpis. Sed et sapien. Nam elit.
Praesent at velit in erat congue aliquam. Praesent vulputate urna
eget massa. Curabitur et sapien. Quisque lobortis auctor erat. Sed
semper turpis vel mauris. Nam aliquet tincidunt dui. Maecenas
malesuada, est sed elementum imperdiet, sapien massa dapibus mi, sed
commodo libero metus vel tellus. Ut pulvinar sem sed ligula.
Phasellus quis ante. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer
adipiscing elit. Donec lobortis, arcu sit amet aliquet eleifend, nunc
nulla bibendum magna, sit amet semper dolor ante at neque. Vivamus
adipiscing tincidunt nunc. Aenean felis. Proin vel ligula sed tellus
luctus nonummy. Nullam mauris mauris, lacinia quis, lacinia a,
dignissim nec, tellus. Etiam nunc. Nulla laoreet ornare turpis.
Suspendisse imperdiet eros nec risus. Integer nulla. Suspendisse
lobortis congue wisi.
\bibliographystyle{plain}
\bibliography{yours}
\end{document}
|
http://archives.haskell.org/code.haskell.org/asn1/PERWriter.lhs-darcs-backup2 | haskell.org | CC-MAIN-2018-39 | application/octet-stream | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-39/segments/1537267157351.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20180921170920-20180921191320-00319.warc.gz | 17,394,023 | 24,683 | \documentclass{report}
%include polycode.fmt
\usepackage{listings}
\usepackage{todonotes}
\lstdefinelanguage{ASN1} {
keywords={CHOICE, SEQUENCE, BEGIN, END, IMPLICIT, EXPLICIT, INTEGER, DEFINITIONS},
sensitive=false,
morecomment=[s]{(--}{--)}
}
\lstnewenvironment{asn1}[1][]
{\lstset{language=ASN1,captionpos=b,frame=single,basicstyle=\scriptsize,float,#1}}
{}
\newcommand{\bottom}{\perp}
\newcommand{\INTEGER}{INTEGER}
\begin{document}
\title{A Formal and Executable Specification of the ASN.1 Packed Encoding Rules}
\author{D. J. Russell \and D. J. Steinitz}
\maketitle
\tableofcontents
\listoftodos
\section{Introduction}
ASN.1~\cite{PER} --- Abstract Syntax Notation --- is a large and complex specification for the abstract defininition of data
for exchange between heterogeneous systems
together with several concrete encodings~\cite{PER}. It is widely used, for example, to describe digital certificates, in
third generation mobile telephony~\cite{3gpp.25.413} and in aviation~\cite{ACARS,ACARSInterop,FANS,ATN}.
An example ASN.1 specification is shown in Figure~\ref{lst:ExampleASN1}.
\begin{asn1}[caption={Example ASN.1},label=lst:ExampleASN1]
FooBar {1 2 3 4 5 6} DEFINITIONS ::=
BEGIN
Type9 ::=
CHOICE {
element1 [0] IMPLICIT INTEGER,
element2 [1] EXPLICIT CHOICE {
subElement1 [3] IMPLICIT INTEGER,
subElement2 [4] IMPLICIT INTEGER,
subElement3 [5] IMPLICIT INTEGER
},
element4 [2] IMPLICIT INTEGER
}
Type12 ::=
CHOICE {
c1 [0] IMPLICIT SEQUENCE {
one INTEGER,
two INTEGER
},
c2 [1] IMPLICIT SEQUENCE {
three INTEGER,
four INTEGER
}
}
END
\end{asn1}
In this paper we will present ASN.1 types and values using {\tt teletext} font and Haskell
code and expressions using {\em italic} font. The paper includes the actual Haskell
implementation of PER. Any code segments are separated from the main text of the paper by a
newline.
%include ASNTYPE.lhs
In the following section we describe the Packed Encoding Rules (PER) as described in X.691.
These are defined in the module {\em PER}.
There are two versions of these rules, BASIC-PER and CANONICAL-PER. They both have two
variants, UNALIGNED and ALIGNED. The later variant may require some bit padding to restore
octet alignment. We have implemented the UNALIGNED variant of CANONICAL-PER.
\section{Conventions}
In order make the code more intelligible without using overlong identifiers, we adopt
the following conventions:
\begin{itemize}
\item
All encoding functions begin with ``e''.
\item
All decoding functions begin with ``d''.
\item
A part of an identifier ``Cons'' is short form for ``Constrained''.
\item
A part of an identifier ``Uncons'' is short form for ``Unconstrained''.
\end{itemize}
\section{UNALIGNED CANONICAL-PER}
%if False
\begin{code}
{-# LANGUAGE MultiParamTypeClasses, GADTs, TypeOperators, EmptyDataDecls, FlexibleInstances, FlexibleContexts, GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving, ScopedTypeVariables, PatternGuards, DoRec, TypeSynonymInstances #-}
{-# OPTIONS_GHC -fwarn-unused-binds -fwarn-unused-imports #-}
{- -fwarn-incomplete-patterns -fwarn-unused-matches #-}
\end{code}
%endif
The module uses the following modules:
\begin{itemize}
\item
{\em ASNTYPE} since the encoding functions require ASN.1 type;
\item
{\em LatticeMod} in which some type classes are defined, including the type class {\tt
Lattice}, which specifies a {\bf bounded lattice} and those types which have bounded lattice
characteristics. This enables the overloading of various bounded lattice-related entities such as
{\em top} and {\em bottom}. This module is described in section \ref{lattice};
\item
{\em ConstraintGeneration} in which the constraint processing functions are defined. This is
required since the top-level encoding functions take a list of constraints as input -- the
serially applied constraints -- and require two constraints to represent the effective
constraint (which is used in the generation of an encoding) and the actual constraint (which
is used for validity testing). This module is described in section \ref{constraintGen};
\item
{\em ASN1.PER.Integer} in which the functions {\em fromNonNegativeBinaryInteger'} and {\em
from2sComplement'} are defined. These are used in the decoding of integers. Note that in Haskell
the totality of a module is imported unless explicitly specified within parentheses; and
\item
several Haskell library modules some of which have been qualified with a shorter name which is then used
as a prefix when any entity of these modules is used.
\end{itemize}
\begin{code}
module PERWriter where
import ASNTYPE
import LatticeMod
import ConstraintGeneration
import Language.ASN1.PER.Integer
( fromNonNegativeBinaryInteger'
, from2sComplement'
)
import Data.List as L hiding (groupBy)
import Data.Char
import Control.Monad.Error
import Control.Monad.Identity
import Control.Monad.Writer
{- FIXME: added IntegerAux and Word for encodeNonNegBinaryIntInOctets and h' -}
import qualified Data.ByteString as B
import qualified Data.ByteString.Lazy as BL
import qualified Data.Binary.Strict.BitGet as BG
import qualified Data.Binary.BitPut as BP
import qualified Data.Binary.BitBuilder as BB
import qualified Language.ASN1.PER.Integer as I
import Data.Int
import Control.Applicative
\end{code}
The top-level PER encoding function is called {\em encode}. The function takes three inputs:
the type of value being encoded; a list of subtype constraints which represents the
serially applied constraints and will be converted into an effective constraint
in advance of encoding; and the value to be encoded.
It has three distinct
cases which address the various forms of an ASNType.
\begin{itemize}
\item
The input is a builtin type value. The function {\em toPer} is called on this value.
\item
The input is a referenced type value. The reference is L.dropped
and {\em encode} is recursively called on the value.
\item
The input is a constrained type value. The constraint is added to the list of constraints and
the function is called again on the type being constrained. This recursion will continue
until we reach a non-constrained type. The associated list of constraints will then include all
of the seraily applied constraints.
\end{itemize}
The function {\em encode} returns a value of type {\em PERMonad ()}. This is a type that can deal with
\begin{itemize}
\item
the output of an encoding; and
\item
error handling
\end{itemize}
In Haskell when we want to represent and manage computations such as writing output or
handling errors we typcially use a {\em monadic} type. Haskell provides several commonly used
monadic types such as
\begin{itemize}
\item
the {\em Maybe} type for dealing with failure;
\item
the {\em IO} type for interaction with the user; and the
\item
list type for dealing with nondeterminism.
\end{itemize}
Each of these types (and other types) are members of the Haskell type class {\em Monad} which captures
the behavioural requirements of a monad as a collection of operations supported by each of its member types.
Haskell also provides monad transformers which combine existing monads to produce new monads
with the characteristics of the component monads. Two such monad transformers are {\em ErrorT}
which adds error handling capabilities to a monad, and {\em WriterT} which adds support for producing a
stream of values.
Thus the type {\em PERMonad} can produce a stream of values of type {\em BitStream} (the encoding type),
and can handle errors of the type {\em ASNError}. This error type enables the categorisation of the various types of
error.
\begin{code}
type PERMonad = WriterT BB.BitBuilder (ErrorT ASNError Identity)
type UnPERMonad a = ErrorT ASNError BG.BitGet a
data ASNError =
ConstraintError String
| BoundsError String
| DecodeError String
| ExtensionError String
| OtherError String
deriving Show
instance Error ASNError where
noMsg = OtherError "The impossible happened"
encode :: ASNType a -> SerialSubtypeConstraints a -> a -> PERMonad ()
encode (BuiltinType t) cl v = toPER t v cl
encode (ReferencedType r t) cl v = encode t cl v
encode (ConstrainedType t c) cl v = encode t (c:cl) v
decode :: ASNType a -> [ElementSetSpecs a] -> UnPERMonad a
decode (BuiltinType t) cl = fromPER t cl
decode (ConstrainedType t c) cl = decode t (c:cl)
decode (ReferencedType r t) cl = decode t cl
runDecode :: ASNType a -> B.ByteString -> a
runDecode t bs = case BG.runBitGet bs (runErrorT (decode t [])) of
Left s -> error s
Right x -> case x of
Left e -> error $ show e
Right y -> y
-- FIXME: B.pack . BL.unpack doesn't look right but I don't want to think about it now
runEncode :: ASNType a -> a -> B.ByteString
runEncode t v = case extractValue $ encode t [] v of
Left e -> error $ show e
Right ((), bb) -> B.pack $ BL.unpack $ BB.toLazyByteString bb
\end{code}
The function {\em toPER} L.takes an {\em ASNBuiltin} type, a value of the same builtin type and
a list of subtype constraints, and encodes the value using PER. The first input is essential
in determining the encoding algorithm to use. That is, it is a pointer to the appropriate
encoding function for the value. For example, if the type is {\em INTEGER} then {\em
eInteger} is called, and if it is a {\em CHOICE} type then {\em encodeChoice} is used.
\begin{code}
toPER :: ASNBuiltin a -> a -> SerialSubtypeConstraints a -> PERMonad ()
toPER NULL _ _ = tell BB.empty
toPER INTEGER x cl = eInteger cl x
toPER VISIBLESTRING x cl = encodeKMS cl x
toPER PRINTABLESTRING x cl = encodeKMS cl x
toPER NUMERICSTRING x cl = encodeKMS cl x
toPER IA5STRING x cl = encodeKMS cl x
toPER BMPSTRING x cl = encodeKMS cl x
toPER UNIVERSALSTRING x cl = encodeKMS cl x
toPER BOOLEAN x cl = encodeBool cl x
toPER (ENUMERATED e) x cl = encodeEnum e cl x -- no PER-Visible constraints
toPER (BITSTRING nbs) x cl = encodeBitstring nbs cl x
toPER (OCTETSTRING) x cl = encodeOctetstring cl x
toPER (SEQUENCE s) x cl = eSequence s x -- no PER-Visible constraints
toPER (SEQUENCEOF s) x cl = eSequenceOf cl (stripName s) x
toPER (SET s) x cl = encodeSet s x -- no PER-Visible constraints
toPER (CHOICE c) x cl = encodeChoice c x -- no PER-visible constraints
toPER (SETOF s) x cl = encodeSetOf cl (stripName s) x -- no PER-visible constraints
toPER (TAGGED tag t) x cl = encode t cl x
fromPER :: ASNBuiltin a -> [ElementSetSpecs a] -> UnPERMonad a
fromPER t@INTEGER cl = dInteger cl
-- FIXME: Why are we ignoring the constraints?
fromPER t@(SEQUENCE s) cl = dSequence s
\end{code}
\section{COMPLETE ENCODING}
{\em completeEncode} implements X.691 10.1. That is, it adds a single octet with all
bits set to 0 to an empty encoding and leaves a non-empty encoding unchanged.
\begin{code}
completeEncode :: PERMonad () -> PERMonad ()
completeEncode m
= {- X691REF: 10.1 -}
let bs = extractValue m
in case bs of
{- X691REF: 10.1.3 with empty bit string -}
(Right (f,s)) -> if BL.null $ BB.toLazyByteString s
then tell $ BB.fromBits 8 (0x00::Int)
else m
{- X691REF: 10.1.3 with non-empty bit string -}
x -> m
\end{code}
\section{ENCODING AN OPEN TYPE FIELD}
{\em encodeOpen} encodes an open type value. It uses the function {\em extractValue} which L.takes a {\em
PERMonad ()} value and returns either
\begin{itemize}
\item
an error value; or
\item
a pair whose second element is the encoding value.
\end{itemize}
It also uses the function {\em encodeCase} which takes the extracted value and a function
which acts on the bitstream included in it. If the extracted value indicates an error then the
error is simply passed on. Othwerwise, the function is applied to the bitstream.
\begin{code}
encodeOpen :: ASNType a -> a -> PERMonad ()
encodeOpen t v
{- X691REF: 10.2.1 -} = let x = extractValue (completeEncode $ encode t [] v)
{- X691REF: 10.2.2 -} in encodeCase x encodeOctetsWithLength
getByteString (Right (a,b)) = BB.toLazyByteString b
getByteString x = error "Oops!"
extractValue :: PERMonad () -> Either ASNError ((), BB.BitBuilder)
extractValue = runIdentity . runErrorT . runWriterT
encodeCase :: Either ASNError ((), BB.BitBuilder) -> (BL.ByteString -> PERMonad ()) -> PERMonad ()
encodeCase (Left s) _ = throwError s
encodeCase x f = (f . getByteString) x
\end{code}
\section{ENCODING A LENGTH DETERMINANT}
Several PER encodings require the encoding of a length determinant. If the item to be encoded
is very large or, in the case of integer encoding, the number of bits produced by the encoding
is very large, then some fragmenting may be required in which L.length and value encodings are
interleaved.
{\em encodeWithLength} is a higher order function which takes a constraint, an encoding function
and a list of values (could be bits, octets or any ASN.1 type). The approach to encoding depends on whether
the constraint imposes an upper bound which is less than 64K. If it does then no interleaving is required and
the value is encoded with a L.length prefix if the upper bound differs from the lower bound, and
with no L.length encoding otherwise.
If the upper bound is at least 64K then {\em encodeUnconstrainedL.length} is called. The items are grouped
first in 16k batches, and then in batches of 4. The input encoding function is then supplied as
an input to the function {\em encodeUnconstrainedL.length} which manages the interleaving of
L.length and value encodings -- it encodes the L.length and values of
each batch and concatenates their resulting bitstreams together.
Note the values are encoded using the input function.
Note that {\em encodeWithL.length} is not used to encode {\bf normally small L.length}
determinants (see X691: 10.9.3.4} which are only used with the bitmap that prefixes the
extension addition values of a set or sequence type.
\begin{code}
encodeWithLength :: IntegerConstraint -> (t -> PERMonad ()) -> [t] -> PERMonad ()
encodeWithLength ic fun ls
= if constrained ic && ub < k64
then {- X691REF: 10.9.4.1 -}
if lb == ub
then
do tell BB.empty
mapM_ fun ls
else
do toNonNegBinaryInteger (fromInteger (L.genericLength ls) - lb) (ub - lb)
mapM_ fun ls
else {- X691REF: 10.9.4.2 -}
encodeUnconstrainedLength fun ls
where
lb = lower ic
ub = upper ic
k64 :: InfInteger
k64 = 64 * 2^10
\end{code}
{\em encodeUnconstrainedLength} is a higher order function which encodes a value with an
unconstrained length i.e. it either has no upper bound on the size of the value,
or the upper bound is at least 64k. The inputs are the value encoding
function and the list of values to be encoded. If the L.length of the input value is less than
16K then the L.length is encoded followed by the value. Otherwise the auxiliary function {\em
encodeUnconstrainedLengthAux} is called. This function manages the fragmenting of the input
value into blocks of at most four 16K blocks. These are each encoded -- their block L.length
followed by the encoding of the block of values -- and if the block contains four 16k
blocks the process is repeated with the next block of 16K values.
{\em lengthLessThan16K} encodes the length of a list of less than 16K values and {\em blockLen}
encodes the L.length of a block (1 to 4).
\begin{code}
encodeUnconstrainedLength :: (b -> PERMonad ()) -> [b] -> PERMonad ()
encodeUnconstrainedLength encFun []
= lengthLessThan16K 0 {- FIXME: Is this only the case when there is at least 16k values? 10.9.3.8.3
See definition of encodeUnconstrainedLengthAux -}
encodeUnconstrainedLength encFun xs
| l < k16
{- X691REF: 10.9.3.6 AND 10.9.3.7 -}
= do lengthLessThan16K l
mapM_ encFun xs
| otherwise
{- X691REF: 10.9.3.8 -}
= encodeUnconstrainedLengthAux encFun xs
where l = L.genericLength xs
encodeUnconstrainedLengthAux :: (b -> PERMonad ()) -> [b] -> PERMonad ()
encodeUnconstrainedLengthAux encFun [] = throwError (OtherError "Nothing to encode")
encodeUnconstrainedLengthAux encFun xs
| l == 4 && last16 == k16
= do blockLen 4 63
mapM_ (mapM_ encFun) x
encodeUnconstrainedLength encFun (L.drop (64*(2^10)) xs)
| otherwise
= if last16 == k16
then do blockLen l 63
mapM_ (mapM_ encFun) x
{- X691REF: Note associated with 10.9.3.8.3 -}
lengthLessThan16K 0
else do blockLen (l-1) 63
mapM_ (mapM_ encFun) (init x)
lengthLessThan16K ((L.genericLength.last) x)
mapM_ encFun (last x)
where
(x:_) = (groupBy 4 . groupBy (16*(2^10))) $ xs
l = L.genericLength x
last16 = (L.genericLength . last) x
k16 :: InfInteger
k16 = 16*(2^10)
groupBy :: Int -> [t] -> [[t]]
groupBy n =
L.unfoldr k
where
k [] = Nothing
k p = Just (L.splitAt n p)
lengthLessThan16K :: InfInteger -> PERMonad ()
lengthLessThan16K n
| n <= 127
{- X691REF: 10.9.3.6 -}
= do zeroBit
toNonNegBinaryInteger n 127
| n < k16
{- X691REF: 10.9.3.7 -}
= do oneBit
zeroBit
toNonNegBinaryInteger n (k16 - 1)
| otherwise
= throwError (BoundsError "Length is out of range.")
blockLen :: InfInteger -> InfInteger -> PERMonad ()
blockLen x y
= do oneBit
oneBit
toNonNegBinaryInteger x y
noBit :: PERMonad ()
noBit = tell BB.empty
zeroBit :: (MonadWriter BB.BitBuilder m) => m ()
zeroBit = tell $ BB.singleton False
oneBit :: PERMonad ()
oneBit = tell $ BB.singleton True
\end{code}
\begin{code}
-- FIXME: We should write this as an unfold rather than use primitive recursion
decodeLargeLengthDeterminant :: (Integer -> t -> UnPERMonad B.ByteString) -> t -> UnPERMonad B.ByteString
decodeLargeLengthDeterminant f t =
do p <- lift BG.getBit
if (not p)
then
do j <- lift $ BG.getLeftByteString 7
let l = fromNonNegativeBinaryInteger' 7 j
f l t
else
do q <- lift BG.getBit
if (not q)
then
do k <- lift $ BG.getLeftByteString 14
let m = fromNonNegativeBinaryInteger' 14 k
f m t
else
do n <- lift $ BG.getLeftByteString 6
let fragSize = fromNonNegativeBinaryInteger' 6 n
if fragSize <= 0 || fragSize > 4
then throwError (DecodeError (fragError ++ show fragSize))
else do frag <- f (fragSize * 16 * (2^10)) t
rest <- decodeLargeLengthDeterminant f t
return (B.append frag rest)
where
fragError = "Unable to decode with fragment size of "
\end{code}
\section{ENCODING THE BOOLEAN TYPE}
\begin{code}
{- FIXME: I think this is as good as it's worth doing for now -}
{- Clearly we want to just say e.g. tell 1 -}
{- Or do we. It is meant to return a bit-field value and not just a bit -}
{- So the following whould be fine. -}
encodeBool :: [SubtypeConstraint Bool] -> Bool -> PERMonad ()
encodeBool t x = tell $ BB.singleton x
\end{code}
\section{Stuff Used All Over but Which Needs Fixing}
\todo{We normally stay in the monad and propogate any errors --- so make eitherExtensible redundant}
\begin{code}
eitherExtensible (Right v) = isExtensible v
eitherExtensible _ = False
eitherExtensible' :: MonadError ASNError m => Either String a -> m a
eitherExtensible' (Right v) = return v
eitherExtensible' (Left s) = throwError $ ConstraintError s
evaluateConstraint' :: (Lattice a, Constraint a, Eq a, MonadError ASNError m) =>
(Element InfInteger -> Bool -> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint a)) ->
Either String (ExtensibleConstraint a) ->
[SubtypeConstraint InfInteger] -> m (ExtensibleConstraint a)
evaluateConstraint' x y z = eitherExtensible' $ evaluateConstraint x y z
\end{code}
{\em toNonNegBinaryInteger} encodes an integer in the minimum
number of bits required for the range specified by the constraint
(assuming the range is at least 2). The value encoded is the offset from the lower bound of
the constraint.
\begin{code}
toNonNegBinaryInteger :: InfInteger -> InfInteger -> PERMonad ()
toNonNegBinaryInteger (Val val) (Val range) = toNonNegBinaryIntegerAux val range
where
toNonNegBinaryIntegerAux :: Integer -> Integer -> PERMonad ()
toNonNegBinaryIntegerAux _ 0 = tell BB.empty
toNonNegBinaryIntegerAux 0 w
= toNonNegBinaryIntegerAux 0 (w `div` 2) >> zeroBit
toNonNegBinaryIntegerAux n w
= toNonNegBinaryIntegerAux (n `div` 2) (w `div` 2) >> (tell . BB.fromBits 1) n
toNonNegBinaryInteger x y = throwError . OtherError $ "Cannot encode: " ++ show x ++ " in " ++ show y
\end{code}
\begin{code}
encodeNonNegBinaryIntInOctets :: InfInteger -> PERMonad ()
encodeNonNegBinaryIntInOctets (Val x) = h 8 x where
h p 0 = tell $ L.foldr BB.append BB.empty (L.replicate p (BB.singleton False))
h 0 n = h 7 (n `div` 2) >> (tell . BB.fromBits 1) n
h p n = h (p - 1) (n `div` 2) >> (tell . BB.fromBits 1) n
encodeNonNegBinaryIntInOctets y = throwError . OtherError $ "Cannot encode: " ++ show y
\end{code}
{\em encodeOctetsWithLength} encodes a collection of octets with
unconstrained length. {\em encodeBitsWithLength} does the same except
for a collection of bits.
\begin{code}
encodeOctetsWithLength :: BL.ByteString -> PERMonad ()
encodeOctetsWithLength bs
= encodeUnconstrainedLength (tell . BB.fromBits 8) $ BL.unpack bs
encodeBitsWithLength :: BitStream -> PERMonad ()
encodeBitsWithLength = encodeUnconstrainedLength (tell . BB.fromBits 1)
\end{code}
\begin{code}
minBits :: Integer -> Integer
minBits n = f n 0
where
f 0 a = a
f n a = f (n `div` 2) (a+1)
\end{code}
\todo[owner={Dan}]{Why do we have SubtypeConstraint? Isn't the right terminology ElementSetSpecs?}
\begin{code}
type ElementSetSpecs a = SubtypeConstraint a
\end{code}
\section{ENCODING THE INTEGER TYPE}
\label{intEnc}
\todo{This seems out of place}
Note that if a constraint is serially applied to an extensible constraint
then any extension additions of the extensible constraint are discarded (see X.680 Annex
G.4.2.3). That is, the extensibility and extension additions of the effective constraint are
determined only by the last constraint.
We first define some helper functions to assist with checking whether a constraint is empty
and, for \INTEGER constraints whether a value is in the range specified by the constraints.
\begin{code}
isEmptyConstraint, isNonEmptyConstraint :: (Eq t, Lattice t) => t -> Bool
isEmptyConstraint x = x == bottom
isNonEmptyConstraint x = x /= bottom
\end{code}
\begin{code}
inRangeSingle :: InfInteger -> IntegerConstraint -> Bool
inRangeSingle n c = n >= (lower c) && n <= (upper c)
inRange :: InfInteger -> ValidIntegerConstraint -> Bool
inRange n vc | Valid cs <- vc = or . map (inRangeSingle n) $ cs
\end{code}
We split the encoding of an \INTEGER\ into two cases depending on whether
there are any constraints.
\begin{code}
eInteger :: [SubtypeConstraint InfInteger] -> InfInteger -> PERMonad ()
eInteger [] v = eUnconsInteger v
eInteger cs v = eConsInteger cs v
\end{code}
We encode an unconstrained \INTEGER\ value as a 2's-complement-binary-integer
in a minimum number of octets prefixed by an explicit
length.
\begin{code}
eUnconsInteger :: InfInteger -> PERMonad ()
eUnconsInteger (Val x) = {- X691REF: 12.2.4 -}
encodeOctetsWithLength .
BP.runBitPut .
I.to2sComplementM $ x
eUnconsInteger v = throwError (BoundsError ("Cannot encode " ++ show v))
\end{code}
We split the encoding of a constrained \INTEGER into two cases depending
on whether the effective constraint is extensible.
\begin{code}
eConsInteger :: [SubtypeConstraint InfInteger] -> InfInteger -> PERMonad ()
eConsInteger cs v = do
actualCon <- evaluateConstraint' pvIntegerElements top cs
effectiveCon <- evaluateConstraint' pvIntegerElements top cs
if isExtensible effectiveCon
then {- X691REF: 12.1 -} eExtConsInteger actualCon effectiveCon v
else {- X691REF: 12.2 -} encodeNonExtConsInt actualCon effectiveCon v
\end{code}
If the constraints are empty or the value to be encoded is not valid value
of the constrained type then we throw an error otherwise we follow the encoding
rules in Clause 12.
\begin{code}
encodeNonExtConsInt :: ExtensibleConstraint ValidIntegerConstraint ->
ExtensibleConstraint IntegerConstraint ->
InfInteger ->
PERMonad ()
encodeNonExtConsInt actualCon effectiveCon n
| isEmptyConstraint effRootCon =
throwError (ConstraintError "Empty constraint")
| isNonEmptyConstraint effRootCon && inRange n validRootCon =
eRootConsInteger (constraintType effRootCon) n rootLower rootUpper
| otherwise =
throwError (BoundsError "Value out of range")
where
effRootCon = getRootConstraint effectiveCon
validRootCon = getRootConstraint actualCon
rootLower = lower effRootCon
rootUpper = upper effRootCon
eExtConsInteger :: ExtensibleConstraint ValidIntegerConstraint ->
ExtensibleConstraint IntegerConstraint ->
InfInteger ->
PERMonad ()
eExtConsInteger actualCon effectiveCon n
| isEmptyConstraint effRootCon && isEmptyConstraint effExtCon =
throwError (ConstraintError "Empty constraint")
| isNonEmptyConstraint effRootCon && inRange n validRootCon = do
zeroBit
eRootConsInteger (constraintType effRootCon) n rootLower rootUpper
| isNonEmptyConstraint effExtCon && inRange n validExtCon = do
{- X691REF: 12.1 -}
oneBit
eUnconsInteger n
| otherwise =
throwError (BoundsError "Value out of range")
where
effRootCon = getRootConstraint effectiveCon
validRootCon = getRootConstraint actualCon
effExtCon = getExtConstraint effectiveCon
validExtCon = getExtConstraint actualCon
rootLower = lower effRootCon
rootUpper = upper effRootCon
eRootConsInteger :: IntegerConstraintType ->
InfInteger ->
InfInteger ->
InfInteger ->
PERMonad ()
eRootConsInteger UnConstrained n _l _u = {- X691REF: 12.2.4 -}
eUnconsInteger n
eRootConsInteger SemiConstrained n l _u = {- X691REF: 12.2.3 -}
eSemiConsInteger n l
eRootConsInteger Constrained n l u = {- X691REF: 12.2.2 -}
toNonNegBinaryInteger (n - l) (u - l)
\end{code}
We encode a semi-constrained integer as a non-negative-binary-integer of the difference between the value and the
lower bound in the mininum number of octets prefixed by the length of the
octets.
\begin{code}
eSemiConsInteger :: InfInteger -> InfInteger -> PERMonad ()
eSemiConsInteger x@(Val _) lb@(Val _) = encodeNonNegBinaryIntInOctets $ x - lb
eSemiConsInteger x (Val _)
= throwError . BoundsError $ "Cannot encode " ++ show x ++ "."
eSemiConsInteger _ _
= throwError . ConstraintError $ "No lower bound."
\end{code}
We split the decoding of an \INTEGER\ into two cases depending on whether
there are any constraints.
\begin{code}
dInteger :: [ElementSetSpecs InfInteger] -> UnPERMonad InfInteger
dInteger [] = dConsInteger top undefined top
dInteger cs = do
effectiveCon <- evaluateConstraint' pvIntegerElements top cs
let effRoot = getRootConstraint effectiveCon
effExt = getExtConstraint effectiveCon
dConsInteger effRoot (isExtensible effectiveCon) effExt
\end{code}
To decode an unconstrained \INTEGER\ , we parameterise
{\em decodeLargeLengthDeterminant} by a function which ignores
the second parameter chunking up the bits being read into
groups of 8.
\begin{code}
dUnconInteger :: UnPERMonad Integer
dUnconInteger =
liftM from2sComplement' $ decodeLargeLengthDeterminant chunkBy8 undefined
where
chunkBy8 :: Integer -> a -> UnPERMonad B.ByteString
chunkBy8 n _ =
lift $ (flip (const (BG.getLeftByteString . fromIntegral . (*8)))) n undefined
\end{code}
\begin{code}
dConsInteger :: IntegerConstraint ->
Bool ->
IntegerConstraint ->
UnPERMonad InfInteger
dConsInteger rc isExtensible ec =
do let isRootConstraint = rc /= top
isExtensionConstraint = ec /= top
isEmptyConstraint = (not isRootConstraint) && (not isExtensionConstraint)
tc = rc `ljoin` ec
rootLower = let Val x = lower rc in x
rootRange = let (Val x) = (upper rc) - (lower rc) + (Val 1) in x
numOfRootBits = minBits rootRange
dConsIntegerAux
| isEmptyConstraint
= do {- X691REF: 12.2.4 -}
x <- dUnconInteger
return (Val x)
| isRootConstraint &&
isExtensionConstraint
= do {- X691REF: 12.1 -}
isExtension <- lift $ BG.getBit
if isExtension
then
dExtConsInteger
else
dRootConsInteger
| isRootConstraint &&
isExtensible
= do {- X691REF: 12.1 -}
isExtension <- lift $ BG.getBit
if isExtension
then
throwError (ExtensionError "Extension for constraint not supported")
else
dRootConsInteger
| isRootConstraint
= dRootConsInteger
| isExtensionConstraint
= throwError (ConstraintError "Extension constraint without a root constraint")
| otherwise
= throwError (OtherError "Unexpected error decoding INTEGER")
dExtConsInteger =
do v <- dUnconInteger
if (Val v) `inRangeSingle` tc
then
return (Val v)
else
throwError (BoundsError "Value not in extension constraint: could be invalid value or unsupported extension")
dRootConsInteger =
if rootRange <= 1
then
{- X691REF: 12.2.1 -}
return (Val rootLower)
else
do {- X691REF: 12.2.2 and 12.2.3 -}
j <- lift $ BG.getLeftByteString (fromIntegral numOfRootBits)
let v = rootLower + (fromNonNegativeBinaryInteger' numOfRootBits j)
if (Val v) `inRangeSingle` rc
then
return (Val v)
else
throwError (BoundsError "Value not in root constraint")
dConsIntegerAux
\end{code}
\section{ENCODING THE ENUMERATED TYPE}
{\em encodeEnum} L.takes the defined enumeration type, the (possibly empty) list of serially applied constraints
and the enumeration value. Since there are no
PER-visible constraints, the constraints are used only to test the validity of the input enumeration.
If the value is valid then the function {\em assignIndex} is applied to the enumeration type.
This returns a pair
whose first element indicates if an extension marker is present in the type, and whose second
element is a list of indices assigned to the enumeration values. The index assigned to each
enumeration value is determined by the enumeration number associated with each enumeration.
These are either assigned explicitly when the enumeration is defined, or implicitly by the
function {\em assignNumber}. {\tt assignIndex}, {\tt assignNumber} and their auxilliary functions
are defined in the module {\tt ASNType} with the {\tt Enumerate} type. This is because they are
used both in the encoding of an enumerate value, and in the generation of a constraint used to test
the validity of an enumeration value.
{\em encodeEnum} calls the auxiliary function {\em encodeEnumAux} which manages the various
encoding cases. Its second input is the number of enumeration root values which is required
since a root enumeration will be encoded as a constrained integer.
Note that {\em encodeEnum} does not have a constraint input since there are no PER-visible
enumerated type constraints.
\begin{code}
encodeEnum :: Enumerate -> SerialSubtypeConstraints Name -> Name -> PERMonad ()
encodeEnum e cs n
= let (extensible,inds) = assignIndex e {- X691REF: 13.1 -}
no = L.genericLength inds
(b,p) = validEnum e n 0
in
if b && (not . L.null) cs
then
let Just pos = p
i = inds !! pos
vc = evaluateConstraint (enumeratedElements e) (Right (ExtensibleConstraint top top False)) cs
in if withinConstraint i vc
then
encodeEnumAux extensible no inds e n
else
throwError (BoundsError "Invalid enumeration")
else
if b
then
encodeEnumAux extensible no inds e n
else throwError (OtherError "Invalid enumeration")
withinConstraint i (Right (ExtensibleConstraint (EnumeratedConstraint ls) _ _))
= elem i ls
withinConstraint i _
= False
\end{code}
{\em encodeEnumAux} is a recursive function which recurses through the enumeration value until
it reaches the enumeration. If no extension marker is present then the enumeration is
encoded using {\em toNonNegBinaryInteger}. If the marker is present and the enumeration is
in the extension root then it is encoded as above but prefixed by 0.
If the enumeration is not in the extension root then the encoding is passed to a second
auxiliary function {\em encodeEnumExtAux}. This is also a recursive function which encodes an
enumeration as a normally small non-negative integer using {\em encodeNSNNInt} prefixed by a
1.
\begin{code}
encodeEnumAux :: Bool -> Integer -> [Integer] -> Enumerate -> Name
-> PERMonad ()
encodeEnumAux extensible no (f:r) (AddEnumeration ei es) n
| getName ei == n
= if not extensible
then {- X691REF: 13.2 -}
toNonNegBinaryInteger (fromInteger f) (fromInteger $ no - 1)
else do {- X691REF: 13.2 -}
zeroBit
toNonNegBinaryInteger (fromInteger f) (fromInteger $ no - 1)
| otherwise
= encodeEnumAux extensible no r es n
encodeEnumAux b no inds (EnumerationExtensionMarker ex) x
= let el = noEnums ex
in encodeEnumExtAux 0 el ex x
encodeEnumAux _ _ _ _ _ = throwError (OtherError "No enumerated value!")
encodeEnumExtAux :: Integer -> Integer -> Enumerate -> Name
-> PERMonad ()
encodeEnumExtAux i l (AddEnumeration ei es) n
| getName ei == n
= do {- X691REF: 13.3 -}
oneBit
encodeNSNNInt i 0
| otherwise
= encodeEnumExtAux (i+1) l es n
encodeEnumExtAux i l _ _ = throwError (OtherError "No enumerated extension value!")
\end{code}
{\em encodeNSNNInt} encodes a normally small non-negative integer.
\begin{code}
encodeNSNNInt :: Integer -> Integer -> PERMonad ()
encodeNSNNInt n lb
= if n <= 63
then do {- X691REF: 10.6.1 -}
zeroBit
toNonNegBinaryInteger (fromInteger n) (fromInteger 63)
else do {- X691REF: 10.6.2 -}
oneBit
eSemiConsInteger (fromInteger n) (fromInteger lb)
\end{code}
\section{ENCODING THE REAL TYPE} {- FIXME: To do? -}
\section{ENCODING THE BIT STRING TYPE}
{\em encodeBitstring} L.takes the usual two inputs -- the list of serially applied constraints
and the value to be encoded -- and an additional input, the named bits of type {\em
NamedBits}. If the constraint list is empty the function {\em encodeUnconstrainedBitstring} is
called. Otherwise, {\em encodeBitstringWithConstraint} is called. Note that there are two ways
in which a BITSTRING type may have no PER-visible constraints. The first is when there are no
constraints associated with the type. The second is when all of the serially applied
constraints are non-PER visible. This is determined when generating the effective constraint
for a type using the function {\em lSerialeffectiveCon} defined in the module {\em
ConstraintGeneration}.
\begin{code}
encodeBitstring :: NamedBits -> [SubtypeConstraint BitString] -> BitString -> PERMonad ()
encodeBitstring nbs [] x
= {- X691REF: 15.2 -}
encodeUnconstrainedBitstring nbs x
encodeBitstring nbs cs x
= {- X691REF: 15.3 -}
encodeBitstringWithConstraint nbs cs x
\end{code}
{\em encodeUnconstrainedBitstring} encodes the bitstring with a L.length determinant using {\em
encodeBitsWithL.length}. If there are any named bits then trailing 0 bits are removed in advance
of encoding.
\begin{code}
encodeUnconstrainedBitstring :: NamedBits -> BitString -> PERMonad ()
encodeUnconstrainedBitstring namedBits (BitString [])
= return () -- tell []
encodeUnconstrainedBitstring namedBits (BitString bs)
= let rem0 = if (not.L.null) namedBits
then {- X691REF: 15.2 -}
strip0s bs
else bs
in {- X691REF: 15.11 with ub unset -}
encodeBitsWithLength rem0
strip0s :: BitStream -> BitStream
strip0s [] = []
strip0s bs
= if last bs == 0
then strip0s (init bs)
else bs
\end{code}
{\em encodeBitstringWithConstraint} calls {\em encodeNonExtConsBitstring} if the constraint is not
extensible. If it is extensible then {\em encodeExtConsBitstring} is called. They both L.take the
effective constraint and actual constraint associated with the type as input.
\begin{code}
encodeBitstringWithConstraint :: NamedBits -> [SubtypeConstraint BitString] -> BitString
-> PERMonad ()
encodeBitstringWithConstraint namedBits cs v
= if (not extensible)
then {- X691REF: 15.7 -}
encodeNonExtConsBitstring namedBits actualCon effectiveCon v
else {- X691REF: 15.6 -}
encodeExtConsBitstring namedBits actualCon effectiveCon v
where
effectiveCon :: Either String (ExtensibleConstraint IntegerConstraint)
effectiveCon = evaluateConstraint pvBitStringElements top cs
actualCon :: Either String (ExtensibleConstraint ValidIntegerConstraint)
actualCon = evaluateConstraint pvBitStringElements top cs
extensible = eitherExtensible effectiveCon
\end{code}
{\em encodeNonExtConsBitstring} has to deal with three cases.
\begin{itemize}
\item
There are no PER-visible constraints. The function {\em encodeUnconstrainedBitstring} is
called.
\item
The constraint is empty and thus no values can be encoded. Note that this means that there is a
PER-visible size constraint that has no values. An appropriate error is thrown.
\item
There is a PER-visible constraint. The function {\em encodeConstrainedBitstring} is called.
\end{itemize}
\begin{code}
encodeNonExtConsBitstring :: NamedBits -> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint ValidIntegerConstraint)
-> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint IntegerConstraint)
-> BitString
-> PERMonad ()
encodeNonExtConsBitstring nbs _ (Right (ExtensibleConstraint (IntegerConstraint NegInf PosInf) _ _))
(BitString vs)
= {- X691REF: 15.11 with ub unset -}
encodeUnconstrainedBitstring nbs (BitString vs)
encodeNonExtConsBitstring nbs (Right ok) (Right vsc) (BitString vs)
| isEmptyConstraint rc
= throwError (ConstraintError "Empty constraint")
| otherwise
= {- X691REF: 15.8 - 15.11 -}
encodeConstrainedBitstring [] nbs l u vrc vs
where
rc = getRootConstraint vsc
l = lower rc
u = upper rc
vrc = getRootConstraint ok
\end{code}
{\em encodeExtConsBitstring} has to deal with three cases.
\begin{itemize}
\item
There are no PER-visible constraints. The function {\em encodeUnconstrainedBitstring} is
called.
\item
The constraint is empty and thus no values can be encoded. Note that this means that there is a
PER-visible size constraint that has no values. An appropriate error is thrown.
\item
There is a PER-visible constraint. The function {\em encodeConstrainedBitstring} is called with the prefix bit
set to 0. If this results in an error (the value cannot satisfy the constraint root) then {\em
encodeNonExtRootBitstring} is called. The Haskell library function {\em catchError}
manages the error/non-error cases.
\end{itemize}
\begin{code}
encodeExtConsBitstring :: NamedBits -> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint ValidIntegerConstraint)
-> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint IntegerConstraint)
-> BitString
-> PERMonad()
encodeExtConsBitstring nbs _
(Right (ExtensibleConstraint (IntegerConstraint NegInf PosInf)
(IntegerConstraint NegInf PosInf) _)) (BitString vs)
= {- X691REF: 15.11 with ub unset -}
encodeUnconstrainedBitstring nbs (BitString vs)
encodeExtConsBitstring nbs (Right ok) (Right vsc) (BitString vs)
| isEmptyConstraint rc
= throwError (ConstraintError "Empty constraint")
| otherwise
= do
catchError ({- X691REF: 15.6 within root -}
encodeConstrainedBitstring [0] nbs l u vrc vs)
(\err -> do {- X691REF: 15.6 not in root -}
encodeNonExtRootBitstring nbs rc ec vec vs)
where
rc = getRootConstraint vsc
l = lower rc
u = upper rc
ec = getExtConstraint vsc
vrc = getRootConstraint ok
vec = getExtConstraint ok
\end{code}
{\em encodeConstrainedBitstring} L.takes a prefix bit as the first
input and has two list-pattern based cases. The first case has an empty list
as its second argument indicating that there are no named bits. The second case uses the
pattern {\em (b:rs)} to indicate that there is at least one named bit.
Note that X.691 15.8 states that if a bitstring is constrained to be of zero L.length then
it shall not be encoded. It is not clear whether this means that a bitstring with no L.length is
not encoded, or if any bitstring associated with a bitstring type with a zero-L.length
constraint is not encoded. We have implemented it using the former case. That is, the
bitstring must satisfy the constraint (up to the removal of trailing 0 bits as described in
X.691 15.3).
\begin{code}
type PrefixBit = BitStream
encodeConstrainedBitstring :: PrefixBit -> NamedBits -> InfInteger -> InfInteger
-> ValidIntegerConstraint -> BitStream -> PERMonad ()
encodeConstrainedBitstring pb bs l u (Valid vrc) xs
| L.null bs && not (inSizeRange xs vrc)
= throwError (BoundsError "Size out of range")
| (not . L.null) bs && lxs > u && (L.take (fromInteger n) . L.reverse) xs /= L.take (fromInteger n) zeros
= throwError (OtherError "Last value is not 0")
| L.null bs && inSizeRange xs vrc
= encodeConBS pb l u xs
| otherwise
{- X691REF: 15.3 -}
= let nxs = namedBitsEdit l u xs
in
encodeConBS pb l u nxs
where
lxs = L.genericLength xs
Val n = (lxs - u)
\end{code}
{\em inSizeRange} is a predicate that tests whether a value satisfies a size constraint. The
L.length of the value is tested against the actual constraint -- possibly a non-contiguous set
of values -- and not against the effective constraint.
{\em namedBitsEdit} applies the necessary pruning of or appending of 0s to a bitstring to
produce a minimal size value that satisfies the constraint associated with the type. This is
only applied when the BIT STRING type has associated named bits.
\begin{code}
inSizeRange :: [b] -> [IntegerConstraint] -> Bool
inSizeRange _ [] = False
inSizeRange p qs = inSizeRangeAux qs
where
l = L.genericLength p
inSizeRangeAux (x:rs) =
l >= (lower x) && l <= (upper x) || inSizeRangeAux rs
inSizeRangeAux [] = False
namedBitsEdit :: InfInteger -> InfInteger -> BitStream -> BitStream
namedBitsEdit l u xs
= let lxs = L.genericLength xs
in if lxs < l
then add0s (l-lxs) xs
else
if lxs > u
then rem0s (lxs-u) l xs
else rem0s' l xs
add0s :: InfInteger -> BitStream -> BitStream
add0s (Val n) xs = xs ++ L.take (fromInteger n) zeros
zeros :: BitStream
zeros = [0,0..]
putBitstream (a:xs)
= (tell . BB.fromBits 1) a >> putBitstream xs
putBitstream []
= noBit
\end{code}
\todo{Should we use higher order functions here rather
than recursion?}
\begin{code}
rem0s :: InfInteger -> InfInteger -> BitStream -> BitStream
rem0s (Val 0) l xs = rem0s' l xs
rem0s (Val n) l xs = rem0s (Val (n - 1)) l (init xs)
rem0s' :: InfInteger -> BitStream -> BitStream
rem0s' l xs
= if L.genericLength xs > l && last xs == 0
then rem0s' l (init xs)
else xs
\end{code}
{\em encodeConBS} applies one of X.691 15.8-15.11.
Note that in the last case of {\em encodeConBS} the lower bound of the constraint is ignored.
This is because the lower bound does not affect these L.length encodings (X.691 10.9.3.5 Note).
\begin{code}
encodeConBS :: PrefixBit -> InfInteger -> InfInteger -> BitStream -> PERMonad ()
encodeConBS pb l u xs
= if u == 0
then {- X691REF: 15.8 -}
do putBitstream pb
noBit
else if u == l && u <= 65536
then {- X691REF: 15.9 and 15.10 -}
do
putBitstream pb
putBitstream xs
else if u <= 65536
then {- X691REF: 15.11 (ub set) -}
do putBitstream pb
toNonNegBinaryInteger ((fromInteger . L.genericLength $ xs) - l) (u - l)
putBitstream xs
else {- X691REF: 15.11 (ub unset) -}
do
putBitstream pb
encodeBitsWithLength xs
\end{code}
{\em encodeNonExtRootBitstring} is similar to {\em encodeExtRootBitstring} but needs the
extension constraint and encodes the L.length of the bitstring as a semi-constrained whole
number with the lower bound set to zero as specified by X.691 15.11 and the note associated with
X.691 10.9.3.5.
Note that when pre-processing the bitstring in the named bits case, the upper and lower bound
of the constraint is generated from the union of the root and non-root constraint using our
{\em Lattice} class function {\em ljoin}. The {\em Lattice class}, related classes and class
instantiations are defined in the module {\em LatticeMod}.
\begin{code}
encodeNonExtRootBitstring :: NamedBits -> IntegerConstraint
-> IntegerConstraint -> ValidIntegerConstraint -> BitStream -> PERMonad ()
encodeNonExtRootBitstring [] rc ec (Valid erc) xs
| inSizeRange xs erc
= do oneBit
encodeBitsWithLength xs
| otherwise = throwError (BoundsError "Size out of range")
encodeNonExtRootBitstring nbs rc ec (Valid erc) xs
= let nc = rc `ljoin` ec
l = lower nc
u = upper nc
in do
oneBit
encodeBitsWithLength (namedBitsEdit l u xs)
\end{code}
\section{ENCODING THE OCTETSTRING TYPE}
{\em encodeOctetstring} L.takes the usual two inputs -- the list of serially applied constraints
and the value to be encoded. If the constraint list is empty the function
{\em encodeUnconstrainedOctetstring} is
called. Otherwise, {\em encodeOctetstringWithConstraint} is called. Note that there are two ways
in which a OCTETSTRING type may have no PER-visible constraints. The first is when there are no
constraints associated with the type. The second is when all of the serially applied
constraints are non-PER visible since a non-PER visible complete constraint is ignored.
This is determined when generating the effective constraint
for a type using the function {\em lSerialeffectiveCon} defined in the module {\em ConstraintGeneration}.
\begin{code}
encodeOctetstring :: [SubtypeConstraint OctetString] -> OctetString -> PERMonad ()
encodeOctetstring [] x
= {- X691REF: 16.8 with ub unset -}
encodeUnconstrainedOctetstring x
encodeOctetstring cs x
= {- X691REF: 16.3 -}
encodeOctetstringWithConstraint cs x
\end{code}
{\em encodeUnconstrainedOctetstring} encodes an unconstrained octetstring, It uses {\em
encodeUnconstrainedL.length} -- which manages the interleaving of L.length encoding with value
encoding for values with an unconstrained L.length - whose first input {\em encodeOctet}
converts a {\em Word8} representation of an octet to a list of bits representation.
\begin{code}
encodeUnconstrainedOctetstring :: OctetString -> PERMonad ()
encodeUnconstrainedOctetstring (OctetString xs)
= encodeUnconstrainedLength encodeOctet xs
encodeOctet :: Octet -> PERMonad ()
encodeOctet x = toNonNegBinaryInteger (fromIntegral x) 255
\end{code}
If the constraint is not extensible then {\em encodeNonExtConsOctetstring} is called. If it is
extensible then {\em encodeExtConsOctetstring} is called. They both L.take the effective
constraint and actual constraint associated with the type as input.
\begin{code}
encodeOctetstringWithConstraint :: [SubtypeConstraint OctetString] -> OctetString -> PERMonad ()
encodeOctetstringWithConstraint cs v
= if (not extensible)
then {- X691REF: 16.4 -}
encodeNonExtConsOctetstring actualCon effectiveCon v
else {- X691REF: 16.3 -}
encodeExtConsOctetstring actualCon effectiveCon v
where
effectiveCon :: Either String (ExtensibleConstraint IntegerConstraint)
effectiveCon = evaluateConstraint pvOctetStringElements top cs
actualCon :: Either String (ExtensibleConstraint ValidIntegerConstraint)
actualCon = evaluateConstraint pvOctetStringElements top cs
extensible = eitherExtensible effectiveCon
\end{code}
{\em encodeNonExtConsOctetstring} has to deal with three cases.
\begin{itemize}
\item
There are no PER-visible constraints. The function {\em encodeUnconstrainedBitstring} is
called.
\item
The constraint is empty and thus no values can be encoded. Note that this means that there is a
PER-visible size constraint that has no values. An appropriate error is thrown.
\item
There is a PER-visible constraint. The function {\em encodeConstrainedOctetstring} is called.
\end{itemize}
\begin{code}
encodeNonExtConsOctetstring :: Either String (ExtensibleConstraint ValidIntegerConstraint)
-> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint IntegerConstraint)
-> OctetString
-> PERMonad ()
encodeNonExtConsOctetstring _ (Right (ExtensibleConstraint (IntegerConstraint NegInf PosInf) _ _))
(OctetString vs)
= {- X691REF: 16.8 with ub unset -}
encodeUnconstrainedOctetstring (OctetString vs)
encodeNonExtConsOctetstring (Right ok) (Right vsc) (OctetString vs)
| isEmptyConstraint rc
= throwError (ConstraintError "Empty constraint")
| otherwise
= {- X691REF: 16.5 - 16.8 -}
encodeConstrainedOctetstring [] l u vrc vs
where
rc = getRootConstraint vsc
l = lower rc
u = upper rc
vrc = getRootConstraint ok
\end{code}
{\em encodeExtConsOctetstring} has to deal with three cases.
\begin{itemize}
\item
There are no PER-visible constraints. The function {\em encodeUnconstrainedOctetstring} is
called.
\item
The constraint is empty and thus no values can be encoded. Note that this means that there is a
PER-visible size constraint that has no values. An appropriate error is thrown.
\item
There is a PER-visible constraint. The function {\em encodeConstrainedOctetstring} is called with the
prefix bit set to 0.
If this results in an error (the value cannot satisfy the constraint root) then {\em
encodeExtConstrainedOctetstring} is called and the prefix bit is set to 1. The function Haskell library function {\em catchError}
manages the error/non-error cases.
\end{itemize}
\begin{code}
encodeExtConsOctetstring :: Either String (ExtensibleConstraint ValidIntegerConstraint)
-> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint IntegerConstraint)
-> OctetString
-> PERMonad()
encodeExtConsOctetstring _
(Right (ExtensibleConstraint (IntegerConstraint NegInf PosInf)
(IntegerConstraint NegInf PosInf) _)) vs
= {- X691REF: 16.8 with ub unset -}
encodeUnconstrainedOctetstring vs
encodeExtConsOctetstring (Right ok) (Right vsc) (OctetString vs)
| isEmptyConstraint rc
= throwError (ConstraintError "Empty constraint")
| otherwise
= do
catchError (do {- X691REF: 16.3 within root -}
encodeConstrainedOctetstring [0] l u vrc vs)
(\err -> do {- X691REF: 16.3 not in root -}
encodeNonExtRootConOctetstring rc ec vec vs)
where
rc = getRootConstraint vsc
l = lower rc
u = upper rc
ec = getExtConstraint vsc
vrc = getRootConstraint ok
vec = getExtConstraint ok
\end{code}
{\em encodeConstrainedOctetstring} first checks if the value satisfies the constraint.
Note that X.691 16.5 states that if an octetstring is constrained to be of zero L.length then
it shall not be encoded. It is not clear whether this means that an octetstring with no L.length is
not encoded, or if any octetstring associated with a bitstring type with a zero-L.length
constraint is not encoded. We have implemented it using the former case. That is, the
octetstring must satisfy the constraint.
Note that with UNALIGNED PER if the upper bound of a constraint is greater or equal to 64K
then the encoding of the L.length determinant is the same as it would be for an unconstrained
L.length (X691: 10.9.4.2 Note). {\em encodeOctetsWithL.length} which encodes octets with an unconstrained L.length
is used for this case.
\begin{code}
encodeConstrainedOctetstring :: PrefixBit -> InfInteger -> InfInteger -> ValidIntegerConstraint ->
OctetStream -> PERMonad ()
encodeConstrainedOctetstring pb l u (Valid vrc) xs
| inSizeRange xs vrc
= let exs = encodeOctets xs
in
if u == 0
then {- X691REF: 16.5 -}
return ()
else if u == l && u <= 65536
then {- X691REF: 16.6 and 16.7 -}
exs
else if u <= 65536
then {- X691REF: 16.8 (ub set) -}
let ev = extractValue $ exs
in do encodeEitherOctet ev l u
exs
else {- X691REF: 16.8 (ub unset) -}
let ev = extractValue $ exs
in
encodeCase ev encodeOctetsWithLength
| otherwise = throwError (BoundsError "Size out of range")
encodeEitherOctet (Left s) l u = throwError s
encodeEitherOctet (Right ((),bs)) l u
= toNonNegBinaryInteger ((fromInteger . toInteger . BL.length . BB.toLazyByteString $ bs) - l) (u - l)
encodeOctets :: OctetStream -> PERMonad ()
encodeOctets (x:xs)
= mapM_ encodeOctet (x:xs)
encodeOctets [] = return ()
encodeNonExtRootConOctetstring :: IntegerConstraint -> IntegerConstraint
-> ValidIntegerConstraint -> OctetStream -> PERMonad ()
encodeNonExtRootConOctetstring rc ec (Valid erc) xs
| inSizeRange xs erc
= let ev = extractValue $ encodeOctets xs
in do oneBit
encodeCase ev encodeOctetsWithLength
| otherwise = throwError (BoundsError "Size out of range")
\end{code}
\section{ENCODING THE SEQUENCE TYPE}
{\em eSequence} has only two inputs - the type and value - since a sequence has no PER-visible
constraints. It calls an auxiliary function {\em eSequenceAux} which requires two
further inputs which indicate the extensibility of the type and existence of extension
additions (represented as a pair of boolean values), and hosts the bits which indicate the presence or
otherwise of optional or default values. {\em eSequenceAux} is a recursive function that recurses over
the structure of a sequence and returns a value of type {\em PERMonad (OptDefBits, BitStream -> BitStream)}.
This is a monadic value that outputs (the encoding) bits and returns a
pair of values -- the optional or default value indicator bits and a function which adds the appropriate
prefix to the output that indicates whether the encoded value is extensible and has any extension additions,
and the optional/default indicator bits.
{\em eSequenceAux} has several cases to deal with that match the various components of a sequence
-- mandatory, optional, default, extension marker and so on -- and
returns a pair whose second component is the function
{\em completeSequenceBits} which adds a prefix to the output bits including the extension bit if
required and the bits which describe the presence or otherwise of optional or default values.
Each root component is encoded as required using {\em encode}.
Note that the extension indicator is initally set to {\em (False, False)}. The first element is converted
to {\em True} when an extension marker is reached and {\em eSequenceAuxExt} is called.
It returns a value of type
{\em PERMonad ((ExtAndUsed, ExtBits, OptDefBits, PERMonad (OptDefBits, BitStream -> BitStream)))}.
That is, it is a monadic value that writes (the encoding) bitstream and returns 4 values in a 4-tuple.
These are:
\begin{itemize}
\item
an updated extension indicator reflecting whether any extension additions exist in the value;
\item
a bitstream representing the existence or otherwise of extension additions;
\item
a bitstream representing the existence or otherwise of optional or default components; and
\item
a monadic value which is the result of applying {\em eSequenceAux} to the remainder of the sequence once
the extension additions have been terminated. This is indicated by another extension marker or simply by the
end of the sequence.
\end{itemize}
Since we need to output root value encodings before extension addition encodings, we need
to run the returned {\em eSequenceAux} monad in advance of outputing the extension addition
encoding bits. This is achieved by using the {\em MonadWriter} function {\em censor} which applies
a function to the output of a monad in advance of outputting. Here we apply the Haskell built-in
function {\tt const} which simply returns its first argument -- in this case the empty list {\em []}.
Now since this function is applied lazily the monad can run without producing output but returning the
monad that we
require. We then run the returned monad and then run the extension addition monad again but this time
apply a function to add the required preamble to the extension addition encoding bits using the
function {\em addExtensionAdditionPreamble}.
Note also that the encoding of a {\em COMPONENTS OF} item is managed by
{\em eSequenceAuxCO}. This monadic function outputs the encoding bits and returns the
optional/default bits to be used in the generation of the encoding preamble.
\begin{code}
-- FIXME: We should make these newtypes
type OptDefBits = BitStream
type ExtBits = BitStream
-- FIXME: This should really be empty in a separate module and then we can import it as
-- FIXME: e.g. BS.empty
emptyBitStream :: BitStream
emptyBitStream = []
-- FIXME: Ditto
emptySubTypeConstraints :: SerialSubtypeConstraints a
emptySubTypeConstraints = []
data Ext = Ext | NotExt deriving Eq
data Used = Used | NotUsed deriving Eq
type ExtAndUsed = (Ext, Used)
eSequence :: Sequence a -> a -> PERMonad ()
eSequence s v
= do _odbs <- pass $ eSequenceAux NotExt NotUsed emptyBitStream s v
return ()
-- FIXME: Eugh pattern match failure here
selectOutput (Right (a,b)) = b
selectOutput (Left s) = error $ show s
\end{code}
\todo[owner={Dan}]{It seems strange to have {\em NotExt} and {\em ExtensionMarker} to encode 18.8.}
\begin{code}
eSequenceAux :: Ext ->
Used ->
OptDefBits ->
Sequence a ->
a ->
PERMonad (OptDefBits, BB.BitBuilder -> BB.BitBuilder)
eSequenceAux ext used optDef EmptySequence Empty
= return (optDef, completeSequenceBits (ext, used) optDef)
eSequenceAux NotExt _ optDefBits (ExtensionMarker as) xs
= do rec (b, eb, _, pm) <- censor (BB.append extRoot . BB.append extAddPreamble) $
eSequenceAuxExt (Ext, NotUsed) optDefBits emptyBitStream as xs
{- X691REF: 18.8 -}
((), extAddPreamble) <- censor (const BB.empty) $ listen $ addExtensionAdditionPreamble eb
{- X691REF: 18.2 -}
((od2, _), extRoot) <- pass ((,) <$> (listen pm) <*> (pure $ const BB.empty))
eSequenceAux (fst b) (snd b) od2 EmptySequence Empty
eSequenceAux Ext used optDefBits (ExtensionMarker as) xs
= eSequenceAux Ext used optDefBits as xs
eSequenceAux e u od (AddComponent (ComponentsOf (BuiltinType (SEQUENCE s))) as) (x:*:xs)
= do od2 <- eSequenceAuxCO [] s x
-- FIXME: A list looks like the wrong type for putting things at the end
eSequenceAux e u (od ++ od2) as xs
eSequenceAux e u od (AddComponent (ComponentsOf (ReferencedType n t)) as) (x:*:xs)
= eSequenceAux e u od (AddComponent (ComponentsOf t) as) (x:*:xs)
eSequenceAux e u od (AddComponent (ComponentsOf (ConstrainedType t c)) as) (x:*:xs)
= eSequenceAux e u od (AddComponent (ComponentsOf t) as) (x:*:xs)
eSequenceAux e u od (AddComponent (MandatoryComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (x:*:xs)
= do encode a emptySubTypeConstraints x
eSequenceAux e u od as xs
eSequenceAux e u od (AddComponent (ExtensionComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Nothing:*:xs)
= eSequenceAux e u od as xs
eSequenceAux b1 b2 od (AddComponent (ExtensionComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Just x:*:xs)
= eSequenceAux b1 Used od as xs
eSequenceAux e u od (AddComponent (OptionalComponent (NamedType _ a)) as) (Nothing:*:xs)
= {- X691REF: 18.2 with optional component not present -}
eSequenceAux e u (od ++ [0]) as xs
eSequenceAux e u od (AddComponent (OptionalComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Just x:*:xs)
= do {- X691REF: 18.2 with optional component present -}
encode a emptySubTypeConstraints x
eSequenceAux e u (od ++ [1]) as xs
eSequenceAux e u od (AddComponent (DefaultComponent (NamedType t a) d) as) (Nothing:*:xs)
= {- X691REF: 18.2 with default value -}
{- X691REF: 18.5 with default value (CANONICAL-PER) -}
eSequenceAux e u (od ++ [0]) as xs
eSequenceAux e u od (AddComponent (DefaultComponent (NamedType t a) d) as) (Just x:*:xs)
= do {- X691REF: 18.2 with non-default value -}
encode a emptySubTypeConstraints x
eSequenceAux e u (od ++ [1]) as xs
eSequenceAux extension _ optDef (ExtensionAdditionGroup _ _ as) (x:*:xs)
= eSequenceAux extension Used optDef as xs
\end{code}
completeSequenceBits changed so that the collection of optional/default
bits are implemented using Data.Seq.
\begin{code}
completeSequenceBits :: ExtAndUsed -> BitStream -> BB.BitBuilder -> BB.BitBuilder
completeSequenceBits (extensible, extensionAdditionPresent) odb bs
| extensible == NotExt
= BB.append (fragment odb) bs
| extensionAdditionPresent == Used
{- X691REF: 18.1 with extension additions present -}
{- X691REF: 18.2 -}
= BB.append (BB.singleton True) $ BB.append (fragment odb) bs
| otherwise
{- X691REF: 18.1 with no extenion additions present -}
{- X691REF: 18.2 -}
= BB.append (BB.singleton False) $ BB.append (fragment odb) bs
where
{- X691REF: 18.3 -}
fragment ls
| L.length ls < 64 * 2^10
= toBitBuilder ls
| otherwise
= let Right ((),b) = extractValue $ encodeUnconstrainedLength (tell . BB.fromBits 1) ls
in
b
toBitBuilder (f:r) = BB.append (BB.fromBits 1 f) (toBitBuilder r)
toBitBuilder [] = BB.empty
\end{code}
\begin{code}
eSequenceAuxExt :: ExtAndUsed ->
OptDefBits ->
ExtBits ->
Sequence a ->
a ->
PERMonad ((ExtAndUsed, ExtBits, OptDefBits, PERMonad (OptDefBits, BB.BitBuilder -> BB.BitBuilder)))
eSequenceAuxExt b odb eb (AddComponent (ExtensionComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Nothing:*:xs)
= {- X691REF: 18.7 with extension addition absent -}
eSequenceAuxExt b odb (eb ++ [0]) as xs
eSequenceAuxExt (b1,b2) odb eb (AddComponent (ExtensionComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Just x:*:xs)
= do {- X691REF: 18.7 with extension addition present -}
{- X691REF: 18.9 with ComponentType extension -}
encodeOpen a x
eSequenceAuxExt (b1,Used) odb (eb ++ [1]) as xs
eSequenceAuxExt b odb eb (AddComponent (OptionalComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Nothing:*:xs)
= {- X691REF: 18.7 with extension addition absent -}
eSequenceAuxExt b odb (eb ++ [0]) as xs
eSequenceAuxExt (b1,b2) odb eb (AddComponent (OptionalComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Just x:*:xs)
= do {- X691REF: 18.7 with extension addition present -}
{- X691REF: 18.9 with ComponentType extension -}
encodeOpen a x
eSequenceAuxExt (b1,Used) odb (eb ++ [1]) as xs
eSequenceAuxExt b odb eb (ExtensionAdditionGroup _ a as) (Nothing:*:xs)
= {- X691REF: 18.7 with extension addition absent -}
eSequenceAuxExt b odb (eb ++ [0]) as xs
eSequenceAuxExt (b1,b2) odb eb (ExtensionAdditionGroup _ a as) (Just x:*:xs)
= do {- X691REF: 18.7 with extension addition present -}
{- X691REF: 18.9 with ExtensionAdditionGroup extension -}
encodeOpen (BuiltinType (SEQUENCE (makeSequence a))) x
eSequenceAuxExt (b1, Used) odb (eb ++ [1]) as xs
eSequenceAuxExt b odb eb (ExtensionMarker as) xs
= return (b, eb, odb, eSequenceAux (fst b) (snd b) odb as xs)
eSequenceAuxExt b odb eb EmptySequence Empty
= return (b, eb, odb, eSequenceAux (fst b) (snd b) odb EmptySequence Empty)
eSequenceAuxExt b odb eb _ _
= throwError (OtherError "Inappropriate component!")
\end{code}
If the extension bit list is empty then there is no extension addition preamble (X691 section 18.6).
\begin{code}
addExtensionAdditionPreamble :: OptDefBits -> PERMonad ()
addExtensionAdditionPreamble []
= do noBit
addExtensionAdditionPreamble ap
= let la = genericLength ap
in if la <= 64
then do {- X691REF: 10.9.3.4 when n <= 64-}
zeroBit
toNonNegBinaryInteger (la - 1) 63
tell (toBitBuilder ap)
else do {- X691REF: 10.9.3.4 when n > 64-}
oneBit
encodeNonNegBinaryIntInOctets la
tell (toBitBuilder ap)
\end{code}
When encoding a ComponentsOf component, we simply extract and encode the root components of
the type.
\begin{code}
eSequenceAuxCO :: OptDefBits -> Sequence a -> a -> PERMonad OptDefBits
eSequenceAuxCO odb EmptySequence _
= return odb
eSequenceAuxCO odb (ExtensionMarker as) xs
= eSequenceAuxCO odb as xs
eSequenceAuxCO odb (AddComponent (ComponentsOf (BuiltinType (SEQUENCE s))) as) (x:*:xs)
= do odb2 <- eSequenceAuxCO [] s x
eSequenceAuxCO (odb ++ odb2) as xs
eSequenceAuxCO odb (AddComponent (ComponentsOf _) as) (x:*:xs)
= throwError (OtherError "COMPONENTS OF can only be applied to a SEQUENCE")
eSequenceAuxCO odb (AddComponent (MandatoryComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (x:*:xs)
= do encode a [] x
eSequenceAuxCO odb as xs
eSequenceAuxCO odb (AddComponent (ExtensionComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (_:*:xs) =
eSequenceAuxCO odb as xs
eSequenceAuxCO odb (AddComponent (OptionalComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Nothing:*:xs) =
eSequenceAuxCO (odb ++ [0]) as xs
eSequenceAuxCO odb (AddComponent (OptionalComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Just x:*:xs)
= do
encode a [] x
eSequenceAuxCO (odb ++ [1]) as xs
eSequenceAuxCO odb (AddComponent (DefaultComponent (NamedType t a) d) as) (Nothing:*:xs)
= eSequenceAuxCO (odb ++ [0]) as xs
eSequenceAuxCO odb (AddComponent (DefaultComponent (NamedType t a) d) as) (Just x:*:xs)
= do
encode a [] x
eSequenceAuxCO (odb ++ [1]) as xs
eSequenceAuxCO odb (ExtensionAdditionGroup _ _ as) (x:*:xs)
= eSequenceAuxCO odb as xs
\end{code}
\begin{code}
dSequence :: Sequence a -> UnPERMonad a
dSequence s =
do ps <- lift $ bitMask (l s)
dSequenceAux ps s
l :: Integral n => Sequence a -> n
l EmptySequence = 0
l (AddComponent (MandatoryComponent _) ts) = l ts
l (AddComponent (OptionalComponent _) ts) = 1 + (l ts)
bitMask n = sequence $ L.take n $ repeat $ BG.getBit
type BitMap = [Bool]
-- FIXME: We don't yet seem to handle e.g. OptionalComponent
dSequenceAux :: BitMap -> Sequence a -> UnPERMonad a
-- FIXME: Ignoring the bit map doesn't look right - it's probably an error if it's not empty
dSequenceAux _ EmptySequence = return Empty
dSequenceAux bitmap (AddComponent (MandatoryComponent (NamedType _ t)) ts) =
do x <- decode t []
xs <- dSequenceAux bitmap ts
return (x :*: xs)
\end{code}
\section{ENCODING THE SEQUENCE-OF TYPE}
{\em eSequenceOf} takes three inputs, the usual two inputs -- the list of serially applied constraints
and the value to be encoded -- and the type of the components. This is required as input to the {\em encode} function
which encodes each component of the SEQUENCEOF. If the constraint list is empty the function
{\em encodeUnconstrainedSequenceOf} is
called. Otherwise, {\em eSequenceOfWithConstraint} is called. Note that there are two ways
in which a SEQUENCEOF type may have no PER-visible constraints. The first is when there are no
constraints associated with the type. The second is when all of the serially applied
constraints are non-PER visible. This is determined when generating the effective constraint
for a type using the function {\em lSerialeffectiveCon} defined in the module {\em
ConstraintGeneration}.
Note that a SEQUENCEOF value is represented as a Haskell list of components. The PER-visible
SIZE constraint is applied to the number of elements in the list.
\begin{code}
eSequenceOf :: [SubtypeConstraint [a]] -> ASNType a -> [a] -> PERMonad ()
eSequenceOf [] t x
= {- X691REF: 19.6 with ub unset -}
encodeUnconstrainedSequenceOf t x
eSequenceOf cl t x
= eSequenceOfWithConstraint t cl x
\end{code}
{\em encodeUnconstrainedSequenceOf} encodes an unconstrained SEQUENCEOF value by adding a
length determinant to the encoding of the SEQUENCEOF components. This may of course involve
fragmentation.
\begin{code}
encodeUnconstrainedSequenceOf :: ASNType a -> [a] -> PERMonad ()
encodeUnconstrainedSequenceOf t xs = encodeUnconstrainedLength (encode t []) xs
\end{code}
{\em eSequenceOfWithConstraint} calls {\em encodeNonExtConsSequenceOf} if the constraint is not
extensible. If it is extensible then {\em encodeExtConsSequenceOf} is called. They both take the
effective constraint and actual constraint associated with the type as input.
\begin{code}
eSequenceOfWithConstraint :: ASNType a -> [SubtypeConstraint [a]] -> [a]
-> PERMonad ()
eSequenceOfWithConstraint t cs v
= if (not extensible)
then
encodeNonExtConsSequenceOf t actualCon effectiveCon v
else {- X691REF: 19.4 -}
encodeExtConsSequenceOf t actualCon effectiveCon v
where
effectiveCon :: Either String (ExtensibleConstraint IntegerConstraint)
effectiveCon = evaluateConstraint pvSequenceOfElements top cs
actualCon :: Either String (ExtensibleConstraint ValidIntegerConstraint)
actualCon = evaluateConstraint pvSequenceOfElements top cs
extensible = eitherExtensible effectiveCon
\end{code}
{\em encodeNonExtConsSequenceOf} has to deal with three cases.
\begin{itemize}
\item
There are no PER-visible constraints. The function {\em encodeUnconstrainedSequenceOf} is
called.
\item
The constraint is empty and thus no values can be encoded. Note that this means that there is a
PER-visible size constraint that has no values. An appropriate error is thrown.
\item
There is a PER-visible constraint. The function {\em encodeConstrainedSequenceOf} is called.
\end{itemize}
\begin{code}
encodeNonExtConsSequenceOf :: ASNType a -> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint ValidIntegerConstraint)
-> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint IntegerConstraint)
-> [a]
-> PERMonad ()
encodeNonExtConsSequenceOf t _ (Right (ExtensibleConstraint (IntegerConstraint NegInf PosInf) _ _)) vs
= {- X691REF: 19.6 with ub unset -}
encodeUnconstrainedSequenceOf t vs
encodeNonExtConsSequenceOf t (Right ok) (Right vsc) vs
| isEmptyConstraint rc
= throwError (ConstraintError "Empty constraint")
| otherwise
= {- X691REF: 19.5 - 19.6 -}
encodeConstrainedSequenceOf t [] l u vrc vs
where
rc = getRootConstraint vsc
l = lower rc
u = upper rc
vrc = getRootConstraint ok
\end{code}
{\em encodeExtConsSequenceOf} has to deal with three cases.
\begin{itemize}
\item
There are no PER-visible constraints. The function {\em encodeUnconstrainedSequenceOf} is
called.
\item
The constraint is empty and thus no values can be encoded. Note that this means that there is a
PER-visible size constraint that has no values. An appropriate error is thrown.
\item
There is a PER-visible constraint. The function {\em encodeConstrainedSequenceOf} is called with the
prefix bit set to 0. If this results in an error (the value cannot satisfy the constraint root)
then {\em encodeExtConstrainedSequenceOf} is called and the prefix bit is set to 1. The function
Haskell library function {\em catchError} manages the error/non-error cases.
\end{itemize}
\begin{code}
encodeExtConsSequenceOf :: ASNType a -> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint ValidIntegerConstraint)
-> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint IntegerConstraint)
-> [a]
-> PERMonad()
encodeExtConsSequenceOf t _
(Right (ExtensibleConstraint (IntegerConstraint NegInf PosInf)
(IntegerConstraint NegInf PosInf) _)) vs
= {- X691REF: 19.6 with ub unset -}
encodeUnconstrainedSequenceOf t vs
encodeExtConsSequenceOf t (Right ok) (Right vsc) vs
| isEmptyConstraint rc
= throwError (ConstraintError "Empty constraint")
| otherwise
= do
catchError (do {- X691REF: 19.4 within root -}
encodeConstrainedSequenceOf t [0] l u vrc vs)
(\err -> do {- X691REF: 19.4 not in root -}
encodeNonExtRootConSequenceOf t rc ec vec vs)
where
rc = getRootConstraint vsc
l = lower rc
u = upper rc
ec = getExtConstraint vsc
vrc = getRootConstraint ok
vec = getExtConstraint ok
\end{code}
{\em encodeConstrainedSequenceOf} first checks if the value satisfies the constraint.
Note that with UNALIGNED PER if the upper bound of a constraint is greater or equal to 64K
then the encoding of the length determinant is the same as it would be for an unconstrained
length (X691: 10.9.4.2 Note).
\begin{code}
encodeConstrainedSequenceOf :: ASNType a -> PrefixBit -> InfInteger -> InfInteger
-> ValidIntegerConstraint -> [a] -> PERMonad ()
encodeConstrainedSequenceOf t pb l u (Valid vrc) xs
| inSizeRange xs vrc
= if u == l && u <= 65536
then {- X691REF: 19.5 -}
do tell $ toBitBuilder pb
mapM_ (encode t []) xs
else if u <= 65536
then {- X691REF: 19.6 with ub set -}
do tell $ toBitBuilder pb
toNonNegBinaryInteger ((fromInteger . genericLength $ xs) - l) (u - l)
mapM_ (encode t []) xs
else {- X691REF: 19.6 with ub unset -}
do tell $ toBitBuilder pb
encodeUnconstrainedSequenceOf t xs
| otherwise = throwError (BoundsError "Size out of range")
encodeNonExtRootConSequenceOf :: ASNType a -> IntegerConstraint -> IntegerConstraint
-> ValidIntegerConstraint -> [a] -> PERMonad ()
encodeNonExtRootConSequenceOf t rc ec (Valid erc) xs
| inSizeRange xs erc
= do oneBit
encodeUnconstrainedSequenceOf t xs
| otherwise = throwError (BoundsError "Size out of range")
\end{code}
\section{ENCODING THE SET TYPE}
{\em encodeSet} encodes a SET value. In common with a SEQUENCE, a SET has no PER-visible
constraints and thus the encoding function has only two inputs: the type of the set to be
encoded represented as a sequence, and the value to be encoded. The encoding of a set is
similar to that of a sequence except that the root components are encoded in order of their
tags. We therefore cannot output each root component encoding in the order they appear in the
set value, but instead, must store the monadic encode value, typically of the form {\em
encode a [] x}, in a list, which are then ordered by tag value, and then run in this order. That is, the
encoding bits are only output after the ordering of the components. This behaviour
is managed by the auxiliary function {\em encodeSetAux} which is similar to {\em
eSequenceAux} except that the second input is a list of pairs of
\begin{itemize}
\item
tag information and
\item
a pair of optional/default bit with the monadic encode value
\end{itemize}
instead of simply a list of optional/default bits. Here each optional/default bit is of the
type {\em Maybe Int} to allow for non-optional/default components for which the entry will be
{\em Nothing}.
Note that we call {\tt eSquenceAux} at the end of the {\tt ExtensionMarker} case, since {\tt encodeSetAux} is applied to the empty case
when the monad returned by {\tt encodeSetAuxExt (Ext, NotUsed) ms [] as xs} is run.
\begin{code}
encodeSet :: Sequence a -> a -> PERMonad ()
encodeSet s v
= do odb <- pass $ encodeSetAux (NotExt, NotUsed) [] s v
return ()
encodeSetAux :: ExtAndUsed -> [(TagInfo, (Maybe Int, PERMonad ()))] -> Sequence a -> a
-> PERMonad (OptDefBits, BB.BitBuilder -> BB.BitBuilder)
encodeSetAux eu ms EmptySequence Empty
= let sms = L.sortBy firstItem ms
firstItem m n
| fst m < fst n = LT
| fst m == fst n = EQ
| otherwise = GT
odb = L.map (\(Just x) -> x) $ L.filter (/= Nothing) $ L.map (fst . snd) sms
mds = L.map (snd . snd) sms
in do {- FIXME run monads in the right order and create optdefbits-}
mapM_ id mds
return (odb, completeSequenceBits eu odb)
encodeSetAux (extensible, b) ms (ExtensionMarker as) xs
| extensible == NotExt
= let m = encodeSetAuxExt (Ext, NotUsed) ms [] as xs
in
do (b, eb,pm) <- censor (const BB.empty) m
(od2,f) <- pm
{- X691REF: 18.8 -}
censor (BB.append (selectOutput . extractValue $ addExtensionAdditionPreamble eb)) m
eSequenceAux (fst b) (snd b) od2 EmptySequence Empty
| otherwise
= encodeSetAux (extensible,b) ms as xs
encodeSetAux eu ms (AddComponent (ComponentsOf (BuiltinType (SEQUENCE s))) as) (x:*:xs)
= do ms2 <- encodeSetAuxCO [] s x
encodeSetAux eu (ms ++ ms2) as xs
encodeSetAux eu ms (AddComponent (ComponentsOf (ReferencedType n t)) as) (x:*:xs)
= encodeSetAux eu ms (AddComponent (ComponentsOf t) as) (x:*:xs)
encodeSetAux eu ms (AddComponent (ComponentsOf (ConstrainedType t c)) as) (x:*:xs)
= encodeSetAux eu ms (AddComponent (ComponentsOf t) as) (x:*:xs)
encodeSetAux eu ms (AddComponent (MandatoryComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (x:*:xs)
= encodeSetAux eu (ms ++ [(getTI a, (Nothing, encode a [] x))]) as xs
encodeSetAux eu ms (AddComponent (ExtensionComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Nothing:*:xs)
= encodeSetAux eu ms as xs
encodeSetAux (b1,b2) ms (AddComponent (ExtensionComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Just x:*:xs)
= encodeSetAux (b1, Used) ms as xs
encodeSetAux eu ms (AddComponent (OptionalComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Nothing:*:xs)
= {- X691REF: 18.2 with optional component not present -}
encodeSetAux eu (ms ++ [(getTI a, (Just 0, noBit))]) as xs
encodeSetAux eu ms (AddComponent (OptionalComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Just x:*:xs)
= {- X691REF: 18.2 with optional component present -}
encodeSetAux eu (ms ++ [(getTI a, (Just 1, encode a [] x))]) as xs
encodeSetAux eu ms (AddComponent (DefaultComponent (NamedType t a) d) as) (Nothing:*:xs)
= {- X691REF: 18.2 with default value -}
{- X691REF: 18.5 with default value (CANONICAL_PER) -}
encodeSetAux eu (ms ++ [(getTI a, (Just 0, noBit))]) as xs
encodeSetAux eu ms (AddComponent (DefaultComponent (NamedType t a) d) as) (Just x:*:xs)
= {- X691REF: 18.2 with default component present -}
encodeSetAux eu (ms ++ [(getTI a, (Just 1, encode a [] x))]) as xs
encodeSetAux (b1,b2) ms (ExtensionAdditionGroup _ _ as) (x:*:xs)
= encodeSetAux (b1,Used) ms as xs
encodeSetAuxExt :: ExtAndUsed -> [(TagInfo, (Maybe Int, PERMonad ()))] -> ExtBits -> Sequence a -> a
-> PERMonad ((ExtAndUsed, ExtBits,
PERMonad (OptDefBits, BB.BitBuilder -> BB.BitBuilder)))
encodeSetAuxExt b ms eb (AddComponent (ExtensionComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Nothing:*:xs)
= {- X691REF: 18.7 with extension addition absent -}
encodeSetAuxExt b ms (eb ++ [0]) as xs
encodeSetAuxExt (b1,b2) ms eb (AddComponent (ExtensionComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Just x:*:xs)
= do {- X691REF: 18.7 with extension addition present -}
{- X691REF: 18.9 with ComponentType extension -}
encodeOpen a x
encodeSetAuxExt (b1,Used) ms (eb ++ [1]) as xs
encodeSetAuxExt b ms eb (AddComponent (OptionalComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Nothing:*:xs)
= {- X691REF: 18.7 with extension addition absent -}
encodeSetAuxExt b ms (eb ++ [0]) as xs
encodeSetAuxExt (b1,b2) ms eb (AddComponent (OptionalComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Just x:*:xs)
= do {- X691REF: 18.7 with extension addition present -}
{- X691REF: 18.9 with ComponentType extension -}
encodeOpen a x
encodeSetAuxExt (b1,Used) ms (eb ++ [1]) as xs
encodeSetAuxExt b ms eb (ExtensionAdditionGroup _ a as) (Nothing:*:xs)
= {- X691REF: 18.7 with extension addition absent -}
encodeSetAuxExt b ms (eb ++ [0]) as xs
encodeSetAuxExt (b1,b2) ms eb (ExtensionAdditionGroup _ a as) (Just x:*:xs)
= do {- X691REF: 18.7 with extension addition present -}
{- X691REF: 18.9 with ExtensionAdditionGroup extension -}
encodeOpen (BuiltinType (SEQUENCE (makeSequence a))) x
encodeSetAuxExt (b1, Used) ms (eb ++ [1]) as xs
encodeSetAuxExt b ms eb (ExtensionMarker as) xs
= return (b, eb, encodeSetAux b ms as xs)
encodeSetAuxExt b ms eb EmptySequence Empty
= return (b, eb, encodeSetAux b ms EmptySequence Empty)
encodeSetAuxExt b odb eb _ _
= throwError (OtherError "Inappropriate component!")
\end{code}
When encoding a ComponentsOf component, we simply extract and encode the root components of
the type.
\begin{code}
encodeSetAuxCO :: [(TagInfo, (Maybe Int, PERMonad ()))] -> Sequence a -> a
-> PERMonad [(TagInfo, (Maybe Int, PERMonad ()))]
encodeSetAuxCO ms EmptySequence _
= return ms
encodeSetAuxCO ms (ExtensionMarker as) xs
= encodeSetAuxCO ms as xs
encodeSetAuxCO ms (AddComponent (ComponentsOf (BuiltinType (SEQUENCE s))) as) (x:*:xs)
= do ms2 <- encodeSetAuxCO [] s x
encodeSetAuxCO (ms ++ ms2) as xs
encodeSetAuxCO odb (AddComponent (ComponentsOf _) as) (x:*:xs)
= throwError (OtherError "COMPONENTS OF can only be applied to a SEQUENCE")
encodeSetAuxCO ms (AddComponent (MandatoryComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (x:*:xs)
= encodeSetAuxCO (ms ++ [(getTI a, (Nothing, encode a [] x))]) as xs
encodeSetAuxCO odb (AddComponent (ExtensionComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (_:*:xs)
= encodeSetAuxCO odb as xs
encodeSetAuxCO ms (AddComponent (OptionalComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Nothing:*:xs)
= encodeSetAuxCO (ms ++ [(getTI a, (Just 0, noBit))]) as xs
encodeSetAuxCO ms (AddComponent (OptionalComponent (NamedType t a)) as) (Just x:*:xs)
= encodeSetAuxCO (ms ++ [(getTI a, (Just 1, encode a [] x))]) as xs
encodeSetAuxCO ms (AddComponent (DefaultComponent (NamedType t a) d) as) (Nothing:*:xs)
= encodeSetAuxCO (ms ++ [(getTI a, (Just 0, noBit))]) as xs
encodeSetAuxCO ms (AddComponent (DefaultComponent (NamedType t a) d) as) (Just x:*:xs)
= encodeSetAuxCO (ms ++ [(getTI a, (Just 1, encode a [] x))]) as xs
encodeSetAuxCO ms (ExtensionAdditionGroup _ _ as) (x:*:xs)
= encodeSetAuxCO ms as xs
\end{code}
\section{ENCODING THE SET-OF TYPE}
SET-OF types are encoded as SEQUENCE-OF types except that CANONICAL-PER requires that the component
values of a SET-OF type are encoded in ascending order of their same-length encodings. That is, each
encoding is converted to a integral multiple of octet encoding by appending with 0 bits, and then
these are converted to the same length as the longest encoding by appending 0-octets.
\begin{code}
encodeSetOf :: [SubtypeConstraint [a]] -> ASNType a -> [a] -> PERMonad ()
encodeSetOf [] t x
= {- X691REF: 19.6 with ub unset -}
encodeUnconstrainedSetOf t x
encodeSetOf cl t x
= encodeSetOfWithConstraint t cl x
encodeUnconstrainedSetOf :: ASNType a -> [a] -> PERMonad ()
encodeUnconstrainedSetOf t xs
= do {- X691REF: 21.1 -}
ols <- orderedSetOf t xs
encodeUnconstrainedLength tell ols
\end{code}
The function {\em orderedSetOf} orders the component value encodings as required by X691: 21.1.
\begin{code}
orderedSetOf :: ASNType a -> [a] -> PERMonad [BB.BitBuilder]
orderedSetOf t ls
= let els = map (selectOutput . extractValue . encode t []) ls
-- pls = map padBits els
-- nls = zipWith (++) els pls
nls = map BB.toLazyByteString els
long = maximum (map BL.length nls)
xls = map (\x -> appendZeroes (long - (BL.length x))BL.empty) nls
ols = L.zip (L.zipWith BL.append nls xls) els
in
return (L.map snd (L.sortBy order ols))
{-
padBits :: BB.BitBuilder -> BB.BitBuilder
padBits enc
= let le = length enc
bts = le `mod` 8
pad = if bts == 0
then []
else take (8-bts) [0,0..]
in pad
-}
appendZeroes :: Int64 -> BL.ByteString -> BL.ByteString
appendZeroes i bs
= if i == 0 then bs
else appendZeroes (i-1) (BL.append bs zero)
zero :: BL.ByteString
zero = BL.singleton 0
order :: (BL.ByteString, BB.BitBuilder) -> (BL.ByteString, BB.BitBuilder) -> Ordering
order (f,s) (x,y)
| f < x = LT
| f == x = EQ
| otherwise = GT
\end{code}
{\em encodeSetOfWithConstraint} calls {\em encodeNonExtConsSetOf} if the constraint is not
extensible. If it is extensible then {\em encodeExtConsSetOf} is called. They both take the
effective constraint and actual constraint associated with the type as input.
\begin{code}
encodeSetOfWithConstraint :: ASNType a -> [SubtypeConstraint [a]] -> [a]
-> PERMonad ()
encodeSetOfWithConstraint t cs v
= if (not extensible)
then
encodeNonExtConsSetOf t actualCon effectiveCon v
else {- X691REF: 19.4 -}
encodeExtConsSetOf t actualCon effectiveCon v
where
effectiveCon :: Either String (ExtensibleConstraint IntegerConstraint)
effectiveCon = evaluateConstraint pvSequenceOfElements top cs
actualCon :: Either String (ExtensibleConstraint ValidIntegerConstraint)
actualCon = evaluateConstraint pvSequenceOfElements top cs
extensible = eitherExtensible effectiveCon
\end{code}
{\em encodeNonExtConsSetOf} has to deal with three cases.
\begin{itemize}
\item
There are no PER-visible constraints. The function {\em encodeUnconstrainedSetOf} is
called.
\item
The constraint is empty and thus no values can be encoded. Note that this means that there is a
PER-visible size constraint that has no values. An appropriate error is thrown.
\item
There is a PER-visible constraint. The function {\em encodeConstrainedSetOf} is called.
\end{itemize}
\begin{code}
encodeNonExtConsSetOf :: ASNType a -> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint ValidIntegerConstraint)
-> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint IntegerConstraint)
-> [a]
-> PERMonad ()
encodeNonExtConsSetOf t _ (Right (ExtensibleConstraint (IntegerConstraint NegInf PosInf) _ _)) vs
= {- X691REF: 19.6 with ub unset -}
encodeUnconstrainedSetOf t vs
encodeNonExtConsSetOf t (Right ok) (Right vsc) vs
| isEmptyConstraint rc
= throwError (ConstraintError "Empty constraint")
| otherwise
= {- X691REF: 19.5 - 19.6 -}
encodeConstrainedSetOf t [] l u vrc vs
where
rc = getRootConstraint vsc
l = lower rc
u = upper rc
vrc = getRootConstraint ok
\end{code}
{\em encodeExtConsSetOf} has to deal with three cases.
\begin{itemize}
\item
There are no PER-visible constraints. The function {\em encodeUnconstrainedSetOf} is
called.
\item
The constraint is empty and thus no values can be encoded. Note that this means that there is a
PER-visible size constraint that has no values. An appropriate error is thrown.
\item
There is a PER-visible constraint. The function {\em encodeConstrainedSetOf} is called with the
prefix bit set to 0. If this results in an error (the value cannot satisfy the constraint root)
then {\em encodeExtConstrainedSetOf} is called and the prefix bit is set to 1. The function
Haskell library function {\em catchError} manages the error/non-error cases.
\end{itemize}
\begin{code}
encodeExtConsSetOf :: ASNType a -> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint ValidIntegerConstraint)
-> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint IntegerConstraint)
-> [a]
-> PERMonad()
encodeExtConsSetOf t _
(Right (ExtensibleConstraint (IntegerConstraint NegInf PosInf)
(IntegerConstraint NegInf PosInf) _)) vs
= {- X691REF: 19.6 with ub unset -}
encodeUnconstrainedSetOf t vs
encodeExtConsSetOf t (Right ok) (Right vsc) vs
| isEmptyConstraint rc
= throwError (ConstraintError "Empty constraint")
| otherwise
= do
catchError (do {- X691REF: 19.4 within root -}
encodeConstrainedSetOf t [0] l u vrc vs)
(\err -> do {- X691REF: 19.4 not in root -}
encodeNonExtRootConSetOf t rc ec vec vs)
where
rc = getRootConstraint vsc
l = lower rc
u = upper rc
ec = getExtConstraint vsc
vrc = getRootConstraint ok
vec = getExtConstraint ok
\end{code}
{\em encodeConstrainedSetOf} first checks if the value satisfies the constraint.
Note that with UNALIGNED PER if the upper bound of a constraint is greater or equal to 64K
then the encoding of the length determinant is the same as it would be for an unconstrained
length (X691: 10.9.4.2 Note).
\begin{code}
encodeConstrainedSetOf :: ASNType a -> PrefixBit -> InfInteger -> InfInteger
-> ValidIntegerConstraint -> [a] -> PERMonad ()
encodeConstrainedSetOf t pb l u (Valid vrc) xs
| inSizeRange xs vrc
= if u == l && u <= 65536
then {- X691REF: 19.5 -}
do tell $ toBitBuilder pb
ols <- orderedSetOf t xs
mapM_ tell ols
else if u <= 65536
then {- X691REF: 19.6 with ub set -}
do tell $ toBitBuilder pb
toNonNegBinaryInteger ((fromInteger . genericLength $ xs) - l) (u - l)
{- X691REF: 21.1 -}
ols <- orderedSetOf t xs
mapM_ tell ols
else {- X691REF: 19.6 with ub unset -}
do tell $ toBitBuilder pb
encodeUnconstrainedSetOf t xs
| otherwise = throwError (BoundsError "Size out of range")
encodeNonExtRootConSetOf :: ASNType a -> IntegerConstraint -> IntegerConstraint
-> ValidIntegerConstraint -> [a] -> PERMonad ()
encodeNonExtRootConSetOf t rc ec (Valid erc) xs
| inSizeRange xs erc
= do oneBit
encodeUnconstrainedSetOf t xs
| otherwise = throwError (BoundsError "Size out of range")
\end{code}
\section{ENCODING THE CHOICE TYPE}
{\em encodeChoice} encodes CHOICE values. It is not dissimilar to
{\em encodeSet} in that the possible choice components must be
assigned an index based on their canonical ordering. This index,
which starts from 0, prefixes the value encoding and is absent if
there is only a single choice.
\begin{code}
encodeChoice :: Choice a -> ExactlyOne a SelectionMade -> PERMonad ()
encodeChoice c x
= let (b,(r,e)) = getCTags True ([],[]) c
{- X691REF: 22.2 -}
ids = assignIndices (r,e)
in
encodeChoiceAux (b,ids) c x
type ChoiceRootIndices = [Int]
type ChoiceExtIndices = [Int]
assignIndices :: (ChoiceRootTags, ChoiceExtTags) -> (ChoiceRootIndices, ChoiceExtIndices)
assignIndices (r,e)
= let ri = indices r
re = indices e
in
(ri,re)
indices :: Ord a => [a] -> [Int]
indices xs
= let sxs = L.sort xs
in
map (\(Just x) -> x) (indices' xs sxs)
indices' :: Eq a => [a] -> [a] -> [Maybe Int]
indices' [] sxs = []
indices' (f:r) sxs
= (elemIndex f sxs : indices' r sxs)
\end{code}
The auxilliary function {\em encodeChoiceAux} manages the various choice cases. The cases are:
\begin{itemize}
\item
if no choice is chosen as indicated by the constructor {\em EmptyChoice} then an error is
thrown;
\item
an extension marker results in the function {\em encodeChoiceExtAux} being called. This deals
with a choice that is not chosen from the extension root;
\item
if a root option is not chosen then the function {\em encodeChoiceAux'} is called. This
indicates that there is at least two root options and thus the index must be encoded;
\item
if the first root option is chosen and there is only one root index as indicated by the
Haskell singleton list {\em [f]}, then the choice index is not encoded. The encoding of the
choice value is prefixed by a {\em 0} bit is the type is extensible;
\item
an extension addition group suggests an erroneous CHOICE type since this can only appear after
an extension marker.
\end{itemize}
The function {\em encodeChoiceAux'} is similar to {\em encodeChoiceAux} except that there is
not single root choice case.
\begin{code}
type NoExtension = Bool
encodeChoiceAux :: (NoExtension, (ChoiceRootIndices, ChoiceExtIndices))
-> Choice a -> ExactlyOne a n -> PERMonad ()
encodeChoiceAux ids EmptyChoice _ = throwError (OtherError "No choice value!")
encodeChoiceAux ids (ChoiceExtensionMarker as) xs = encodeChoiceExtAux ids as xs
encodeChoiceAux (b,(f:r,e)) (ChoiceOption a as) (AddNoValue x xs)
= let l = genericLength r
in encodeChoiceAux' l (b,(r,e)) as xs
encodeChoiceAux (b, ([f],e)) (ChoiceOption (NamedType t a) as) (AddAValue x xs)
= do
if b then {- X691REF: 22.4, 22.5 and 22.7 -}
zeroBit
else {- X691REF: 22.4 and 22.6 -}
return ()
encode a [] x
encodeChoiceAux ids@(b, ((f:g:r),e)) (ChoiceOption (NamedType t a) as) (AddAValue x xs)
= do
if b then {- X691REF: 22.5 and 22.7 -}
zeroBit
else {- X691REF: 22.6 -}
oneBit -- tell []
toNonNegBinaryInteger (fromInteger . toInteger $ f) (fromInteger . genericLength $ g:r)
encode a [] x
encodeChoiceAux _ (ChoiceExtensionAdditionGroup _ _ ) _
= throwError (OtherError "Impossible case: EXTENSION ADDITION GROUP only appears in an extension.")
encodeChoiceAux' :: Integer -> (NoExtension, (ChoiceRootIndices, ChoiceExtIndices))
-> Choice a -> ExactlyOne a n -> PERMonad ()
encodeChoiceAux' l ids EmptyChoice _ = throwError (OtherError "No choice value!")
encodeChoiceAux' l ids (ChoiceExtensionMarker as) xs = encodeChoiceExtAux ids as xs
encodeChoiceAux' l (b,(f:r,e)) (ChoiceOption a as) (AddNoValue x xs) =
encodeChoiceAux' l (b,(r,e)) as xs
encodeChoiceAux' l (b, (f:r,e)) (ChoiceOption (NamedType t a) as) (AddAValue x xs)
= do
tell $ BB.singleton b
toNonNegBinaryInteger (fromInteger . toInteger $ f) (fromInteger l)
encode a [] x
encodeChoiceAux' _ _ (ChoiceExtensionAdditionGroup _ _ ) _
= throwError (OtherError "Impossible case: EXTENSION ADDITION GROUP only appears in an extension.")
\end{code}
The function {\em encodeChoiceExtAux} processes values that are not in the extension root of a
CHOICE type. It is similar to {\em encodeChoiceAux} except that:
\begin{itemize}
\item
an extension addition group is a valid component and results in its components being
processed;
\item
if the chosen value is in the extension then the choice index is encoded as a normally small
non-negative integer, the value is encoded as an open type value, and these encodings are
prefixed by a single {\em 1} bit.
\end{itemize}
\begin{code}
encodeChoiceExtAux :: (NoExtension, (ChoiceRootIndices, ChoiceExtIndices))
-> Choice a -> ExactlyOne a n -> PERMonad ()
encodeChoiceExtAux ids EmptyChoice _ = throwError (OtherError "No choice value!")
encodeChoiceExtAux ids(ChoiceExtensionMarker as) xs =
encodeChoiceAux ids as xs
encodeChoiceExtAux ids (ChoiceExtensionAdditionGroup _ as) xs =
encodeChoiceExtAux' ids as xs
encodeChoiceExtAux (b,(r, (f:e))) (ChoiceOption a as) (AddNoValue x xs) =
encodeChoiceExtAux (b, (r,e)) as xs
encodeChoiceExtAux (b,(r, (f:e))) (ChoiceOption (NamedType t a) as) (AddAValue x xs)
= do {- X691REF: 22.5 and 22.8 -}
oneBit
encodeNSNNInt (toInteger f) 0
encodeOpen a x
encodeChoiceExtAux' :: (NoExtension, (ChoiceRootIndices, ChoiceExtIndices))
-> Choice' a -> ExactlyOne a n -> PERMonad ()
encodeChoiceExtAux' ids EmptyChoice' _ = throwError (OtherError "No choice value!")
encodeChoiceExtAux' ids ChoiceExtensionMarker' _ = throwError (OtherError "No choice value!")
encodeChoiceExtAux' (b,(r, (f:e))) (ChoiceOption' a as) (AddNoValue x xs) =
encodeChoiceExtAux' (b, (r,e)) as xs
encodeChoiceExtAux' (b,(r, (f:e))) (ChoiceOption' (NamedType t a) as) (AddAValue x xs)
= do {- X691REF: 22.5 and 22.8 -}
oneBit
encodeNSNNInt (toInteger f) 0
encodeOpen a x
\end{code}
\section{ENCODING THE RESTRICTED CHARACTER STRING TYPES}
There are two categories of restricted character string types -- known-multiplier character
strings and others. We have currently only implemented the known-multiplier category.
{\em encodeKMS} takes the usual two inputs -- the list of serially applied constraints
and the value to be encoded. If the constraint list is empty the function
{\em encodeUnconstrainedKMS} is
called. Otherwise, {\em encodeKMSWithConstraint} is called. Note that there are two ways
in which a known-multiplier string type may have no PER-visible constraints. The first is when there are no
constraints associated with the type. The second is when all of the serially applied
constraints are non-PER visible since a non-PER visible complete constraint is ignored.
This is determined when generating the effective constraint
for a type using the function {\em lSerialeffectiveCon} defined in the module {\em ConstraintGeneration}.
Note that {\em encodeKMS} is a constrained polymorphic type that applies to a set of
known-multiplier string types. Each is a member of three type classes:
\begin{itemize}
\item
{\em Eq} so that there values can be tested for equality;
\item
{\em RS} a type class of restricted string types defined in the module {\em LatticeMod}. It
include methods to access the string from a restricted value and vice versa; and
\item
{\em Lattice} a type class also defined in {\em LatticeMod}. It specifies all of the
behavioural requirements of a {\bf bounded lattice} such as join and meet operations and a
greatest ({\em top}) and least ({\em bottom}) element. Note that each type will have its own
greatest element which is the complete set of possible values as defined in X.691 27.5.3.
\end{itemize}
\begin{code}
encodeKMS :: (Eq a, RS a, Lattice a)
=> SerialSubtypeConstraints a -> a -> PERMonad ()
encodeKMS [] x
= {- X691REF: 27.5.1 with no permitted alphabet constraint -}
encodeUnconstrainedKMS x
encodeKMS cs x
= encodeKMSWithConstraint cs x
c11 :: Either String (ExtensibleConstraint (ResStringConstraint VisibleString IntegerConstraint))
c11 = evaluateSingleConstraint False pvKnownMultiplierElements extCon3
c12 :: Either String (ExtensibleConstraint (ResStringConstraint VisibleString IntegerConstraint))
c12 = evaluateSingleConstraint False pvKnownMultiplierElements pac1
pac1 :: SubtypeConstraint VisibleString
pac1 = RootOnly (UnionSet (UnionMark ( NoUnion (NoIntersection (ElementConstraint (SZ (SC (RootOnly (UnionSet ( NoUnion (NoIntersection (ElementConstraint (V (R (1,5)))))))))))))
(NoIntersection (ElementConstraint (P (FR (RootOnly (UnionSet ( NoUnion (NoIntersection (ElementConstraint (S (SV (VisibleString "dan"))))))))))))))
extCon :: SubtypeConstraint VisibleString
extCon = RootOnly (UnionSet ( NoUnion (NoIntersection (ElementConstraint (P (FR (NonEmptyExtension
(UnionSet ( NoUnion (NoIntersection (ElementConstraint (S (SV (VisibleString "ABC")))))))
(UnionSet ( NoUnion (NoIntersection (ElementConstraint (S (SV (VisibleString "0123456789"))))))))))))))
extCon3 :: SubtypeConstraint VisibleString
extCon3 = RootOnly (UnionSet ( NoUnion (NoIntersection (ElementConstraint (P (FR (RootOnly
(UnionSet ( NoUnion (NoIntersection (ElementConstraint (S (SV (VisibleString "ABC"))))))))))))))
extCon2 :: SubtypeConstraint VisibleString
extCon2 = RootOnly (ComplementSet (EXCEPT (P (FR (NonEmptyExtension
(UnionSet ( NoUnion (NoIntersection (ElementConstraint (S (SV (VisibleString "ABC")))))))
(UnionSet ( NoUnion (NoIntersection (ElementConstraint (S (SV (VisibleString "0123456789"))))))))))))
\end{code}
{\em encodeUnconstrainedKMS} encodes an unconstrained known-multiplier type value. If the
string is formed of characters from the required type then it calls {\em encodeKMString}. The
test is done by the function {\em isOKString}.
\begin{code}
encodeUnconstrainedKMS :: (Eq a, RS a, Lattice a) => a -> PERMonad ()
encodeUnconstrainedKMS vs
| isOKString vs top
= encodeKMString vs
| otherwise
= throwError (BoundsError "Invalid value!")
isOKString :: RS a => a -> a -> Bool
isOKString x y = elems (getString x) (getString y)
elems :: Eq a => [a] -> [a] -> Bool
elems xs ys = all (flip elem ys) xs
\end{code}
{\em encodeKMString} encodes a known-multiplier string with unconstrained length and a
permitted-alphabet constraint of the whole type. {\em encodeKMPermAlph} encodes each
character in a string based on the rules specified in X.691 27.5.2 and 27.5.4. Since the
permitted-alphabet constraint is the entire alphabet we use the {\em LatticeMod} entity {\em top}
which represents the greatest element of the particular known-multiplier string type --
the entire alphabet.
\begin{code}
encodeKMString :: (RS a, Lattice a) => a -> PERMonad ()
encodeKMString vs
= let t = getTop vs
in {- X691REF: 27.5.7 -}
encodeWithLength top (encodeKMPermAlph (getString t)) (getString vs)
getTop :: (RS a, Lattice a) => a -> a
getTop m = top
encodeKMPermAlph :: String -> Char -> PERMonad ()
encodeKMPermAlph p c
= {- X691REF: 27.5.2 and 27.5.4 -}
let sp = L.sort p
lp = genericLength p
b = minExp 2 0 lp
mp = maximum p
in
if ord mp < 2^b -1
then {- X691REF: 27.5.4 (a) -}
encodeCharInBits lp c
else {- X691REF: 27.5.4 (b) -}
let v = (genericLength . findV c) sp
l = fromInteger $ lp-1
in toNonNegBinaryInteger v l
minExp :: (Num a, Integral b, Ord a) => a -> b -> a -> b
minExp n e p
= if n^e < p
then minExp n (e+1) p
else e
\end{code}
Each character is encoded by {\em encodeCharInBits}
which encodes the Unicode value of the character in the required number of bits. This is
achieved by converting a character to its Unicode value and then encoding the number as a
constrained integer using {\em toNonNegBinaryInteger}.
\begin{code}
encodeCharInBits :: Integer -> Char -> PERMonad ()
encodeCharInBits i c = toNonNegBinaryInteger (fromInteger . fromIntegral . ord $ c) (fromInteger i)
\end{code}
{\em encodeKMSWithConstraint} calls {\em encodeNonExtConsKMS} if the constraint is not
extensible and the input is valid (for the particular known-multiplier string).
If it is extensible and the input is valid then {\em encodeExtConsKMS} is called. They both take the
effective constraint and actual constraint associated with the type as input.
\begin{code}
encodeKMSWithConstraint :: (Eq a, RS a, Lattice a)
=> SerialSubtypeConstraints a -> a -> PERMonad ()
encodeKMSWithConstraint cs vs
| isOKString vs top && not extensible
= encodeNonExtConsKMS (effectiveCon cs) (actualCon cs) vs
| isOKString vs top
= {- X691REF: 27.4 -}
encodeExtConsKMS (effectiveCon cs) (actualCon cs) vs
| otherwise
= throwError (BoundsError "Invalid value!")
where
extensible = eitherExtensible (effectiveCon cs)
effectiveCon :: (RS a, Lattice a, Eq a) => SerialSubtypeConstraints a ->
Either String (ExtensibleConstraint (ResStringConstraint a IntegerConstraint))
effectiveCon cs
= let t = ResStringConstraint top top
tp = ExtensibleConstraint t t False
tpp = Right tp
in
evaluateConstraint pvKnownMultiplierElements tpp cs
actualCon :: (RS a, Lattice a, Eq a) => SerialSubtypeConstraints a ->
Either String (ExtensibleConstraint (ResStringConstraint a ValidIntegerConstraint))
actualCon cs
= let t = ResStringConstraint top top
tp = ExtensibleConstraint t t False
tpp = Right tp
in
evaluateConstraint pvKnownMultiplierElements tpp cs
\end{code}
{\em encodeNonExtConsKMS} has several cases:
\begin{itemize}
\item
if there is no valid effective constraint (signalled by a {\em Left} value) then an error
indicating this problem is thrown;
\item
if the constraint is empty then an error is thrown since the constraint can never be
satisfied;
\item
if the constraint is a mixture of a size and permitted alphabet constraint and both are
satisfied by the input value then {\em encodeSizeAndPAConsKMS} is called;
\item
if the constraint is only a permitted alphabet constraint then {\em encodePAConsKMS} is
called;
\item
if the constraint is only a size constraint then {\em encodeSizeConsKMS} is called;
\item
if there is no PER-visible constraint (such as an extensible permitted alphabet constraint)
then the value is unconstrained and {\em encodeUnconstrainedLMS} is called;
\item
otherwise the input value does not satisfy the constraint and an error is thrown.
\end{itemize}
\begin{code}
encodeNonExtConsKMS :: (RS a, Eq a, Lattice a) =>
Either String (ExtensibleConstraint (ResStringConstraint a IntegerConstraint))
-> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint (ResStringConstraint a ValidIntegerConstraint))
-> a
-> PERMonad ()
encodeNonExtConsKMS (Left s) _ _ = throwError (OtherError s)
encodeNonExtConsKMS (Right vsc) (Right ok) vs
| isEmptyConstraint rc
= throwError (ConstraintError "Empty constraint")
| not noSizeConstraint && not noPAConstraint && inPA pac && inSizeRange (getString vs) oksc
= encodeSizeAndPAConsKMS l u pac vs
| noSizeConstraint && not noPAConstraint && inPA pac
= encodePAConsKMS pac vs
| noPAConstraint && not noSizeConstraint && inSizeRange (getString vs) oksc
= encodeSizeConsKMS l u vs
| noPAConstraint && noSizeConstraint
= encodeUnconstrainedKMS vs
| otherwise
= throwError (BoundsError "Value out of range")
where
rc = getRootConstraint vsc
okrc = getRootConstraint ok
sc = getSizeConstraint rc
Valid oksc = getSizeConstraint okrc
pac = getPAConstraint rc
noSizeConstraint = sc == top
noPAConstraint = pac == top
inPA x = elems (getString vs) (getString x)
l = lower sc
u = upper sc
\end{code}
{\em encodeExtConsKMS} has several cases:
\begin{itemize}
\item
if there is no valid effective constraint (signalled by a {\em Left} value) then an error
indicating this problem is thrown;
\item
if the constraint is empty then an error is thrown since the constraint can never be
satisfied;
\item
if the constraint is a mixture of a size and permitted alphabet constraint and both are
satisfied by the input value then {\em encodeSizeAndPAConsKMS} is called;
\item
if the constraint is only a permitted alphabet constraint then {\em encodePAConsKMS} is
called;
\item
if the constraint is only a size constraint then {\em encodeSizeConsKMS} is called;
\item
otherwise the input value does not satisfy the constraint and an error is thrown.
\end{itemize}
\begin{code}
encodeExtConsKMS :: (RS a, Eq a, Lattice a) =>
Either String (ExtensibleConstraint (ResStringConstraint a IntegerConstraint))
-> Either String (ExtensibleConstraint (ResStringConstraint a ValidIntegerConstraint))
-> a
-> PERMonad ()
encodeExtConsKMS (Left s) _ _ = throwError (OtherError s)
encodeExtConsKMS (Right vsc) (Right ok) vs
| isEmptyConstraint rc
= throwError (ConstraintError "Empty constraint")
| otherwise
= do
catchError (do {- X691REF: 19.4 within root -}
encodeConstrainedKMS [0] l u pc vrc vs)
(\err -> do {- X691REF: 19.4 not in root -}
encodeNonExtRootConKMS rc ec vrc vec vs)
where rc = getRootConstraint vsc
ec = getExtConstraint vsc
vrc = getRootConstraint ok
vec = getExtConstraint ok
rsc = getSizeConstraint rc
pc = getPAConstraint rc
l = lower rsc
u = upper rsc
encodeConstrainedKMS :: (RS a, Eq a, Lattice a) =>
PrefixBit -> InfInteger -> InfInteger -> a -> ResStringConstraint a ValidIntegerConstraint ->
a -> PERMonad ()
encodeConstrainedKMS pb l u pc vrc vs
| noRootSizeConstraint && inPA pc
= do tell $ toBitBuilder pb
encodePAConsKMS pc vs
| noRootPAConstraint && inSizeRange (getString vs) vrsc
= do tell $ toBitBuilder pb
encodeSizeConsKMS l u vs
| inPA pc && inSizeRange (getString vs) vrsc
= do tell $ toBitBuilder pb
encodeSizeAndPAConsKMS l u pc vs
| otherwise
= throwError (BoundsError "Value out of range")
where
Valid vrsc = getSizeConstraint vrc
noRootSizeConstraint = l == NegInf && u == PosInf
noRootPAConstraint = pc == top
inPA x = elems (getString vs) (getString x)
{- FIXME check top here -}
encodePAConsKMS :: (RS a) => a -> a -> PERMonad ()
encodePAConsKMS rcs1 rcs2 = encodeWithLength top (encodeKMPermAlph (getString rcs1)) (getString rcs2)
encodeSizeConsKMS :: (RS a, Lattice a) => InfInteger -> InfInteger -> a -> PERMonad ()
encodeSizeConsKMS l u v
| range == 1 && u < 65536
= mapM_ (encodeKMPermAlph (getString t)) x
| u >= 65536
= encodeKMString v
| otherwise
= let Val r = range
Val v = l
in do toNonNegBinaryInteger (fromInteger $ genericLength x - v) (fromInteger $ r - 1)
mapM_ (encodeKMPermAlph (getString t)) x
where t = getTop v
range = u - l + 1
x = getString v
encodeSizeAndPAConsKMS :: (RS a) => InfInteger -> InfInteger -> a -> a -> PERMonad ()
encodeSizeAndPAConsKMS l u rcs v
| range == 1 && u < 65536
= mapM_ (encodeKMPermAlph (getString rcs)) x
| u >= 65536
= encodePAConsKMS rcs v
| otherwise
= let Val r = range
Val v = l
in do toNonNegBinaryInteger (fromInteger $ genericLength x - v) (fromInteger $ r - 1)
mapM_ (encodeKMPermAlph (getString rcs)) x
where
range = u - l + 1
x = getString v
encodeNonExtRootConKMS :: (RS a, Eq a, Lattice a) => ResStringConstraint a IntegerConstraint
-> ResStringConstraint a IntegerConstraint
-> ResStringConstraint a ValidIntegerConstraint
-> ResStringConstraint a ValidIntegerConstraint
-> a -> PERMonad ()
encodeNonExtRootConKMS rc ec okrc okec vs
| (not noRootSizeConstraint && inSizeRange (getString vs) okrsc && noRootPAConstraint && not noExtPAConstraint &&
inPA epac) ||
(not noRootSizeConstraint && inSizeRange (getString vs) okrsc && not noRootPAConstraint && not noExtPAConstraint &&
not (inPA epac) && inPA expac) ||
(not noExtSizeConstraint && inSizeRange (getString vs) okesc && not noRootPAConstraint && inPA rpac) ||
(not noExtSizeConstraint && inSizeRange (getString vs) okesc && noRootPAConstraint && not noExtPAConstraint &&
inPA epac) ||
(not noExtSizeConstraint && inSizeRange (getString vs) okesc && not noRootPAConstraint && not noExtPAConstraint &&
not (inPA epac) && inPA expac) ||
(noRootSizeConstraint && noExtSizeConstraint && ((noRootPAConstraint && not noExtPAConstraint && inPA epac) ||
(not noRootPAConstraint && not noExtPAConstraint && not (inPA epac) && inPA expac)))
= do oneBit -- tell [1]
encodePAConsKMS top vs
| noRootPAConstraint && noExtPAConstraint && inSizeRange (getString vs) okesc
= do oneBit -- tell [1]
encodeKMString vs
| otherwise
= throwError (BoundsError "Value out of range")
where
Valid okesc = getSizeConstraint okec
Valid okrsc = getSizeConstraint okrc
rsc = getSizeConstraint rc
rpac = getPAConstraint rc
esc = getSizeConstraint ec
epac = getPAConstraint ec
concStrs :: RS a => ResStringConstraint a i ->
ResStringConstraint a i -> a
concStrs rc ec
= let r = (getString . getPAConstraint) rc
e = (getString . getPAConstraint) ec
in makeString (r++e)
expac = concStrs rc ec
noRootSizeConstraint = rsc == top
noRootPAConstraint = rpac == top
noExtSizeConstraint = esc == top
noExtPAConstraint = epac == top
inPA x = elems (getString vs) (getString x)
\end{code}
27.5.4 Encoding of a RESTRICTED CHARACTER STRING with a permitted alphabet
constraint.
\begin{code}
-- The first two cases are described in X.691 27.5.6 and 25.5.7
-- and the last case by 10.9 Note 3.
\end{code}
Clause 38.8 in X680 encoding based on canonical ordering of restricted character string characters
\begin{code}
canEnc b sp [] = return () -- tell []
canEnc b sp (f:r)
= let v = (genericLength . findV f) sp
in do toNonNegBinaryInteger v b
canEnc b sp r
findV m [] = []
findV m (a:rs)
= if m == a
then []
else a : findV m rs
\end{code}
\end{document}
|
http://ctan.unsw.edu.au/macros/latex/exptl/biblatex-contrib/biblatex-gb7714-2015/biblatex-gb7714-2015-preamble.tex | unsw.edu.au | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | text/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570987795253.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20191021221245-20191022004745-00353.warc.gz | 52,166,261 | 6,387 | \usepackage{expl3,etoolbox,ifthen,xstring}
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\title{Nightmares of Reason}
\date{2010}
\author{Bob Black}
\subtitle{}
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\begin{quote}
“The general level of insight now is more educated, curiosity is wide awake, and judgments are made more quickly than formerly; so the feet of them which shall carry thee out are already at the door” — Hegel\footnote{\emph{Hegel: Texts and Commentary}, tr. \& ed. Walter Kaufman (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1966), 110. “The feet of them which have buried thy husband are at the door, and shall carry thee out” (Acts 5:9).}
\end{quote}
\chapter{A Word from the Author}
In 1997, C.A.L. Press published my \emph{Anarchy after Leftism}, which took the form of a point by point (or tit for tat) refutation of Murray Bookchin’s \emph{Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism: An Unbridgeable Chasm} (A.K. Press [who else?] 1996). In the course of the writing, which occupied two months in 1996, I had the occasion to consult some previous books by the Director Emeritus, as I was sure that he was contradicting most of his previous positions. He was. What only his inner circle then knew is that Bookchin had privately renounced anarchism in 1995 (\emph{cf.} the “communalism” website maintained by his remaining acolytes, \href{http://www.communalism.org}{www.communalism.org}). When, in the book, I demonstrated that Bookchin was not an anarchist, leftists castigated me for my “purism.” They now observe a discreet silence.
My readings, however, revealed that \emph{SALA} was not just a senile aberration. Across the board and from start to finish, Murray Bookchin Thought was authoritarian, obscurantist, conceited, self-contradictory, ahistorical, hypocritical, even racist. As to how he ever maintained a reputation as a great anarchist theorist, I offer some thoughts in the following pages. I undertook to read or reread nearly all of his books. It was an ordeal, but it was worth it, because it equipped me to write \emph{Nightmares of Reason}. Here I show that Bookchin’s errors (some qualify as lies) abound in every area he bumbled into, be it history, anthropology, philosophy, political theory, cosmology, or even lexicography. I adduce example after example of the falsity, bad faith and even brutality of his polemics. Leftists who suppose — mainly on his say-so — that Bookchin was a great scholar will learn here why no scholars think so.
More or less unexpectedly, this book gave me the opportunity to develop my own ideas, some of which find their first or fullest expression here, and influence my future direction. This is where I came to the conclusion that the rejection of democracy is the most important task for contemporary anarchists. Portions of this book have appeared as articles, usually in \emph{Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed,} and in Bob Black, \emph{Withered Anarchism} (London: Green Anarchist \& Eugene, OR: Anarchist Action Collective, n.d. [1997]). C.A.L. Press would like to publish the text in hard copy, but lacks the financing. Perhaps some of my readers would like to help out.
\begin{quote}
Bob Black\forcelinebreak
P.O. Box 3112\forcelinebreak
Albany, NY 12203 U.S.A.\forcelinebreak
\emph{[email protected]}\forcelinebreak
\end{quote}
\chapter{Chapter 1. Introduction}
The tale is told of the American tourist abroad who, encountering some natives who didn’t speak his language, assisted their understanding by repeating himself in a louder voice. That is Murray Bookchin’s way with wayward anarchists. In \emph{Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism: An Unbridgeable Chasm} (1995)\footnote{Murray Bookchin, \emph{Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism: An Unbridgeable Chasm} (Edinburgh, Scotland \& San Francisco, CA: AK Press, 1995) [hereafter Bookchin, \emph{SALA}].} the Director Emeritus laid down for all time what anarchists are to believe and what they are not to believe; and yet many perversely persist in error. The book’s very title announces its divisive intent. Three books\footnote{Bob Black, \emph{Anarchy after Leftism} (Columbia, MO: C.A.L. Press, 1996) [hereafter: Black, \emph{AAL}]; Andrew Light, ed., \emph{Social Ecology after Bookchin} (New York: Guilford Publications, 1999); David Watson, \emph{Beyond Bookchin: Preface for a Future Social Ecology} (Brooklyn, NY: Autonomedia and Detroit, MI: Black \& Red, 1996).} and a slew of reviews suggest an overwhelmingly adverse anarchist reaction to the ex-Director’s encyclical, although it pleased Marxists.\footnote{“Max Anger” [Kevin Keating], “Lies, Damned Lies — and Trotskyoid Lies,” \emph{Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed} 16(1) (Spring-Summer 1998), 81 (“excellent and timely”); Frank Girard, review of \emph{SALA}, \emph{Discussion Bulletin} No.82 (1997), n.p.} For Bookchin, there is only one possible explanation for anarchist intransigence: they didn’t hear him the first time. For who — having heard — could fail to believe?
And so it came to pass — like wind — that the Director Emeritus is repeating himself, louder than ever, in \emph{Anarchism, Marxism, and the Future of the Left}, especially in the previously available essay “Whither Anarchism? A Reply to Recent Anarchist Critics.”\footnote{\emph{Anarchism, Marxism, and the Future of the Left: Interviews and Essays, 1993–1998} (Edinburgh, Scotland \& San Francisco, CA: AK Press, 1999) [hereafter: Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}].} But it’s not a reply, just a replay. In the words of Theodor Adorno, Bookchin’s “verbal demeanour calls to mind the young man of low origins who, embarrassed in good society, starts shouting to make himself heard: power and insolence mixed.” If, as Mill maintained, “the weakest part of what everybody says in defense of his opinion is what he intends as a reply to antagonists,”\footnote{Theodor Adorno, \emph{Minima Moralia: Reflections from Damaged Life}, tr. E.F.N. Jephcott (London: NLB, 1974), 88 (quoted); John Stuart Mill, \emph{On Liberty} (Chicago, IL: Henry Regnary Company, 1955), 64 (quoted). I am of the opposite opinion.} understandably an argument which commenced in exhaustion resumes in paralysis.
For those unfamiliar with the ex-Director’s dialectical mode of reasoning — shame on you! — the distinction between appearance and essence must be made incorrigibly clear. Thus, when the Director Emeritus writes that “it is not my intention to repeat my exposition of the differences between social and lifestyle anarchism,” in \emph{appearance}, he is saying that it is not his intention to repeat his exposition of the differences between Social Anarchism and Lifestyle Anarchism. But understood dialectically, in \emph{essence}, he is saying that it \emph{is} his intention to repeat his exposition of the differences between Social Anarchism and Lifestyle Anarchism. And that is exactly what, and all that, he proceeds to do, which validates the method.
There may be those who, having read (let us hope) \emph{Anarchy after Leftism}, wonder if there is any point in my producing a second essay which necessarily covers some of the same ground as the first. Bookchin already stands exposed, in Goethe’s phrase, as “captious and frivolous in old age.”\footnote{Quoted in Friedrich Nietzsche, \emph{The Birth of Tragedy and Other Writings}, ed. Raymond Geuss \& Ronald Speirs, tr. Ronald Speirs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 56.} After all, neither Bookchin nor, to my knowledge, anyone else even purports to have controverted even one of my arguments. There is some risk that what’s been said about another critique of Bookchin might be said about this one: “while there is much here to engage (and provoke) the readers specifically interested in Bookchin, it is not always clear who else will find the book a rewarding experience.”\footnote{Mark Lacy, review of \emph{Social Ecology after Bookchin}, \emph{Environmental Ethics} 23(1) (Spring 2001), 82.} And besides, Murray Bookchin has now confirmed what I wrote there: he is not an anarchist.\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, ch. 5.} Only AK Press and Black Rose Books remain in the dark.
For over ten years I have relentlessly pursued a single goal: “Through my satire I make unimportant people big so that later they are worthy targets of my satire, and no one can reproach me any longer” (Karl Kraus). For it ought not to be “rashly assumed that those attacked by a respectable philosopher must themselves be philosophically respectable.”\footnote{\emph{No Compromise: Selected Writings of Karl Kraus}, ed. Frederick Ungar (New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1977), 222 (quoted); Thomas Mautner, “Introduction” to Francis Hutchinson, \emph{On Human Nature}, ed. Thomas Mautner (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 39 (quoted).} I can at least say, as did one of my reviewers, that what was a joy to write is a joy to read.\footnote{Anonymous review of Black, \emph{AAL}, \emph{Here and Now}, No.18 (Winter 1997\Slash{}98), 39.} This book should be interesting, if it is interesting at all (and it is), almost as much to those who are unfamiliar with Bookchin as to those who are. It should satisfy those readers who, pleased as they are with the rebuttal of \emph{SALA}, wish I had elaborated the critique of libertarian municipalism and other Bookchin dogmas.\footnote{\emph{E.g.}, Laure Akai, “Terrible Tome,” \emph{Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed} No.45 (Spring\Slash{}Summer 1998), 22}. It is an expose, at once entertaining and informative, whose hapless subject is merely a pretext for me to show off. My method is no more original than my message. I cribbed it from Jonathan Swift, Mark Twain and Karl Kraus.
At this juncture, there cannot be too much deconstruction of sham scholarship in anarchist argumentation. While no one who has read \emph{Anarchy after Leftism} will take Bookchin’s latest parade of sources at face value, there must be some readers for whom his first reply-to-critics, “Whither Anarchism?” is something new and presents an impressive façade. Traditionally, as Lawrence Jarach has long maintained, many anarchists have a weakness for typescript. Nor are all of the other texts with which it was published devoid of interest, certainly not the fond reminiscences of Bookchin’s Stalinist childhood and Trotskyist youth; or the tantalizingly brief accounts of how the Director Emeritus heavily influenced the peace movement, the anti-nuclear movement, the women’s movement, the New Left, the counterculture, and the environmental movement. Here is information you cannot get anywhere else, as the participants and historians of those movements have neglected to mention his important role. They have neglected to mention him at all.
This book is written in the “ethnographic present,” without trying to keep pace with Bookchin’s continued free-fall into statism. He now admits that he failed to hijack the phrase “social anarchism” for his personalistic purposes. It only took him 45 years to realize that anarchism is “simply not a social theory,” and to denounce the anarchist “myth” and “illusion” that “power can actually cease to exist.”\footnote{Murray Bookchin, “The Communalist Project,” \emph{Communalism} No.2 (Nov. 2002), unpaginated, on-line, \href{http://www.communalism.org}{www.communalism.org}} His renegacy of course confirms my arguments, but they needed no confirmation.
Bookchin is the kind of writer you can come back to again and again and always find another mistake. That experience, frequently repeated, accounts for the length of this essay. The smaller part of it corroborates \emph{Anarchy after Leftism}. More of it enlarges the scope of the critique there. The entire Bookchin ideology is laid open, like a wound. I hope many readers come across something in my copious references which, like Bookchin, they might like to run down. The ever-growing legions of Bookchin-haters will welcome another demonstration that Bookchin’s unbridgeable chasm is between his ears. Laughter means, according to Nietzsche, being \emph{schadenfroh} — taking mischievous delight in another’s discomfiture, “but with a good conscience.”\footnote{Friedrich Nietzsche, “Seventy-five Aphorisms from Five Volumes,” in \emph{Basic Writings of Nietzsche}, tr. Walter Kaufmann (New York: The Modern Library, 1968), 172; see also Friedrich Nietzsche, \emph{The Gay Science}, ed. Bernard Williams \& tr. Josephine Nauckhoff (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).} Here is an example. Finally, there are these ponderable words by James Gallant: “Much ado about nothing beats nothing, hands down.”\footnote{“Pope Had More Vigor,” in \emph{Thus Spake the Corpse: An Exquisite Corpse Reader}, \emph{1988–1998}, ed. Andrei Codrescu \& Laura Rosenthal (2 vols.; Santa Rosa, CA: Black Sparrow Press, 1999–2000), 2: 71. I am deeply honored to be included here, ibid. at 2: 258–259.}
\chapter{Chapter 2. Getting Personal(istic)}
A decade ago, a Green observed that “Bookchin has a tendency to be vituperative in responses to criticism.”\footnote{Andrew McLaughlin, \emph{Regarding Nature: Industrialism and Deep Ecology} (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1993), 258 n. 43.} By now Bookchin is completely out of control. My book \emph{Anarchy after Leftism}, according to the Director Emeritus, teems with falsehoods so numerous “that to correct even a small number of them would be a waste of the reader’s time.” \emph{AAL} is “transparently motivated by a white-hot animosity toward [Bookchin],” in stark contrast to \emph{SALA}, which is transparently motivated by Bookchin’s own impersonal, disinterested quest for the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, so help him History. “So malicious are its invectives [sic]” that the Director Emeritus “will not dignify them with a reply.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 167.}
Even a cursory reading of \emph{SALA} — more than it merits — confirms that Bookchin himself is too high-minded to indulge in “invectives.” Never (except once) does he relegate David Watson and other anarcho-primitivists to “the lifestyle zoo,” an expression so demeaning and vicious that I wonder why I didn’t think of it first. Nor does he descend, as does my “gutter journalism [sic],” to the indiscriminate, malicious, and self-contradictory outpouring of such insults as “fascist,” “decadent,” “individualist,” “mystical,” “petit bourgeois,” “infantile,” “unsavory,” “personalistic,” “liberal,” “yuppie,” “lumpen,” “bourgeois,” “squirming,” “reactionary,” etc. Never does Bookchin, who is rationality incarnate, resort to these abusive epithets, except (a hundred times or so) as objective, scientifically validated characterizations of Lifestyle Anarchists.\footnote{My use of this term does not reflect any change in my opinion, set forth in \emph{Anarchy after Leftism}, that it is meaningless. My every use discredits it, but my text shall not be blemished by the ironic quotation marks which scar every page of Bookchin’s final books.}
The Lifestyle category is boldly and baldly designed to define the irreconcilably different as essentially the same to accomplish their common degradation. “It is part of the genius of a great leader to make adversaries of different fields appear as always belonging to one category only, because to weak and unstable characters the knowledge that there are various enemies will lead only too easily to incipient doubts as to their own cause,” as Adolf Hitler explained.\footnote{Adolf Hitler, \emph{Mein Kampf} (New York: Reynal \& Hitchcock, 1941), 152–153, quoted in Michael Velli [Fredy \& Lorraine Perlman], \emph{Manual for Revolutionary Leaders} (2d ed.; Detroit: Black \& Red, 1974), 67.} In this, if in nothing else, Bookchin is the Great Leader he has always schemed to be. “One of the basic principles of conspiritology,” according to Martin Cannon, “holds that \emph{everything you don’t like must be connected}.”\footnote{Martin Cannon, “Dan Brown versus History: Notes on the Da Vinci Code,” \emph{Paranoia} No.35 (Spring 2004), 56.} Aristotle, whom Bookchin purports to venerate, might have taught the ex-Director that “falsehoods are not all derived from a single identical set of principles: there are falsehoods which are the contraries of one another and cannot coexist.”\footnote{“Posterior Analytics,” in \emph{Introduction to Aristotle}, ed. Richard McKeon (New York: The Modern Library, 1947), 68. “Vices may be inconsistent with each other, but virtues never can.” “Christian Magnanimity,” in \emph{The Selected Writings of John Witherspoon}, ed. Thomas Miller (Carbondale \& Edwardsville, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1990), 117. Witherspoon, James Madison’s teacher, was the only clergyman to sign the Declaration of Independence.} Bookchin is a hard act to follow, except with a pooper-scooper.
Since Bookchin’s dialectic takes a little getting used to, consider another example. When he says that he will not dignify with a reply a critique full of numerous falsehoods and “intense and personalistic vilification,” such as mine, the reader unlearned in dialectics might naively suppose that Bookchin means that he will not dignify with a reply a critique full of numerous falsehoods and intense, personalistic vilification. Thus the Director Emeritus would never dignify with a reply a “scandalous hatchet job” whose “almost every paragraph” contains “vituperative attacks, manic denunciations, ad hominem characterizations, and even gossipy rumors” (like the ones Bookchin relates about John P. Clark) — namely, David Watson’s \emph{Beyond Bookchin}.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 169 (quoted), 218–220 (Clark’s political background), 223–225 (circumstances of Clark’s break with Bookchin).} And yet he \emph{does} dignify (if that’s the word for what he does) Watson’s book with 47 turgid pages of would-be rebuttal. Indeed, “almost every paragraph of \emph{BB} is either an insult or a lie\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 212.}”: even I could scarcely have surpassed it in depravity.
Once again I ask, what am I, chopped liver? (I wish Watson’s book was even a fraction as much fun as Bookchin makes it sound. Bookchin has given Watson a jacket blurb to die for.) But despair not, neophyte dialectician. Even a trained philosophy professor, avowed dialectician, and (for almost two decades) inner-circle Bookchin subaltern, John P. Clark, does not and — Bookchin belatedly relates — never did understand Dialectical Bookchinism. With the possible exception of his main squeeze Janet Biehl, only Bookchin is as yet a fully realized reasoning human who has mastered the dialectic and, deploying it masterfully, divines the “subjectivity” and “directionality” of the Universe itself.\footnote{Murray Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society: Paths to a Green Future} (Boston: South End Books \& Montreal, Canada: Black Rose Books, 1991), 37 [hereafter Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}]; Murray Bookchin, \emph{The Ecology of Freedom: The Emergence and Dissolution of Hierarchy} (Palo Alto, CA: Cheshire Books, 1982), 355–364.} The rest of us are best advised not to play with fire but rather to play it safe and simply believe whatever Bookchin tells us to this week.
If I had any reservations about the way I rudely and ruthlessly ridiculed the Director Emeritus in \emph{Anarchy after Leftism} — actually, I didn’t — “Whither Anarchism?” would have laid them to rest. In \emph{Beyond Bookchin}, David Watson responded a lot more respectfully to Bookchin than I did, and a lot more respectfully than Bookchin ever responds to anybody.\footnote{Bookchin’s pronounced incivility alienated the previous movement he sought to dominate, the Greens. Even a commentator who is very sympathetic to the ex-Director’s intellectual pretensions nonetheless admits, regarding him and his followers: “Their aggressive debating tactics have been criticized by other Greens and radical ecologists.” Michael E. Zimmerman, \emph{Contesting Earth’s Future: Radical Ecology and Postmodernity} (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994), 151. With a ploy now familiar to anarchists, Bookchin publicized himself by lambasting the better known leaders of Deep Ecology who were not even Greens, but “by 1991, the debate between deep ecology and social ecology had ceased to be of interest in the Greens.” Greta Gaard, \emph{Ecological Politics: Ecofeminists and the Greens} (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1998), 312 n. 12. With the Greens as now with the anarchists, Bookchin was profuse with accusations of irrationalism and fascism, and he is open about his divisive, us-vs.-them intent. Even the wimpy Greens eventually took his word for it and gave Bookchin to believe that they considered him “them.” I found frequent references to the Director Emeritus in the radical ecology literature up to about 1996, but none since, with one arresting exception. In 1993, Bookchin was anthologized in a volume about environmental philosophy. In the second edition (1998), he was dumped and replaced by John P. Clark! \emph{Environmental Philosophy: From Animal Rights to Radical Ecology}, ed. Michael E. Zimmerman (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998). In the latest such compilation, with 40 contributors, Bookchin is mentioned once and social ecology, unlike deep ecology, is ignored. \emph{Environmental Ethics: An Anthology}, ed. Andrew Light \& Holmes Rolston III (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2003).} A fat lot of good it did him. The ex-Director demonized Watson in the same hysterical terms he demonized me, but at much greater length. Bookchin isn’t remotely interested in being civil, reasonable or fair. To me, and not only to me, that was already obvious from \emph{SALA}. Watson let himself be played for a sucker. I can’t say I’m especially sympathetic, since Watson affects a holier-than-thou attitude only a little less unctuous than Bookchin’s. He and his fellow anarcho-liberal \emph{Fifth Estate} yuppies gave me the silent treatment long before the ex-Director did. What Nietzsche wrote covers the whole lot: “It also seems to me that the rudest word, the rudest letter are still more benign, more decent than silence.”\footnote{“Ecce Homo,” in Kaufmann, ed., \emph{Basic Writings of Nietzsche}, 685. Fritz the Niche continues with a diagnosis of Bookchin’s ill health: “Sickness itself \emph{is} a kind of \emph{ressentiment}.” Ibid., 686. I would add, “and vice versa.”} Perhaps no single word better sums up Bookchin the man than \emph{indecent}.
To correct even a small number of my errors, according to Bookchin, would be a waste of the reader’s time, unlike his correction of a large number of the errors of the miscreants Watson and Clark. The reader cannot be trusted to use his time wisely, since he uses it to read Bookchin. Therefore the Director Emeritus vets his own critics in his usual disinterested manner. The number “one” is, if I remember my arithmetic, as small as a whole number can get, yet it is big enough for Bookchin to draw “one sample” to “demonstrate the overall dishonesty of [my] tract.” Bookchin, the sometime champion of science, does not even know the difference between an example and a sample. One observation is, to a statistician, not a sample from which anything can be reliably inferred about even a population of two, any more than a coin coming up “heads” has any tendency to indicate whether next time it comes up heads or tails. But I am being hopelessly positivistic: the Director Emeritus disdains “logicians, positivists, and heirs of Galilean scientism.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 355. This is odd, because he denounces “the antirationalism of Paul Feyerabend’s fashionable antiscientism [sic].” Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 226. The ex-Director is too illiterate to notice he is paying Feyerabend a compliment. Scientism is “Excessive belief in the power of scientific knowledge and techniques.” It is “Freq. \emph{depreciative}.” “\emph{New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary [hereafter OED]}, q\Slash{}v “scientism.” Thus Bookchin himself espouses antiscientism.}
That someone has made one error has no tendency to prove that he has made “numerous” errors. Even Bookchin — for the first time, so far as I know — now admits that he made what he considers errors, indeed serious errors, in his earlier, positive characterizations of “organic” (primitive) societies.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 187–188; Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 44–61 \& \emph{passim}.} If one error is justification enough to dismiss an entire book from consideration, then by his own criterion almost every book by Bookchin must be dismissed from consideration, which is not such a bad idea. In fact, probably every book by anyone must be dismissed from consideration.
If my entire book-length critique is to be dismissed on the basis of one error, it should be a profoundly important error, one going to the fundamentals of Bookchin’s dichotomy, his posited “unbridgeable chasm” between Social Anarchism and Lifestyle Anarchism, or my more meaningful dichotomy between leftist and post-leftist anarchism. Instead, this denouncer of the “personalistic” preoccupations he attributes to the Lifestyle Anarchists is, as to me, exclusively indignant about my alleged errors in sketching his own personalistic political biography, as I do in chapter 1 of \emph{Anarchy after Leftism}. And even then, his only substantive quibble is with my referring to him as “a ‘dean’ at Goddard College (\emph{AAL}, p. 18), a position that, [Black] would have his readers believe, endows me with the very substantial income that I need in order to advance my nefarious ambitions,” whereas the truth is that Bookchin “ended [his] professional connections with Goddard College [as well as Ramapo College, which he also mentions] in 1981.” My citation to the 1995 Goddard College Off-Campus Catalog, “a rare document,” is an “outright fabrication,” as the Catalog does not identify Bookchin as a Dean.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 158. This statement is typical of Bookchin’s declining capacity to express himself. He doesn’t mean what he says, that the citation is an outright fabrication: the document “Goddard College 1995” does exist, as he had just confirmed. He meant to say that my alleged inference (that it supports the attribution of Deanly status) is an outright fabrication. Similar errors abound in the book. So do cliches, gratuitous or unwitting neologisms, grammatical errors, and sentence fragments, such as the long, clumsy, incomprehensible sentence fragment at Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 181 (last full paragraph, first [attempted] sentence). For some of the many similar defects in \emph{SALA}, see Black, \emph{AAL}, 104. The 1995 catalog may be a “rare document” by now — it was available upon request when \emph{AAL} came out — but the ex-Director has cited an older and even rarer document, “1992 Annual Meeting\Slash{}Summer Program Evaluation,” Institute for Social Ecology, Oct. 3, 1992, p. 9; minutes taken by Paula Emery; Janet Biehl files. Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 257 n. 55. It would be a wonder if 20 people have ever seen this document, of which Janet Biehl may well possess the only surviving copy.}
Indeed it does not. I never said it did. For Bookchin to claim otherwise is an outright fabrication. This is what I \emph{did} cite the Catalog for: “The material base for these superstructural effusions [i.e., the many books Bookchin cranked out in the 1980s] was Bookchin’s providential appointment as a Dean at Goddard College near Burlington, Vermont, a cuddle-college for hippies and, more recently, punks, with wealthy parents (cf. Goddard College 1995 [the Off-Campus Catalog]). He also held an appointment at Ramapo College. Bookchin, who sneers at leftists who have embarked upon ‘alluring university careers’ [\emph{SALA}, 67], is one of them.”\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 18.} I cited the Catalog, not to verify Bookchin’s academic career — I never suspected he would ever deny it, since he has flaunted it for so long — but rather in support of my characterization of what kind of a college Goddard College is, an expensive private college catering to the children of rich liberals (for 2003, annual tuition was \$9,100\footnote{Institute for Social Ecology, \emph{2003 Spring\Slash{}Summer Catalog} (Plainfield, VT: Institute for Social Ecology, 2003), 8.}). Maybe not, originally, an important point, but better a little truth than a big lie. Bookchin pretends that I was saying, in 1996, that he was \emph{then} a Dean at Goddard College. He supplies no reference, since there can be none, for this false attribution.
Still, if the credibility of my entire book turns on these three sentences, their truth assumes unwonted importance. Bookchin categorically asserts that he ended his professional connection with Ramapo College in 1981. But according to the jacket blurb for \emph{The Ecology of Freedom} (1982), he “is currently Professor of Social Ecology at Ramapo College in New Jersey.” By 1987, according to the jacket blurb for \emph{The Rise of Urbanization and the Decline of Citizenship}, he “is Professor Emeritus at the School of Environmental Studies, Ramapo College of New Jersey and Director Emeritus of the Institute for Social Ecology at Rochester, Vermont.” According to the 1994 Bookchin biography posted electronically “to Anarchy Archives on behalf of Murray Bookchin by Janet Biehl,” which remains unaltered in the years since I first read it, “in 1974, he [Bookchin] began teaching in Ramapo College in New Jersey, becoming full professor of social theory entering and retiring in 1983 in an emeritus status.” As all I said about that is that Bookchin \emph{held} (notice the past tense) an appointment at Ramapo College, and all I implied was that this was in the 1980s, Bookchin’s authorized spokeswoman and doxy confirms that I was right. She also confirms, contrary to Bookchin, that he did \emph{not} end his professional association with Ramapo College in 1981, but rather in 1983. Does it matter? According to Bookchin, everythig about him matters, so who is anyone else to say it doesn’t?
Then there is the affiliation with Goddard College. Now in referring to Bookchin as “the Dean,” I was merely following the custom of referring to a distinguished retiree by his highest achieved dignitary title, the way people refer to “President Clinton” or “Senator Dole.” Was my resort to this protocol, under the circumstances, ironic rather than honorific? Obviously. Bookchin is a self-important, pompous ass. He brings out the pie-throwing Groucho Marxist in me. Sure, I can also trounce him on his own sub-academic terms, and I did. So did Watson. But “beyond Bookchin” the pseudo-scholar is Bookchin the blowhard and Bookchin the bureaucrat. In a letter to me (April 28, 1996), C.A.L. Press publisher Jason McQuinn relates that “the first thing I did before I agreed to publish your book, was to call Goddard College to fact check the ‘Dean’ accusation. The first person to answer didn’t know who the hell he was, but someone else in the room confirmed that he had been such.” (I’d earlier made the same phone call and gotten the same answer.)
Bookchin’s stunning expose of my dishonesty rests, at best, on a pissant terminological quibble. As Janet Biehl says, “In 1974 he co-founded \emph{and directed} the Institute for Social Ecology in Plainfield, Vermont, which went on to acquire an international reputation for its advanced courses in ecophilosophy, social theory, and alternative technology that reflect his ideas.” (I wonder what tripped-out moneybags got conned into funding that sweet set-up.) For whatever legal or administrative reasons, the ISE was set up as an entity formally distinct from Goddard College, but for all practical purposes — as Bookchin would say, “in effect” — it was the graduate school of Goddard College. Thus David Watson in \emph{Beyond Bookchin} made what he undoubtedly considered a noncontroversial reference to “the Institute for Social Ecology at Goddard College.”\footnote{Watson, \emph{Beyond Bookchin}, 38 n. 21.} Bookchin, who objected to everything else Watson said about him, did not object to this. In almost the same words, Ulrike Heider writes: “In 1974 he founded the Institute for Social Ecology at Goddard College in Plainfield, Vermont.”\footnote{Ulrike Heider, \emph{Anarchism: Left, Right, and Green} (San Francisco, CA: City Lights Books, 1994), 60. The point of view of this noxious book is well expressed by the title of the German original: \emph{Die Narren der Freiheit: Anarchisten in den USA Heute}, “The Fools of Freedom: Anarchists in the USA Today.” I’m surprised AK Press didn’t publish it.} Bookchin, who has strongly taken issue with everything else Heider had to say about him, has said nothing about this. Writing in 1993, Victor Ferkiss states that Bookchin “runs the Institute of Social Ecology at Goddard College in Vermont.”\footnote{Victor Ferkiss, \emph{Nature, Technology, and Society: Cultural Roots of the Environmental Crisis} (New York \& London: New York University Press, 1993), 212.} This is how the Director Emeritus signed the preface to \emph{The Limits of the City} (1974): “Murray Bookchin, Social Ecology Studies Program, Goddard College.” And this is how he signed the introduction to \emph{The Spanish Anarchists} (1977): “Murray Bookchin\Slash{}November, 1976\Slash{}Ramapo College of New Jersey\Slash{}Mahwah, New Jersey\Slash{}Goddard College, Plainfield, Vermont.”\footnote{Murray Bookchin, \emph{The} \emph{Limits of the City} (New York: Harper \& Row, Colophon Books, 1974), xi; Murray Bookchin, \emph{The Spanish Anarchists: The Heroic Years, 1868–1936} (New York: Harper Colophon, 1978), 11.}
The administrator who has the title “Director” at the ISE has the title “Dean” at most other post-secondary schools. That’s why Goddard College spokesmen vaguely remember Bookchin as a dean. So Bookchin was a dean whether or not he was a Dean. And his “professional connection” with Goddard\Slash{}ISE persisted at least until 1994 when, as Biehl then reported, “he still gives two core courses at the Institute for Social Ecology each summer, where he has the status of director emeritus.“\footnote{The preface to a 1994 book is signed “Murray Bookchin, Institute for Social Ecology, Plainfield Vermont 05667, February 28, 1993.” Murray Bookchin, \emph{To Remember Spain: The Anarchist and Syndicalist Revolution of 1936} (Edinburgh, Scotland \& San Francisco, CA: AK Press, 1994), 2.} As a matter of fact, it persisted at least to 2003. The Spring\Slash{}Summer 2003 Catalog listed the Director Emeritus as, well, the Director Emeritus in the faculty. listing He was scheduled to lecture on “Ecology and Society” in the summer. The catalog also confirms the former Goddard\Slash{}ISE connection. The credentials listed for ISE faculty member Michael J. Cuba is “B.A., Goddard College\Slash{}ISE”; for two ISE faculty members, Arthur Foelsche and Darini Nicholas, “M.A., Goddard College\Slash{}ISE.”\footnote{Institute for Social Ecology, \emph{2002 Catalog} (Plainfield, VT: Institute for Social Ecology, 2002), 6 (with photograph), 13, 14; ISE, \emph{2003 Spring\Slash{}Summer Catalog,} 17, 18. Apparently the Goddard connection ended. The only ISE degree program then mentioned ws a B.A. program through Burlington College. Currently (2004), the ISE offers an M.A. program (MAP) through Prescott College: “The cost of this program includes the regular MAP tuition (currently \$5,490 per term), the ISE fee of \$800 per term, plus additional courses attended in residence at the ISE.” ISE, “Master of Arts Program in Social Ecology” (2003). In-resident fees are apparently \$310\Slash{}credit. ISE, “2004 Winter Intensives at the Institute for Social Ecology” (2003). The minimum fees for the 2-year M.A. are thus \$25,160, plus additional thousands for in-resident coursework, as of six years ago.} Bookchin’s pretext for disregarding my critique is therefore a lie. Before I finish, I will have proven many more.
Out of consideration for Bookchin’s feelings, I herein refer to him, not as the Dean, but as the ex-Director or the Director Emeritus. He has no excuse for ignoring me \emph{now}.
Let us recur to \emph{why} I devoted all of several pages out of 140 to the ex-Director’s bureaucratic and academic career, which spanned a quarter of a century. One immediate purpose was simply to flag Bookchin’s gross hypocrisy in denouncing leftists who embarked upon “alluring academic careers”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 67.} when he had done the same thing himself for over two decades. A broader purpose, opening out from that, was to challenge what, if anything, Bookchin meant by his shotgun Marxist epithet “bourgeois.” If it is an objective category of class analysis, then Bookchin (I suggested) — as a salaried professional and order-giving bureaucrat — was a bourgeois himself,\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 28.} unlike at least some of those he reviles as bourgeois, such as John Zerzan (a babysitter) and L. Susan Brown (an office worker), who are objectively proletarians. But if the ex-Director’s use of the word is not objective and scientific, if he is not flexing his mental muscles — the “muscularity of thought” he says he brought to the mushminded, ungrateful Greens\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 18, citing Murray Bookchin, “Thinking Ecologically: A Dialectical Approach,” \emph{Our Generation} 18(2) (March 1987), 3.} — then whatever does he mean by “bourgeois”? In what way is what he calls Lifestyle Anarchism bourgeois whereas what he calls Social Anarchism is not? He never says. For a devolved Marxist like Bookchin, “bourgeois” (and “fascist”) are, as H.L. Mencken remarked, just “general terms of abuse.”\footnote{H.L. Mencken, \emph{The American Language: Supplement One} (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962), 306. “The term ‘bourgeois,’ having become one of the least precise in political and historical writing, requires definition.” C.B. MacPherson, \emph{The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke} (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), 162.}
The Director Emeritus, with typical obtuseness, never notices the obvious irony in my incessantly referring to him as “the Dean,” “presumably on the assumption that mere repetition will make my title a reality.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 168: “presumably on the assumption” is redundant.} Actually, it was on the assumption that mere repetition would make his stomach sour. In \emph{SALA}, Bookchin refers to Hakim Bey (the pseudonym of Peter Lamborn Wilson) at least 27 times as “the Bey,”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 20–26.} presumably on the assumption that mere repetition will make his title a reality. Hakim Bey is not a Bey. Nowadays nobody is. A Bey was the governor of a province or district in the Ottoman Turkish Empire, which ceased to exist long before Wilson was born. As Bookchin truly says, “one doesn’t have to be very bright or knowledgeable to make it as a professor these days.”\footnote{Murray Bookchin, “Yes! — Whither Earth First?” \emph{Left Green Perspectives} No.10 (Sept. 1988).}
I \emph{might} have erred in \emph{Anarchy after Leftism} in once referring to Bookchin as “high income,” but even that remains to be seen. Bookchin can always release his tax returns to settle the point. Undoubtedly his income fell when he retired, as does everyone’s, but from what to what? In addition to his salaries from two colleges, Bookchin collected royalties from the sales of over a dozen books (and, as he says, advances on others), and collected fees from lecturing at (his own words) every major university in the United States. I have no idea whether he managed all this money wisely, I only point out that he must have had a nice chunk of change to manage — at least enough that he should, in decency, forbear from class-baiting. I stand by my original assertion that Bookchin probably has a higher income, even now, than any individual he denounces, except maybe John P. Clark. It’s certainly higher than mine. Whatever his income, the fact remains that Bookchin is a bourgeois (in semi-retirement) whereas some anarchists he calls “bourgeois” are workers, which was already a high probability at the time Bookchin claimed otherwise. And he’s \emph{still lying about this.}
In “Whither Anarchism?” the narrow, impoverished critique of \emph{SALA} is further foreshortened. In \emph{SALA}, the Director Emeritus startled anarchists, whom he had neglected for many years, by abruptly departing the Green fields of Social Ecology for the killing fields of Social Anarchism. He argued — or rather, he declaimed — that a tendency he calls Lifestyle Anarchism, the sinister shadow of Social Anarchism, has since the 60s increasingly supplanted the latter, a usurpation he attributes to a “climate of social reaction” which has prevailed since the 60s. Curiously, this was the period in which almost all the ex-Director’s own books were published, including all of them with even a little explicit anarchist content (several had none). Apparently the climate of social reaction proved as bracing for Bookchin as for the Lifestyle Anarchists, for whom he never had a discouraging word until 1996. But in his reply to anarchist critics (or rather, to the weakest ones), the Director Emeritus addresses, not criticism of his Social Anarchism, but criticism of his Social Ecology — which was not the subject of \emph{SALA}. And even on that plane, his rebuttal dwindles to not much more than denouncing David Watson and John P. Clark as mystics, which, even if true, is only name-calling, unresponsive to their concrete criticisms of his Thought. And not even Bookchin is insolent enough to accuse \emph{me} of mysticism. I’m too mean to be a mystic.
The Director Emeritus and diviner of world-historical directionality disdains to debate me directly, except as to details of his biography, already dealt with here to his disadvantage. Ignoring me didn’t work for him before and it won’t work now.\footnote{Like Jason McQuinn, I opined that I should have been one of the ex-Director’s targets and was likely spared out of fear of a rejoinder. Black, \emph{AAL}, 14; Jason McQuinn, “Preface,” ibid., 8–9. I have just confirmed that I was, in fact, among the foremost Lifestyle Anarchist delinquents: “Even anarchism, once a formidable tradition, has been repackaged by Hakim Bey, Bob Black, David Watson and Jason McQuinn into a merchandisable boutique ideology that panders to petit-bourgeois tastes for naughtiness and eccentricity.” Murray Bookchin, “Theses on Social Ecology in an Age of Reaction,” \emph{Left Green Perspectives} No.33 (Oct. 1995). That I alone of these merchants of naughty was unmentioned in the \emph{SALA} diatribe which the ex-Director must have been writing at the same time confirms his cowardly fear of me.} My summary dismissal is only an extreme expression of his essay’s monumental lack of proportion. In “Whither Anarchism?” he says nothing about work, wage-labor, organization, or even his pet preoccupation, municipal politics, but he devotes two pages (there was more in the online version) to debating with Watson the political meaning of a Goya engraving.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 208–210.}
The Director Emeritus declines to explain or justify his previous abuse of the epithet “bourgeois” — in fact, he makes even more use of it, as if other words are failing him — but spares ten pages to denounce Taoism.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 220–222, 230–237.} All of his gossipy, personalistic, self-serving stories — especially concerning John P. Clark’s decades of disciplehood — are, even if accurate, not a reply to critics. Judging Bookchin’s priorities from what he finds important to discuss, he is much less interested in the future of anarchism than in the future of his reputation. The irony is that \emph{SALA} and the reaction to it and now to \emph{Anarchism, Marxism and the Future of the Left} have surely done more damage, and much sooner, to Bookchin’s anarchist reputation than has its molecular erosion by Lifestyle Anarchist tendencies.
Some of the ex-Director’s ongoing obsessions are of only symptomatic interest to me. I don’t read Spanish and I don’t know anything about Goya. Having read very little of Lewis Mumford, I continue to stay out of the unseemly custody struggle for his corpse — I meant to say, his corpus — between Bookchin and Watson. (Although I was amused to discover, quite by accident, that Mumford espoused a version of the primitive-affluence thesis!\footnote{Lewis Mumford, “Utopia, The City and the Machine,” \emph{Daedelus} 94 (Spring 1965), 272–273 — misdating primitive affluence, however, to the period of Neolithic agriculture.}) I’m willing to grant that Bookchin understood Mumford well enough to steal Social Ecology from him, although he also stole the name \emph{and} the concept from someone else.\footnote{John Clark, “A Social Ecology,” in Zimmerman, ed., \emph{Environmental Philosophy}, 418; John P. Clark, \emph{The Philosophical Anarchism of William Godwin} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977), 197–198; see Lewis Mumford, \emph{Technics and Civilization} (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1934). In 1976, Bookchin acknowledged that social ecology was “a term the late E.A. Gutkind coined a quarter of a century ago in a masterful discussion on community,” \emph{viz.}, E.A. Gutkind, \emph{Community and Environment: A Discourse on Social Ecology} (New York: Philosophical Library, 1954); Murray Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society} (Montreal, Canada: Black Rose Books, 1980), 108. Gutkind’s prescription became Bookchin’s: communities of “mutual aid, immediateness of personal relations, smallness of scale, and reciprocal adaptation of man and environment in a spirit of understanding and insight, not a fight of man against Nature” — in a stateless world. Gutkind, \emph{Community and Environment}, 17.\protect\endgraf Originally, Bookchin used the phrase without understanding it, as when, in 1965, he spoke of “a crisis in social ecology,” \emph{i.e.}, social ecology was an environmental condition, not a theory. Murray Bookchin, “Ecology and Revolutionary Thought,” in \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism} (San Francisco, CA: Ramparts Press, 1971), 62. Actually, Gutkind didn’t coin the phrase either. It’s been around since at least the 1930s, and a book by that title came out in 1940. Radhakamal Mukerjee, “The Concepts of Distribution and Succession in Social Ecology,” \emph{Social Forces} 11(1) (Oct. 1932): 1–7; Radhakamal Mukerjee, \emph{Social Ecology} (London: Longmans, Green \& Co., 1940). \emph{Human} ecology, a long established field, studies relationships between humans and their environment, including other people. It subdivides into cultural and social ecology; the latter refers to “the way the social structure of a human group is a product of the group’s total environment.” Bernard Campbell, \emph{Human Ecology: The Story of Our Place in Nature from Prehistory to the Present} (New York: Aldine Publishing Co., 1983), 6–7, 7 (quoted); \emph{e.g.}, \emph{The Life Region: The Social and Cultural Ecology of Sustainable Development,} ed. Per Raberg (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), section “The Science of Social Ecology,” 430–436; F.E. Emery \& E.L. Trist, \emph{Towards a Social Ecology: Contextual Appreciation of the Future in the Present} (London \& New York: Plenum Press, 1973). Amusingly, in 1978, Bookchin’s nemesis Marshall Sahlins was referred to in an anthology on urbanism as a social ecologist! Joyce Aschenbrenner \& Lloyd R. Collins, “Introduction,” \emph{The Process of Urbanism: A Multidisciplinary Approach}, ed. Joyce Aschenbrenner \& Lloyd R. Collins (The Hague, Netherlands \& Paris, France: Moutin Publishers, 1978), 5. The reason is that the editors used social ecology and cultural ecology interchangeably, and Sahlins was originally a cultural ecologist, as is evident in his first book, \emph{Social Stratification in Polynesia} (1958). By 1978, though, they should have known that Sahlins had become a culturalist, as evidenced by \emph{Culture and Practical Reason} (1976). Social Ecology is thus a technical term with an established academic meaning which is quite other than Bookchin’s ideology. The scientists have never heard of him. What Bookchin’s peddling might be better called Socialist Ecology.} I don’t think that trees talk to each other, something Watson reportedly does not rule out, but I do think that no tree could be much more wooden-headed than Murray Bookchin.
Only a little more interesting to me is John P. Clark’s opinion that Taoism is, or could be, compatible with anarchism. Offhand it looks like it all depends on what you mean by Taoism and what you mean by anarchism. If this seems like a banal observation, well, that reflects my level of interest in the issue. I notice, though, that many eminent anarchists, including the orthodox anarcho-syndicalist Rudolf Rocker, have considered Taoism anarchist. So did Herbert Read.\footnote{Rudolf Rocker, \emph{Anarcho-Syndicalism} (London: Pluto Press, 1989), 12; Herbert Read, \emph{Anarchy \& Order: Essays in Politics} (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1970), 205.} The Taoist sage Chuang Tzu said that there must be no government: “If the nature of the world is not distracted, why should there be any governing of the world?”\footnote{\emph{The Complete Writings of Chuang Tzu} (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968), 114; quoted in Read, \emph{Anarchy \& Order,} 84.} One the other hand, even a cursory scan of the text reveals many instances of advice to rulers. In fact, most surviving Taoist texts, like many Confucianist texts, are advice on good government.\footnote{Burt Alpert, \emph{Inversions} (San Francisco, CA: self-published, 1972), 262.} Still, no anarchists have expressed the ex-Director’s opinion that the \emph{Tao te Ching} is a tyrants’ manual comparable to Plato’s \emph{Republic}.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 232.}
Indeed, despite what he says now, in the 60s Bookchin saw something politically positive in Taoism: “Drawing from early rock-and-roll music, from the beat movement, the civil rights struggles, the peace movement, \emph{and even from the naturalism of neo-Taoist and neo-Buddhist cults (however unsavory this may be to the ‘Left’)}, the Youth Culture has pieced together a \emph{life-style} [!] that is aimed at the internal system of domination that hierarchical society so viciously uses to bring the individual into partnership with his\Slash{}her own enslavement.”\footnote{Murray Bookchin, “The Youth Culture: An Anarcho-Communist View,” in \emph{Hip Culture: Six Essays on Its Revolutionary Potential} (New York: Times Change Press, 1970), 59 [emphasis added, obviously]. This was where Bookchin assured his readers that “Marxian predictions that the Youth Culture would fade into a comfortable accomodation with the system have proven to be false.” Ibid., 60. Ten years later, Bookchin toiled to explain away his false prophesy: “this collection does not stand in any contradiction to my earlier sixties collection of essays, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism”} — the counterculture is not dead, just “aborted.” Murray Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society} (Montreal, Canada: Black Rose Books, 1980), 23. And today?} I am provisionally inclined to accept George Woodcock’s judgment that calling Lao-Tse an anarchist is a mythmaking attempt to invest anarchism with the authority of an illustrious pedigree.\footnote{George Woodcock, \emph{Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements} (Cleveland, OH: The World Publishing Company, 1962), 39.} I suspect the claim to be ahistorical or at least anachronistic. But I am not about to place any credence in the ex-Professor’s contrary professions, familiar as I am with the source. Bookchin has a way of discrediting even correct views by occasionally agreeing with them. But this does not happen very often.
The Director Emeritus claims that he could “never accept Clark’s Taoism as part of social ecology” — but he kept his criticisms private so long as Clark acted in public as his loyal adjutant. According to Bookchin, “that my association with Clark lasted as long as it did is testimony to my silent endurance of his Taoist claptrap and my distinctly nondogmatic tolerance of views not in accordance with my own.” Such stoic fortitude! Such latitudinarian generosity! “But in the late 1980s, as this type of mystical quietism gained more and more influence into [sic] the ecology movement, I could no longer remain silent.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 222–223.} So then (the reader has been primed to expect) — with regret the Director Emeritus went public with his critique of Clark, notwithstanding that Clark was “widely assumed” to be the ex-Director’s “spokesman,” perhaps because “from the mid-1970s until early 1993, the author was a close associate of [his]”?
Er — actually, not. As the ex-Director goes on to say, in the late 1980s he critiqued, not Clark, but deep ecologist Dave Foreman of \emph{Earth First!} Whatever Foreman’s failings, and they are many, he was no Taoist. Bookchin never openly repudiated Clark’s dabbling in Taoism until Clark broke with Bookchin in 1993. The Director’s “silent endurance” — silence, like “quietism,” is a quality Bookchin does not conspicuously display — looks more like opportunism than tolerance. Either way, Bookchin must never have thought that Taoism was any kind of serious threat to, or important influence on, contemporary anarchism — and it isn’t.
It does the Director Emeritus no good to disinvite me to his (vanguard) party. Erisian that I am, I’m crashing it. First I dispose of his misappropriated, misunderstood distinction between negative and positive freedom, which he fumbles as he always does when he affects intellectual sophistication. Next, as in \emph{Anarchy after Leftism}, I set forth what has become a comprehensive refutation of Bookchin’s prejudices against primitive society. These are a slurry of Christian moralism, vulgarized 18\textsuperscript{th} century irreligion, Marxisant 19\textsuperscript{th} century social evolutionism, Judaic blood tabus, and pure racism, and embellished with a personalistic preoccupation with old age. Not every point of rebuttal is highly important, but I am not doing all this just to show how many facts the Director Emeritus got wrong or faked. Believe me, I only scratch the surface. I am also debunking, root and branch, a rhetorical style — call it Lie Style Anarchism — a malignant Marxist import, alien to anarchist discourse but tempting to the neo-platformist and workerist anarchists closest to the authoritarian left. They must be taught not to count on their irrelevance to secure them against comprehensive critique. Finally, although it’s hard to believe, there’s a Bookchin personality cult kept up by, at this point, mainly his publishers, who have so heavily invested in this fading star that all they can do is talk him up as if they weren’t dreading the arrival of his next manuscript. They are fettered to a corpse, but here I provide the key.
\chapter{Chapter 3. The Power of Positive Thinking, or, Positive Thinking of Power}
Anarchism is a philosophy of freedom. Other philosophies which are older, like liberalism, or better funded, like libertarianism, make the same claim, but they shrink from the logical, unqualified assertion of liberty against its antithesis: the state. To that extent, anarchists easily have a better understanding of freedom than its other, deeply conflicted proponents. But better is not necessarily good enough. The meaning of freedom is something anarchists more often take for granted than articulate, much less analyse. We should think more about this.
Bookchin often tries to impress his readers with forays into other fields, including philosophy. And indeed his philosophic dabbling is revealing. Since writing on this topic, the Director Emeritus has finally agreed with my conclusion that he is not an anarchist.\footnote{Murray Bookchin, “The Communalist Project,” \emph{Communalism} No.2 (Nov. 2002), \href{http://www.communalism.org}{www.communalism.org} (unpaginated); \emph{cf.} Black, \emph{AAL}, ch. 5.} For once we can take him at his word, and he is a man of many, many words, many, many of which he does not understand. One of these words is \emph{freedom}.
Some of the ex-Director’s readers must be puzzled by his terms negative and positive freedom, especially if they know what they mean. Negative freedom is said to be “freedom\emph{ from},” whereas positive freedom is “a fleshed-out concept of \emph{freedom for}.” Bookchin does not define these opaque expressions, he simply assigns them as gang colors. Lifestyle Anarchists “celebrate” negative freedom — also known, in his argot, as autonomy — in keeping with their bourgeois individualist liberal heritage. (What he calls) Social Anarchism, in contrast, “espouses a substantive ‘freedom \emph{to}.’” It “seeks to create a free society, in which humanity as a whole — and hence the individual as well — enjoys the advantages of free political and economic institutions.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA,} 4. In Bookchin’s world, nobody he disagrees with just \emph{believes} something, he always “celebrates” it, with the connotation of dizzy euphoria.} He blithely ignores the fact that liberal philosophers espousing negative freedom — such as the utilitarians, the ultimate social engineers — have always assigned the highest importance to designing what they considered free political and economic institutions.\footnote{\emph{E.g.}, John Rawls, \emph{A Theory of Justice} (rev. ed.; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Belknap Press, 1999); Robert Nozick, \emph{Anarchy, State, and Utopia} (New York: Basic Books, 1974), ch. 10; F.A. Hayek, \emph{Law, Legislation and Liberty} (3 vols.; Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1973–1979), 3: 105–127 (of course, none of these gentlemen is a utilitarian).}
The Director Emeritus says the Greek word \emph{autonomia} means independence (of other people) — but this is one of his many etymological bumbles. The word means self-government, “having its own laws, f. AUTO + nomos law.” Another dictionary renders the word as “political freedom,” with a different Greek word, \emph{eleutheria}, for “freedom.” It is something collective. Yet for the ex-Director, despite its etymology \emph{and} dictionary meaning, \emph{autonomy} is the object only of negative freedom. However, autonomy is a better word for positive than for negative freedom. My reading is also supported by the fact that the ancient Greeks, who coined the word, highly valued collective self-government but lacked the very concept of individual rights.\footnote{\emph{New Shorter OED}, q\Slash{}v “autonomy” (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 144–145 \& \emph{passim}; S.C. Woodhouse, \emph{English-Greek Dictionary} (London: Routledge \& Kegan Paul, 1959), q\Slash{}v “freedom”; Martin Ostwald, “Shares and Rights: ‘Citizenship’ Greek Style and American Style,” in \emph{Demokratia: A Conversation on Democracies, Ancient and Modern}, ed. Josiah Ober \& Charles Hedrick (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 54–57; Robert W. Wallace, “Law, Freedom, and the and the Concept of Citizens’ Rights in Democratic Athens,” in ibid., 106–107.}
The Director Emeritus has made a category mistake, representing facts as belonging to one type when they belong to another.\footnote{Gilbert Ryle, \emph{The Concept of Mind} (New York: Barnes \& Noble, 1949), 16.} What a concept of freedom means and what kind of society would realize it are questions of a different order. And Bookchin’s particular formulations are also empirically false in obvious ways. The celebration of individual freedom is not the definition of Lifestyle Anarchism, for liberals and laissez-faire libertarians also celebrate individual freedom, but they are not anarchists.\footnote{As Bookchin confirms, with respect to the libertarians, in \emph{SALA}, 5, and in \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 160, with respect to the liberals.} The quest for a free society cannot define Social Anarchism, for, as Bookchin says, “many lifestyle anarchists eagerly plunge into direct actions that are ostensibly [sic] intended to achieve socialistic goals.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 162. The ex-Director just had to throw in “ostensibly.” He’s constitutionally incapable of acknowledging that anyone he disagrees with might be acting in good faith. Yet by his own admission he’s a poor judge of character, having misjudged the blackguard Clark for so many years. Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 217–225.} Social Anarchists may be right and Lifestyle Anarchists may be wrong, but not by definition, especially in the absence of definitions.
Although he never explains what these phrases mean, the Director Emeritus finally says where he got them: Sir Isaiah Berlin’s well-known essay “Two Concepts of Liberty.” Although the distinction was at one time much discussed by philosophers, “it has been much criticized,” and the two concepts are really “not clearly differentiated.” Bernard Williams calls the distinction misleading in several respects, “especially if it is identified, as it is sometimes by Berlin [and always by Bookchin], with a distinction between ‘freedom from’ and ‘freedom to.’”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 4 (no attribution); Isaiah Berlin, \emph{Two Concepts of Liberty} (Oxford: at the Clarendon Press, 1958); Peter Jones, “Freedom,” in \emph{Encyclopedia of Democratic Thought}, ed. Paul Barry Clarke \& Joe Foweracker (London \& New York: Routledge, 2001), 293, 296; Bernard Williams, “From Freedom to Liberty: The Construction of a Political Virtue,” \emph{Philosophy \& Public Affairs} 30(1) (Winter 2001), 8 (quoted). The distinction was originated by Benjamin Constant, a liberal, in 1819. Benjamin Constant, “The Liberty of the Ancients Compared With That of the Moderns,” \emph{Selected Writings}, ed. Biancamaria Fontana (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 309–328.} Generally, negative freedom means freedom from prevention of action, from interference, or as John P. Clark says, “freedom from coercion.”\footnote{John P. Clark, \emph{Max Stirner’s Egoism} (London: Freedom Press, 1976), 59. Note that this book was published when Clark (alias “Max Cafard”) was a Bookchinist. I suspect this was where, and why, Bookchin came across the distinction. Ibid., ch. 7. The conclusion of Clark, who clearly does not know what to make of Stirner, seems to be that Stirner espouses both negative and positive freedom and criticizes both negative and positive freedom. Ibid., 68–89. Contrary to Bookchin, Stirner’s philosophy isn’t anti-society. Even Daniel Guerin, an even more Marxist anarchist than Bookchin, knows that. Daniel Guerin, \emph{Anarchism: From Theory to Practice} (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970), 29–30. It is unlikely that Bookchin ever read Stirner.}
Positive freedom is the freedom — I think “capability” or “power” is the better word — to accomplish one’s purposes. The reader who finds this confusing or hair-splitting has my sympathy. How real is freedom of choice with nothing worth choosing? How is the power to act possible without some protection from interference? Negative freedom, freedom from interference, is more important than positive freedom if only because it is the latter’s precondition.\footnote{Giovanni Baldelli, \emph{Social Anarchism} (Chicago, IL \& New York: Aldine-Atherton, 1971), 72; Jones, “Freedom,” 294 (pointing out that freedom to vote is a negative freedom essential to democracy).} I find useful Gerald C. MacCallum’s popular proposal “to regard freedom as always one and the same triadic relation, but recognize that various contending parties disagree with each other in what they understand to be the ranges of the term variables.” Freedom is a triadic relationship among an agent, “‘preventing conditions’ [such] as constraints, restrictions, interferences, and barriers,” and “actions or conditions of character or circumstance.”\footnote{Gerald C. MacCullum, Jr., “Negative and Positive Freedom,” \emph{Philosophical Review} 76 (July 1967), 312, 314. His “claim is only about what makes talk concerning the freedom of agents intelligible,” ibid., 314, and I acknowledge that there are intelligible ways of speaking of freedom which fall outside the formulation, such as freedom in the sense of political participation. John Gray, “On Negative and Positive Liberty,” in \emph{Conceptions of Liberty in Political Philosophy}, ed. Zbigniew Pelczynski and John Gray (London: The Athlone Press, 1984), 326. I prefer to refer to democracy as democracy, not freedom or political freedom, so as not to beg the question of democracy’s relation to freedom in the personal sense. The concept of freedom should not be identified with what Bookchin calls the forms of freedom by definitional fiat. The ex-Director’s beloved Athenian citizens, for instance, enjoyed political freedom but were almost entirely without personal freedom. Black, \emph{AAL}, 66; Alfred Zimmern, \emph{The Greek Commonwealth: Politics and Economics in Fifth-Century Athens} (5\textsuperscript{th} ed.; New York: The Modern Library, 1931), 169–170 \& n.1; Wilhelm von Humboldt, \emph{The Limits of State Action}, ed. J.W. Burrow (Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 1993), 47.}
What Sir Isaiah did make quite clear was his judgment as to the political implications of the two concepts. Writing during the Cold War, he was strongly committed to the West.\footnote{Michael Ignatieff, \emph{Isaiah Berlin: A Life} (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1998), 199, 231. In 1951, Berlin assisted British Intelligence in its search for academic accomplices of the Communist defector Guy Burgess.} Negative freedom, he contended, implies limits on state action, but positive freedom is totalitarian in tendency.\footnote{Berlin, \emph{Two Concepts of Liberty}, 6.} At least since Rousseau, many theorists of positive freedom have, like Bookchin, equated freedom with identification with the general will. Real freedom consists, not in unconstrained individual indulgence, but in fulfilling one’s — that is, everyone’s — true nature. In the case of humans, rising above their animal origins, self-realization occurs in and through the social whole. As Bookchin has approvingly (but falsely) written, “Bakunin emphatically prioritized the social over the individual.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 5.} It can happen that the individual, as Rousseau put it, can and should be forced to be free. I do not care for the prospect of society prioritizing me.
Anarchism is nothing if it does not transcend this dichotomy. Bookchin himself once said that his imaginal urban revolution expressed a demand for both, and he authorized John P. Clark, then his subaltern, to represent him that way.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 335; Clark, \emph{Philosophical Anarchism of William Godwin}, 313.} Negative freedom is not necessarily anarchist — Berlin is no anarchist — but positive freedom, Berlin thinks, is necessarily authoritarian. This of course is diametrically opposed to Bookchin’s use of the distinction, which explains why the Director Emeritus keeps the specifics of Berlin’s argument out of his own. Bookchin himself admits that his is not the mainstream anarchist position: “Essentially, however, anarchism as a whole advanced what Isaiah Berlin has called ‘negative freedom,’ that is to say, a formal ‘freedom \emph{from},’ rather than a substantive freedom \emph{to}.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 4.} But Berlin does not equate negative freedom with formal freedom and positive freedom with substantive freedom. That’s transparently sleight of hand. Everybody wants substantive freedom. The question is how to get it.
Berlin’s own census of major philosophers of freedom shows that his distinction is no predictor of their politics. Adherents of negative freedom include Occam, Erasmus, Hobbes, Locke, Bentham, Constant, J.S. Mill, de Tocqueville, Jefferson, Burke, and Paine. Hobbes \emph{and} Locke? Burke \emph{and} Paine? What use is a classification that puts Paine on the same side as Burke but the opposite side from Rousseau? Had Rousseau lived to see the French Revolution, he, not Paine, would have been its greatest defender against Burke, its greatest critic. There is hardly an adherent on the list who does not sometimes sound like he espouses positive freedom, including the archetypal philosopher of negative freedom, Locke: “So that, however it may be mistaken, \emph{the end of Law} is not to abolish or restrain, but \emph{to preserve and enlarge Freedom}.”\footnote{John Locke, \emph{Two Treatises of Government} (rev. ed.; New York: Mentor Books, 1968), 348, quoted in MacCallum, “Negative and Positive Freedom,” 322 n. 9. “Locke is much closer here than was once recognized to Rousseau’s position that men can be compelled to be free, compelled by the law of the legislative which they have consented to set up.” Peter Laslett, “Introduction” to \emph{Two Treatises}, 126.} Wilhelm von Humboldt thought the purpose of human life is self-development, and that “social union” is a means by which individuals realize themselves and one another. This sounds like the language of positive freedom with a German accent. But von Humboldt, like his admirer J.S. Mill, held that provision of security, the one condition of self-development which an individual cannot obtain by his own unaided efforts, is the only proper state function. And Charles Taylor, a philosopher of positive freedom, thinks that Mill may belong in that camp.\footnote{Von Humboldt, \emph{Limits of State Action}, chs. 2 \& 4; Charles Taylor, “What’s Wrong With Negative Liberty?” in \emph{Contemporary Political Philosophy: An Anthology}, ed. Robert E. Goodin \& Philip Pettit (Oxford \& Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1997), 418.} I think maybe de Tocqueville does too.
Adherents of positive freedom include Plato, Epictetus, St. Ambrose, Montesquieu, Spinoza, Kant, Herder, Rousseau, Hegel, Fichte, Marx, Bukharin, Comte, Carlyle, T.H. Green, F.H. Bradley, and Bosanquet. Plato, for example, is representative of the ancient Greek “‘positive’ conception of freedom as obedience to right authority.”\footnote{MacCallum, “Negative and Positive Freedom,” 321 n. 7; Mulgan, “Liberty in Ancient Greece,” 19 (quoted).} Here again, the attribution falters whenever looked into closely. As Locke is the ultimate negative freedomseeker, Kant is the ultimate positive freedomseeker, and Kant makes the negative\Slash{}positive distinction explicitly. But John Rawls, who also recognises the distinction and identifies his philosophy as in the Kantian tradition, subordinates positive freedom to negative freedom. Implicitly, so does the Kantian anarchist Robert Paul Wolff.\footnote{Immanuel Kant, \emph{Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals}, tr. Lewis White Beck (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill Company, Library of Liberal Arts, 1959), 64–65; John Rawls, “Kantian Constructivism in Moral Theory,” \emph{Journal of Philosophy} 77(9) (Sept. 1980), 519–520; Rawls, \emph{A Theory of Justice,} 201–202; Robert Paul Wolff, \emph{In Defense of Anarchism} (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998).}
Almost any anarchist can be quoted as straddling this unbridgeable chasm. The anarchist philosophy, in fact, shows up the inadequacy of the distinction. Bookchin has accused Lifestyle Anarchists of perpetuating the pernicious German philosophical tradition which led from Fichte and Kant through Stirner to Heidegger and Hitler.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 11, 29–30, 50, 61.} (Stirner is maliciously misplaced in this Bloc of Rights and Trotskyists, since he was influenced by Hegel, not Kant, and influenced neither Heidegger nor Hitler.) For blatantly self-serving reasons the Director Emeritus omits Hegel, Marx, Engels, Lassalle, Kautsky, Lenin, Trotsky, Stalin, and Mao. Nor does Bookchin remind the reader of his own earlier admiration for “Fichte’s stirring prose,”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 110. After moving from New York City to Burlington in 1970, Bookchin “studied Aristotle, Hegel, Fichte, the Frankfurt School, and other international classics of philosophy\dots{}” Heider, \emph{Anarchism}, 60. One wonders when he finally got around to studying the anarchists.} much less his current claim that Fichte “essentially wrote that human beings are nature rendered self-conscious,” as Bookchin also contends.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 283. The Director Emeritus is forever torn between his desire to legitimate his doctrine by providing it with classical credentials and his own egotistic claims to originality.} All these gentlemen adhered to the positive concept of freedom. Although, as is obvious from the lists, adherents of each view are all over the political map, there is some perceptible tendency for adherents of positive freedom not to be adherents of freedom at all.\footnote{\emph{E.g.}, Catherine MacKinnon, \emph{Towards a Feminist Theory of the State} (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), 169–170 (criticizing the “negative state”). Correcting a scholar who thought she saw something liberal in her, MacKinnon makes clear that for her, “choice and consent” are nothing but objects of critique. Catherine MacKinnon, “The ‘Case’ Responds,” \emph{American Political Science Review} 95(3) (Sept. 2000), 709. Although she is a law professor, MacKinnon is a relentless foe of free speech, and drafted the unconstitutional Indianapolis anti-pornography ordinance. Donald Alexander Downs, \emph{The New Politics of Pornography} (Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1989). When this proven legal quack was hired to teach the First Amendment at the University of Michigan, my alma mater, I said: “Hiring MacKinnon to teach the First Amendment is like hiring Lysenko to teach Biology.”} Thus the Director Emeritus has found his place.
For Bookchin, of all the malignant influences on Lifestyle Anarchism, Max Stirner seems to be the worst. Sputtering with horror, he cannot more vehemently express the degeneracy of Hakim “The Bey” than by ejaculating that “Hakim Bey \emph{even invokes Max Stirner}, who believed that the concerns of the ego — the ‘I’ — should be the guide of all human action.” (Although the ex-Director formerly wrote that, “in principle [sic], Stirner created a \emph{utopistic [sic] vision of individuality} that marked a new point of departure for the affirmation of personality in an increasingly impersonal world.)”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 125 (emphasis added); Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 159 (emphasis in original).} Stirner with his individualist, surrational, amoral egoism epitomizes more of what Bookchin loathes than any other classical anarchist thinker. In 1976, the Director’s disciple John P. Clark devoted an entire book, perhaps on his orders, to refuting Stirner’s heresies, which had not received so much hostile attention since Marx and Engels wrote \emph{The German Ideology} 130 years before. Stirner, then, should be an exponent, maybe the ultimate exponent, of negative freedom.
Instead, he is the ultimate exponent of positive freedom: “Who is it that is to become free? You, I, we. I, therefore, am the kernel that is to be delivered from all wrappings and — freed from all cramping shells. What is left when I have been freed from everything that is not I? Only I; nothing but I. But freedom has nothing further to offer to this I himself. As to what is now to happen further after I have become free, freedom is silent — as our governments, when the prisoner’s time is up, merely let him go, thrusting him out into abandonment.”\footnote{Max Stirner, “Art and Religion,” in \emph{The Young Hegelians}, ed. Lawrence Stepelevich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 344.} For Stirner as for Bookchin, negative freedom is insufficient at best, a formalistic mockery at worst.\footnote{Clark, \emph{Max Stirner’s Egoism}, 61.} What Bookchin calls positive freedom, Stirner calls “ownness” (\emph{die Eigenheit}): “I have no objection to [negative] freedom, but I wish more than freedom for you: you should not merely \emph{be rid} of what you do not want; you should not only be a ‘freeman,’ you should be an ‘owner [\emph{Eigner}]’ too.”\footnote{Max Stirner, \emph{The Ego and Its Own}, ed. David Leopold (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 142. Stirner goes on to characterize (negative) freedom as “the doctrine of Christianity”! Ibid. The quotation also gives the lie to the accusation by Marx, Kropotkin and Bookchin that Stirner’s egoism is for the individual egoist alone (in which case the charge of elitism would have some merit). Stirner exhorts “you” — the reader — to assert \emph{your} ownness. The effectiveness of his own egoism is multiplied by the ownness of others. \emph{Cf.} For Ourselves, \emph{The Right to Be Greedy: Theses on the Practical Necessity of Demanding Everything} (Port Townsend, WA: Loompanics Unlimited, n.d.), and my Preface thereto, reprinted in Bob Black, \emph{The Abolition of Work and Other Essays} (Port Townsend, WA: Loompanics Unlimited, n.d. [1986]), 129–131.}
Even if it has some utility in other contexts, the distinction between positive and negative freedom does nothing to differentiate Social Anarchism from Lifestyle Anarchism, or even to characterize anarchism as such. On the contrary, as Clark says, “anarchism is the one major political theory which has attempted to synthesise the values of negative and positive freedom into a single, more comprehensive view of human liberty.”\footnote{Clark, \emph{Max Stirner’s Egoism}, 61.} Bakunin did \emph{not} prioritize society over the individual: “Man is not only the most individual being on earth,” he wrote, “but also the most \emph{social}.” In fact, Bakunin nearly anticipated Berlin’s two concepts of liberty and even his terminology. “We see that liberty as conceived by the materialists [as he then defined himself] is very positive, complex and, above all, an eminently social matter, which can only be realized by means of society and through the strictest equality and solidarity of each and everybody\dots{} The second aspect of liberty is negative. It consists in the \emph{rebellion} of the human individual against all authority, whether divine or human, collective or individual.”\footnote{“State and Society,” in \emph{Michael Bakunin: Selected Writings,} ed. Arthur Lehning (New York: Grove Press, 1973), 136,148–149} Bookchin has never demonstrated that any Lifestyle Anarchist espouses negative freedom to the exclusion of positive freedom. In fact, he has never demonstrated that any Lifestyle Anarchist espouses negative freedom. He misappropriates the distinction to try to infuse some content into his own incoherent dichotomy between Social Anarchism and Lifestyle Anarchism, but the infusion does not relieve the confusion. The semi-literate Director Emeritus is, as so often, showing off by pretending to be smarter than he really is.
\chapter{Chapter 4. This Side of Paradise}
Bookchin might have begun his discussion of primitive society as did Jean-Jacques Rousseau: “Let us begin by laying the facts aside, as they do not affect the question.”\footnote{Jean Jacques Rousseau, “A Discourse on the Origins of Inequality,” in \emph{The Social Contract and Discourses}, tr. G.D.H. Cole (New York: E.P. Dutton and Company \& London: J.M. Dent and Sons, 1950), 198.} For all his huffing and puffing, the Director Emeritus adds nothing to the inadequate and dishonest “evidentiality” (one of his gratuitous neologisms) which Watson and I have already shown to be wanting in \emph{SALA}. He continues to ignore the anthropological studies summarized in John Zerzan’s \emph{Future Primitive}, Watson’s \emph{Beyond Bookchin,} and my \emph{Friendly Fire}\footnote{Bob Black, “Primitive Affluence,” in \emph{Friendly Fire} (Brooklyn, NY: Autonomedia, 1992), 19–41.} and \emph{Anarchy after Leftism}. He continues to pretend that the thesis that stateless hunter-gatherers enjoyed a sort of primitive affluence was a short-lived 60s fad, like smoking banana peels — little more than the rebellious, euphoric romanticizing of non-Western peoples by tripped-out hippies, like the ones who fell for Carlos Casteneda’s “Don Juan” hoax. This anthropological aberration, he again assures us, has been corrected by the sober scholarship of the period of social reaction.
The Director Emeritus persists in his dogged and dogmatic reiteration of the bourgeois Hobbesian myth of the lives of pre-urban anarchist foragers as solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short, in dramatic contrast to the life of Murray Bookchin: nasty, brutish, and long. Hobbes himself did not believe that the war of each against all described the original condition of all societies.\footnote{Hobbes himself believed that this condition “was never generally so, over all the world: but there are many places where they live so now,” as in many parts of America. His theory is an “Inference, made from the passions” — deductive, not inductive. Thomas Hobbes, \emph{Leviathan}, ed. C.B. Macpherson (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1968), 187, 186. Hobbes was wrong about primitive warfare. It is thoroughly regulated in a way Kropotkin thought analogous to international law. P.A. Kropotkin, “The State: Its Historic Role,” in \emph{Selected Writings on Anarchism and Revolution}, ed. Martin A. Miller (Cambridge \& London: M.I.T. Press, 1970), 216–217. Hegel considered the noble savage and the state of nature theoretical fictions not descriptive of actual “primitive conditions”: “it would indeed be difficult, were the attempt seriously made, to detect any such condition anywhere, either in the present or the past.” G.W.F. Hegel, \emph{Reason in History} (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill Educational Publishing, The Library of Liberal Arts, 1953), 54.} When your Hobbesian argument is refuted by Hobbes, you are off to a bad start.
Again, what are the implications for Bookchin’s own theory of a protracted period of “social reaction” as the explanation why decadent Lifestyle Anarchism has supplanted heroic Social Anarchism over the last 30 years? Apparently periods of — what? social progress? political turbulence? — foster theoretical progress, such as that singlehandledly accomplished by the Director Emeritus. By implication the 60s were not a period of social reaction. It was then that the ex-Director came into his own as an anarchist theorist — proof enough of the fructifying influence of those heady times.\footnote{Bookchin has never explained his conversion to anarchism circa 1960. In his own autobiographical account there is a chasm (unbridgeable?) between \emph{Our Synthetic Environment}, written in 1958 and devoid of anarchist content, and “Ecology and Revolutionary Thought,” written in 1964. Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 53–58. According to Ulrike Heider, who interviewed the Director Emeritus, “Kropotkin had not been translated into English, he told me, his first acquaintance with classical anarchist theory was through secondary sources, but he worked out these ideas more and more by himself.” Heider, \emph{Anarchism}, 59. In fact, Kropotkin’s most influential books and articles had been \emph{written} in English, among them \emph{Mutual Aid, Memoirs of a Revolutionist} and \emph{Fields, Factories, and Workshops}. Many titles must have been available at the magnificent New York public library. Later Bookchin told a somewhat different story. He \emph{thinks} that Kropotkin’s writings were out of print in the 1950s and 1960s, so Bookchin had to deduce anarcho-communism independently from his “decades-long studies of the Athenian polis.” He generously allows as how Kropotkin “anticipated” his brilliant work. Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 57–58 (quoted); Heider, \emph{Anarchism}, 59.\protect\endgraf With his usual modesty, the Director Emeritus is claiming to have independently invented classical anarchism. In point of fact, one of Kropotkin’s books was reprinted in 1955, and there were at least ten reprintings of at least seven titles in the 60s: \emph{Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution} (Boston, MA: Extending Horizons Books, 1955); \emph{Memoirs of a Revolutionist} (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962), reprinted (Gloucester, MA: P. Smith, 1967) and (New York: Horizon Press, 1968); \emph{Russian Literature} (New York: B. Blom, 1967); \emph{The Conquest of Bread} (New York: B. Blom, 1968); \emph{Ethics: Origin and Development} (New York: B. Blom, 1968); \emph{Fields, Factories, and Workshops} (rev., enl. ed.; New York: B. Blom, 1968) and (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968); \emph{Kropotkin’s Revolutionary Pamphlets}, ed. Roger N. Baldwin (New York: B. Blom, 1968); \emph{The State: Its Historic Role} (London: Freedom Press, 1969). Curiouser still, in 1990 Bookchin referred to himself in the passive voice and the third person plural: “an attempt was made in 1964 by anarchist writers to rework libertarian ideas along broadly ecological lines,” a new approach “rooted in the writings of Kropotkin.” Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 154.\protect\endgraf It seems odd that in the late 60s, by which time he was calling himself an anarchist, Bookchin had yet to read the major anarchist theorists, yet from 1967 to 1969 he found the very considerable time to research \emph{The Spanish Anarchists,} 3. In this book he discusses, if only in a cursory fashion, some of the ideas of Proudhon, Bakunin and Kropotkin. Ibid., 20–31, 115–116. Kropotkin does not appear in the footnotes or the bibliographical essay, so maybe it’s true that Bookchin hadn’t read him yet. But then why not? This looks to be the only book by the Director Emeritus which may have a readership in a generation, although the first scholarly history will supersede it. Even \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism} looks worse every time I open it, if only because I know how some of its ambiguities will be resolved.} Yet this was also when the hippie anthropologists concocted their ludicrous “primitive affluence” thesis based on little more than intensive ethnographic fieldwork and careful historical research. Incredibly, this absurd, empirically-grounded conception prevailed as anthropological orthodoxy, as the Director Emeritus complains, well into the 80s. Undoubtedly it owed much of its undue influence to its qualified endorsement by the Director Emeritus himself in \emph{The Ecology of Freedom} (1982), an epochal work which — as I demonstrated in \emph{AAL} by surveying all its academic reviews (both of them)\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 93–96.} — took the world of social science by storm. If, and insofar as, there has been a professional reaction against the primitive-affluence thesis, it is entirely, like Social Ecology and Social Anarchism, a product of the period of social reaction. How odd (and yet, how dialectical) that from decadence, from decay, the life-force, conscious “second nature” — renewed by rot and reaction — is resurgent in the person and the praxis of the ex-Director of directionality and such lackeys as he finds useful from time to time.
To support his claim that Hobbesianism has been restored to anthropological orthodoxy, the Director Emeritus cited in \emph{SALA} one highly controversial book (discussed in Chapter 6), one review of that book, and a pop science story,\footnote{Edwin N. Wilmsen, \emph{Land Filled with Flies: A Political Economy of the Kalahari} (Chicago, IL \& London: The University of Chicago Press, 1989) (discussed in Chapter 6); Thomas N. Headland, “Paradise Revised [a review of Wilmsen],” \emph{The Sciences} 242 (Sept.-Oct. 1990): 45–50 (inadvertently omitted from the \emph{AAL} bibliography); Roger Lewin, “New Views Emerge on Hunters and Gatherers,” \emph{Science} 240 (May 27, 1988), 1146–1147 (“Past Perspectives,” cited by Bookchin as if it were an independent article, is just a four-paragraph sidebar to the Lewin article). As he did in \emph{SALA}, Bookchin erroneously references the Headland review to \emph{Science}, not to \emph{The Sciences}, a different periodical. Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 251 n. 23.} none of which was of very recent vintage when he wrote. In his latest outing, in the face of the challenge of the massed evidence assembled by Watson and myself, Bookchin does not cite a single new source. It is characteristic of Bookchin’s scrupulously scientific method that he affirms as the new consensus — because it suits his political purposes — the most extreme statement of one polar position (Edwin Wilmsen’s) in an ongoing controversy. Make that “controversies”: anthropologists are debating a number of issues involving foragers, issues partly or wholly independent of one another. What most exercises the specialists turns out to be what’s least relevant to anarchists. To say, for example, that “the !Kung [San] model of the foraging lifeway — small, nomadic bands — is no longer taken as typical of preagricultural human societies”\footnote{Lewin, “New Views Emerge on Hunters and Gatherers,” 1146–1147.} invites the question, “In what respects?” As of 1992 there were already at least \emph{582} items published relating to the Kalahari foragers alone\footnote{Alan Barnard, \emph{The Kalahari Debate: A Bibliographical Essay} (Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press, 1992).} — ample evidence of controversy. Eighteen years later, there are many more.
There’s one thing that bothers me. If prehistoric humans weren’t foragers, like all other primates,\footnote{P.A. Garber, “Foraging Strategies Among Living Primates,” \emph{Annual Review of Anthropology} 16 (1987): 339–364.} what were they? Factory workers?
Insofar as any generalization is possible, even a leading revisionist, Thomas N. Headland, approvingly quoted by the ex-Director on the same subject,\footnote{Headland, “Paradise Revised.” Note that the title is “Paradise Revised,” not “Paradise Refuted.”} wrote in 1997 that “while we now doubt that prehistoric hunter-gatherers were as affluent as Sahlins, Lee and others first suggested, we do not want to return to the pre-1966 Hobbesian idea that their lives were nasty, brutish and short \dots{}” Sahlins himself had already written that the Hobbes cliché “becomes now a subject for textbook burlesque,” but the Director Emeritus doesn’t get the joke.\footnote{Thomas N. Headland, “Revisionism in Ecological Anthropology,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 38(4) (Aug.-Oct. 1997), 609; Marshall Sahlins, \emph{Tribesmen} (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1968), 7 (quoted).} He never does. Similar conclusions are common in the literature.\footnote{\emph{E.g.}, Alan Bernard \& James Woodburn, “Property, Power and Ideology in Hunting-Gathering Societies: An Introduction,” in \emph{Hunters and Gatherers 2: Property, Power and Ideology,} ed. Tim Ingold, David Riches, \& James Woodburn (Oxford: Berg Publishers, 1988), 11; Elizabeth Cashdan, “Hunters and Gatherers: Economic Behavior in Bands,” in \emph{Economic Anthropology}, ed. Stewart Plattner (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989), 22–30; David Byrd-Merut, “Beyond the ‘Original Affluent Society,’ A Culturalist Interpretation,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 31(1) (Feb.1990), 27.} The most recent statement I located is by a critic of the Sahlins thesis who nonetheless concedes that Sahlins “appears to have carried the day and has come to represent the new enlightened view of hunting-gathering societies.”\footnote{David Kaplan, “The Darker Side of the ‘Original Affluent Society,’” \emph{Journal of Anthropological Research} 56(2) (Summer 2000), 303.} In \emph{Anarchy after Leftism} I already quoted M.A.P. Renouf, writing in 1991, to the effect that “although the more idealized aspects of the Lee and DeVore model are commonly acknowledged, I think it is fair to say that no fundamental revision of it has been made.”\footnote{M.A.P. Renouf, “Sedentary Hunter-Gatherers: A Case for Northwest Coasts,” in \emph{Between Bands and States}, ed. Susan Gregg (Carbondale, IL: Southern University of Illinois at Carbondale, 1991), 90; see also Margaret W. Conkey, “To Find Ourselves: Art and Social Geography of Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers,” in \emph{Past and Present in Hunter Gatherer Societies}, ed. Carmel Schrire (Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 1984), 257.} Reviewing the scholarship of the nine years subsequent to \emph{AAL}, I found nothing to refute or dilute this judgment. By the late 1980s, forager (and specifically San) controversies were turning to such questions as whether archeology and the historical record provide evidence of an Iron Age San culture and to what extent the San are, or were, subordinated by sedentary Bantus. New field studies also make clear the diversity of San adaptations.\footnote{\emph{E.g.}, Bird-David, “Beyond the ‘Original Affluent Society’: A Culturalist Interpretation,” 25–48; Susan Kent, “The Current Forager Controversy: Real versus Ideal Views of Hunter-Gatherers,” \emph{Man} 27(1) (March 1987): 45–70; Jacqueline Solway \& Richard B. Lee, “Hunter-Gatherers, Real or Spurious? Situating the Kalahari San in History,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 31(2) (April 1990): 109–146; Robert K. Hitchcock, “Comment,” ibid., 129; Thomas C. Patterson, “Comment,” ibid., 132; John Gowdy, “Hunter-Gatherers and the Mythology of the Market,” \emph{The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers} (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 392–393.} Thus, the general validity of at least a moderate version of what the Director Emeritus calls “the preposterous theory of an ‘original affluent society’”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 187.} is still the current orthodoxy. It appears in current college textbooks, such as \emph{Anthropology} by Ember, Ember and Peregrine (2002), which cites Richard B. Lee’s calculation of !Kung hours of work and remarks that that the !Kung San have more leisure than many agriculturalists.\footnote{Carol R. Ember, Melvin Ember \& Peter N. Peregrine, \emph{Anthropology} (10\textsuperscript{th} ed.; Uper Saddle River, NJ: PrenticeHall, 2002), 273.}
For present purposes, as in \emph{AAL}, I am \emph{only} addressing aspects of forager society of direct relevance to anarchism. Revisionist corrections, valid or not, mostly relate to other issues. It doesn’t matter to anarchists, for instance, if contemporary foragers are “living fossils” who have always lived as they do now, in “pristine” societies. The media, not the anthropologists, are mainly responsible for that public misperception.\footnote{M.G. Bicchieri, “Comment,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 30(1) (Feb. 1989), 51; Stefen Zeitz, “Comment,” in ibid., 59. Anthropologists have been debunking the myth of the isolated forager at least since a classic ethnography of the Seligmanns in 1907. G.G. \& B.Z. Seligmann, \emph{The Veddas} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911), 410–411. Prominent anthropologists who have done the same include A.L. Kroeber, Claude Levi-Strauss and Elman R. Service. Peter M. Gardner, “Comment,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 30(1) (Feb. 1989), 55–56.} It doesn’t matter that foragers have histories (who ever doubted it?), including histories of trade and other interactions with agriculturalists and herders. It doesn’t matter if foragers aren’t always and everywhere the benign caretakers of the environment. It doesn’t matter if prehistoric humans were scavengers (not a revisionist thesis, by the way, but rather a quirky Bookchinist thesis\footnote{Because hunting provides a much larger and much more reliable supply of meat than scavenging, any advocate of preponderant scavenging without hunting (I know of no such advocate) has a “burdensome hypothesis” to sustain. John Tooty, “Comment,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 28(4) (Aug.-Oct. 1987), 400. No mammal derives the majority of its food from scavenging. D.C. Houston, “The Adaptation of Scavengers,” in \emph{Serengeti: Dynamics of an Ecosystem}, ed. A.R.E. Sinolain \& M. Norton-Griffiths (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 263–286. This scavenging whimsy looks like yet another of the ex-Director’s half-remembered scraps of pop science. Anyway it’s irrelevant.}). So what \emph{does} matter to anarchists about these people? In two of my books I specified two crucial points:
\begin{quote}
“They operate the only known viable stateless societies.”\forcelinebreak
“And they don’t, except in occasional emergencies, \emph{work} \dots{}”\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 106, quoting Black, \emph{Friendly Fire}, 54.}
\end{quote}
To these I would now add (or rather, make explicit) two more. The first — courtesy of the ex-Director — is the egalitarian communism of hunter-gatherers:
\begin{quote}
“There is very much we can learn from preliterate cultures \dots{} their practices of usufruct and the inequality of equals [?] are of great relevance to an ecological society.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 41; Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 189. Inequality of equals seems to mean distribution according to need. Murray Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 143–144. If so, it should be the other way around, “equality of unequals.” The reader will encounter many more mutilations of English by the Director Emeritus, who should concern himself less with lifestyle and more with writing style.}\forcelinebreak
\end{quote}
And finally, a somewhat general, summary contention:
\begin{quote}
Foragers enjoy a relatively high quality of life, when the blessings of anarchy, leisure, equality and community are considered along with relative good health and longevity.
\end{quote}
It is only certain aspects of this last contention (of those of any interest to anarchists) which some revisionist anthropologists would seriously dispute, but even if we had to bid farewell to it, the first three points would still stand.
\section{Foraging as Anarchy}
So far as I can determine, none of the research or argument of the revisionists even purports to deny the long-established and unanimous anthropological consensus that nonsedentary hunter-gatherers, at least — and at least most of the sedentary ones — have always been stateless.\footnote{Harold Barclay, \emph{People Without Government: An Anthropology of Anarchism} (London: Kahn \& Averill with Cienfuegos Press, 1982), ch. 3.} This was common ground between them and the Lee\Slash{}DeVore school and all their predecessors, just as it was common ground between Marx and Kropotkin. Not even Bookchin seems to dispute the primitive-anarchy thesis, the thesis most important to anarchists.
\section{Foraging as Zerowork}
In “The Original Affluent Society” — which Bookchin has apparently not read,\footnote{I infer this for two reasons. One is that Bookchin never cites it, rather citing a brief pre-publication excerpt from it, “Notes on the Original Affluent Society,” in \emph{Man the Hunter}, ed. Richard B. Lee \& Erven DeVore (Chicago, IL: Aldine-Atherton, 1968). The other is that when Bookchin refers to Sahlins, he always assumes that Sahlins’ only data were those on the San supplied by Lee. In fact, Sahlins provided a second extended example — the Australian aborigines — based on both historical and ethnographic evidence, as I mentioned in \emph{Friendly Fire}, 19. But this is not apparent from the “Notes” excerpt.} although he formerly praised it as “one of the more readable and well-argued accounts of the huntering-gathering case”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom} (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 24.} — Marshall Sahlins wrote: “A good case can be made that hunters and gatherers work less than we do; and, rather than a continuous travail, the food quest is intermittent, leisure abundant, and there is a greater amount of sleep in the daytime per capita per year than in any other condition of society.”\footnote{Marshall Sahlins, “The Original Affluent Society,” in \emph{Stone Age Economics} (Chicago, IL: Aldine-Atherton, 1972), 14.} Citing the then-unpublished results of Richard B. Lee’s fieldwork among the !Kung San (“Bushmen”), Sahlins estimated that the San worked a four-hour day. In their refined, published version, Lee’s figures were even lower, 2.2 to 2.4 hours a day.\footnote{Richard B. Lee, \emph{The !Kung San: Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging Society} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 256.} Such evidence renders ridiculous what Bookchin is still spouting today, the Marxist dogma about “toil and material uncertainties (as well as natural ones)\footnote{Another manifestation of Bookchin’s faltering command of the English language: what’s the difference between “material” and “natural” subsistence uncertainties for hunter-gatherers whose way of life he repudiates precisely because it is merely natural?} that have in the past shackled the human spirit to a nearly exclusive concern for subsistence.” The foraging San were not preoccupied with subsistence. They had no reason to be.
The quantitative data, as startling as they are, only begin to disclose the qualitative difference between primitive and modern work, in respects I summarized in \emph{Friendly Fire}:
\begin{quote}
In addition to shorter hours, “flextime” and the more reliable “safety net” afforded by general food sharing, foragers’ work is more satisfying than most modern work. We awaken to the alarm clock; they sleep a lot, night and day. We are sedentary in our buildings in our polluted cities; they move about breathing the fresh air of the open country. We have bosses; they have companions. Our work typically implicates one, or at most a few hyper-specialized skills, if any; theirs combines handwork and brainwork in a versatile variety of activities, exactly as the great utopians called for. Our “commute” is dead time, and unpaid to boot; foragers cannot even leave the campsite without “reading” the landscape in a potentially productive way.\footnote{Black, \emph{Friendly Fire}, 33. Marjorie Shostack refers to San “women who were as familiar with the environment as they were with their children.” \emph{Return to Nisa} (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), 212.}
\end{quote}
To which I might add that hunting, in Europe as elsewhere, has always been the “sport of kings” — play, not work — characterized by what Kierkegaard called “the lovable seriousness which belongs essentially to play.”\footnote{Søren Kierkegaard, \emph{Fear and Trembling\Slash{}The Sickness Unto Death} (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, n.d.), 131.} The synthesis of work (production for its own sake) and play (activity for its own sake) is what I have long called, and long called for, the abolition of work. Someone else might phrase the goal differently, as, for instance, “a joyous artfulness in life and work” — as Murray Bookchin once did.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 45.}
According to an author highly regarded by Bookchin, “the labor of pastoral peoples is so light and simple that it hardly requires the labor of slaves. Consequently we see that for nomadic and pastoral peoples the number of slaves is very limited, if not zero. Things are otherwise with agricultural and settled peoples. Agriculture requires assiduous, painful, heavy labor. The free man of the forests and plains, the hunter as well as the herdsman, takes to agriculture only with great repugnance.” The Director Emeritus formerly endorsed this point of view.\footnote{“Physiological or Natural Patriotism,” in \emph{From Out of the Dustbin: Bakunin’s Basic Writings, 1869–1871}, ed. Robert M. Cutler (Ann Arbor, MI: Ardis Publishers, 1985), 190–191; Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society,} 76–77.} The anarcho-primitivist crazy who wrote these words was Mikhail Bakunin.
It is not just that foragers work much less than the members of agricultural and industrial societies, if by work is meant production. It is not just that they work differently, in more varied and mostly more challenging and satisfying ways.\footnote{“Men know no occupations other than hunting and warring, which our own civilization still considers the most noble callings; \dots{}” Ibid., 191. I hasten to confess, preempting the expose, that I have truncated the statement to remove a reference to the women doing all the real work. I did so because it isn’t true. Bakunin repeats the standard misperception of Europeans who only observed Indians in their villages, not on “the hunt — where the writing kind of European does not seem to have followed.” Francis Jennings, \emph{The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest} (New York \& London: W.W. Norton \& Co., 1976), 92. Richard B. Lee found that San women did less work than San men. Lee, \emph{The !Kung San}, 277–278.} It is not just that they work in cooperation, not in competition. It is not just that they are almost always free of time-discipline, \emph{i.e.,} at any particular time they literally don’t \emph{have} to do anything.\footnote{Polly Wiessner, “Risk, Reciprocity and Social Influences on !Kung San,” in \emph{Politics and History in Band Societies}, ed. Eleanor Leacock \& Richard Lee (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press \& Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de L’Homme, 1982), 79. “When we consider people living under some of the harshest, most commanding conditions on earth, who can nevertheless do what they like when the notion occurs to them, we should be able to witness the contemporary doubt about civilization’s superiority without growing indignant.” Watson, \emph{Beyond Bookchin}, 240. Wishful thinking: there is very little that Murray Bookchin witnesses, except Vermont town meetings and seminars stocked with his acolytes, without growing indignant. After quoting scraps of Watson’s sentence, the Director delivers a damning riposte: “One can only gasp: Really!” Yes — really! Watson only echoes the ecologists and anthropologists. \emph{E.g.,} Jared Diamond, \emph{Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies} (New York \& London: W.W. Norton \& Company, 1992), 113; Marjorie Shostack, \emph{Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung Woman} (New York: Vintage Books, 1983), 17; Mathias Guenther, “Comment,” \emph{Current Anthropologist} 31(2) (April 1990), 127.} It is not just that they sleep in as late as they like and loaf a lot. In every one of these particulars, forager working life is superior to ours, but more important is what their coincidence implies about the foraging mode of production. At some point, less work plus better work ends up as activity it no longer makes sense to call work at all, although it furnishes the means of life. Foragers are at that point. \emph{They don’t work}, not if work means forced labor, compulsory production, or the subordination of pleasure to production when these objectives diverge.
Now it is possible to define work in other ways than I do. No one owns the word. I don’t hijack words the way Murray Bookchin does. But an important revolutionary current, by now rooted mainly in anarchism, is explicitly anti-work in approximately the sense I’ve defined work in several essays, one of them well-known,\footnote{“The Abolition of Work,” in Black, \emph{Abolition of Work,} 17–33, and in many other places. In the utterly unlikely event the Director Emeritus never saw it sooner, he certainly saw it in \emph{Reinventing Anarchy, Again}, ed. Howard J. Ehrlich (Edinburgh, Scotland \& San Francisco, CA: AK Press, 1996), 236–253, cheek by jowl (my cheek, his jowl) with Murray Bookchin, “Anarchism: Past and Present,” 19–30. “Abolition” has been published in translation in Russian, French, German, Swedish, Italian, Spanish, Serbo-Croatian, Portuguese (Peninsular and Luso-Brazilian), Dutch, Slovene and other languages. And I did discuss forager zerowork. Black, “Abolition of Work,” 24–25.} going back twenty five years.\footnote{Black, \emph{Friendly Fire}, 11–62; Black, \emph{AAL}, ch. 9 \& \emph{passim}; Bob Black, “What’s Wrong With This Picture?” \emph{Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed}, No.43 (Spring\Slash{}Summer 1997): 11–14 (reviewing Jeremy Rifkin, \emph{The End of Work}).} By now, many anarchists appreciate that the abolition of the state without the abolition of work is as fatally incomplete — and as fated for failure — as the abolition of the state without the abolition of capitalism. In his early anarchist essays, Bookchin seemed (to many of us) to say so too when he condemned needless and stultifying “toil.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 15, 34, 70, 92, 94, 102, 105, 112, 134 \& \emph{passim}. Bookchin still talked that way in the 70s, though not nearly so often. Bookchin, “Self-Management and the New Technology,” in \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 118, 123, 127, 129.} “The distinction of pleasurable work and onerous toil should always be kept in mind,”\footnote{Ibid., 92.} he said, and he made it hard to forget by repeating it often, though not recently. I of course prefer my own definitions — to which I have devoted some years of careful thought — and which I like to think identify the essentials of work while still corresponding to common usage. But if somebody else prefers a different terminology, that’s fine, as long as he makes its meaning explicit and refrains from spouting eccentric verbiage to muddle the matter. Whatever you call it, foragers usually had it. They were zeroworkers.
With respect to the San, Bookchin fudges the figures for working time in a crude way which is extraordinarily, and blatantly, dishonest even by the relaxed standards of his dotage. He claims that “[Richard B.] Lee has greatly revised the length of the workweek he formerly attributed to the Zhu [sic\footnote{“Zhu” is not a synonym for “San,” rather, it is one of the three regional divisions of the !Kung-speaking northern San peoples. Lee, \emph{The !Kung San}, 37–38. There is no consensus on a general term for these people: Zhu, San, Bushmen, and Basarwa are all in circulation. Wilmsen, like Bookchin, is notorious for personalistic indulgence in an unnecessary private nomenclature.}]”; the average workweek for both sexes, he wrote in 1979, is not eighteen but 42.3 hours.”\footnote{Citing Lee, \emph{The !Kung San}, 278.} Now I cannot do better than I did in \emph{Friendly Fire} to refute, \emph{in advance}, this clumsy lie. Originally, “Lee studied the San equivalent of what is conventionally accounted work in industrial society — hunting and gathering in their case, wage-labor in ours.”\footnote{Black, \emph{Friendly Fire}, 20.} In other words, as I discuss in \emph{Friendly Fire}, housework — a form of “shadow work”\footnote{Ivan Illich, \emph{Shadow Work} (Boston, MA \& London: Marion Boyars, 1981), esp. ch. 5.} — was originally excluded from the comparisons Sahlins made, not only because Lee had yet to measure housework, but also because housework had always been excluded by our economists from what they measure as work because it is unpaid, and anything not measured in money is invisible to economists. This does not, as I wrote in \emph{Friendly Fire}, invalidate the comparison, although it invites the more expansive comparison which Lee returned to the field to record, and which I summarized as follows:
\begin{quote}
Upon returning to the field, Lee broadened his definition of work to encompass all “those activities that contribute to the direct appropriation of food, water or materials from the environment” — adding to subsistence activity tool-making and — fixing and housework (mainly food preparation). These activities didn’t increase the San workload as much as their equivalents in our sort of society increase ours — relatively we fall even f[u]rther behind. \emph{Per diem} the manufacture and maintenance of tools takes 64 minutes for men, 45 minutes for women.”\footnote{Black, \emph{Friendly Fire}, 20.} San women devote 22.4 hours a week to housework, 40.1 hours to all work.\footnote{Black, \emph{Friendly Fire}, 20–21, citing Lee, \emph{The !Kung San}, 277–278.} American women with full-time jobs devote 40-plus hours a week to them in addition to doing 25–35 hours of housework.\footnote{Juliet B. Schor, \emph{The Overworked American: The Unexpected Decline of Leisure} (New York: Basic Books, 1992), 83.}
\end{quote}
In other words, Bookchin is comparing San direct subsistence work \emph{plus} shadow work with American direct subsistence work \emph{without} shadow work.
After the deceptive citation to Lee, the ex-Director adds, as if to clinch the point: “Irven DeVore, the Harvard anthropologist who shared Lee’s conclusions on the Bushmen in the 1960s and 1970s, has observed: ‘We were being a bit romantic\dots{} Our assumptions and interpretations were much too simple.’”\footnote{Quoted in Lewin, “New Views Emerge on Hunters and Gatherers,” 1146.} There is no indication of what exactly DeVore and his colleagues thought they had been romantic or simplistic about. This was just a journalistic sound-bite. Nothing in the article by Roger Lewin (quoting DeVore) suggests that DeVore is referring to the data on working time. The article’s only reference to forager working time is to summarize the original Lee\Slash{}DeVore finding “that the !Kung were able to satisfy their material needs with just a few hours work each day, their effort being divided between male hunting and female gathering of plant foods.”\footnote{Lewin, “New Views Emerge on Hunters and Gatherers,” 1147.} Lewin reports challenges to several aspects of the Lee\Slash{}DeVore model, and it must have been to these that DeVore referred, but none to the findings on working time.
Lee studied the foraging !Kung San of the Dobe area of the Kalahari. Susan Kent studied the Kutse group of recently sedentarized San in southeast Botswana. Although some of them kept a few goats and chickens, 90–95\% of their meat was obtained by hunting. \emph{Per diem} the economically active men on average devoted barely two hours to hunting, 22 minutes to tending goats, and less than ten minutes to making traps, for a total of 3.09 hours work.\footnote{Susan Kent, “Hunting Variability at a Recently Sedentarized Kalahari Village,” in \emph{Cultural Diversity among Twentieth-Century Foragers: An African Perspective}, ed. Susan Kent (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 132 (calculated from Table 6.1).} Jiri Tanaka, who was also not in the Lee-DeVore group, studied another group of San in the ≠Kade area of the Kalahari in the late 1960s and early 1970s. His figures on working time, though slightly higher than Lee’s, in general provide independent support for the primitive-zerowork thesis. The daily average of time away from camp, hunting and gathering, is 4 hours and 39 minutes; this includes long breaks, as “the sun’s rays beat down mercilessly on the Kalahari most of the year, [so] the San often stop to rest in the shade during their day’s work \dots{}” In-camp chores add about two hours a day.\footnote{Jiri Tanaka, \emph{The San: Hunter-Gatherers of the Kalahari: A Study in Ecological Anthropology} (Tokyo, Japan: University of Tokyo, 1980), 77.} That makes for a workweek of 46 hours and 33 minutes, a bit higher than Lee’s estimate (44.5 hours for men, 40.1 hours for women), but then Tanaka acquired his data at a time of severe drought.\footnote{Kent, “Hunting Variability,” 126.} Tanaka is Japanese, from a nation of workaholics. It is unlikely he was subject to the counter-cultural influences which Bookchin improbably blames for the primitive-affluence theory. Tanaka did not come to the Kalahari as a believer in that theory: the figure he arrived at “is less than [he] expected.”\footnote{Tanaka, \emph{The San}, 78.} Finally, Lorna J. Marshall, who studied the !Kung San in the 50s, a decade before Richard B. Lee and others from the Harvard Kalahari project arrived, reports that the San hunters work less than two hours a day. During the dry season, which is six months of the year, three women she knew spent 43\% of their time in camp. And when the !Kung are in camp, “more time is spent in leisure than in tasks.”\footnote{Lorna J. Marshall, \emph{The !Kung of Nyae Nyae} (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Peabody Museum of Archeology \& Ethnology, 1976), 105, 313 (quoted).}
So far as I can tell, none of the ex-Director’s cited sources overturns or even qualifies the primitive-zerowork thesis. The Lewin article I have already dealt with. Wilmsen’s polemic \emph{Land Filled with Flies} is a fierce critique of most aspects of the Lee\Slash{}DeVore model, but it does not address forager working time. Bookchin relies heavily on Headland’s review of Wilmsen, “Paradise Revised,” as “summarizing current research,” something Headland did not purport to do, and fourteen years later, when I first wrote this passage, such a summary would be obsolete anyway.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 191 \& n. 23.} Rather, he spoke of an awakening in anthropology “that is still taking place.”\footnote{Headland, “Paradise Revised,” 46.} As so often happens, soon the cutting edge grew dull. By 1997 Headland, as quoted above,\footnote{Headland, “Revisionism in Ecological Anthropology,” 609.} stated that the prevailing view is a moderate version of the primitive-affluence thesis.
It is not hard to see why Headland would back off from his 1990 position in just seven years. After mentioning Lee’s contention that “the Dobe !Kung were able to supply their needs easily by working only two or three hours a day,” he went on to make the point that Lee’s original “calculations of the amount of work the !Kung devoted to subsistence ignored the time spent in preparing food, which turned out to be substantial.”\footnote{Headland, “Paradise Revised,” 46, 48.} He does not explain why he did not use Lee’s later calculations, which did include food preparation, and which had been published eleven years previously. The augmented data only widen the gap between the San and ourselves to our disadvantage. Headland does not say how much time devoted to food preparation he considers substantial, but the time that San foragers devote to food preparation (about two hours a day) is not much different from the time we devote to it, especially if we factor in shopping. Whereas the time they devote to direct food acquisition is, as we have seen, far less. Headland’s initial revisionism is explained, if not excused, by the condition of the foragers he studied, the Agta of the Phillipines, who suffer from high mortality, poor nutrition, and low foraging return, “but since this appears to be due primarily to encroachment by agriculturalists the relevance to Sahlins’s thesis is limited.”\footnote{Eric Alden Smith, “The Current State of Hunter-Gatherer Studies,” \emph{American Anthropologist} 32(1) (Feb. 1991), 74.}
The San are not the only example of primitive leisure, just the best quantified. Using historical sources and the reports of fieldwork, Marshall Sahlins held up the Australian aborigines, along with the San, as exemplars of primitive affluence.\footnote{Sahlins, \emph{Stone Age Economics}, 14–20, 23–26.} The Hadza in East Africa, who are surrounded by agriculturalists and pastoralists, nonetheless persist in foraging — mainly because, as they explain, they do not like hard work. The men spending more time gambling than working. Sahlins quips that they “seem much more concerned with games of chance than with chances of game.” The hunters spend less than two hours a day obtaining food.\footnote{Sahlins, \emph{Stone Age Economics,} 26–27, 27 (quoted); James Woodburn, “An Introduction to Hadza Ecology,” in Lee \& DeVore, eds., \emph{Man the Hunter}, 54.} Another case: the Guayaki Indians of Paraguay, men and women, work less than two hours a day.\footnote{Pierre Clastres, \emph{Society Against the State: The Leader as Servant and the Humane Uses of Power Among the Indians of the Americas}, tr. Robert Hurley (New York: Urizen Books, Mole Editions, 1974), 164.} In pre-contact conditions the Tiwi of north Australia enjoyed “an abundance of native food available the whole year round” — so much that male initiates aged 14 to 25 desisted from food production for long periods of the year, something “only a very well-off tribe could afford to allow.”\footnote{C.W.M. Hart \& Arnold R. Pilling, \emph{The Tiwi of North Australia} (New York: Holt, Rinehart \& Winston, 1960), 34 (quoted), 95 (quoted). Note that this monograph antedates the primitive-affluence thesis.} But primitive affluence is not confined to foragers. It is generally (not universally) true that underproduction is typical of primitives, notably shifting cultivators. They could produce more, as shown by the fact that, pressed by population increase or conquistador coercion, they did produce more.\footnote{Sahlins, \emph{Stone Age Economics}, ch. 2.} Without at least potential primitive affluence, civilization could not have arisen.
Without rhyme or reason, the Director Emeritus abruptly fast-forwards (or -backwards) to medieval Europe: “Given the demands of highly labor-intensive farming, what kind of free time, in the twelfth century, did small-scale farmers have? If history is any guide, it was a luxury they rarely enjoyed, even during the agriculturally dormant winters. During the months when farmers were not tilling the land and harvesting its produce, they struggled endlessly to make repairs, tend animals, perform domestic labor, and the like.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 182.} This is entirely beside the point — any point — at issue. The appeal to history is unaccompanied by any reference to what historians actually say about work in medieval Europe. These peasants were working to support the cities Bookchin celebrates, as well as a parisitic nobility and church. Even so, how many weeks of work a year did Englishmen devote to subsistence in 1495? \emph{Ten!}\footnote{Black, \emph{Friendly Fire}, 27, citing Joseph Eyer and Peter Sterling, “Stress-Related Mortality and Social Organization,” \emph{Review of Radical Political Economics} 9(1) (Spring 1977), 15. Bookchin’s word “farmers” is inaccurate and anachronistic. A farmer is a capitalist, an agricultural entrepreneur producing for the market. There were no farmers in Europe in the 12\textsuperscript{th} century. 12\textsuperscript{th}-century cultivators were peasants. Peasants till the soil to sustain their households and to pay rent, tithes and taxes to their exploiters. Eric R. Wolf, \emph{Peasants} (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1966), 2. This blunder is typical of the ex-Director’s disquisitions on the Middle Ages: he hates it, as an age of faith, too much to understand it. He also believes that there existed state bureaucracies in the 12\textsuperscript{th} century. Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 156 (“kings and their bureaucratic minions”). That is not only absurd but, in Bookchin’s terminology, tautological: for him the state is bureaucratic by definition. Murray Bookchin, \emph{The Rise of Urbanism and the Decline of Citizenship} (San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club Books, (1987), 33. If, as Bookchin insists, the anarchist revolution must be worldwide and all-encompassing if it is to succeed, his fixation on urbanism impedes that revolution, for it reduces the peasantry, in traditional Marxist fashion, to semi-conscious cannon fodder of the revolutionary proletariat. Now this is rather odd, because Bookchin’s beloved civilization has usually been associated with urbanism and always associated with statism. Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanism}, 10–11. Peasant anarchists who were actually engaged in revolution didn’t noticed the inherent anarchist potential of the city, possibly because it hasn’t any. The Makhnovists, Ukrainian peasants, according to Makhno himself were mostly not consciously anarchists, but “in their communal life they felt an anarchist solidarity such as manifests itself only in the practical life of ordinary toilers who have not yet tasted the political poison of the cities, with their atmosphere of deception and betrayal that smothers even many who call themselves anarchists.” Nestor Makhno, “Agricultural Communes,” in \emph{The Anarchists in the Russian Revolution}, ed. Paul Avrich (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Paperbacks, 1973), 131–132.} Marxist that he is, Bookchin should remember that Paul Lafargue in \emph{The Right to Be Lazy} wrote that 25\% of the pre-industrial French peasant’s calendar consisted of work-free Sundays and holidays.\footnote{Cited in Black, \emph{Abolition of Work,} 23.} Family celebrations such as betrothals, weddings and funerals subtracted another day from work in a typical month.\footnote{Robert Delort, \emph{Life in the Middle Ages} (New York: Crown Publishers, 1983), 165.} But, for peasants as for foragers — although to a lesser degree — simply counting days of work and days of leisure understates the superior quality of low-energy modes of production for the direct producers. “The recreational activities of the Middle Ages,” writes historian Keith Thomas, “recall the old primitive confusion as to where work ended and leisure began.”\footnote{Keith Thomas, “Work and Leisure in Pre-Industrial Society,” \emph{Past \& Present} No.29 (Dec. 1964), 53. “The pastoral relationships of country life in the high Middle Ages tempered the purely economic necessities of feudalism with a sort of freedom; play often took the upper hand in the corvee, in the dispensing of justice, in the settlement of debts.” Raoul Vaneigem, \emph{The Revolution of Everyday Life}, tr. Donald Nicholson-Smith (2\textsuperscript{nd} rev. ed.; London: Rebel Press \& Seattle, WA: Left Bank Books, 1994), 256.}
\section{Foraging as Egalitarian Communism}
This is the one aspect of forager society which Bookchin even now accepts and approves of. The revisionists have not gone very far in dispelling this conception, to which both Marx and Kropotkin subscribed: they have just identified a few more exceptions to the general rule of equality and food-sharing. The mode of production in bands, tribes, and some chiefdoms is precisely the “primitive communism” of which Marx and Kropotkin wrote.\footnote{Richard B. Lee, “Reflections on Primitive Communism,” in \emph{Hunters and Gatherers 1: History, Evolution and Social Change}, ed. Tim Ingold, David Riches \& James Woodburn (Oxford, England: Berg, 1988), 252–268; Richard B. Lee, “Primitive Communism and the Origin of Social Inequality,” in \emph{The Evolution of Political Systems: Sociopolitics in Small-Scale Sedentary Societies}, ed. Steadman Upham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 225–246; Frederick Engels, “Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State,” in Karl Marx \& Frederick Engels, \emph{Selected Works in One Volume} (New York: International Publishers, 1968), 528; Kropotkin, \emph{Mutual Aid}, 261, 263.} Usually, as I pointed out in \emph{Anarchy after Leftism}, it is the sedentary hunter-gatherers who may (but often do not) develop some social stratification, as did the Northwest Coast Indians with permanent villages adjoining salmon runs in which property rights were recognized. Their anarchy is a borderline case.\footnote{Thomas K. King, “Don’t That Beat the Band? Nonegalitarian Political Organization in Prehistoric Central California,” in \emph{Social Archaeology: Beyond Subsistence and Dating,} ed. Charles L. Redman \emph{et al.} (New York: Academic Press, 1978), 244–246; Black, \emph{AAL}, 118; Barclay, \emph{People Without Government}, 48–49.}
It’s not impossible, however — just extremely rare — for even nomadic hunter-gatherers to distribute wealth unequally or assert ownership rights to the means of production. A 19\textsuperscript{th} century example is the Tutchone, a nomadic Athapaskan Indian people in the Yukon. Despite their general poverty, they allocated food resources unequally and even maintained a form of domestic slavery, allegedly without borrowing these practices from other stratified societies. In \emph{SALA}, Bookchin cited another aberrant, pathological example, the Yuqui — all 43 of them.\footnote{Dominique Legros, “Comment,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 38(4) (Aug.-Oct. 1997), 617; Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 45.} But that’s just “the ‘not-so-in-Bongobongoland’ style of argument.” Probably all South American foragers, including the miserable Yuqui, are devolved from more complex societies destroyed by European contact.\footnote{David Pollock, review of \emph{Yanomami Warfare}, by R. Bryan Ferguson, \emph{Ethnohistory} 44(1) (Winter 1997), 191; M. Kay Martin, “South American Foragers: A Case Study in Cultural Devolution,” \emph{American Anthropologist} 71(2) (April 1969), 257.} That was not an issue in prehistoric times. If forager egalitarianism is not universal, it almost is, and every other form of society departs from equality to the extent of its greater complexity.
To seriously challenge the thesis of forager egalitarianism, the revisionists would have to find inequality among the many foraging peoples where ethnographers have hitherto found equality. So far as I know, the only revisionist to make such a claim is Edwin Wilmsen in \emph{Land Filled with Flies}. His provocative example is, improbably, the San. Wilmsen asserts that “meat sharing — the putative sine qua non of San egalitarianism — is thoroughly controlled to meet the political ends of the distributors.”\footnote{Wilmsen, \emph{Land Filled with Flies}, 229.} There are several difficulties here. The distributor of meat (the owner of the arrow which killed the animal) has no political ends, for the San are anarchists. What he does have is expectations to satisfy which are determined mainly by kinship. To infer inequality from this is a non sequitur, for few if any San are entirely without family and friends at a campsite: “virtually all members in a band are directly or indirectly related to a core member and thus have free access to the area’s resources.”\footnote{Shostack, \emph{Nisa}, 10 (quoted); Marshall, \emph{!Kung of Nyae Nyae}, 98, 184.} San principles of food-sharing priorities do not mathematically guarantee absolute distributive equality, but in practice they approximate it. The same has been said of another foraging people, the Paliyans: they do not achieve perfect equality, “but they come closer to doing so than most social philosophers dare dream of.”\footnote{Peter M. Gardner, “Reply,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 32(5) (December 1991), 568.} Generally, hunter-gatherer societies represent “the closest approximation to equality known in any human societies.”\footnote{James Woodburn, “Egalitarian Societies,” \emph{Man}, N.S. 17(3) (Sept. 1982), 431}
However, even arguments at this modest level of sophistication are unnecessary to dispose of Wilmsen’s example — for that’s all it is: a single “anecdote” (his word) about a San who complained of receiving no meat from a band in which she had no relatives. Even that sounds fishy, or at least nontraditional, because the practice is that everyone in camp gets some meat, and some of it (not the choicest cuts) is shared with non-relatives.\footnote{Hans-Joachim Heinz \& Marshall Lee, \emph{Namkwa: Life Among the Bushmen} (London: Jonathan Cape, 1978), 126; Woodburn, “Egalitarian Societies,” 441.} Probably she just got less than she wanted. These San are, in fact, nontraditional. They are \emph{not foragers}, they are pastoralists who hunt, part-time, from horseback, and partly with rifles.\footnote{Wilmsen, \emph{Land Filled with Flies}, 229, 227.}
Wilmsen’s claim for class distinctions among foraging San is his “most contentious,” overstated, and least accepted proposition.\footnote{Jacqueline S. Solway, review of \emph{Land Filled with Flies, American Ethnologist} 18(4) (Nov. 1991), 817.} Several anthropologists, even Wilmsen’s main target Richard B. Lee, credit Wilmsen with placing emphasis on the historical dimension of San studies, but they contest the findings of his fieldwork, which commenced only in 1973, as “so at odds with previous works that it is impossible to reconcile one’s prior knowledge of the Kalahari with what Wilmsen presents.”\footnote{Ibid., 816.} Even a fellow revisionist like Thomas Headland, in a review which Bookchin cites approvingly, concludes that “one can be generally convinced by Wilmsen’s account of outside influence in the Kalahari desert while being troubled by his complete rejection of earlier portraits of the !Kung.”\footnote{Headland, “Paradise Revised,” 50.}
Wilmsen’s embrace of history (and archeology, his specialty\footnote{Little archeological research has been conducted in the Kalahari, but Wilmsen has made expansive claims that it proves 2,000 years of extensive socio-economic interactions between San and Iron Age Bantu. A recent review of the literature finds the evidence insufficient. Karim Sadr, “Kalahari Archeology and the Bushmen Debate,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 38(1) (Feb. 1997): 104–112.}) at the expense of ethnography looks like sour grapes. He arrived in the field in 1973,\footnote{Edwin N. Wilmsen, \emph{Journeys with Flies} (Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1999), xii. This book is a post-modernist \emph{melange} of diary, diatribe, quotations and reminiscences which a reviewer describes as “exhaustive, unconvincing, and difficult to read.” Miegan Bisele, “Distance From the Manuscript: Anthropological Publishers’ Responsibilities,” \emph{American Anthropologist} 103(4) (Dec. 2001), 1104. Bisele all but says that it was irresponsible to publish the book. The ex-Director does not explain why he relies, as his only source for debunking all other accounts of the San, on a post-modernist, a real one, although Bookchin elsewhere claims that everybody he denounces has at least an affinity with post-modernism, even people like John Zerzan who also denounce post-modernism.} too late to study viable San foragers, as Marshall, Lee, Howell, Tanaka, Shostack and others had done. Instead, he rummaged the archives to prove that there’d never been any such foragers, only the same impoverished underclass he found in the 1970s. But Marjorie Shostack observed rapid change from 1969 onwards.\footnote{Shostack, \emph{Return to Nisa}, 4.} Susan Kent, another anthropologist who has studied the San, surely had Wilmsen in mind when she wrote: “For people not experiencing such rapid change, it sometimes is difficult to conceive that it can occur so quickly. Some researchers are consequently skeptical about descriptions of a people they know today that were written only a decade ago.”\footnote{Susan Kent, “Cultural Diversity among African Foragers,” in Kent, ed., \emph{Cultural Diversity among African Foragers}, 16–17.}
Still another of Wilmsen’s reviewers notes that “page after page denounces Richard Lee and a host of other ethnographers with unnecessary stings, while some other pages rely on the findings of these very scholars.”\footnote{Parker Shipton, review of \emph{Land Filled with Flies}, \emph{American Anthropologist} 93(3) (Sept. 1991), 756.} Murray Bookchin is right to recognize in Wilmsen a kindred spirit, another lawyer trapped in the body of a scholar, except that Bookchin isn’t even a scholar. “Scholarship,” noticed one of Bookchin’s rare scholarly reviewers, “is not his point, or his achievement,” and his “method is to ransack world history — more or less at random” for examples that seem to support his position.\footnote{Anonymous review of Murray Bookchin, \emph{The Rise of Urbanization and the Decline of Citizenship}, \emph{Orbis: A Journal of World Affairs} 32 (Fall 1988): 628, quoted in Black, \emph{AAL}, 96.} Bookchin relies on Wilmsen in exactly the opportunistic way Wilmsen relies on Lee “and a host of other ethnographers,” grabbing whatever sounds like support for an advocacy position, and never mind what it really means or the context or the rest of the story. When lawyers pillage history this way, historians refer to the result contemptuously as “law-office history.”\footnote{Alfred Kelly, “Clio and the Court: An Illicit Love Affair,” \emph{1969 Supreme Court Review}, 119–158.} Bookchin writes law-office history, law-office anthropology, and law-office philosophy, which is to say, pseudo-history, pseudo-anthropology, and pseudo-philosophy.
\section{Foraging as the Good Life.}
By the catchall phrase “the good life” I refer to various further features of foraging society which are significant for what I can only refer to, vaguely at the outset, as the quality of life. Necessarily, interpretation and value judgments enter into the assessment of this dimension even more openly than in the assessment of the first three, but just as necessarily there is no avoiding them in a full appraisal. Viable anarcho-communist societies naturally interest anarchists, but if hunter-gatherers enjoy little more than the freedom to suffer, and equality in poverty, their example is not very inspiring. If that is all that anarchy offers, anarchism has no appeal except to the fanatic few. Abundance and good health, for instance, may not be supreme values, but values they are. If they are too lacking for too long, the widest liberty, equality and fraternity lose their savor. But for foragers, the price of liberty, equality and fraternity is not nearly so high.
When Marshall Sahlins characterized hunter-gatherers as the original affluent society, he meant to make several points. One I have already dealt with: relatively short working time. The other, which has always attracted more attention, is the contention that foragers typically enjoy a food supply not only abundant but reliable. They do not work very much because they have no need to work any longer or any harder in order to have all that they want to consume. They do not store much food or for long, partly for lack of the requisite technology, but fundamentally because of their confidence that they can always go out and get some more. Instead of the desperate preoccupation with survival which Bookchin attributes to them, the foragers’ attitude toward the quest for subsistence, is, as Sahlins says, one of “nonchalance.”\footnote{Sahlins, \emph{Stone Age Economics}, 18.}
As everyone acknowledges — Watson and I included\footnote{Watson, \emph{Beyond Bookchin}, 110.} — although abundance is the norm among contemporary hunter-gatherers, they may go hungry occasionally. There’s a two-month period of the year, for instance, in which San food intake declines. That does not validate the Hobbesian view, which is exactly the opposite: that for foragers, hunger is the norm. Lee and demographer Nancy Howell measured a 1\% to 2\% loss in San body weight during the low point, “far short of [the] 4 to 6.5 percent average loss observed among agriculturalists.”\footnote{Lee, \emph{The !Kung San}, 301.} And although saying so incenses the easily irked Director Emeritus, it is obviously relevant to the primitive-affluence thesis that in prehistoric times, foragers had all the world’s habitats to enjoy, not just the marginal wastes to which contemporary foragers are relegated by civilized techno-violence. It is reasonable to infer that when foragers had the whole world to themselves, they enjoyed even greater ease and affluence, the material base of their successful anarchy.\footnote{“Life for our prehistoric ancestors was not characterized by constant deprivation, but rather by usually adequate food and nutrition, modest work effort, fair amounts of leisure, and sharing of resources, with both women and men contributing to the family, the economy, and the social world. Today, gatherers and hunters, the !Kung included, live in the more marginal areas, whereas prehistoric gatherers and hunters occupied areas abundant with water, plant food, and game. If there is any bias in the data from modern-day gatherer-hunters, therefore, it probably leads to an underestimate of the quality of life of their — and our — predecessors.” Shostack, \emph{Nisa}, 17. Shostack was one of the last-arriving anthropologists of the Lee-DeVore study.} I daresay that more Americans than foragers will go to bed hungry tonight.
The world of the foragers is not, any more than ours is, absolutely secure. Such words as “paradise” and “edenic” are never used by anthropologists and not often used, and then usually metaphorically, by anarcho-primitivists. It is their critics, above all Bookchin, who put these words in their mouths, compounding the deception by putting these nonexistent quotations in quotation marks — a Bookchin abuse I targeted in \emph{Anarchy after Leftism} but which the Director Emeritus now indulges in more recklessly than ever.\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 38–39, 42, quoting Theodor W. Adorno, “Punctuation Marks,” \emph{The Antioch Review}, Summer 1990, 303} Like Bookchin, but unlike a fine wine, it has not improved with age. Inverted commas are a “stylistic tic” with which, as Bookchin does, “‘trendy lefties’ make quotation mark signs in the air at every third word.” As Karl Kraus wrote: “It is a pitiful form of mockery that expends itself in punctuation — employing exclamation marks, question marks, and dashes as if they were whips, snares, and goads.”\footnote{\emph{No Compromise: Selected Writings of Karl Kraus,} ed. Frederick Ungar (New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1984), 229} As John Zerzan says, “you see pretty much everything in quotes when you look at postmodern writing. So it’s a lot of irony, of course.”\footnote{Kenneth MacKinnon, \emph{Uneasy Pleasures: The Male as Erotic Object} (London: Cygnus Arts, 1997), 9 (quoted); John Zerzan, \emph{Running on Emptiness: The Pathology of Civilization} (Los Angeles, CA: Feral House, 2002), 52 (quoted). MacKinnon’s statement is self-referential.}
For Bookchin, the world of ideas is a fragile and fearful place. If an idea is wrong, it is counter-revolutionary, and vice versa. That is why it never occurs to him that any of the ideas he assails, even if his criticisms are cogent, are just trivial. To be wrong about Goya or Taoism is as calamitous as being wrong about liberatory industrial technology or the polis as human destiny. Every error, no matter how seemingly remote from political practice, is even more catastrophic than every other error, and they all form one vast, malignant pattern. To believe (as all reflective scientists do) that there are no definitive explanations — no one could “have formulated a more disastrous notion”! As usual, the Director Emeritus blames Nietzsche and the Post-Modernists for a point of view with multiple origins, among them Pragmatism, which has prevailed among scientists for a century. At one time he admitted himself that there are no “brute facts” independent of interpretation.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 200; Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 114 (quoted).} What practical difference does it make if one upholds an absolutist or, as scientists do, a probabilistic conception of knowledge? Practicality be damned when the soul is in peril.
And that is also why he calls everything he opposes “bourgeois,” as the term seems to explain and justify a range of rejections which would otherwise look arbitrary and idiosyncratic. In his Stalinist youth, the Director Emeritus learned how to say that whatever the Communist Party opposed that week was “objectively counterrevolutionary.” As that expression has acquired notoriety, Bookchin turns to “bourgeois” as a substitute. He never explains \emph{what} is bourgeois about this or that hobby-horse because there is never any social basis to refer to. When he says that “primitivism is precisely the privilege of affluent urbanites,” he lies, because he knows that John Zerzan, for instance, is not affluent, and neither are many other primitivists.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 49.} He never explains how astrology, deep ecology, Temporary Autonomous Zones, situationist theory, Taoism, and the primitive-affluence thesis serve the class interests of the bourgeoisie.
When the ex-Director ventures an explanation, as with Taoism and the situationists, it is that the offending idea promotes passivity and indifference to the “political sphere,” in other words, it deprives him of cadre. But that would not make situationists and Taoists bourgeois, nor alter the reality that the political sphere is overwhelmingly bourgeois. The passivity thesis founders on familiar facts. Over 90\% of Americans believe in God\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 123.} — and this is not something new in the period of social reaction — yet the Religious Right surpasses all other interest groups in political activism. Taoism is supposed to induce political quietism, yet John P. Clark is rather too active politically to suit the Director Emeritus.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 222, 233.} To speak of the situationists as politically quiescent is belied by their activity in Paris in May-June 1968, when Bookchin was in New York waiting out the general strike (see Appendix).\footnote{Len Bracken, \emph{Guy Debord — Revolutionary: A Critical Biography} (Venice, CA: Feral House, 1997), 160–174; Rene Vienet, \emph{Enrages and Situationists in the Occupation Movement, France, May’68} (New York: Autonomedia \& London: Rebel Press, 1992); Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 238.}
As often as not, it is Bookchin’s ideology which is the more plausible candidate for reinforcing the status quo. “The town meeting ideal,” states a political scientist who does not mean to be critical, “plainly touches something very close to the heart of the dominant ideology.”\footnote{Grant McConnell, \emph{Private Power and American Democracy} (New York: Vintage Books, 1966), 95–96.} To be pro-technology is to remove a basis for opposing those who own the technology and what they do with it. Technology may be liberatory \emph{potentially}, but that does not trouble the capitalists so long as it is profitable \emph{actually}. “Potentially” may never come and, after all, it never has. To be pro-electoral reproduces the representative system at all levels, not just the one not abstained from, and diverts oppositional forces from direct action. To criticize all other anarchists who differ even somewhat from oneself in goals and methods as delusional or vicious is to split the movement, which is exactly what the Director Emeritus is trying to do, since he cannot hope to place himself at its head. The Greens would not rally behind his leadership and, with uncharacteristic realism, Bookchin has finally figured out that neither would the anarchists. In appearance, the Director Emeritus is an anarchist; in essence, he is a Trotskyist.
It makes no sense to suggest that the myth of the Noble Savage benefits the bourgeoisie. Today, as in the 18\textsuperscript{th} century, the principal political use of the myth is to criticize civilized society (a function to which it was put by Diderot, Rousseau and others who made explicit that they did not call for a return to primitive ways). Primitive society is actually primitive \emph{communism}, and, “obviously, the concept is out of step with bourgeois ideology. Bourgeois ideology would have us believe that primitive communism does not exist. In popular consciousness it is lumped with romanticism, exoticism: the noble savage\dots{} There is a considerable industry in anthropology, and especially pop anthropology, to show the primitive as a Hobbesian being — with a life that is ‘nasty, brutish and short.’ In the current climate of opinion in the West, no one is going to go broke by appealing to the cynicism and sophistication of the intellectual in late capitalism” (Richard B. Lee).\footnote{Lee, “Reflections on Primitive Communism,” 253.}
\chapter{Chapter 5. Stone Age or Old Age: An Unbridgeable Chasm}
For many years now the Director Emeritus has exhibited, as I have mentioned, a personalistic preoccupation with old age. Often his opinions are scarcely sublimated emotions — for example, his transparently autobiographical anxiety that “the lives of the old are always clouded by a sense of insecurity.” And only an insecure (and paranoid) old man could suppose that one of the groups against which mass discontent is channeled by reactionaries is — besides the usual suspects (racial minorities, the poor, etc.) — “the elderly.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 82; Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 1.} As so often, Bookchin echoes his beloved Athenians, this time the Aristophanes character who says: “Isn’t old age the worst of evils? Of course it is.”\footnote{“Wasps,” in \emph{Aristophanes: Plays: I}, tr. Patric Dickinson (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 184.} His insecurities are not, however, “always” felt by the elderly — not in primitive societies: “The idea that one might fear or resent growing up or growing old does not evidently occur in traditional preliterate, preindustrial societies.”\footnote{Meyer Fortes, “Age, Generation, and Social Structure,” in \emph{Age and Anthropological Theory,}, ed. David I. Kertzer \& Jennie Keith (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984), 119–120.}
Shortly after he turned 60, Bookchin’s \emph{Ecology of Freedom} (1982) advanced, among other eccentricities, the thesis that the origin of hierarchy in human society was gerontocracy, domination by the elderly. After all, “People who have lived longer can often be expected to know more than those who are very young.” Or to think they do. According to the Director Emeritus, “gerontocracy, whose priority I emphasize as probably the earliest form of hierarchy, is one of the most widespread hierarchical developments described in the anthropological literature,”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 43*.} but he neglects to cite a single example of these widespread developments in \emph{The Ecology of Freedom}, \emph{Remaking Society} or, so far as I know, anywhere else. The only anthropologist to review \emph{The Ecology of Freedom} (and surprisingly sympathetically) wrote that the ex-Director’s “emphasis on age stratification as the key to domination is unconvincing and suffers from such a paucity of empirical evidence that it reads at times like a ‘Just-So’ story.”\footnote{“Interview with Bookchin,” \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 164 (quoted); Karen L. Field, review of \emph{The Ecology of Freedom}, \emph{American Anthropologist} 86(1) (March 1984), 161 (quoted), quoted in Black, \emph{AAL}, 94 (but inadvertently omitted from the bibliography).} You’d think an anthropologist would be aware that gerontocracy is one of the most widespread hierarchical developments described in the anthropological literature, but, what does she know anyway?
Bookchin’s Just-So story is unrecorded in any ethnographic, historical or archaeological source. It does not even appear in the 19\textsuperscript{th} century conjectural histories alongside the primal horde, the matriarchy, animism, and the “psychic unity” of mankind. Exactly how he knows the thoughts of prehistoric men is unclear, since he was probably too young to remember anything. It looks like an example of the ex-Director’s trademark introspective\Slash{}projective method. Occasionally, the emergence of age hierarchy — or rather, the emergence of age groups which might be ranked hierarchically — is known to have taken place in historic time. The one example I came across, though, does not seem to corroborate Bookchin’s theory. It is the Plains Indians after they become heavily involved in the fur trade: “Age grades were borrowed from neighboring groups as a mechanism for expressing and channeling the vertical mobility which accompanied increasing wealth.”\footnote{Robert McC. Adams, “Anthropological Perspectives on Ancient Trade,” \emph{Current Anthropology,} 15(3) (Sept. 1974), 244.} In this case the origin of age grades was economic — namely, incorporation into the capitalist world-system — an aspect of social change the Director Emeritus usually ignores.
In East Africa, the stronghold of age groups, the origin was military. The age class consisting of all initiated males below the current set of elders, where there is only one such set, is the warrior age grade: “A political system of this kind is clearly focused on military organisation.” The first Zulu king, Dingeswayo, “organized regiments of warriors on the basis of their social age-grades, and thereby increased organizational efficiency and morale.” Colonial governments demilitarized the warrior age grades throughout Africa, artificially tilting the balance of power in favor of the easily controlled elders. Thus among the Samburu, the ex-warriors have lost their power while the elder grade has retained theirs, and so the younger men have “turned from warriors into angry young men.”\footnote{Lucy Mair, \emph{Primitive Government} (Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1970), 84 (quoted); Elman R. Service, \emph{The Origins of the State and Civilization: The Process of Cultural Evolution} (New York: W.W. Norton \& Company, 1975), 108 (quoted); Paul Spencer, \emph{The Samburu: A Study of Gerontocracy in a Nomadic Tribe} (Berkeley, CA \& Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press), 149 (quoted).} You can call it gerontocracy if you want to, but by any name, it is a policy or by-product of colonialism which has nothing to do with the emergence of hierarchy.
In \emph{Anarchy after Leftism} I suggested that Bookchin’s belief in gerontocracy as “one of the oldest forms of hierarchy” or “the original form of hierarchy” (which is it?) was wishful thinking.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 272; Field, review, 161, quoted in \emph{AAL}, 94.} The San, for instance, have no gerontocracy. A cross-cultural study of the role of the aged found a strong negative correlation (-.44) between hunting and aged men in councils.\footnote{Harriet G. Rosenberg, “Complaint Discourse, Aging, and Caregiving Among the !Kung San of Botswana,” in \emph{The Cultural Context of Aging: Worldwide Perspectives}, ed. Jay Sokovsky (New York: Bergin \& Garvey, 1990), 22; Shostack, \emph{Nisa}, 17 \& n. 54; Leo W. Simmons, \emph{The Role of the Aged in Primitive Society} (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1945), 255. Elderly San are hale and hearty and well-integrated into their societies, nonetheless, they complain of imaginary neglect. Rosenberg, “Complaint Discourse, Aging, and Caregiving,” 23. Old folks are the same everywhere.} The Director Emeritus may have erred by generalizing from his own, no doubt satisfying career experience. Something approximating gerontocracy does prevail on college campuses (there it’s known as “tenure”), but in few other areas of any society. No contemporary anthropologists believe that true gerontocracy ever existed anywhere. Their infrequent use of the word is metaphorical. The word does not even appear in anthropological encyclopedias and dictionaries.\footnote{\emph{Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology}, ed. David Levinson \& Melvin Embler (4 vols.; New York: Henry Holt \& Co., 1996); \emph{Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology}, ed. Alan Bernard \& Jonathan Spencer (London \& New York: Routledge, 1996); Robert H. Winthrop, \emph{Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology} (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991).} The ex-Director’s personalistic obsession with age increases as his own does.
By definition, geront\emph{ocracy,} as an \emph{-ocracy}, does not appear among stateless (acratic) primitive societies. What have appeared to be age-based hierarchies often result merely from the fact that it may take a lifetime to accumulate the material and social resources to assume an influential role: authority is achieved, not ascribed.\footnote{Jennie Keith \& David I. Kertzer, “Introduction,” in Kertzer \& Keith, eds., \emph{Age and Anthropological Theory}, 23; Bernardo Bernardi, \emph{Age Class Systems}, tr. David I. Kertzer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 110; \emph{e.g.}, Berndt, “Law and Order in Australia,” 295.} The U.S. Senate is an example. A false impression of gerontocracy may also result from the common situation where roles of authority, such as chief or (sometimes) elder, are held for life, so the average age of the official is likely to be much higher than the average age of accession to office, the latter being the true indicator of gerontocracy. The U.S. Supreme Court is an example. But only “in relatively rare cases has age alone qualified one for positions of civil responsibility.”\footnote{Simmons, \emph{Role of the Aged in Primitive Society}, 105, 130 (quoted).}
Both factors are at work in the so-called “gerontocracy” of the Jokwele Kpelle in Liberia. The ethnographer applies the term to the \emph{loi namu}, high ritual officeholders who, it is averred, have power over public officials although they cannot hold public office themselves. Her single anecdote hardly persuades that the power exists, but even if it does, it rests on other sources than age: birthplace, ancestry, long-term residence, skills as public speakers and advisors, completion of a progress through the stages of initiation of the ritual hierarchy of a secret society, and finally, retirement from the civil office of chief. “Clearly, the loi namu do not attain their positions simply by becoming old.” In fact, only 2.3\% of the population over 50 become \emph{loi namu} (or “town elders,” a lesser honor), and there were eight \emph{loi namu} in their late 60s or 70s in a town of 757. The author makes clear that their glory does not reflect on the ordinary oldsters, who have no distinctive prerogatives and may not be treated respectfully.\footnote{Michele Teitelbaum, “Old Age, Midwifery and Good Talk: Paths to Power in a West African Gerontocracy,” in \emph{Aging \& Cultural Diversity: New Directions and Annotated Bibliography}, ed. Heather Strange \& Michele Teitelbaum (South Hadley, MA: Bergin \& Garvey Publishers, 1987), 39–60, 51 (quoted).} Here is hierarchy all right, but not gerontocracy.
The existence of age-sets or age-grades in a minority of societies likewise does not entail gerontocracy. The leading scholar of age class systems, Bernardo Bernardi, rejects the application of the word “gerontocracy” to such systems. Age groups may be mere categories “which never act corporately,” as among the Nuer in the Sudan or, in Australia, the Walbiri.\footnote{Bernardi, \emph{Age Class Systems}, 30; E.E. Evans-Pritchard, \emph{The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People} (New York \& Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1940), 259; M.J. Meggitt, \emph{Desert People: A Study of the Walbiri Aborigines of Central Australia} (Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 233, 239.} Even where political authority, such as it is, is assigned to a certain age group, it is may not be assigned to the oldest age group. Among the Nyakusa of East Africa — who carry age distinctions to the unique extreme of residential segregation in “age-villages” — the middle of three age groups, known as “the ruling generation,” is responsible for administration and defense; the elder group is respected but restricted to ritual functions. Similarly, among the Walbiri of Australia, the 40–55 age group, are the men who have seen all the ceremonial and ritual objects, and have the highest social status. But by age 60 one is considered an “old man,” enjoying only ritual recognition.\footnote{Monica Wilson, “Nyakusa Age-Villages,” in \emph{Cultures and Societies of Africa}, ed. Phoebe \& Simon Ottenburgh (New York: Random House, 1960), 231; Meggitt, \emph{Desert People}, 235.}
Among the Arusha of Tanzania, no age-group dominates the parish assembly, and of the four adult age-groups, the third highest, the junior elders (25–37) most heavily participates in political, legal and ritual affairs; the senior elders (37–49) participate to a lesser extent, but are considered indispensable in diplomacy and dispute resolution; and the retired elders (over 49) “give up participation in public affairs unless personally involved; indeed they are specifically excluded and their experience ignored.” In fact, societies where politics is the primary or exclusive prerogative of a middle-aged group, not the elders, seem to be common in Africa. It seems ludicrous to appy the term gerontocracy to a society like that of the Samburu where the “elders” are those 35 and older!\footnote{P.H. Gulliver, \emph{Social Control in an African Society: A Study of the Arusha; Agricultural Masai of Northern Tanganyika} (Boston, MA: Boston University Press, 1963), 28, 36–39, 59, 38 (quoted); A.H.J. Prins, \emph{East African Age-Class Systems: An Inquiry into the Social Order of Galla, Kipsigis and Kikuyu} (Groningen, West Germany: J.B. Wolters, 1953); Bernardi, \emph{Age Class Systems}, 29 (Masai), 103–104, 106 (Lagoon Peoples of the Ivory Coast); Monica Wilson, \emph{Good Company: A Study of Nyakusa Age-Villages} (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1963), 31; Spencer, \emph{The Samburu}, 86. Although the “elders” do manipulate when an age set reaches the elder grade, meanwhile marrying young women, still, men marry in their late 20s and early 30s. Spencer, \emph{The Samburu}, 137.} And it is difficult to see how gerontocracy could emerge where the ruling class is subject to \emph{term limits}.
Such is the pattern almost everywhere in Oceania (including Australia), a vast area, although its societies do divide the life cycle into sequential stages defined by physical and\Slash{}or behavioral criteria. Old men per se were relied upon and respected for their expertise in matters of sacred ritual and belief — but only within that domain. As for the public sphere, in nearly every society, most privileged or influential roles “were held by males who were past ‘youth’ and not yet ‘old.’”\footnote{Douglas L. Oliver, \emph{Oceania: The Native Cultures of Australia and the Pacific Islands} (2 vols.; Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 1989), 1: 662, 745 (quoted), 745–748.} According to Bookchin, as discussed below, it is with gerontocracy that hierarchy emerges, “slowly, cautiously, and often unnoticeably” — first “big men\Slash{}small men [sic],” then warriors\Slash{}followers, then chiefs\Slash{}community, then nobles\Slash{}peasants, and finally the “incipient, quasi, or partial states.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 57, 67.} It would seem, then, that societies without gerontocracies are in no immediate danger of becoming states, or even chiefdoms. Yet several Oceanian societies — notably Hawaii and Tahiti — developed what were at least socially stratified complex chiefdoms. The anthropological debate is whether they were states or only on the threshold of statehood.\footnote{Service, \emph{Origins of the State and Civilization}, ch. 9; Marshall D. Sahlins, \emph{Social Stratification in Polynesia} (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1958), 13–22, 37–47; Allen W. Johnson \& Timothy Earle, \emph{The Evolution of Human Societies} (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), 284–294.} Either way, the grand theory of the Director Emeritus is refuted.
Bookchin’s conjectural reconstruction of gerontocracy is inconsistent and unconvincing. To an old man such as himself, rule by old men is simply “logical”:
\begin{quote}
The logical beginnings of hierarchy, as well as a good deal of anthropological data at our disposal, suggest that hierarchy stems from the ascendancy of the elders, who seem to have initiated the earliest systems of command and obedience. This system of rule by the elders, benign as it may have been initially [how would he know?], has been designated as a “gerontocracy” and it often included old women as well as old men [not true]. We detect evidence of its basic, probably primary role in virtually all existing societies up to recent times — be it as councils of elders that were adapted to clan, tribal, urban and state forms, or, for that matter, in such striking cultural features as ancestor-worship and an etiquette of deference to older people in many different kinds of societies.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 54.}
\end{quote}
Thus hierarchy begins, in part, with — (the logic of) hierarchy. If this is not a tautology it is gibberish. Either way, it is no support for the thesis. The claim that many ethnographic data support the idea that gerontocracy is the first form of hierarchy is false, not only because there is no such thing as a true gerontocracy, but because origins are not necessarily deducible from later developments. No ethnographer of patriarchy, shamanism, councils of elders, age-class systems or anything else has ever drawn the conclusions from his data that Bookchin has. The Director Emeritus presents gerontocracy as a turning point in the evolution toward the state. Scholarship on the origins of the state does not so much as mention age groups, much less gerontocracies. Indeed, anthropologists rarely speak of gerontocracy, not even with reference to Australia.\footnote{\emph{E.g.}, Elman R. Service, \emph{Primitive Social Organization: An Evolutionary Perspective} (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; New York: Random House, 1971); Jonathan Haas, \emph{The Evolution of the Prehistoric State} (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982); and, concerning gerontocracy in current ethnography, Ronald M. Berndt, “Law and Order in Aboriginal Australia,” in \emph{Aboriginal Man in Australia: Essays in Honour of Emeritus Professor A.P. Elkin}, ed. Ronald M. Berndt \& Catherine M. Berndt (Sydney, Australia: Angus and Robertson, 1965), 168.} And an archaeologist has made the obvious point (see below) that if, as Bookchin claims, old people in our sense of the term were absent in prehistoric times, “then in prehistoric societies there was no gerontocracy.”\footnote{Henri de Vallois, “The Social Life of Early Man: The Skeletal Evidence,” in \emph{Social Life of Early Man,} ed. Sherwood L. Washburn (Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Company, 1961), 223.}
Revealing here is the empirical part of the ex-Director’s methodology here (if a ten dollar word can be said to apply to a ten cent scribbler). The existence of an institution in the past is inferred from its “survivals” in the present, the only difficulty being that there is no independent evidence that the survival was ever part of the institution. E.B. Tylor, the first to use the term, defined it: “These are processes, customs, opinions, and so forth which have been carried on by force of habit into a new state of society different from that in which they had their original home, and they thus remain as proofs and examples of an older condition of culture out of which a newer has evolved.” Interpreting survivals was crucial to the reconstructions of the past in the theories of the 19\textsuperscript{th} century social evolutionists, but came under withering attack in the first half of the 20\textsuperscript{th} century from empirically oriented anthropologists. Today, they deny that survivals explain anything: “On the contrary, the concept of survival is almost a confession of defeat before the challenge to find a contemporary sense in anything.”\footnote{Marvin Harris, \emph{The Rise of Anthropological Theory: A History of Theories of Culture} (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1968), 164–171, quoting (at 164) E.B. Tylor, \emph{Primitive Culture} (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1958), 1: 16; Julian Pitt-Rivers, “Preface,” \emph{The Fate of Shechem or The Politics of Sex: Essays in the Anthropology of the Mediterranean} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), vii-viii (quoted).} Even an anthropologist who does not “totally discount” survivals acknowledges that “to identify something as a genuine survival in the present always requires some independent corroboration.” Without it, “to speak of survivals merely begs the whole question.”\footnote{Thomas M. Kiefer, “An Anthropological Perspective on the Nineteenth Century Sulu Sultanate,” in \emph{Perspectives on Philippine Historiography: A Symposium,} ed. John A. Larkin (New Haven, CT: Yale University Southeast Asian Studies, 1979), 58.}
Thus we have this method to thank for the theory of “mother right” lately revived by feminists: the existence of matrilineal descent in (a minority of) contemporary or historical primitive societies is taken to prove matriarchy, rule by women, in the prehistoric past. The problem is that there is no independent evidence that matrilineality and matriarchy are related, or for that matter that matriarchy has ever existed. In fact, all known societies, including all known matrilineal societies, are patriarchal. Still less does the existence of a trait in some societies in the present prove that it existed in all societies in the past. The simplest societies, bands of hunter-gatherers, are patrilineal or composite, never matrilineal.\footnote{Service, \emph{Primitive Social Organization}, 38, 48–49.} Matriarchy does not exist in the present, there is no direct evidence of its existence in the past, and all of its supposed survivals may coexist with authority systems which are not matriarchal. Ethnohistory reports no patrilineal society which turned matrilineal, but reports at least one — the Tiwi of Australia — which went from patrilineal to matrilineal before the eyes of Western observers. And the clincher: the Director Emeritus does not believe in primitive matriarchy.\footnote{Hart \& Pilling, \emph{Tiwi of North Australia,} 111–112; Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 79.} Similarly, gerontocracy does not exist in the present, there is no direct evidence of its existence in the past, and all of its supposed survivals may coexist with authority systems which are not gerontocratic.
Bookchin’s first contention which smacks of being an argument is the proposition that councils of elders are tantamount to gerontocracy because they have played a basic role in all societies until recently. He is wrong, first, because ubiquity does not prove antiquity. The state, for example, is ubiquitous, but nobody thinks it is older than anarchy. Many states are of recent vintage. Capitalism is also ubiquitous, but it is relatively recent, whereas the domestic mode of production is ancient but increasingly marginalized.
Second, antiquity does not prove priority. No matter how how old gerontocracy is, patriarchy, for instance, might be older.
Third, councils of elders and the like play no part in the lively current debate among archaologists and ethnohistorians on the origins of the state, whose antecedent is usually considered to be the complex chiefdom in ranked society.\footnote{\emph{E.g.,}, \emph{Chiefdoms: Power, Economy, and Ideology,} ed. Timothy Earle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); \emph{The Transition to Statehood in the New World,} ed. Grant D. Jones \& Robert R. Kautz (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), esp. Robert L. Carneiro, “The Chiefdom as Precursor of the State,” 37–79.}
Fourth, councils of elders are not ubiquitous. This requires no documentation. They do not exist now in Western societies or most others. They did not exist in the European monarchies of the \emph{ancien regime}; or in any of the Hellenic and Italian Renaissance city-states which Bookchin celebrates; or at any time in American history. They are also absent from many small-scale traditional societies, including the Nuer, the Yanamamo, the Tikopia, the San, the Montenegrins, the Kalinga of northern Luzon, the Basseri tribesmen of Iran, Sicilian peasants, the Kachins, the Tsembaga Maring, etc., to mention only some that I happen to know of. In Australia, the supposed stronghold of gerontocracy, “there are almost no judiciary bodies which we can reasonably call ‘councils.’”\footnote{Berndt, “Law and Order in Aboriginal Australia,” 204 (quoted).}
Bookchin’s reliance on ancestor-worship is, for several reasons, no evidence of gerontocracy past or present. I grant that the association seems plausible. Ancestral ghosts may be conjectured to concern themselves with the superior rights of the elders who will be joining them soon. But ancestor worship is not universal. Ghosts cannot promote elder power where the living do not attach much importance to the ghosts, as among the Nuer, who have no “‘elders’ concerned with the administraton of the country.”\footnote{Jack Goody, \emph{Death, Property and the Ancestors: A Study of the Mortuary Customs of the Lodagaa of West Africa} (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1962), 18; E.E. Evans-Pritchard, “The Nuer of the Southern Sudan,” in \emph{African Political Systems}, ed. M. Fortes \& E.E. Evans-Pritchard (London \& Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1940), 289 (quoted).}
Furthermore, an age class system is a sine qua non of gerontocracy, yet some ancestor-worshipping societies lack them. Such systems are far from ubiquitous. They have always been as rare in Eurasia as they have been common in Africa. Outside Africa, age sets and age grades find only limited application. Even in Africa they are not “overwhelmingly important in most societies.” In South America they are found only in Brazil.\footnote{Pierre L. van den Bergh, “Age Differentiation in Human Societies,” in \emph{The Sociology of Aging: Selected Readings}, Robert C. Atchley \& Mildred Seltzer (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1983), 77 (quoted); Max Gluckman, \emph{Politics, Law and Ritual in Tribal Society} (Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Company, 1965), 227; E.E. Evans-Pritchard, \emph{Nuer Religion} (Oxford: at the Clarendon Press, 1956), 161–162; Bernardi, \emph{Age Class Systems}, 52–53, 62.} As noted in Roy Rappaport’s classic monograph \emph{Pigs for the Ancestors}, the ritual\Slash{}ecological cycle among the Tsembaga of New Guinea revolves around ancestor worship, but there is virtually no social differentiation by age.\footnote{Roy A. Rappaport, \emph{Pigs for the Ancestors: Ritual in the Ecology of a New Guinea People} (new, enl. ed.; New Haven, CT \& London: Yale University Press, 1984), 203–304. Rappaport, now deceased, taught the first anthropology course I ever took (1970). He impressed me very much, as did guest lecturer Napoleon Chagnon.} The Chinese are well-known for ancestor worship, but in traditional China there were no age-grades and “age is not, of itself, a qualification for leadership.”\footnote{Morton H. Fried, \emph{The Fabric of Chinese Society: A Study of a Chinese County Seat} (New York: Octogon Books, 1969), chs. 4–7 (discussion of non-kin rural and urban relationships — no mention of age); Martin C. Yang, \emph{A Chinese Village: Taitou, Shantung Province} (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner \& Co., 1947), 184 (quoted).}
Note too that ancestor worship is not the cult of the dead in general. People may worship only their own ancestors,\footnote{Wilson, \emph{Good Company}, 122.} which is the spiritual counterpart of household patriarchy, not gerontocracy. Even where the aged form an age group (\emph{i.e.}, a corporate group) \emph{and} ancestor-worship prevails, the elder class may be assigned ritual rather than political functions, as we have seen, or just put out to pasture.\footnote{Meyer Fortes, \emph{Religion, Morality and the Person: Essays on Tallensi Religion}, ed. Jack Goody (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967), 22, 76; Raymond Firth, \emph{Tikopia Ritual and Belief} (Boston: Beacon Press, 1967), 27, 90, 227, 279–280 \& \emph{passim}; Gulliver, \emph{Social Control in an African Society}, 77–78, 98–99 (Arusha); Bernardi, \emph{Age Class Systems}, 52–53 (Masai); Wilson, \emph{Good Company}, 31 (Nyakusa).} Ancestor worship is even compatible with the custom of killing useless old men like Bookchin. In a cross-cultural study of the role of the aged in 71 societies, there was a \emph{positive} correlation (+.29) between ancestor worship and the practice of killing old men.\footnote{Simmons, \emph{Role of the Old in Primitive Societies}, 284. It is interesting that the correlation between hunting and the killing of the old is much weaker, only +.09 — perhaps indirect confirmation of the primitive affluence thesis?} In the social sciences that is a respectable though not a strong positive correlation, but on Bookchin’s argument, the correlation should be strongly negative.
The purported fact that the aged possess essential technical or ritual knowledge which they turn to political advantage is not universally true. In many societies all adults, subject to gender differentiations, possess all necessary know-how: “Unlike the manufactured capital of industrial society, hunter-gatherer capital stock is knowledge that is freely given and impossible to control for individual advantage.”\footnote{Gowdy, “Hunter-Gatherers and the Mythology of the Market,” 393.} The aged possess no such special knowledge among the San, where nobody rules. Boys play at hunting from as early as age 3, and receive formal instruction from “older men” (not “old men”) from age 12. The main tracking skills, though, are acquired in the field. Hunters say that it takes a lifetime to learn the country. Thus the aged have no more to teach than other men, and cannot impart the vital skills training gained away from camp.\footnote{Lee, “What Hunters Do for a Living,” 36; Lee, \emph{The !Kung San}, 236–237; Lorna Marshall, “The !Kung Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert,” in James Lowell Gibbs, Jr., \emph{Peoples of Africa, Abridged} (New York: Holt, Rinehart \& Winston, 1978), 146.} Among the Netsilik Eskimo, “Despite the complexity of articles such as the kayak and the composite bow, every man had the skills and the tools to be technologically self-sufficient.” Even if the old make themselves useful with their craft skills, as among the Eskimos, once an elderly Eskimo’s children leave the household, the elder will be resented as a burden and encouraged to kill himself, which he is usually willing to do.\footnote{Asen Balikci, \emph{The Netsilik Eskimo} (Garden City, NY: The Natural History Press, 1970), 4.} The only knowledge the aged might monopolize is religious knowledge, as in Australia.\footnote{Berndt, “Law and Order in Aboriginal Australia,” 174, 181.}
One would think that if this theory were valid, gerontocracy would have “emerged” in all the earliest human societies, which would contradict the ex-Director’s continued belief in primitive egalitarianism. To patch his theory, the Director Emeritus explains that it was “growing knowledge” which the elderly used to take power.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 62.} But if the growing knowledge was technical, it would have to be shared to be used, and if it was ritual or esoteric knowledge, since the elders have all of it anyway, what difference does it make if it grows or not? Especially since Bookchin would be the first to assert that superstition in any quantity is not knowledge at all.
The hypothesis makes no sense. Even if the elders possessed essential technical knowledge, they would have to transfer that knowledge in order for it to be used for everybody’s benefit, since the elderly are usually, or even by definition, no longer capable of supporting themselves. In other words — Bookchin’s words — “I’ve cited the infirmities and insecurities aging produces in the elderly and their capacity to bring their greater experience and knowledge to the service of their increasing status.” In their decrepitude they need the young at least as much as the young need them; the young are able-bodied and more numerous than the old; and the old men will probably need a feed before the young men need a ritual.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 81–82; Simmons, \emph{Role of the Aged in Primitive Society}, 105.} Here is a blunt description of the situation in aboriginal Australia, which is gerontocratic if any place is: “Physical weakness with advancing age meant loss of status for practical purposes, whatever religious knowledge a man possessed.” Superannuated men were known by the uncomplimentary term “close-up dead.” Among the Arusha of East Africa, retired elders are “rather pitied by younger men, and even despised as ‘too old for anything.’”\footnote{Ronald M. Berndt \& Cathleen M. Berndt, \emph{Land, Man \& Myth in North Australia} (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 1970), 185–186 (quoted); A.P. Elkin, \emph{The Australian Aborigines: How to Understand Them} (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; Sydney, Australia \& London: Angus and Robertson, 1948), 75 (quoted); Gulliver, \emph{Social Control in an African Society}, 38 (quoted).} Thus the pension scheme the Director Emeritus attributes to elderly primitives fails when it is most needed; they live on charity; nothing remains of their former power.
Respect for the aged has been claimed to be “practically universal,” and a recent cross-cultural study based on the Human Relations Area Files reported respect for the aged in 88\% of the sample. But the same study shows that respect does not confer power, as we saw in the Nyakusa case. 42\% of the 60 societies were actively supportive of their helpless elderly, but in 26\% the aged were forsaken or abandoned and allowed to die, and in another 19\% they were killed. Often, then, respect does not even prevent the useless elderly from being killed or left to die.\footnote{Simmons, \emph{Role of the Aged in Primitive Society}, 79 (quoted); Anthony P. Glascock \& Susan L. Feinman, “Social Asset or Social Burden: Treatment of the Aged in Non-Industrial Societies,” in Christine L. Fry \emph{et al.}, \emph{Dimensions: Aging, Culture, and Health} (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1981), 28, 26.} In this respect civilization is no different. Whether the oldster is set adrift on an ice floe, forced into a Victorian workhouse on a sub-subsistence diet, or denied costly medical care in a modern nursing home, it amounts to killing him.\footnote{Mike Brogden \& Jessica Kingsley, \emph{Geronticide: Killing the Elderly} (London \& Philadelphia, PA: Kingsley Publisher, 2001), 11.}
The way the elders impose their ideology (we are told) is through control over socialization of the young:
\begin{quote}
Initially, the medium by which the old create a modicum of power for themselves is through their control of the socialization process. Fathers teach their sons the arts of getting food; mothers, their daughters. The adults, in turn, consult their parents on virtually every detail of life, from the workaday pragmatic to the ritual. In a preliterate community, the most comprehensive compendium of knowledge is inscribed on the brains of the elders. However much this knowledge is proffered with concern and love, it is not always completely disinterested; it is often permeated, even if unconsciously, by a certain amount of cunning and self-interest. Not only is the young mind shaped by the adults, as must necessarily be the case in all societies, but it is shaped to respect the curriculum of the adults, if not their authority.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 82.}
\end{quote}
Every aboriginal parent is a mama’s boy or daddy’s little girl. No one has ever reported a society in which adults consult their old parents on virtually every detail of life. Although most of the details of everyday life are routine and repetitious everywhere, Bookchin’s portrayal is of parents, self-supporting adults, with the know-how and the dependency needs of small children. How many times does anyone need to be told how to plant a yam seed? The images are arresting: the old Eskimo mom buttoning up her son’s parka before he goes whaling; the venerable San father reminding his son, as he does every day, to point the spear \emph{toward} the warthog; the Navajo mother, always there for her daughter, telling her to prepare tortillas for dinner, just like last night. It takes at least as much practical information, probably more, to navigate the day in our own society, but only Norman Bates consults his mother on every detail. For the elders to use their “monopoly of knowledge”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 79.} would be to use it up.
Since their adult offspring are such helpless nitwits, for the aged to control the socialization process they would have to undertake most of the skills training and child rearing, but there are few if any societies in which they have done so. Children are socialized by their parents, often augmented by older children, siblings, aunts and uncles (both real and classificatory), and sometimes even grandparents. In a few societies, grandparents play a significant role in childrearing, but not in the vast majority. At minimum they would have to live in the child’s household to do so, as part of an extended family, but many societies — more than half of those in George Peter Murdock’s Cross-Cultural Survey — have the nuclear family instead. In the nuclear family, their role in childrearing usually ranges from modest to nil. Thus an early anthropological classic on socialization, \emph{Becoming a Kwoma}, does not even mention grandparents.\footnote{George Peter Murdock, \emph{Social Structure} (New York: The Free Press \& London: Collier Macmillan Limited, 1949), 2; John W.M. Whiting, \emph{Becoming a Kwoma} (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press for the Institute of Social Relations, 1941).} Bookchin, who believes that ordinary people can manage our complex society without dependency on technocrats, inconsistently believes that ordinary people cannot manage a simple society without dependency on elders.
I have oversimplified Bookchin’s complex, inflected account of the emergence of hierarchy. If it were just a matter of waiting on old people hand and foot, the benign if self-serving hierarchy of the old would only be annoying. There had to be other, more culpable makers of the fully realized hierarchy of social class and the state. The elders’ form of hierarchy and theirs alone at least began as “benign.” For what happened next, the Director Emeritus exonerates the elderly of full responsibility: “Certain strata, such as the elders and shamans and ultimately the males in general, began to claim privileges for themselves,” from which the state and the class system duly followed. To this enlarged docket of defendants he adds the final authority figures, the “big men”: “When the number of horticultural communities began to multiply to a point where cultivable land became relatively scarce and warfare increasingly common, the younger warriors began to enjoy a sociopolitical eminence that made them the ‘big men’ of the community, sharing power with the elders and shamans.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 6 (quoted), 7. Although there is no evidence that chiefs ever supplanted shamans, there is contemporary evidence that shamans may supplant chiefs, as they are doing in South America, where shamans have assumed leadership of indigenous rights movements. Beth A. Conklin, “Shamans versus Pirates in the Amazonian Treasure Chest,” \emph{American Anthropologist} 104(4) (Dec. 2002): 1051–1061.}
Younger men, older men, shamans — that’s universal manhood suffrage in the Stone Age! That leaves nobody to dominate but women and children — in which case, the origin of hierarchy is patriarchy — yet the Director Emeritus gasses us: “the sterner features of patriarchy were often absent during this transitional period.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom,} 7.} All the usual whipping-boys are on the list except the important one: the chief. And by prestidigitation, Bookchin has derived the state, \emph{i.e.,} civil authority, from civil authority, \emph{i.e.,} the state, just as he derived hierarchy from hierarchy.
“Big man” is a term of art and, as such, beyond the ken of a literalist like the Director Emeritus. He makes it sound like big men comprise warrior bands. But big men are individuals, not groups of men, and they need not be warriors. Marshall Sahlins (that name again!) produced the most influential characterization of the big man of Melanesia. His position is not an office — he is a self-made (big) man — and his power is purely personal. He “must be prepared to demonstrate that he possesses the kinds of skills that command respect — magical powers, gardening prowess, mastery of oratorical style, \emph{perhaps} bravery in war and feud [emphasis added].” Above all, he strives to assemble a faction by amassing goods (usually pigs, shell money and vegetable foods) and redistributing them in “public giveaways” which attest to his wealth and generosity. The core of his faction is his household, enlarged by plural marriages and by taking in the socially disconnected, by “finessing” via reciprocity relations with kinsmen, and by placing men under obligations to him near and far. His faction is not a group capable of corporate action: he is center-man to each of his clients individually. It dissolves upon his death, and often collapses sooner, because the big man is competing for power with other big men who are doing the same things. Eventually he fails to reconcile his simultaneous needs to reward his clients and to exploit them.\footnote{Marshall D. Sahlins, “Poor Man, Rich Man, Big Man, Chief: Political Types in Melanesia and Polynesia,” in \emph{Cultures of the Pacific: Selected Readings}, ed. Thomas G. Harding \& Ben J. Wallace (New York: The Free Press \& London: Collier Macmillan, 1970), 205–210; Sahlins, \emph{Tribesmen}, 22–23.} All this is played out in autonomous village communities of several hundred people.
What is the big man’s real role in the emergence of advanced hierarchy? He doesn’t play one! The chief, the man in the empty chair, is the incipient ruler. The big man’s quest for power is structurally self-defeating, which is not the path to the state: “Developing internal constraints the Melanesian big-man political order brakes evolutionary advance at a certain level. It sets ceilings on the intensification of political authority, on the intensification of household production by political means, and on the diversion of household outputs in support of wider political organization.” Other men work for the chief; the big man works for other men (Sahlins calls this “autoexploitation”), which is not the path to class stratification. The system is unstable because it depends upon the big-man’s personalistic success.\footnote{Sahlins, “Poor Man, Rich Man, Big Man, Chief,” 209 (quoted); Sahlins, \emph{Stone Age Economics}, 135–138; Service, \emph{Origins of the State and Civilization}, 293–294.} Big-men do not form a group because they compete with each other. And any “warrior” aspect to the role is incidental and not intrinsically more important than the gardening role or the magical role. It has even been suggested that big men are just fallout from collapsed chiefdoms.\footnote{J. Friedman \& M.J. Rowlands, “Notes Towards an Epigenetic Model of the Evolution of ‘Civilisation,’” in \emph{The Evolution of Social Systems}, ed. J. Friedman \& M.J. Rowlands (London: Gerald Duckworth and Co., 1977), 213.} In that case, big men could not have been a stage in the emergence of hierarchy because they result from devolution, not development, from evolving hierarchy. There is no known example of a big-man system growing into a chiefdom, and “the prospect of a chiefdom to grow into a state seems much better than that of a ‘Big-Man’ system to grow into a chiefdom.”\footnote{Alex T. Strating \& T. Christian Uhlenbeck, “An Explanatory Model for Structural Change of a Political System,” in \emph{Private Politics: A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to “Big Man” Systems,} ed. Martin A. van Bakel, Renee R. Hagesteijn \& Pieter van de Velde (Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1986), 143; Edward Ch. L. Van der Vliet, “‘Big Man,’ Tyrant, Chief: The Anomalous Starting Point of the State in Classical Greece,” ibid., 118 (quoted).} It is like saying that the “Big Man on Campus” is the origin of the Deanship.
The fun is just beginning: “The bas reliefs of Mesopotamia and Egypt, and later the writings of Plato and Aristotle, leave no doubt [for Bookchin there is always ‘no doubt’] that the precondition for the emergence of tribal ‘big men’ involved not only material sufficiency but cultural inferiority.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 72.} This does not even describe the condition of big men, much less their precondition. There is no “cultural inferiority” in a homogeneous tribal culture; for the third time, the Director Emeritus slips the effect in ahead of the cause. This style of reasoning is Hermetic — it is, in Bookchinspeak, mystical: “a consequence is assumed and interpreted as its own cause” (Umberto Eco).\footnote{Umberto Eco, “Interpretation and Overinterpretation,” in \emph{Interpretation and Overinterpretation}, ed. Stefan Collini (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 51.} And those bas reliefs must be an eyeful. Too bad he doesn’t say where they are. Herodotus might have written something remotely relevant to big men (although he didn’t), but hardly Aristotle, and certainly not Plato. Contempt for “barbarians” does not comport well with ethnological curiosity.
The Director Emeritus, however, is not quite finished:
\begin{quote}
The most challenging form of social status, however, is probably the power that “big men” gained and concentrated, initially in their own persons, later in increasingly institutionalized “companies” [why the quotation marks?]. Here, we encounter a very subtle and complex dialectic. “Big men” were notable, as we have seen, for their generosity, not only for their prowess. Their ceremonial redistribution of gifts to people — a system for the redistribution of wealth that acquired highly neurotic [sic] traits in the Potlatch ceremonies of the Northwest Indians, where bitter contests between “big men” led to an orgiastic “disaccumulation” of everything they owned in order to “accumulate” prestige within the community — may have had very benign origins.
\end{quote}
Watch out for those benign origins! Whenever the Director Emeritus says “dialectic,” he’s about to tell a whopper. So here’s the sequence: “Everywhere along the way, in effect [sic], conflicting alternatives confronted each community as potential hierarchies began to appear: first, as gerontocracies, later, as individual ‘big men’ and warrior groups.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 63.} How does he know the big men didn’t come first? Or, as just suggested, last?
The Northwest Coast potlaches involved \emph{chiefs}, not big men — this was the very distinction explicated in Sahlins’ article, between big men (Melanesia) and chiefs (Polynesia, Northwest Coast). And Bookchin has said so! Elsewhere Sahlins explains that if the external feastings of Northwest Coast chiefs and Melanesian big men are similar as prestige quests, nonetheless “the chief has an entirely different relation to the internal economy.” The chief as lineage head uses lineage resources; the big man has to establish a personal claim by autoexploitation.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 125; Sahlins, \emph{Stone Age Economics}, 137 (quoted); Elman R. Service, \emph{The Hunters} (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1979), 3.} Furthermore, for a big man, his military prowess, if any, is secondary to his generosity, not, as Bookchin would have it, the other way around. Now we are told that the potential hierarchies emerged sequentially: gerontocracy, big man, warrior group. We know where Bookchin thinks gerontocracy came from (and we know better). Where do big men and warrior groups come from? If big men are warriors, they cannot very well emerge from gerontocracies of the enfeebled. Warrior groups presumably come from big men. Where do big men come from?
“From out of the skin of the most able hunter emerged a new kind of creature: the ‘big man,’ who was also a ‘great warrior.’” It follows that warrior groups emerge from, well, warrior groups. By definition, there has always been an ablest hunter in every hunting band such as flourished for 99\% of human existence — why after two million years did he finally start to get out of line? The Director Emeritus proceeds to replace one imaginary oath, the “blood oath,” with another one, “oaths of fealty” sworn by “soldierly ‘companions’” (why the quotation marks?) recruited from outside the clan. (I suspect that Bookchin swears a lot.) Whereupon “‘lesser men’ [why the quotation marks?] appeared [out of whose skin this time?] who were obliged to craft his weapons, provide for his sustenance, build and adorn his dwellings, and finally, erect his fortifications and monumentalize his achievements with impressive palaces and burial sites.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 57.} The Director Emeritus gave us an explanation, albeit a preposterous one, for the gerontocrat emerging out of the wrinkled skin of the old man. He gives no explanation how or why the big man emerges out of the skin of the hunter. If he was “the most able hunter,” he must have been doing all right already, why rock the boat? What’s his motivation? Personalistic self-advancement at the expense of the community? Bookchin has told us that people don’t think that way in organic societies.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 14, 51, 73.} If he can’t tell us why they changed their minds, he can’t tell us how hierarchy emerged.
Why does it have to be the \emph{most} able hunter? The \emph{least} able hunter would be the one most motivated to try something he might be better at, like ordering people around. Why a hunter? Why not a gardener? The assumption is gratuitous unless they’re all hunters. But if they’re all hunters, Bookchin is positing the emergence of ranked society — chiefdom — directly out of band society, which is impossible if only because chiefdoms are “an order of magnitude larger than simpler polities.”\footnote{Service, \emph{Primitive Social Organization}, 100, 133; Johnson \& Earle, \emph{Evolution of Human Societies,} 265 (quoted).} Almost (if not quite) all anthropologists and archaeologists believe that chiefdoms emerge only from tribes. The Director Emeritus might be affiliating with the minority view, but it’s more likely he’s oblivious to the issue, or he might have mentioned it.
The big man’s retinue is “drawn from clans other than his own, indeed, from solitary strangers.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 57.} How can Bookchin possibly know this? DNA testing? And why not draw men from the big man’s own clan, since they’d be the most likely to sign on with him? Two pages later he tells us that they do!\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 59.} Are there no editors at South End Press? In real life, a big man’s original power base is his household and relations. Once again, the Director Emeritus assumes the consequent. Who but a big man could recruit a military retinue in the first place? As depicted, the big man’s domination commences with sheer brute force. But “difficulties arise from the fact that force is a crude and expensive technique for the implementation of decisions. More importantly, force itself has to depend on interpersonal relationships that are based on something \emph{other} than force.” Bookchin himself admits that even the state can’t rule by brute force alone.\footnote{Marc J. Swartz, Victor W. Turner, \& Arthur Tuden, “Introduction,” in \emph{Political Anthropology}, ed. Marc J. Swartz, Victor W. Turner \& Arthur Tuden (Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Company, 1966), 9–10 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 94–95.} Still less can a chief, who does not, in fact, possess any coercive power.\footnote{Colin Renfrew, \emph{Approaches to Social Archaeology} (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), 204–205; Clastres, \emph{Society Against the State}, 174; Service, \emph{Primitive Social Organization}, 150–151; Claude Levi-Strauss, \emph{Tristes Tropiques}, tr. John \& Doreen Weightman (New York: Pocket Books, 1977), 350.}
Why should anybody repudiate his sacred blood oath (Chapter 9) for such a dubious venture? And who are these “solitary strangers,” why are they solitary, and if they are solitary (rather than merely shy), how is it possible they’re still alive? Lord Bolingbroke ridiculed Locke for positing pre-political “solitary vagabonds” and “strolling savages.” The mockery, unfairly applied to Locke, fairly applies to Bookchin. Why didn’t the big man’s clan stop his putsch before it started? Two or three weak men can always kill one strong man, as Hobbes remarked: “For as to the strength of body, the weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest, either by secret machination, or by cofederacy with others, that are in the same danger with himselfe.”\footnote{Quoted in Isaac Kramnick, \emph{Bolingbroke and His Circle: The Politics of Nostalgia in the Age of Walpole} (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968), 96; Thomas Hobbes, \emph{Leviathan}, ed. C.B. Macpherson (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1968), 183 (quoted).} These “companions” also allow for bounding over developmental stages, although Bookchin formerly told us that “a leap from tribalism to despotism is an obvious myth.” Without social loyalties or traditions, the companions “can easily be set against the community or reared above it into a coercive monarchy and aristocracy.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom,} 130 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 60 (quoted).} That is, these deracinated mercenaries skip over chieftainship and create the state out of communities of several hundred people. No known states are so small. Even in chiefdoms the population is at least one thousand, and usually tens of thousands.\footnote{Timothy K. Earle, “Chiefdoms in Archaeological and Ethnohistorical Perspective,” \emph{Annual Review of Anthropology} 16 (1987), 288.}
The best way to mock Murray Bookchin is to take him seriously. In a still stateless society of indeterminate socioeconomic form, “lesser men” are crafting the big man’s weapons. While they’re at it, why don’t they craft some for themselves? Suddenly — for this is an abrupt break with previous life-ways — yesterday’s hunters are today’s engineers, architects, masons, carpenters, overseers, etc. The great leap forward is even greater than it seemed at first. The archaelogical record has so far identified monumental building only in states.\footnote{Haas, \emph{Evolution of the Prehistoric State}, 216; Kent V. Flannery, “The Ground Plans of Ancient States,” in \emph{Archaic States}, ed. Gary M. Feinman \& Joyce Marcus (Santa Fe, NM: American Research Press, 1998), 21.} “Hierarchy,” according to the Director Emeritus, “did not suddenly explode into prehistory. It expanded its place gradually, cautiously, and often unnoticeably, by an almost metabolic [sic] form of growth when ‘big men’ began to dominate ‘small men’ [why the quotation marks?], when warriors and their ‘companions’ begin gradually to dominate their followers” — their followers or their subjects? — “when chiefs began to dominate the community, and finally, when nobles began to dominate peasants and serfs.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 57.}
The difference between stone age and iron age economics is that band and tribal peoples produce no surplus, although they could.\footnote{Sahlins, \emph{Stone Age Economics}, chs. 2–3.} I cannot imagine how an egalitarian hunter (or gardener, for that matter) could “gradually” out of a face-to-face kinship society recruit an armed force small enough for him to support but large enough for a takeover. If these misfits and strangers can be spared from subsistence activities, the primitive affluence thesis must be true. If not, after their recruitment but before the coup, what does the big man do, tell his men to keep their day jobs? Private plotting could never escape notice in primitive societies where social life is almost entirely public.
Finally, in the last act, the Prince of Denmark appears in the play. “Still another refinement of hierarchy was the transition from the big man,” this time defined semi-accurately, “into a quasi-monarchical figure who evokes fear” with his goon squad and pretensions to supernatural power.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 59.} Thus the chief emerges out of the skin of the big man, but, as with the big man’s emergence out of the skin of the hunter, cause and motive are not mentioned. The big man is not explained, nor does he explain anything. All we have is a row of increasingly hierarchal statuses — an array of “alternatives” for the anarchist society shopping, for reasons unstated, for hierarchy. It’s hard to imagine that this was a matter of choice, although we do have the Biblical story of the Israelites importuning Samuel to make them a king, “but the thing displeased Samuel,” understandably (I Sam. 8: 6). Add the king and the series is complete, but we will never understand why, as His Majesty Alley Oop comes as the culmination of three unexplained transmutations.
Despite the subtitle of \emph{The Ecology of Freedom}, Bookchin has failed to explain the emergence of hierarchy, and he never even tries to explain any prospects of its dissolution. When David Watson confesses his inability to explain the emergence of hierarchy, the Director Emeritus is scathing: “I hate to think how dessicated [sic] social theory would become if all its thinkers exhibited the same paucity of curiosity and speculative verve that this off-handed remark reveals.” A prudent agnosticism compares favorably with delusional certitude. Rather would I say, with Malatesta, that “the fact of not knowing how to solve a problem does not oblige one to accept unconvincing solutions.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 196 (quoted); \emph{Malatesta: Life and Ideas}, ed. Vernon Richards (London: Freedom Press, 1977), 43 (quoted).}
It’s remarkable for an incipient, quasi or partial Marxist to proffer a theory of hierarchy — or anything else, for that matter — which completely ignores economics, technology and demography. Bookchin does find it “difficult to not believe that class rule, private property and the State could have emerged, fully accoutred and omnipresent, largely because surpluses made their existence possible.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 74.} Although that’s more plausible than saying that class rule, private property and the state emerged because old men felt insecure. What’s even more difficult is to believe that it’s possible to analyse the emergence of chiefdoms and states while ignoring such variables as population size, population density, sedentarism, agriculture, environmental and social circumscription, long distance trade, ecological variation, esoteric wealth, fission, redistribution, external ideologies, food storage, potential for intensification, craft specialization, primogeniture, and irrigation.\footnote{Timothy Earle, “The Evolution of Chiefdoms,” in Earle, ed., \emph{Chiefdoms}, 1–15; Service, \emph{Origins of the State and Civilization}, 71–80.} These are among the concepts, some self-explanatory, some not, which figure in serious contemporary research and argument about the origins of hierarchy.
An anarchist theory of the origins of hierarchy, no matter how many prior stages it conjectures, has to assign unique importance to the onset of \emph{coercive} hierarchy, and recognize the fundamental discontinuity — the unbridgeable chasm — between stateless and state societies. The primitive affluence thesis is true. For farmers, social complexity leads to the loss of personal independence and a lower standard of living: “The essential question is, why do so many people accept from a few a social contract that is clearly disadvantageous? The only conceivable answer is that it is not a matter of choice, but the process that leads to stratification is coercive, mechanistic, and highly predictive.”\footnote{Clastres, \emph{Society Against the State}, 169; William T. Sanders, “Pre-Industrial Demography and Social Evolution,” in \emph{On the Evolution of Complex Societies}, ed. Timothy Earle (Malibu, CA: Undena Publications, 1984), 15 (quoted).} That answer cannot be found by spinning prehistoric fairy tales which make the creation myths of primitives look plausible by comparison.
To sum up: Murray Bookchin has no theory of the emergence of hierarchy.
Claims of primitive gerontocracy are found in travelogues and older accounts, especially narratives by missionaries or colonial officials, or in early ethnographies based on the memories of nostalgic old men. The Victorians were highly susceptible to interpreting aboriginal phenomena in terms of their own ideologies, such as nationalism (“Take me to your leader!”) and Christianity. The first instinct of colonizers is to “find the chief” — or invent him.\footnote{Sahlins, \emph{Tribesmen}, 38.} In some cases, something like gerontocracy was not observed, it was constructed. British colonial rulers perpetuated Nyakusa chiefs in office much longer than they would have served in precolonial days, and they expanded the power of the Igbo elders in Nigeria.\footnote{Nancy Foner, “Age and Social Change,” in Kertzer \& Keith, eds., \emph{Age and Anthropological Theory}, 202; Sahlins, \emph{Tribesmen}, 38.} Stories of the Old Testament patriarchs were vividly familiar to Victorians of the respectable classes. Thus Jehovah, after devoting four chapters of the Book of Exodus to dictating rules to the Israelites, continued: “Come up unto the LORD, thou, and Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel; and worship ye afar off.” There are many other references.\footnote{Exod. 24:1 (quoted); I Kings 1:1, 1:20, 12; I Chron. 23:1; Numb. 27; Josh. 23, 24; II Sam. 5:4; Simmons, \emph{Role of the Aged in Primitive Society}, 109, 116.} Bookchin’s faith reflects “the strong gerontocratic prejudice we have inherited from the Judaic tradition.”\footnote{Thomas E. Spenser, “A Proposal for Voting Reform,” \emph{Ethics} 78(4) (July 1968), 294 — a well-reasoned proposal for disenfranchising those over 60.}
Bookchin does not seem to have noticed that his notion of a short primitive lifespan, discussed below, contradicts his notion of gerontocracy. If, for example, the average lifespan of of foragers (the San, let’s say) is 30 years, as he says at one point, they don’t \emph{have} enough elders for gerontocracy. Adult foragers could not consult their parents about almost every detail of everyday life because nearly all their parents would be dead. To make matters worse, San bands or camps are rather small, 10–30 people, with shifting compositions, including temporary residents. In 1964, the average population of the eight permanent water holes in the Dobe area was 58. In the older age grades, women outnumber men, as they do in all societies,\footnote{Hart \& Pilling, \emph{Tiwi of North Australia}, 15.} 7 females for 1 male, and it is always male elders who monopolize essential esoteric knowledge if anyone does. The percentage of elderly males (60+) ranged, at three points of time, from 7.8\% to 9.1\%, with the ratio of children to elders 3:2. On the ex-Director’s assumptions, the average water hole would not have even one resident male elder.
Obviously his assumptions are false. Average age of death is always irrelevant, and San elders do not monopolize sacred knowledge. Using real figures — which were available to Bookchin — and using a conservative estimate of 8\% male elders, there would only be at most one elder in every other camp. But actual camps vary widely in size, so actually the odds were over two to one against there being a male elder in even the camp with the most people (35). Some camps, of course did include elders.\footnote{Lee, \emph{The !Kung San}, 42–47, 52–58.} But the point is that Bookchin’s vision of male elders indoctrinating boys with gerontocratic values is demographically impossible.
At the tribal level, the residential unit will be larger, in the low hundreds,\footnote{Sahlins, \emph{Tribesmen}, 21.} but mortality might be higher and the children may be required to commence subsistence activity sooner. I can just barely imagine a village of 200 horticulturists with 16 elders indoctrinating 24 or more children, but only apart from the household in something like a school, and \emph{that} I can’t imagine at all. Apparently, neither can Bookchin, since he nowhere hints that the old wise men operated schools.
Prehistoric man, according to Bookchin, never lived past age 50. Actually, the remains of a Neanderthal man in his fifties show that his people not only provided his food but specially prepared it for him, much as Janet Biehl must do for the ex-Director. That opinion was based on earlier measures of skeletal aging which were systematically biased.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 121; Douglas E. Crews, “Anthropological Issues in Biological Gerontology,” in \emph{Anthropology and Aging: Comparative Reviews}, ed. R.L. Rubinstein (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990), 13–14; Clifford J. Jolly \& Fred Plog, \emph{Physical Anthropology and Archaeology} (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979), 260. In a rapidly moving field like paleobiology it will not do to depend in 1995, as does the Director Emeritus, on a secondary source published in 1979. Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 46*.} At the Shanidar site in Iraq were found two Neanderthal infants, three young adults, and four older adults, a fossil sample “clearly dominated, in numbers and degree of preservation, by elderly males.” The author cites three other sites containing elderly males.\footnote{Erik Trinkaus, \emph{The Shanidar Neanderthals} (NY: Academic Press, 1983), 53.} A summary of the data from all the many Neanderthal remains found up to 1961 reveals that 35.8\% of them were from 31 to 60 years of age at death.\footnote{Vallois, “The Social Life of Early Man: The Evidence of Skeletons,” 223 (Table 2).} Besides, it is not obvious — if this even matters — that Neanderthals were the ancestors of those now denominated “anatomically modern humans,” namely, ourselves. The experts have debated that question for decades and they still do. For present purposes, it’s irrelevant.
In \emph{SALA,} and now again in its sequel, Bookchin indicts the San (standing in for hunter-gatherers) for their brief life-spans. Unlike in \emph{SALA}, Bookchin this time provides a source for his claim that the average San lifespan is 30 years — it is Headland’s old review of Wilmsen.\footnote{Headland, “Paradise Revised,” 46.} Headland has done no research on the San and provided no reference to anyone who has. In \emph{SALA}, Bookchin left the impression that “Wilmsen and his associates” came up with this figure,\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 45–46.} but Wilmsen does not even refer to San lifespan, much less purport to estimate it based on his own research. It begins to look as if Bookchin has never read Wilmsen.
Arriving at ages for the San is actually a research problem. The San don’t know how old they are (the usual situation among primitives), and in their own language they can only count to three.\footnote{Tanaka, \emph{The San}, 81; Marshall, \emph{!Kung of Nyae Nyae}, 162; Heinz \& Lee, \emph{Namkwa}, 244; Fortes, “Age, Generation, and Social Structure,” in Kertzer \& Keith, eds., \emph{Age and Anthropological Theory}, 99, 110, 113.} The most thorough investigation of San demography was done by Nancy Howell, a member of the Lee\Slash{}DeVore team, among the Dobe San. Her estimate of life expectancy at birth was 30–35 years.\footnote{Nancy Howell, \emph{Demography of the Dobe !Kung} (New York: Academic Press, 1979), 82.} Another study, which I cited in \emph{Anarchy after Leftism}, produced an estimate of 32 years.\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL,} 111, quoting Melvin Konner and Marjorie Shostack, “Timing and Management of Birth Among the !Kung: Biocultural Interaction in Reproductive Adaptation,” \emph{Cultural Anthropology} 32(1) (Feb. 1987), 12.} For the ≠Kade San, Tanaka’s estimate was 40 years.\footnote{Tanaka, \emph{The San}, 86.} But a San who survives to the age of 15 can expect to live to be 55.\footnote{Shostack, \emph{Nisa}, 15.} Laura Marshall counted 15\% of a !Kung population who were over 50.\footnote{Marshall, \emph{Kung! of Nyae Nyae}, 162 (calculated from Table 4).} By comparison, the life expectancy for ancient Romans was 20 to 30 years;\footnote{Keith Hopkins, “On the Probable Age Structure of the Roman Population,” \emph{Population Studies} 20(2) (Nov. 1966), 263.} thus the highest estimate for the civilized Romans is the lowest estimate for the savage San. Just a century ago, American life expectancy was only 40 years. And as the ex-Director remarks, in the mid-19\textsuperscript{th} century, “to be in one’s mid-sixties was to be quite elderly.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 266.}
Are these statistics appalling? No doubt they are to a sick, scared old man like Bookchin who knows his time is short. Had \emph{he} died at 40, none of his books would ever have been written. It is embarrassingly obvious that his recent tirades are the outbursts of someone in a desperate hurry to perpetuate an ideological legacy he rightly perceives to be in eclipse. He fears the loss of the only kind of immortality he believes in. But his private terror at the prospect of death and disregard is a personalistic demon. There is more to the quality of life than the quantity of life. How much more is strictly a value judgment. Bookchin’s philhellenism fails him here; he should heed Epicurus: “As [the wise man] does not choose the food that is most in quantity but that which is most pleasant, so he does not seek the enjoyment of the longest life but of the happiest.”\footnote{Epicurus, “Letter to Menoeceus,” in \emph{Letters, Principal Doctrines, and Vatican Sayings}, tr. Russel M. Geer (Indianapolis, IN \& New York: Library of Liberal Arts, 1964), 55.}
According to one of the Grimm’s fairy tales, “God originally set the life span for all creatures at 30 years; finding so long a life wearisome, the ass, the dog, and the monkey had theirs reduced by 18, 12, and 10 years respectively. Only man wished a longer life, and added to his previous span what the others had relinquished. He paid dearly for longevity; at 48 his condition became that of the ass, carrying countless burdens; at 60 like the dog’s, growling toothlessly and dragging himself from corner to corner; and at 70 like the monkey’s, a derisory, witless creature.”\footnote{David Lowenthal, \emph{The Past is a Foreign Country} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 129.} I leave to the reader the amusement of tracking this sequence onto Bookchin’s career. Achilles chose a short life as a hero over a long life as a nobody. Pirates preferred a short and merry life to a longer life of drudgery. Some people, as Zapata put it, would rather die on their feet than live on their knees. And some people can pack a lot of life into a short span. If foragers generally live lives of liberty, conviviality, abundance and ease, it is by no means obvious that their shorter, high-quality lives are inferior to our longer, low-quality lives.
Murray Bookchin tells us that it is modern medical technology which is keeping him alive.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 249 n. 9.} This is not the best argument for modern medical technology. Most of the maladies which afflict our elders — including hypertension, for which Bookchin receives treatment — are nonexistent among the San.\footnote{Shostack, \emph{Nisa}, 15.} These absent conditions include obesity, coronary and hypertensive heart disease, high cholesterol, and suicide (and homicide is very rare). Viral diseases are unknown among hunter-gatherers.\footnote{C.G.N. Mascie-Taylor, “The Biological Anthropology of Disease,” in \emph{The Anthropology of Disease,} ed. C.G.N. Mascie-Taylor (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 6–7.} Tuberculosis, unknown in prehistory, “is associated with keeping livestock and living in sedentary or urban centers.”\footnote{Kathleen D. Gordon, “What Bones Teach Us,” in \emph{Anthropology Explored: The Best of Smithsonian AnthroNotes}, ed. Ruth Osterweis Selig \& Marilyn R. London (Washington, DC \& London: Smithsonian University Press, 1998), 89. It is the same for tooth decay. Ibid.} Among tribal and band peoples, for example, one would never find a “portly” fellow, short of breath, “a man of sixty or so, bald on top, flatfooted on bottom, wide-assed narrow-minded and slope-shouldered, he resembled in shape a child’s toy known as Mr. Potato-Head.”\footnote{Edward Abbey, \emph{Heyduke Lives!} (Boston, MA: Little, Brown \& Co., 1990), 201. This is “Bernie Mushkin,” a barely fictionalized Murray Bookchin, as he appeared at an Earth First! gathering.} That is, one would never find — as here described by Edward Abbey — Murray Bookchin. Judging from \emph{SALA} and “Whither Anarchism?” the Director Emeritus is not enjoying his golden years. Nobody else is enjoying his golden years either.
Lest anyone else panic over the statistics, let’s consider what they really mean. In \emph{Anarchy after Leftism} I already pointed out that life expectancy at birth is no measure of how long those who survive infancy, or who reach any particular age, can expect to live.\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 109–111; Hopkins, “On the Probable Age Structure of the Roman Population,” 247; Robert Boyd, “Urbanization, Morbidity and Mortality,” in \emph{Man, Settlement and Urbanism}, ed. Peter J. Ucko, Ruth Tringham, \& D.W. Dimbleby (London: Gerald Duckworth \& Co., 1972), 345.} That’s why there are jobs for actuaries. Bookchin first fell for this fallacy in \emph{SALA}, and I corrected him in \emph{AAL}; he repeated it in the on-line version of “Whither Anarchism?” and I corrected him again in the shorter pamphlet version of the present essay.\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 109–111; Bob Black, \emph{Withered Anarchism} (London: Green Anarchist \& Eugene, OR: Anarchist Action Collective, n.d.), 17–18.} Its recommitment to text for a \emph{third} appearance cannot be a mistake. It is a conscious lie, a re\emph{crud}escence of Bookchin’s irrepressible Stalinism.
In all human populations, including ours, infant mortality is high relative to the mortality of all other age groups except the very old. In this respect, as Nancy Howell concluded, “the !Kung have an age pattern of mortality more or less like everyone else.”\footnote{Howell, \emph{Demography of the Dobe !Kung}, 82.} Richard B. Lee observed that “the Dobe population pyramid looks like that of a developed country, for example, like that of the United States around 1900.”\footnote{Lee, \emph{The !Kung San}, 47.} The high rate of infant mortality depresses the average lifespan, but real people live, not the average lifespan, but their own lifespans. According to the ex-Director, back in the Old Stone Age, “few lived beyond their fiftieth year.” (more recently he says that \emph{no} “human beings survived beyond the age of fifty”).\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 46; Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 121. Whenever the Director Emeritus amends a former proposition it is always to make it simpler and more extreme, and always without acknowledgment} As Nancy Howell discovered, that was not true of the San. Over 17\% were over 50; 29\% were over 40; 43\% were over 30. One San man was approximately 82.\footnote{Howell, \emph{Demography of the Dobe !Kung}, 30, 35; \emph{cf.} Lee, \emph{The !Kung San}, 44–48.} In 1988, another anthropologist interviewed at least one San who was in his 90s.\footnote{Patricia Draper \& Henry Harpending, “Comment,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 30(1) (Feb. 1990), 128.} According to Tanaka, too, many San live far beyond the age of 40.\footnote{Tanaka, \emph{The San}, 86.} According to Shostack, a San who lives to be 15 can expect to live to 55, and 10\% of the population was aged over 60.\footnote{Konner \& Shostack, “Timing and Management of Birth Among the !Kung,” 12; Shostack, \emph{Nisa}, 15.}
To these figures we may compare those compiled from the tombstones of ancient Romans (n = 4,575) and non-Roman Italians (n = 3,269). Only 10\% of the Romans were over 50, compared to 17\% of the San; for the Italians it was 18.4\%. 16\% of the Romans and 22.5\% of the Italians were over 40, compared with 29\% of the San. 26.7\% of the Romans and 18.4\% of the Italians were over 30, compared with 43\% of the San. For both ancient populations, the life expectancy of persons aged 5–44 was much less than 20 years in every age cohort.\footnote{Hopkins, “On the Probable Age Structure of the Roman Population,” 252 (calculated from Table 4).} The life expectancy for a San at age 15, according to Konner and Shostack, is 40 years. The Roman and Italian statistics, by the way, based on the evidence from tombstones, greatly underestimate mortality, because very few babies under one year old were buried with tombstones. According to United Nations Model Life Tables, which average the life expectancy rates of underdeveloped nations, the first year of life has the highest mortality rate (33.2\%) except for the 60–64 cohort (35\%).\footnote{Ibid. (Table 4).} Another historian, whose own tombstone survey produced an estimated lifespan of 30, observed that the population structure of the later Roman Empire resembled that of India in about 1900.\footnote{A.H.M. Jones, \emph{The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social Economic and Administrative Survey} (2 vols.; Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1964), 2: 1041.}
Mortality rates for Bookchin’s revered classical Athens are like the Roman rather than the San figures. A study of 2,022 classical Greek sepulchral inscriptions, where again infants and small children are underrepresented, as children of the very poor may also be, yielded an average life expectancy of 29.43 years — a little lower than the lowest figure, Bookchin’s false figure, for San life expectancy. 42.63\% of the sample died before they were 21, and an astonishingly high 64.73\% before they were 30. Only 16.43\% were over 50 — again lower than the San figure.\footnote{Bessie Ellen Richardson, \emph{Old Age Among the Ancient Greeks: The Greek Portrayal of Old Age in Literature, Art, and Inscriptions} (New York: Greenwood Press, 1969), 231–234.} Death was ever-present: “In the Greek world death was prevalent among persons of all age groups, whether as a result of warfare, accident, or illness or, in the case of women, as a consequence of giving birth.”\footnote{Robert Garland, \emph{Daily Life of the Ancient Greeks} (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998), 114.} In fourth-century Athens, only 2\% of people \emph{over 18} were over 40,\footnote{Mogens Herman Hansen, \emph{The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes: Structure, Principles and Ideology} (Oxford \& Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 249.} reflecting a much higher mortality rate than among the San. The high respect the Greeks accorded their elderly reflects the fact that there were not enough of them to be burdensome.
In his celebrated Funeral Oration, Pericles consoled the parents of sons fallen in the war by assuring them that their troubles are almost over: “As for those of you who are now too old to have children, I would ask you to count as gain the greater part of your life, and remember that what remains is not long.”\footnote{J. Lawrence Angel, “The Length of Life in Ancient Greece,” \emph{Journal of Gerontology} 2(1) (Jan. 1947), 23; Thucydides, \emph{History of the Peloponnesian War}, tr. Rex Warner (London: Penguin Books, 1954), 150 (quoted).} Parents with adult children, in other words, will soon be dead. It occurs to me that many aspects of Greek life — such as war and philosophy — might be illuminated by the fact and the awareness of early death. Ancient philosophers who disagreed about everything else agreed that “fear of death is the supreme enemy of life.”\footnote{Peter Gay, \emph{The Enlightenment: A Modern Interpretation} (2 vols.; New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976–1978), 2: 84–87, 85 (quoted).} \emph{These} “appalling” mortality rates have never troubled the Director Emeritus, perhaps because he admires almost everything about classical civilization but despises everything about the San, from their size to their shamanism, but above all, for their anarchism.
\chapter{Chapter 6. Book Filled with Lies}
The latest of the ex-Director’s ironic indiscretions is his heavy reliance on Edwin Wilmsen’s \emph{Land Filled with Flies} to bash the anarcho-primitivists. In \emph{SALA}, Bookchin asserted an affinity between anarcho-primitivism and post-modernism, with sublime indifference to the fact that post-modernism has no harsher critic than John Zerzan.\footnote{John Zerzan, “The Catastrophe of Postmodernism,” in \emph{Future Primitive and Other Essays} (Brooklyn, NY: Autonomedia \& Columbia, MO: Anarchy\Slash{}C.A.L. Press, 1994), 101–134; John Zerzan, \emph{Running on Empty: The Pathology of Civilization} (Los Angeles, CA: Feral House, 2002), 136–139, 165–167.} To any reader of Wilmsen not in thrall to an ulterior motive, Wilmsen is blatantly a post-modernist.\footnote{Headland, “Paradise Revised,” 50; Mathias Guenther, “Comment,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 31(5) (Dec. 1990), 509; Bicchieri, “Comment,” 507; Richard B. Lee, “Comment,” in ibid., 511 (“post-modern rhetoric”); Michael S. Alford, “Comment,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 38(4) (Aug.-Oct. 1997), 610; Allyn Maclean Stearman, “Comment,” in ibid., 623.} One of his reviewers, Henry Harpending, is a biological anthropologist who is charmingly innocent of exposure to PoMo. He had “a lot of trouble” with the beginning of the book, which contains “an alarming discussion of people and things being interpellated in the introduction and in the first chapter, but my best efforts with a dictionary left me utterly ignorant about what it all meant.”\footnote{Henry Harpending, review of \emph{Land Filled with Flies, Anthropos} 86 (1991), 314. He continues: “When I deduced that ‘interposing instruments of production between themselves and subjects of labor’ (48) meant spearing animals I gave up on the rich language of the theoretical arguments and decided to concentrate on the substance of the book.” Ibid.} Not surprisingly: the jargon (“interpellation of the subject”) is that of Louis Althusser, the structuralist Marxist who went mad and murdered his wife.\footnote{Geraldine Finn, \emph{Why Althusser Killed His Wife: Essays on Discourse and Violence} (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1996), 3–9.} According to Thomas Headland, Wilmsen-style “revisionism is not just testing and rejecting hypotheses. Partially fueled by postmodernism, it seems to be ideologically driven.”\footnote{Thomas N. Headland, “Reply,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 38(4) (August-Oct. 1997), 624.}
When it was published in 1989, \emph{Land Filled with Flies} created a sensation, as it was meant to. Not only did it debunk the conventional wisdom, it did so as insultingly as possible. Not only did it furnish startling new data drawn from language, archeology and history in addition to fieldwork, it placed them in a pretentious theoretical apparatus. And it seethed with self-righteousness. By not recognizing the San for what they are — an underclass, the poorest of the poor under comprador capitalism — all other anthropologists were ideologically complicit in their subjugation. Since all anthropologists who have lived with the San are strongly committed to some notion of their rights and autonomy, naturally they were infuriated to be castigated as the dupes or tools of neo-colonialism. Rebuttals were soon forthcoming, and the controversy, much abated, continues. But Wilmsen enjoyed a strategic advantage: his quadruple-barreled shotgun attack. His linguistic, archeological, historical and ethnographic researches all converged on the same or on congruent conclusions. In methodology as in morals, Wilmsen is the Stewart Home of anthropology.
Academics are the timid type in the best of circumstances. By temperament they prefer to be the big fish in a pond however small. The phrase “a school of fish” says as much about school as it does about fish. Specialization is the source and the limit of the academic’s authority. The expert in one subfield, such as ethnography, cannot help but lose self-confidence — something he probably never had very much of — when his certitudes are impeached by researches in three other subfields. He begins to wonder if he can be sure of even the evidence of his own senses (or what he remembers to be such). Wilmsen, by purporting to possess expertise in so many areas, intimidates the experts in all of them — at first, anyway. But scholars have started checking up on Wilmsen, just as anarchists have started checking up on Bookchin, and with similar consequences.
Most of Edwin Wilmsen’s observations of 70s San are strikingly unlike the observations of all his dozen-odd predecessors in the field. Previous anthropologists had already reported how abruptly the San foraging life-way was succumbing to pressures ranging from protracted drought to entanglement in counterinsurgency in Southwest Africa to the sedentarizing, nationalizing policies of newly independent Botswana. Nobody denies that most of the San have been forced into the capitalist world-system at its very bottom level — and while it was happening, nobody did deny it\footnote{\emph{E.g.}, Lee, \emph{The !Kung San}, ch. 14 (“Economic and Social Change in the 1960s and 1970s”); Richard B. Lee, “What Hunters Do for a Living, or How to Make Out on Scarce Resources,” in Lee \& DeVore, eds., \emph{Man the Hunter}, 30–48; Mathias G. Guenther, “From Hunters to Squatters: Social and Cultural Change Among the Farm San of Ghanzi, Botswana,” in Lee \& DeVore, eds., \emph{Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers,} 120–134. In 1965, the year in which, according to Bookchin, the primitive-affluence thesis was promulgated, Richard B. Lee’s dissertation discussed social change among the San. “Subsistence Ecology of !Kung Bushmen,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1965.} — but only Bookchin is obscene enough to enthuse over this particular extension of the development of the productive forces. He doesn’t care what happens to people so long as he can turn it to polemical advantage.
Most of Wilmsen’s fieldwork was done at a waterhole he calls CaeCae, whose inhabitants he labels, according to how he classifies their “principal production activities,” as variously “pastoralist, independent, forager, reliant, and client” — a rather elaborate typology for just 16 households, only 9 of which were San.\footnote{Wilmsen, \emph{Land Filled with Flies}, 225 (quoted), 225–226, 198.} There’s almost a category for every San household, which rather defeats the purpose of categorization. In 1975–1976, only two households (both San) consisted of foragers, people deriving over 95\% of their food from hunting and gathering; by 1979–1980, both subsisted on a combination of relief and casual wage-labor. As for the “independents,” who owned some livestock but derived over half their subsistence from foraging, there were three households in the earlier period, two in the later.\footnote{Wilmsen, \emph{Land Filled with Flies}, 225–226.} Those in the other households did some hunting, but subsisted mainly by other means. Now even if Wilmsen’s findings are accurate, they derive from a ridiculously small sample, 2–5 households at the most, of people who were obviously caught up in a process of proletarianization so accelerated that it would have made Karl Marx’s head spin.
I read a bunch of reviews of Wilmsen’s book, pro and con, before I read the book itself. Nothing prepared me for the sheer, shocking near-nothingness of its ethnographic database: it was like reading \emph{The Ecology of Freedom}. And nothing Wilmsen says he found in the field, even if true, refutes or even calls into question what previous researchers discovered about far larger groups of San at earlier times and in other places. Wilmsen berates his predecessors for ignoring history (they didn’t\footnote{\emph{E.g.}, Lee, \emph{The !Kung San}, ch. 3 (“The Dobe Area: Its Peoples and Their History”).}). But he’s the one who has trouble accepting the possibility that, just as the people he studied were living differently in 1980 than they were in 1975, the people that Lee, DeVore, Howell, Tanaka and others studied before 1975 might have in a rather short time come to live differently. Marjorie Shostack, whose first visit to the field took place near the end of the Lee\Slash{}DeVore project, reported exactly such a transformation:
\begin{quote}
Although pressures for change were being universally felt in 1969, the time of my first field trip, !Kung traditions still dominated. By the spring of 1975, however, when I made my second field trip, the pace of change had increased and changes could be seen everywhere. Gathered and hunted foods were still in ample evidence, but gardens were being planted, herds of goats were being tended, donkeys were being used to transport food from the bush, and cattle were being bought with money saved from selling crafts. Most of all, the attitude of the people had changed. They were now looking to the agricultural and herding people near them as a model for their future.\footnote{Shostack, \emph{Nisa}, 346 (quoted); Kent, “Cultural Diversity among African Foragers,” 16–17.}
\end{quote}
Wilmsen is the victim of a tragic fate. He missed the last chance to study a pure hunter-gatherer society. As of 1968, there were only 27 such societies known to be in existence.\footnote{George Peter Murdock, “The Current Status of the World’s Hunting and Gathering Peoples,” in Lee \& DeVore, eds., \emph{Man the Hunter}, 14–20. 10,000 years ago there were only hunter-gatherers; by the birth of Christ, they occupied half or less of the face of the earth; by 1492, 15\%. Ibid., 13.} Today probably all of them are gone.\footnote{I may have spoken too soon. There are still hunter-gatherer peoples in New Guinea (four are mentioned) who derive over 85\% of their subsistence from foraging. And they are less acculturated than were other hunter-gatherer societies when they were first studied. Paul Roscoe, “The Hunters and Gatherers of New Guinea,” \emph{Current Ethnology} 43(1) (Feb. 2002), 158.} Wilmsen’s first monograph was an archaeological reconstruction of a Paleo-Indian site. The occupants were hunter-gatherers, and in explaining their way of life, Wilmsen explicitly invoked \emph{Man the Hunter}.\footnote{Edwin Wilmsen, \emph{Lindenmeier: A Pleistocene Hunting Society} (New York: Harper \& Row, 1974), ch. 7.} These were the kind of people he wanted to know in the flesh. But when he went to the Kalahari, they were already gone. To persuade himself that he had lost nothing, especially nothing irrecoverable, he persuaded himself and now tries to persuade others that there was nothing there to lose, even if that means dismissing all his luckier predecessors as liars and conspirators. Wilmsen missed the boat. The historian himself needs historicizing.
Among Wilmsen’s most controversial claims is for longstanding social stratification among the San and between the San and Bantu-speaking peoples. Since his ethnographic evidence is paltry, he relies mainly on evidence of inequality embedded in the languages of the San and their Bantu neighbors, such as the Herero. Unfortunately for Wilmsen, one of his reviewers, Henry Harpending, actually knows these languages. Wilmsen claims that a word the Herero apply to the San they also apply to their cattle, implying that the San are their chattels. However, the Herero apply the same word to the Afrikaaners, and nobody would say that the Afrikaaners are the Herero’s property. The Herero word implies antagonism, not ownership, just as I do when I say that Freddie Baer is a cow. According to Harpending, Wilmsen derives sociological conclusions from bad puns: “This all, and much more, is fanciful drivel. It is like saying that the people of Deutschland are called ‘Germans,’ meaning ‘infected people,’ from the word ‘germ’ meaning a microorganism that causes illness. Almost every foray into linguistics appears to be entirely contrived, created from nothing, even when there is no reason to contrive anything.”
Yet another “bizarre analysis,” this one drawn from San kinship terminology, Harpending characterizes thusly: “It is as if I were to claim that the English word grandmother refers to a custom whereby old people stay at home and grind wheat for the family bread and that grandmother is really a corruption of grindmother. Of course, if I were to write such nonsense it would never be published. Editors and referees would laugh me out the door because they would be familiar with English. But hardly anyone in Europe and North America is familiar with !Kung and Otjiherero.”\footnote{Harpending, review, 314.}
Wilmsen claims that archeology demonstrates — well, let’s let Bookchin say it in his own inimitable way — “The San people of the Kalahari are now known to have been gardeners before they were driven into the desert. Several hundred years ago, according to Edwin Wilmsen, San-speaking peoples were herding and farming [Wilmsen never says they were farmers], not to speak of trading with neighboring agricultural chiefdoms in a network that extended to the Indian Ocean. By the year 1000, excavations have shown, their area, Dobe\footnote{Sorry to interrupt so compelling a narrative, but Dobe is only a small part of the Kalahari now inhabited by the San. The Dobe area was where Lee, DeVore, Howell and associates focused their research in the 60s and 70s. Obviously Bookchin has not even bothered to read Wilmsen’s book, but at best skimmed it — or had Janet Biehl skim it — to cull quotations as ammunition.}, was populated by people who made ceramics, worked with iron, and herded cattle \dots{} “\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 44.} These conclusions the Director Emeritus serves up as indisputable facts. That they are not.
Karim Sadr has taken up Richard B. Lee’s exasperated proposal for independent review of all of Wilmsen’s controversial claims.\footnote{Richard B. Lee and Mathias Guenther, “Errors Corrected or Compounded? A Reply to Wilmsen,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 32 (1991): 298–305.} Sadr addresses only the archeological claims, and concludes that they are unsupported by what little evidence is available so far. Wilmsen’s ally Denbow, as Sadr has related, “says that his model is based on over 400 surveyed sites and excavations at 22 localities. The 400 or more surveyed sites, however, provide no relevant evidence. The model is really based on a dozen of the excavated sites, and of these only three have been adequately published.”\footnote{Sadr, “Kalahari Archaeology and the Bushmen Debate,” 105.}
One does not have to be an expert to notice how forced and foolish some of the Wilmsenist arguments are. Rock paintings of uncertain age depicting stick figures, supposedly San, alongside cattle are claimed to be evidence that the San at some indefinite past time herded cattle. From this premise — even if true — is drawn the illogical conclusion that the San were working for Bantu bosses who owned the cattle. Why the San were incapable of owning and herding their own cattle is not disclosed. As Sadr says, “the stick figures may be herding or stealing the cattle, or the Bushmen may have received the cattle in fair trade. To stretch the point, maybe the paintings represent wishful thinking. One alternative is as speculative as another.”\footnote{Sadr, “Kalahari Archaeology and the Bushmen Debate,” 105.} Besides, as another anthropologist asks: “Has the identity of the rock paintings been unequivocally established?”\footnote{Bicchieri, “Comment,” 507.}
Actually, to say that one alternative is as speculative as another may be an unwarranted concession to Wilmsen. Some rock paintings \emph{do} depict San rustling cattle from Bantus. San were stealing Bantu cattle as recently as the first decade of the 20\textsuperscript{th} century,\footnote{G. Baldwin Brown, \emph{The Art of the Cave Dweller: A Study of the Earliest Artistic Activities of Man} (London: John Murray, 1928), 220 (Fig. 144); J. David Lewis-Williams, \emph{Believing and Seeing: Symbolic Meanings in Southern San Rock Paintings} (London: Academic Press, 1981), 9 (Fig. 1) (late 19\textsuperscript{th} century); Wilmsen, \emph{Land Filled with Flies}, 136–137.} and that was likely not a recent innovation. There are also depictions of San in proximity to cattle which rule out the serfdom theory, for example, showing Bantus offering cattle to a San rain-maker (a much sought after specialist).\footnote{Lewis-Williams, \emph{Believing and Seeing}, 105.} San could and did herd their own cattle, as some do today. In the 17\textsuperscript{th} century, Europeans saw San with their own cattle.\footnote{Andy Smith, Candy Malherbe, Mat Guenther, \& Penny Berens, \emph{The Bushmen of South Africa: A Foraging People in Transition} (Cape Town, South Africa: David Philing Publishers \& Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2000), 30.} San rock painting goes back at least 10,500 years, and possibly 19,000 to 27,000 years,\footnote{David Coulson \& Alec Campbell, \emph{African Rock Art: Paintings and Engravings on Stone} (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2001), 6.} and forward to the late 19\textsuperscript{th} century. There are 2,000 sites, and almost 15,000 paintings.\footnote{Burchord Brentjes, \emph{African Rock Art} (London: Dent, 1969), 6.} Yet Wilmsen is unable to point to a single painting which unambiguously indicates San subordination to the Bantus.
The main evidence cited to show San “encapsulation” by Iron Age Bantu speakers from the sixth to eleventh centuries is cattle and sheep remains found at San sites in the Kalahari. The proportions, however, are extremely small, like those found in the Cape area where there were no Iron Age chiefdoms to encapsulate foragers. The evidence of all kinds is scanty and inconclusive. San might have been encapsulated at certain times and places, dominant at others. Nothing rules out the possibility “that they may very well have retained their autonomous hunting and gathering way of life until historic times.”\footnote{Bicchieri, 111.}
Wilmsen claims that when Europeans perceived hunter-gatherers, they were constructing them as such in accordance with ideological preconceptions. It was the other way around: 17\textsuperscript{th} century Europeans originated the stereotypes, such as the miserable poverty of the San, which Wilmsen is trying to revive today.\footnote{Smith, Malherbe, Guenter \& Berens, \emph{Bushmen of South Africa}, 28–29.} But when Herero pastoralists, refugees from a vicious German military campaign in Southwest Africa, passed through the Kalahari in 1904 and 1905, they, too, saw only San who lived entirely by foraging.\footnote{Harpending, review, 315.} It is unlikely that these Bantus were readers of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Lewis Henry Morgan or Friedrich Engels. It is almost as if the San would have been foragers even if there had been no Europeans to construct them. The San have been reporting to Western ethnographers since 1951, and the memories of some of these informants went back to the late 19\textsuperscript{th} century. None of them remembers or has heard of a time when the San were herders or cultivators.\footnote{Shostack, \emph{Nisa}, 35.} In 1988, Patricia Draper interviewed 13 San whose ages ranged from the 60s to the 90s. Except for one woman who lived in a border area, all these San spent their early childhoods in the bush, with no contact whatsoever with Bantus.\footnote{Harpending \& Draper, “Comment,” 128.}
Which brings us to the strictly historical content of Wilmsen’s case. He made more, and more systematic use, of archival evidence than any previous ethnographer of the Kalahari. Identifying these sources and emphasizing their importance may well be his only lasting accomplishment.\footnote{Harpending, review, 315.} What he made of them is something else again. Travelers reported seeing “Bushmen with cattle somewhere in the Kalahari in the nineteenth century,” but since nobody ever doubted that Bushmen have long been in contact with cattle-raising Bantu,\footnote{Alan Bernard, \emph{Hunters and Herders of Southern Africa: A Comparative Ethnography of the Khoisan Peoples} (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1992), 40–41.} as were foraging Bushmen in the 1960s, this does not prove anything about the Bushman way of life.\footnote{Harpending, review, 314; Alan Barnard, “Comment,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 31(2) (April 1990), 122; Irenaus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, “On Subsistence and Social Relations in the Kalahari,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 32(2) (April 1991), 55.}
The very fact that until the 1970s, some San were still pure foragers \emph{despite} centuries of contact with herders is an objection to Wilmsen’s theory, which assumes that contact means subordination. Wilmsen denounces the classical social evolutionists and also those he derides, with questionable cause, as their latter-day inheritors. But he shares with them the assumption that upon contact with the higher, more complex systems of society, the lower, simpler systems are subsumed or else wilt and wither away. To Wilmsen, as to Bookchin, it is unthinkable that foragers might hold their own against herders or farmers. They are, by definition, inferior! Exposure to a higher level of social organization is like exposure to pathogens to which the savages have no immunity. But “contact does not automatically entail the domination and exploitation of peoples that practice hunting-gathering modes of existence.” Nor does trade necessarily entail loss of economic autonomy or the abandonment of foraging.\footnote{Patterson, “Comment,” 133 (quoted); Susan Kent, “Comment,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 31(2) (April 1990), 132; Solway \& Lee, “Foragers, Genuine or Spurious?”; Adams, “Anthropological Perspectives on Ancient Trade,” 240.}
Wilmsen’s position begs every question. For all anybody knows, foragers might have dealt with their neighbors from a position of strength. As late as 1850, even 1877 — as Wilmsen informs us — the northern San recognized no outside authority over them, and their Herero neighbors respected their military prowess.\footnote{Wilmsen, \emph{Land Filled with Flies}, 103.} If you look at the situation from a purely military perspective, for instance, the foragers had definite advantages over the sedentary Bantu herders. The Bantus permanently occupied villages whose locations were easy for an enemy to ascertain. The San often moved their campsites, taking their scanty personal property with them. The Bantus mainly lived off their cattle, whose whereabouts were easily known, and which could be stolen or killed. The San lived off of wild game and gathered plant food which no enemy could destroy or despoil them of. The Bantus could probably mobilize more manpower for war than the San, but to do what? In the 19\textsuperscript{th} century, their neighbors did not regard the San as “the harmless people.”\footnote{Alluding to a widely read popular account of the life of the San, Elizabeth Marshall Thomas, \emph{The Harmless People} (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1959). It was assigned reading in the first anthropology course I took, in 1970. For the San, war is now a thing of the past, but intra-group violence is significant and “homicide is not rare.” Lee, \emph{The !Kung San}, 370 (quoted) \& ch. 7.} There’s no reason to think that Bushmen and Bantus have, or ever had, some cause of chronic conflict. Wilmsen’s own argument holds otherwise. These peoples had some incentive to interact, perhaps some incentive to avoid each other otherwise, but no known incentive to wage permanent war on each other.
It is above all with history that Wilmsen seeks to overawe the anthropologists. His book is very much part of the historical turn the discipline has taken in the last twenty years. “People without history”\footnote{Eric Wolf, \emph{Europe and the People without History} (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1982).} nowhere exist, of course. Berating other anthropologists as ahistorical possesses a strategic advantage for someone like Wilmsen in addition to its trendiness. When he contradicts the ethnography of a dozen predecessors, they are inclined to retort that either conditions changed or Wilmsen is wrong. It wouldn’t be the first time an anthropologist with an ideological agenda went into the field and saw what he wanted to see.\footnote{Such as, notoriously, Margaret Mitchell. Derek Freeman, \emph{The Fateful Hoaxing of Margaret Mead: A Historical Analysis of Her Samoan Research} (Oxford, England \& Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999); Derek Freeman, “Was Margaret Mead Misled or Did She Mislead on Samoa?” \emph{Current Anthropology} 41(4) (Aug.-Oct. 2000): 609–616; Martin Orans, \emph{Not Even Wrong: Margaret Mead, Derek Freeman, and the Samoans} (Novato, CA: Chandler \& Sharp Publishers, 1996).} But if Wilmsen was a latecomer, indeed a too-latecomer to the field, he was almost a pioneer in the archives where time is on \emph{his} side. If the others point to the 1960s, he can point to the 1860s. Take that! But there is a crucial disadvantage too. There is no returning to the ethnographic 1960s, but the archival 1860s are available for others to visit. Wilmsen’s critics did research his sources, as I researched Bookchin’s, and with the same devastating results.
Richard B. Lee and Mathias Guenther sought out the traders’ and travelers’ diaries (in English, German and Afrikaans), the maps, the letters and the other sources on which Wilmsen relied to prove that the remote arid region of the Kalahari where the Lee\Slash{}DeVore anthropologists found foraging San a century later was a major trade crossroads in the mid-nineteenth century. The Dobe area, according to Wilmsen, “pulsed” with commercial activity in which Europeans, Bantus and San were all heavily involved. On this account the San, however, were herders, not hunters — they were the serfs of the Bantus whose cattle they tended — and when disease decimated the cattle in the late nineteenth century, the San lost their livelihoods and were forced into the desert to forage (“literally devolved, probably very much against their will,” in the ex-Director’s learned words). Even \emph{a priori} there was reason to doubt this remarkable discovery. As Harpending writes: “There is more trade through Xai Xai than anywhere in South Africa! Yet Xai Xai is perhaps the most remote isolated place I have ever visited. I am ready to believe that the occasional trader showed up at Xai Xai, but I am not ready to believe that it was ever a hub of major trade routes.”\footnote{Harpending, review, 314–315.}
According to Wilmsen, the records left by European traders confirm their commercial activity in the Dobe area. But not according to Lee and Guenther.\footnote{Richard B. Lee and Mathias Guenther, “Problems in Kalahari Historical Demography and the Tolerance of Error,” \emph{History in Africa} 20 (1993): 185–235.} Repeatedly, the diaries and maps cited by Wilmsen to place these Europeans in or near the Dobe area actually place them hundreds of kilometers away. In fact, the Europeans say that they went well out of their way to avoid the area. It was unmapped — all the maps Wilmsen refers to display the Dobe area as a big blank spot — its commercial potential was limited, and its inhabitants, who were mostly the then-numerous San, were known to be warlike and hostile to intruders.
The chicanery doesn’t end there. Wilmsen’s linguistic flimflammery, previously noted, isn’t confined to obscure African languages where he might hope to get away with it. He mistranslates German too. One of his most highly-hyped findings is in a German-language source which, he claims, identifies “oxen” at an archeological San site. The German word quoted actually means onions, not oxen. Lee and Guenther also adduce other mistranslations. In self-serving ways Wilmsen inserts words which clearly have no counterparts in the German originals, usually for the purpose of faking evidence of ethnic stratification.
The Post-Modernist fad in anthropology, and possibly elsewhere, is now blowing over.\footnote{E.N. Anderson, “New Textbooks Show Ecological Anthropology Is Flourishing,” \emph{Reviews in Anthropology} 31(3) (July-Sept. 2002), 240; John Zerzan, “Why Primitivism?” (unpublished MS., 2002), 3, 7 n. 17. As early as 1997, in the opinion of Richard Rorty, the “term post-modernism, has been ruined by over-use,” and he advised its abandonment. Richard Rorty, \emph{Truth, Politics and “Post-Modernism”} (n.p. [Amsterdam, Netherlands]: Van Gorcum, 1997), 13.} Revisionism in the extreme form espoused by Wilmsen is untenable, but nothing less extreme debunks the primitive-affluence thesis as Bookchin has caricatured it. The reader will by now be weary of !Kung calorie-counting and kindred esoterica: and Bookchin is counting on it. He deploys an argument almost as persuasive as the argument from force, namely, the argument from boredom. Anything you say, Murray, just don’t say it to me! Anyone ever involved with a leftist group knows the school where Bookchin learned “process.” Bookchin’s perverse paradise is precisely this pathology generalized.\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 66–70.} The winner of every argument is the guy who won’t shut up, the Last Man Grandstanding.
\chapter{Chapter 7. Primitivism and the Enlightenment}
In his prime, Bookchin could be a harsh critic of the Enlightenment, or, as he invariably referred to it, “the bourgeois Enlightenment.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 195, 197.} Now his only criticism is that with respect to primitive society, it wasn’t bourgeois enough. As he now sees it, the Enlightenment, which fought for reason and progress in its own society, inconsistently tolerated and even celebrated stagnant, backward, ignorant and superstitious primitive peoples. In this as in so many other ways, it is Bookchin’s project to perfect and complete the essentially rational and progressive project of the bourgeois Enlightenment. He always understands what people are doing better than they do.
“There is nothing new,” the Director Emeritus intones, “about the romanticization of tribal peoples. Two centuries ago, denizens of Paris, from Enlighteners such as Denis Diderot to reactionaries like Marie Antoinette, created a cult of ‘primitivism’ that saw tribal people as morally superior to members of European society, who presumably were corrupted by the vices of civilization.” Actually, two centuries before they were both dead. Bookchin makes it sound like they were collaborators. If there was a Parisian cult of the primitive, the airhead Marie Antoinette (d. 1793) had no part in creating it. Her cult of choice was Catholicism. Denis and Marie never met. And, as so often with Bookchin, the quotation marks around “primitivism” do not identify a quotation, they imply disapproval — an abuse, especially rife among Marxists, which I have already protested.\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 38, quoting Theodor W. Adorno, “Punctuation Marks,” \emph{The Antioch Review} (Summer 1990), 303.} Quotation marks could not properly be used here because the English word “primitivism” and its French cognate did not enter those languages until the 19\textsuperscript{th} and 20\textsuperscript{th} centuries, respectively.\footnote{\emph{The Oxford English Dictionary} (2d ed.; 20 vols.; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 12: 486, q\Slash{}v “primitivism”; \emph{Grand Larrousse de la lange francaise} (7 vols.; Paris: Librairie Larrousse, 1976), 5: 4629, q\Slash{}v “primitivisme.”} Am I quibbling about dates and details? Doesn’t the Director Emeritus? This guy claims to discern the directionality, not only of human history, but of natural history. How can he tell where history is going if he doesn’t know where it’s been, or even when?
Bookchin misdates the romanticizing of the primitive not by years but by centuries and, in the Garden of Eden version, by millennia. The noble savage wasn’t dreamed up at a Parisian salon. Although it is not quite primitivism, the pastoral ideal goes back to Bookchin’s dream-world, the urban-dominated world of classical antiquity.\footnote{Gay, \emph{Enlightenment}, 2: 92–94; Shepard Krech III, \emph{The Ecological Indian: Myth and History} (New York \& London: W.W. Norton \& Company, 1999), 17–18; Leo Marx, \emph{The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America} (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964), 19–24. “In Elizabethan writing the distinction between primitive and pastoral styles of life is often blurred, and devices first used by Theocritus and Virgil appear in many descriptions of the new continent.” Marx, \emph{Machine in the Garden}, 39.} Hesiod and Ovid wrote of an original Golden Age.\footnote{\emph{Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas} (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1973), q\Slash{}v “Primitivism.”} Primitivist ideas were expressed in the Middle Ages. The German barbarians of Tacitus are likewise noble and free. European notions of a specifically primitive freedom, virtue and comfort are at least as old as extensive European contacts with primitive peoples, especially in the Americas. They were Columbus’ first impressions of the Indians, and the first impressions of Captain John Smith in Virginia. Neither of these conquistadors was by any stretch of the imagination an Enlightenment humanist. In 1584, a sea captain working for Sir Walter Raleigh scouted the coast of Virginia. He saw it as a garden of “incredible abundance” whose inhabitants were “most gentle, loving and faithfull, voide of all guile and treason, and such as live after the manner of the golden age.”\footnote{George Boas, \emph{Primitivism and Related Ideas in the Middle Ages} (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University, 1948); “Primitivism,” 36–37; Krech, \emph{The Ecological Indian}, 18.} Peter Martyr (1459–1526) relied on the accounts of his voyages by Columbus in composing an influential account of Amerindian primordial innocence. The Indians remained the \emph{locus classicus} of the noble savage until the late 18\textsuperscript{th} century.\footnote{George W. Stocking, \emph{Victorian Anthropology} (New York: The Free Press \& London: Collier-Macmillan, 1987), 18.}
Montaigne’s celebrated essay on cannibals (1580) is “one of the fountainheads of modern primitivism.” It influenced Shakespeare, among many others, who even lifted some of its actual words.\footnote{\emph{The Essays of Michel de Montaigne}, tr. George B. Ives (3 vols.; New York: The Heritage Press, 1946), 1: 271–288; Marx, \emph{Machine in the Garden}, 49. Montaigne was reacting to accounts of Brazilian Indans; he even interviewed one through a translator. The first English translation of the \emph{Essays} (1603) happens to be the only book which Shakespeare is known to have owned. \emph{Essays}, 3: 1654–1655.} In \emph{The Tempest} (1611), the “honest old Councellor” Gonzalo envisages Prospero’s enchanted island — under his own self-abolishing rule — as an anarchist, communist, amoral, libertine, pacific, primitivist, zerowork commonwealth, a place not to repeat the mistakes of civilization.\footnote{William Shakespeare, \emph{The Tempest}, II. 1. 143–160; Marx, \emph{The Machine in the Garden}, 48–49.} I am not claiming Shakespeare was a primitivist; he is sceptical, perhaps mocking here. But he is also a sensitive witness that one pole of the European perception of primitives was already primitivist in 1611. Serious uopias too, like Francis Bacon’s, “now could be plausibly located in America. In their good order, just government, supportive society, peaceful abundance, and absence of greed, vice, and private property, these happy social constructions, situated by their authors in the New World, served as the antithesis of the Old.”\footnote{Jack P. Greene, “America and the Creation of the Revolutionary Intellectual World of the Enlightenment,” in \emph{Imperatives, Behaviors, and Identities: Essays in Early American Cultural History} (Charlottesville, VA \& London: University Press of Virginia, 1992), 353.} Accurate or not, these impressions indicate an attraction for the primitive which long antedates the eighteenth century.
And is it so unthinkable that some of these early-contact impressions, formed before European aggression and spoliation embittered relations with the Indians, might be true? Several historians — historians, mind you, not anthropologists — believe that they are.\footnote{Jennings, \emph{Invasion of America}, 61–71; Edmund S. Morgan, \emph{American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia} (New York \& London: W.W. Norton \& Company, 1975), 48–57; Neal Salisbury, \emph{Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans and the Making of New England, 1500–1643} (New York \& Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), ch. 1. Anthropologists have drawn similar conclusions from historical sources, among them Clastres, \emph{Society Against the State}.} That there is nothing new about an idea does not mean that there is nothing true about it. What the Director Emeritus does not appreciate is that the primitivists of the 18\textsuperscript{th} century, notably Rousseau, believed that mankind could \emph{not} return to the primitive condition. As Rousseau wrote: “For it is by no means a light undertaking to distinguish properly between what is original and what is artificial in the actual nature of man, or to form a true idea of a state which no longer exists, perhaps never did exist, and probably never will exist; and of which it is, necessary to have true ideas, in order to form a proper judgment of our present state.”\footnote{Gay, \emph{Enlightenment}, 2: 95, 538; Anthony Pagden, \emph{European Encounters with the New World: Renaissance to Romanticism} (New Haven, CT \& London: Yale University Press, 1993), 145; Jean Jacques Rousseau, “A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality,” in \emph{The Social Contract and Discourses}, tr. G.D.H. Cole (New York: E.P. Dutton and Company \& London: J.M. Dent and Sons, 1950), 190–191 (quoted).}
Of all the things Bookchin does badly, intellectual history may be the worst. He is so balled up with anti-religious rage that he is hardly capable of an accurate statement about the history of religion. At one point — actually, at too many points — he castigates David Watson for thinking that civilization as such represents regression for humanity. The ex-Director makes the obvious comparison to the Garden of Eden story, with which I find no fault except for its banality. He should have left it at that. Everything he goes on to say reveals him as an ignorant bigot.
“This sort of rubbish,” the Director Emeritus continues in his usual dispassionate voice, “may have been good coin in medieval universities.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 171.} Medieval universities were urban institutions. Evidently Bookchin is unfamiliar with their curricula. Aristotle is the ex-Director’s favorite philosopher, and “the authority of Aristotle was supreme throughout this [the 12\textsuperscript{th} century] as well as the later medieval period.”\footnote{Hastings Rashdall, \emph{The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages}, ed. F.M. Powicke \& A.B. Emden (3 vols.; Oxford: at the Clarendon Press, 1987), 1: 38.} The universities soon taught the Thomist interpretation of Aristotelian teleology, to which Bookchin’s dialectical naturalism is much closer than it is to the mechanistic philosophy of his revered Enlightenment. Official Christianity was never anti-urban or anti-civilization. Christianity originated in the urban-dominated Roman Empire, and its original appeal was in the cities, not the countryside — the word “pagan” derives from the same root as the word “peasant.” Saint Augustine would not have written of the City of God if he thought God had something against cities. Where previous religions had been particularistic, “the Heavenly City — for Augustine, its early voice in the universal Church — melds all diversity among peoples, ‘all citizens from all nations and tongues [into] a single pilgrim band.’” Sez who? Murray Bookchin. After the fall of Rome, “the Christian church preserved the language of the polis \dots{} Even heaven was conceived to be a city-state.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 159–160, 160 (quoted); Richard Mackenney, \emph{The City-State, 1500–1700: Republican Liberty in an Age of Princely Power} (London: Macmillan Education, 1989), 2 (quoted).}
Christian orthodoxy has never interpreted human history or destiny as the recovery of the primal innocence preceding the Fall. That was the teaching of anarchic heretics like the Brethren of the Free Spirit, the Adamites, the Diggers and the Ranters. Rather, orthodox Christianity, like Marxism and Bookchinism, is forward-looking, eschatological. The Kingdom of Heaven is not the Garden of Eden restored, it’s the City of God, the ultimate polis, except that a loving Lord as a special dispensation for the saved excuses them from attending town meetings. In the Commune of Hell, attendance is obligatory for all eternity. By the 18\textsuperscript{th} century, the dominant tendency in religious thought was to regard the Fall as an “episode in prehistory” marking the origin of human society, and not such a bad thing after all.\footnote{Norman Hampson, \emph{The Enlightenment} (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1968), 102.}
So here’s the ex-Director’s \emph{next} sentence: “But in the late Middle Ages, few ideas in Christian theology did more to hold back advances in science and experimental research than the notion that with the Fall, humanity lost its innocence.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 171.} Try as I have, I am unable to understand why the notion that humanity lost its innocence should retard scientific progress. So far as I know, no historian has ever said so. And I’m unaware that anyone in the later Middle Ages was even trying to conduct experimental research, aside from the alchemists. That is why it was possible to publish, in eight volumes, \emph{A History of Magic and Experimental Science}.\footnote{Lynn Thorndike, \emph{A History of Magic and Experimental Science} (8 vols.; New York: Columbia University Press, 1929–1958).} The distinction is relatively recent.
Presumably, if the fall-from-innocence idea retarded scientific and technological progress in the late Middle Ages, it must have done so throughout the Middle Ages. That nearly reverses the reality. Scientific progress, it is true, was slowed by the prevailing ideology — not by Christianity, but by ideas inherited from pagan classical antiquity, from urbanites like Aristotle, Galen and Ptolemy.\footnote{Herbert Butterfield, \emph{The Origins of Modern Science, 1300–1800} (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; New York: The Free Press, 1957), ch. 4.} On the other hand, there was rapid technological progress, unlike the stagnation of Greek and Roman times. From the standpoint of invention, “the period of more than a thousand years that spans the gap between early Greek and late Roman civilization was, to say the least, not very productive.”\footnote{K.D. White, \emph{Greek and Roman Technology} (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984), 172 (quoted); Finley, \emph{Ancient Greeks}, 107, 121..} The Latin Christian world fostered one innovation after another throughout the Middle Ages. The mold-board plough opened up vast new territories for farming. Three-field rotation greatly increased agricultural productivity. Other innovations included the windmill, the clock, the nailed horseshoe, and advances in shipbuilding and navigation destined to transform the world. Military technology, especially, progressed by invention and adoption: heavy armored cavalry, the stirrup, the longbow, the crossbow, artillery, firearms, stone castles, etc. Kropotkin paid tribute to the inventiveness of the period.\footnote{Lynn White, Jr., \emph{Medieval Technology and Social Change} (Oxford: at the Clarendon Press, 1962); Kropotkin, \emph{Mutual Aid}, 23–24.} Eyeglasses, which the ex-Director wears, were invented by an Italian cleric in the late 13\textsuperscript{th} century.\footnote{Lynn Townsend White, \emph{Medieval Religion and Technology: Collected Essays} (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978), 3.} Architecture surpassed its classical limitations — Bookchin’s beloved Athenian polis could never have built Notre Dame. And it was during the Middle Ages that the foundations of the Scientific Revolution of the 16\textsuperscript{th} and 17\textsuperscript{th} centuries were laid.\footnote{Herbert Butterfield, \emph{The Origins of Modern Science, 1300–1800} (rev. ed.; New York: The Free Press, 1957), 7–8.} Yet Bookchin can speak of “a nearly Neolithic technology in the late Middle Ages”! That would put Classical Greece in the Old Stone Age — which is going only a little too far: basic Greek technology was fixed early in the archaic, pre-polis period.\footnote{Finley, \emph{Ancient Greeks}, 107.}
Nor is it the case that technical advances were achieved despite superstition and ecclesiastical resistance. On the contrary, the cultural presuppositions of Western Christianity were a cause, arguably the most important cause, of technological innovation:
\begin{quote}
The Latin Middle Ages \dots{} developed an almost entirely affirmative view of technological improvement. This new attitude is clearly detectable in the early ninth century, and by 1450 engineering advance had become explicitly connected with the virtues: it was integral to the ethos of the West\dots{} Medieval Europe came to believe that technological progress was part of God’s will for man. The result was an increasing thrust of invention that has been extrapolated, without interruption or down-curve, into our present society.\footnote{White, \emph{Medieval Religion and Technology}, 235–253, 261–262 (quoted).}
\end{quote}
As Lewis Mumford says, in technological innovation, “the contribution of the monastery was a vital one. Just because the monks sought to do away with unnecessary labor, in order to have more time for study, meditation, and prayer, they took the lead in introducing mechanical sources of power and in inventing labor-saving devices.”\footnote{Lewis Mumford, \emph{The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects} (New York: Harcourt, Brace \& World, 1961), 246. To rub it in: “The monastery was a new kind of polis.” Ibid.}
\chapter{Chapter 8. The Spectre of Shamanism}
The Sage of Burlington continues: “One of the Enlightenment’s great achievements was to provide a critical perspective on the past, denouncing the taboos and shamanistic trickery that made tribal peoples the victims of unthinking custom as well as the irrationalities that kept them in bondage to hierarchy and class rule, despite [?] its denunciations of Western cant and artificialities.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Marxism, Anarchism,} 171.} Mopping up this mess will take me awhile. But briefly: primitive peoples don’t \emph{have} class rule — according to Bookchin the Younger.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 7, 89.}
Having credited, or rather discredited, the Enlightenment with inventing primitivism, the Director now credits it with refuting primitivism by denouncing the tabus and tricky shamans holding tribal peoples in bondage. But how would “a critical perspective on the past” bring about these insights? 18\textsuperscript{th} century Europeans had little interest in and less knowledge of the histories of any tribal peoples except those mentioned in the Bible and the classics.\footnote{This continued to be true of the evolutionary social theorists of the late 19\textsuperscript{th} and early 20\textsuperscript{th} centuries, such as Henry Maine and Emile Durkheim. Gluckman, \emph{Politics, Law and Ritual in Tribal Society}, 268.} They wouldn’t have been able to learn much even if they wanted to. They were barely beginning to learn how to understand their own histories. Anything resembling what we now call ethnohistory was impossible then. Bookchin implies that the Age of Reason was the first historicist period. In fact it was the last period which was not.
The Enlightened ones posited a universal, invariant human nature. People are always and everywhere the same: only their circumstances are different.\footnote{Hampson, \emph{Enlightenment}, 109; Gladys Bryson, \emph{Man and Society: The Scottish Inquiry of the Eighteenth Century} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1945), 83–84.} The philosophes proceeded much as Bookchin does: “The records of all peoples in all situations had to be ransacked empirically to verify those constant and universal principles of human nature that natural reason declared were self-evident.”\footnote{Gordon S. Wood, \emph{The Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787} (New York \& London: W.W. Norton and Company, 1972), 8.} The same circumstances always determine the same behavior, according to Hume: “It is universally acknowledged that there is a great uniformity among the actions of men, in all nations and ages, and that human nature remains still the same, in its principles and operations. The same motives always produce the same actions.” A politician in 18\textsuperscript{th} century Britain or America, for instance, will act the same way as an Athenian or Roman or Florentine politician acted, as reported by Thucydides, Livy or Machiavelli (who, by the way, made this same observation\footnote{Niccolo Machiavelli, “The Discourses,” in \emph{The Prince \& The Discourses} (New York: The Modern Library, 1940), 216, 530. This is not a coincidence. In recent years, scholars have demonstrated that Machiavelli stands in the fore of a republican tradition of political thought which heavily influenced 18\textsuperscript{th} century Americans. J.G.A. Pocock, \emph{The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975).}), in the same situation. One constantly comes upon statements like this one by Montesquieu: “Modern history furnishes us with an example of what happened at that time in Rome, and this is well worth noting. For the occasions which produce great changes are different, but since men have had the same passions at all times, the causes are always the same.”\footnote{Montesquieu, \emph{Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline}, tr. David Lowenthal (NY: The Free Press \& London: Collier-Macmillan Limited, 1965), 26.} So really there was nothing to learn from the primitives. They were merely contemporary confirmatory examples of a stage of society already familiar from Homer and Hesiod and Tacitus and the Old Testament. The Director Emeritus inexplicably denounces this view as “sociobiological [sic] nonsense.”\footnote{“Interview with Murray Bookchin,” 172. David Hume a sociobiologist! The Founding Fathers sociobiologists!}
Bookchin overdoes everything, but his philippic against shamanism attains a new plateau of epileptoid frenzy worthy of a Victorian missionary. Were it not for his demonstrable ignorance of all the literature on shamanism, I might suspect him of having heard of anthropologist George Foster’s characterization of magical healing systems as “personalistic.”\footnote{George Foster, “Disease Etiologies in Non-Western Medical Systems,” \emph{American Anthropologist} 78(4) (Dec. 1976), 778–779.} Clearly he has no idea that shamans are known in most cultures, or that shamanism obsessed his revered Enlightenment: Diderot, Herder, Mozart and Goethe “each, in his own way, absorbed material from the shamanic discussion that was raging and used what he took to give shape to his own special field of endeavor.”\footnote{Gloria Flaherty, \emph{Shamanism and the Eighteenth Century} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 3, 16 (quoted). The shaman “is a ubiquitous figure in the religious life of the world.” Anthony F.C. Wallace, \emph{Religion: An Anthropological View} (New York: Random House, 1966), 125–126.}
“Shamanistic trickery” is the crudest kind of soapbox freethought cliché. Some primitive peoples have no shamans to dupe them. Many are not in thrall to supernatural fears; some have an opportunistic, even casual attitude toward the spirit world. Shamans — healers through access to the supernatural — aren’t usually frauds (though there are quacks in any profession): they believe in what they do.\footnote{Bronislaw Malinowski, \emph{Magic, Science and Religion and Other Essays} (New York: Harcourt, Brace \& Company and London: Kegan Paul, Trench, \& Company, 1926), 284; Elkin, \emph{Australian Aborigines}, 204–205; R.H. Codrington, \emph{The Melanesians: Studies in Their Anthropology and Folk-Lore} (New York: Dover Publications, 1972), 192–193. Eskimo shamans, who are \emph{really} over the top, believe in their magic. D. Janness, \emph{The Life of the Copper Eskimos} (New York \& London: John Reprint Corporation, 1970), chs. 1–16; Knud Rasmussen, \emph{Intellectual Culture of the Iglylik Eskimos} ([Report of the Fifth Thule Expedition, 1921–1924]), 7:1]; Copenhagen: Gyldendalske Boghandel, Nordisk Forlag, 1929), ch. 5.\protect\endgraf For five years of his life, over a 30-year period, and on over 20 occasions, anthropologist Napoleon A. Chagnon has lived among the Yanamamo, warlike horticultural Indians who live in Venezuela and Brazil. Their shamans, who undergo a rigorous year of preparation (including celibacy and near-starvation), enjoy no special privileges and clearly believe in their own healing powers derived from (drug-assisted) access to the spirit world. Napoleon A. Chagnon, \emph{Yanomamo} (4\textsuperscript{th} ed.; Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1992), 116–119.} And what they do does help. Medical science is taking great interest in their medications.\footnote{Jennings, \emph{Invasion of America}, 51–52. “[T]he current \emph{U.S. Pharmacopia}, used by druggists to compound medicines, contains 170 ingredients whose medicinal properties were discovered and used by native Americans.” James Axtell, \emph{Beyond 1492: Encounters in Colonial America} (New York \& Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 158.} Beyond that, shamans alleviate the suffering of victims of illness by providing an explanation for it. American physicians serve the same shamanistic function, as they are well aware. Indeed, until recently, that was almost all they did which benefited the patient, as pointed out by thinkers as disparate as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Ivan Illich. Psychoanalysis, after all, is secular shamanism.\footnote{Megan Biesele \& Robbie Davis-Floyd, “Dying as Medical Performance: The Oncologist as Charon,” in \emph{The Performance of Healing}, ed. Carol Laderman \& Marine Roseman (New York \& London: Routledge, 1996), 314; Rousseau, “A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality,” 204–205; Ivan Illich, \emph{Medical Nemesis: The Expropriation of Health} (New York: Random House, 1976), 15–22; Claude Levi-Strauss, \emph{Structural Anthropology}, tr. Claire Jacobson \& Brooke Grundfest Schoepf (2 vols.; New York: Basic Books, 1979), 1: 204; Axtell, \emph{Beyond 1492}, 158. Biesele did her fieldwork among the San.} By now, “many anthropological studies have documented the effectiveness of a range of medical systems of tribal, peasant, and other peoples.”\footnote{Daniel E. Moerman, “Anthropology of Symbolic Healing,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 20(1) (March 1979), 59.}
To claim, as some shamans do, that they have flown through the air, experienced incarnation as an animal and so forth, they’d have to be crazy, right? Well, some of them \emph{are} crazy — by our standards. In some of the many societies more humanistic than ours, psychotics aren’t mocked or feared or warehoused, they are cherished for their gift of altered states of consciousness — and recognized as shamans. Their mystical experiences, although they may be indistinguishable from schizophrenia, are socially valued.\footnote{Julian Silverman, “Shamans and Acute Schizophrenia,” \emph{American Anthropologist} 69(1) (Feb. 1967): 21–31. “Everyone knows that primitive peoples honored or still honor the expression of mental abnormalities and that the highly civilized peoples of antiquity [!] were not different from them in that respect; nor are the Arabs today.” André Breton, “The Art of the Insane, the Door to Freedom,” \emph{Free Rein,} tr. Michel Parmentier \& Jacqueline d’Ambrose (Lincoln, NE \& London: University of Nebraska Press, 1996), 219. “Recent studies suggest a physiological basis for shamanic ecstasy.” Lola Romanucci-Ross, “The Impassioned Knowledge of the Shaman,” in \emph{The Anthropology of Medicine: From Culture to Method,} ed. Lola Romanucci-Ross, Daniel E. Moerman, \& Lawrence W. Tancredi (3\textsuperscript{rd} ed.; Westport, CT \& London: Bergin Garvey, 1997).} The delusional are sincere. To believe the missionary caricature of shamanism — which is little more than disparaging the competition — requires imputing such a level of credulity to primitives that it is amazing they kept the human race going all by themselves for so long. As Robert H. Lowie explains, shamans have often used their magic for personal gain, but “the shaman’s security is often quite illusory,” because of the threat of vindictive relatives, “and in not a few regions the fees paid to a shaman are far from generous.” Bookchin himself has noted how hazardous the role can be,\footnote{Robert H. Lowie, \emph{Primitive Religion} (New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 1948), 335 (quoted); Malinowski, \emph{Magic, Science and Religion}, 284; Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 59. Among the Jívaro, an unusually violent and vindictive people, shamans were more frequently exposed to revenge attacks than anyone else; in large tribes, they are almost continually threatened or assassinated. Rafael Karsten, \emph{Blood Revenge, War, and Victory Feasts Among the Jibaro Indians of Eastern Ecuador} (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1923), 9.} but not how that undercuts his argument.
The Director Emeritus is so apoplectic about shamans that he even accuses David Watson of being one!\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 211, 254.} He may suspect that Watson is to blame for his poor health. Or perhaps he is displacing his dissatisfaction with his own Western medical care onto shamans. So ranting, repetitious and rancorous is the ex-Dean’s diatribe, which is over the top even for him, that one suspects a personalistic motive. My research has disclosed a possibility. In 1983, a great Alaskan Eskimo shaman named Tikigaq claimed to have killed Joseph Stalin in March 1953 by malefic magic.\footnote{Tom Lowenstein, “Introduction” to Asatchaq, \emph{“Things that Were Said of Them”: Shaman Stories and Oral History of the Tikigaq People} (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992), xviii.} (Perhaps this was revenge for the savage persecution of Eskimo shamans in the Soviet Union\footnote{Caroline Humphrey with Urgonge Onon, “Introduction” to \emph{Shamans and Elders: Experience, Knowledge, and Power Among the Daur Eskimos} (Oxford: Clarendon, 1996), 1. Shamans and elders: an unbridgeable chasm?} — anti-shamanism is another prejudice the Director Emeritus still shares with his Stalinist mentors.) At one time I might have attributed Bookchin’s attitude to envy. Now I think he’s worried he might be next.
Bookchin appears to derive his notions of primitive religion from the Tarzan movies. The benighted primitives, he believes, are the manipulated dupes of their shamans (“witch-doctors” would better convey Bookchin’s meaning). There is no indication that Bookchin even knows what a shaman is. A shaman heals by drawing on supernatural power. It is not obvious how such a skill is translatable into political power, in societies without power politics. In any event, some primitive societies have no full-time religious specialists. They are seldom found among foragers. Instead, there are part-time practitioners who derive their subsistence from the same activities as other adults. Many receive little remuneration and are hard put economically.\footnote{Edward Norbeck, \emph{Religion in Primitive Society} (New York \& Evanston, IL: Harper \& Row, 1961), 101–115; \emph{e.g.}, the Australians: Elkin, \emph{Australian Aborigines}, 205; the San: Lorna J. Marshall, \emph{Nyae Nyae !Kung Beliefs and Rites} (Cambridge: Harvard University Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, 1999) 49; the Eskimos: Kai Birket-Smith, \emph{Eskimos} (New York: Crown Publishers, 1971), 187; Janness, \emph{Life of the Copper Eskimos}, 194–195; the Yanamamos: Chagnon, \emph{Yanamamo}, 258.}
Access to shamanic power may be widespread, even granting that where there are shamans the old are almost always among them. Among Australian Aborigines, “any adult member of the tribe (including women) can practise some forms of black magic, and this is true whether they are supposed to be sorcerers [ = shamans] or not.” Thus among the Walbiri, almost any man over 30 might be a medicine man.\footnote{Simmons, \emph{Role of the Aged in Primitive Society}, 173–174; Malinowski, \emph{Magic, Science and Religion}, 285 (quoted); Meggitt, \emph{Desert People}, 249.} Among one group of !Kung San, half the older adult men and one-third of the women “learn to !kia,” and the San themselves view this as a manifestation of their cherished egalitarianism.\footnote{Richard Katz, “Education for Transcendence: !Kia Healing with the Kalahari !Kung,” in Lee \& DeVore, eds., \emph{Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers}, 285, 288.} Among other San studied in the 1950s, out of 45 men, 32 were practicing healers, 9 were old men retired from healing, and only 4 were without the gift: “It is rare to find a man among the !Kung who is not a medicine man.”\footnote{Marshall, \emph{Nyae Nyae}, 48; Marshall, “”!Kung Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert,” 153 (quoted).} The healing power is traditionally shared, not sold, since its activation in one person stimulates its activation in others.\footnote{Richard Katz, \emph{Boiling Energy: Community Healing among the Kalahari San} (Cambridge \& London: Harvard University Press, 1982), 196–201.} Among the Tikopia, in principle anyone can practice magic, and there are no specialists, although certain forms of magic are appropriate to certain social ranks. Among the Yanomamo, a tribal people practicing shifting cultivation, shamanism “is a status or role to which any man can aspire, and in some villages a large fraction of the men are shamans.”\footnote{Firth, \emph{Tikopia Ritual and Belief}, 197–198; Chagnon, \emph{Yanamomo}, 116 (quoted).} In the Zambales province of the Philippines, most shamans are elderly women.\footnote{Paul Rodell, \emph{Culture and Customs of the Philippines} (Westport, CT \& London: Greenwood Press, 2002), 31.} Among the Jívaro, most old men are “more or less initiated into the art.” About one in four of the Jívaro men (and a few of the women) are shamans.\footnote{Rafael Karsten, \emph{The Head-Hunters of Western Amazonas: The Life and Culture of the Jibaro Indians of Eastern Ecuador and Peru} (Helsingfors, Finland: Societas Scientiarum Fernica, 1935), 270 (quoted); Michael J. Harner, \emph{The Jívaro: People of the Sacred Waterfalls} (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1973), 122, 154.}
To speak of “shamanistic trickery” in such cases is absurd — who are the shamans fooling, each other? Yet the Director Emeritus maintains that, more often than not, shamans were frauds.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 58.} Nor is shamanism an easy alternative to working. Often would-be shamans, like would-be doctors in our society, undergo an arduous and protracted initiation.\footnote{Chagnon, \emph{Yanamomo}, 116–117; Norbeck, \emph{Religion in Primitive Society}, 110.} And, as noted, often a shaman has to hold down a day job too. A classical anarchist of impeccable credentials, Elie Reclus, wrote in 1891 that the \emph{angorak}, the Eskimo shaman, absents himself occasionally but usually “takes part in the hunting and fishing expeditions, [and] exercises some craft \dots{} “\footnote{Elie Reclus, \emph{Primitive Folk} (NY: Scribner \& Welford, 1891), 74.} The shaman is not a priest. Shamanism is a function but not an occupation.
In our society, the fusion of religion with morality, institutionalized by a church, forms an oppressive ideology. Among primitives such as the San, as among the Homeric and even the Classical Greeks, their deities are not clearly associated with moral values of good and evil. As E.B. Tylor put it, they had “theology without morals.”\footnote{Walter Burkert, \emph{Greek Religion}, tr. John Raffan (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985), 246–250; Mathias Guenther, \emph{Tricksters \& Trancers: Bushmen Religion and Society} (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1999), 62; Tylor, \emph{Anthropology}, 368.} If Bookchin assumes that a major religious activity of primitives is the propitiation of spirits whom they regard with awe and dread, he has again mistaken the Tarzan movies for documentaries. Among the “simplest societies,” prayer — which expresses dependence — “is seldom prominent.”\footnote{Ibid., 64–65. “In many primitive societies confession and prayers beseeching forgiveness for sins or aid in maintaining moral standards are both unknown and unthinkable.” Norbeck, \emph{Religion in Primitive Society}, 65.} Thus the San do not so much pray to their gods as berate them for any difficulties in their circumstances: “The !Kung say that they scold their gods.”\footnote{Marshall, \emph{Nyae Nyae}, 32 (quoted), 32–35.} Much more important than prayer is magic, defined as people using words, objects and rituals to obtain supernatural power to further their own ends.\footnote{John J. Collins, \emph{Primitive Religion} (Totowa, NJ: Littlefield, Adams \& Co., 1978), 18.} The magician does not ask for supernatural power: he takes it. As Paul Radin said with respect to the Winnebagos, although what they do could be called prayer, “there seems to be a purely mechanical relation of cause and effects between the offerings of men and their acceptance by the spirits. The latter are not free to reject them except in theory.”\footnote{Paul Radin, \emph{The Winnebago Tribe} (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1970), 231.}
Bookchin so rarely cites relevant and respectable scholarship that when it looks like he does, strict scrutiny is in order. He cites Paul Radin’s \emph{The World of Primitive Man}\footnote{Paul Radin, \emph{The World of Primitive Man} (New York: H. Schuman, 1953); Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 254 n. 38.} (1953) in support of his notion of shamans as predatory terrorists. The Director Emeritus does not explain why he does not accept the same source, quoted below (Chapter 9),\footnote{See n. 237 \& accompanying text \emph{supra}.} when it rebuts his conception of unthinking, coercive custom. Radin only discusses shamanism in one society, the Yakuts of central California. He discusses the religion of one other people, the Eskimos, in that chapter, but without even mentioning their shamanism, which is curious, since Eskimo shamanism is possibly the most famous of all. Then again, Eskimo shamanism does not support the thesis that shamans intimidate and exploit their fellows. They exercise no authority by virtue of their shamanic roles.\footnote{Birket-Smith, \emph{Esquimos}, 188; Knud Rasmussen, \emph{The People of the Polar North: A Record}, ed. G. Herring (Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Co. \& London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner \& Co., 1908), 146.} Neither do Winnebago shamans, on which Radin was the expert.\footnote{Paul Radin,\emph{Winnebago Tribe}, ch. 10.}
The small portion of Radin’s text relied on by Bookchin bases its generalizations on a single society, the Yokuts Indians of central California. This is what Bookchin got out of Radin:
\begin{quote}
Let me emphasise that Paul Radin (who[m] I used as a source in \emph{The Ecology of Freedom}) held a very sceptical attitude toward shamans, regarding them as the earliest politicians of aboriginal societies, shysters who manipulated clients for self-serving purposes (which is not to say that a number of them may not have had good intentions [?]). He showed that the shamanic life, far from being a calling, was often well-organized and based on trickery handed down from father to son over generations. Shamans in consolidated tribes commonly formed a social elite, based on fear and reinforced by alliances with other elites, such as chiefs.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 204–205.}
\end{quote}
Bookchin quotes Radin as saying that alliances between shamans and chiefs are “clearly a form of gangsterism.” And a final quotation: “The dread of the practical consequences of the shaman’s activities hangs over the ordinary individual.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 205, quoting Radin, \emph{World of Primitive Man,} 140.} These are the only quotations, and there are no other source references. Except for the quotations, which are merely misleading, \emph{every attribution to Radin is false}.
First: Radin does not say that shamans are politicians, much less the earliest politicians. Instead he discusses the alliance, in one tribe, between shamans and chiefs. He does not depict these particular shamans as exercising political power: it was for the lack of such power that they allied with chiefs. The fear inspired by the shamans “is not due to any unusual powers that these men possess by virtue of being shamans for, at bottom, they have little, but to the alliance between them and the chief of the tribe.”\footnote{Radin, \emph{World of Primitive Man}, 139 (quoted), 139–141.}
Second: Radin does not say that shamans were shysters manipulating their clients. By definition, \emph{all} shamans cannot be shysters because a shyster is someone who acts unprofessionally. Shamanism is the world’s oldest profession.\footnote{Moerman, “Anthropology of Symbolic Healing,” 59.} The standard of practice of a profession is relative to the level of prevailing practice. Nor do shamans manipulate their clients (how? to what end?); at worst they overcharge them. Testimonials to the sincerity of most shamans abound.
Third: Radin does not say that shamanism is not a calling. Obviously it is, in both the religious and everyday senses of the word.\footnote{\emph{New Shorter OED}, q\Slash{}v “calling.” Also notice the ex-Director’s non sequitur: shamanism is not a calling \emph{because} it is well-organized and based on trickery. Why can’t a calling — lawyers, for instance — be well-organized and based on trickery?} Individuals are “called” to shamanism by their dreams.
Fourth: Radin does not say that shamans are well-organized. On the contrary, he says that “all the organizational gifts they possessed went into the elaboration of the relations between them and the chief of the tribe.”\footnote{Radin, \emph{World of Primitive Man}, 137–138. Kropotkin is therefore in error to speak of “the secret societies of witches, shamans and priests, which we find among all savages.” \emph{Mutual Aid}, 111.} Shamanism is not necessarily well-organized: it’s usually not organized at all. Yakuts shamans were sole practitioners who were so far from being organized that they practiced their black magic on each other. In central California where the Yakuts live, according to A.L. Kroeber, “the body of initiated shamans do not form a definite society or association.”\footnote{A.L. Kroeber, “The Religion of the Indians of California,” \emph{University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology} 4(6) (Sept. 1907), 330.}
Fifth: Radin does not say that in consolidated tribes, shamans formed a social elite. Their mutual jealousies ruled that out. Radin always speaks of shamans as unconnected individuals. According to another source, “there was no formal organization of shamans.”\footnote{Herbert F.G. Spier, “Foothill Yokuts,” in \emph{Handbook of North American Indians}, ed. Robert F. Heizer (Washington, DC: Smithsonian, 1978), 8: 482.} They linked up, not with each other, but with chiefs on a one-to-one basis. Also, Radin does not refer to “consolidated tribes” because the expression is unknown to anthropology. Only the ex-Director knows what it means.
Sixth: Radin does not even say that shamanic life was based on trickery! He must have thought so, but he did not say so. For purposes of \emph{his} argument, not Bookchin’s, concerning the alliance of shamans and chiefs, the efficacy of shamanic magic is irrelevant. Had the spells actually worked, the chief\Slash{}shaman alliance would have been even more fearsome.
Seventh: Radin does not say that shamanic status was hereditary in the agnatic line. He does not address the topic. It so happens that among the Yakuts, it was common for sons to follow their fathers into shamanism, but the call may come to any seeker or even come unsought: “Theoretically, any individual can obtain his gift.”\footnote{Radin, \emph{World of Primitive Man}, 141.} In other societies, such as the San, the Yanamamo and the Jívaro, the gift is widely distributed without regard to kinship.
What a tremendous amount of misinformation Bookchin packs into just three sentences! From his former hero Joseph Stalin, Bookchin learned, as part of what Hannah Arendt called “the totalitarian art of lying,” that a big lie is more likely to go over than a small one.\footnote{Hannah Arendt, \emph{The Origins of Totalitarianism} (new ed.; San Diego CA: Harcourt Brace \& Company, n.d.), 413.} The larger the lie, the harder it is to believe that anybody could say such a thing \emph{unless} it were true. And it is much more trouble to refute a big lie because there’s so much to it. In saying that he does not lie because of his “moral standards,”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 238.} Bookchin tops all his other deceits. His standards are set so low you could step on them. Or as Oscar Wilde put it, when a democrat wants to sling mud he doesn’t have to stoop.\footnote{“The Soul of Man Under Socialism,” \emph{The First Collected Edition of the Works of Oscar Wilde, 1908–1922}, ed. Robert M. Ross (London: Paul Mall, 1969), 8: 322–323; for an example of the ex-Director’s morality, see the Appendix.}
Even after correction of the ex-Director’s fabrications, there are a couple of things Radin really did say which call for correction themselves. He did say that “dread” of shamanism “hangs over the ordinary individual.” This should be understood in light of the topic of the chapter it appears in, “The Economic Utilizations of Magic and Religion.” Bookchin, as we saw, stressed the role played by “fear and terror” in aboriginal religion.\footnote{Radin, \emph{World of Primitive Man}, 140, 137.} That is the portrait of “primitive tribes completely dominated, in fact, almost paralyzed by fear and terror,” that Radin’s examples are supposed to \emph{refute}: “Every ethnologist with any field-experience knows, of course, that no such communities exist.”\footnote{Radin, \emph{World of Primitive Man}, 138.} In other words, the Yakuts are not such a community, contrary to the ex-Director’s presentation of them. Considering the point he was trying to make, Radin made a poor choice of an example. But the sources on which Radin relies do not sustain so dark a picture even of the Yakuts. More important, in more respects than Radin mentioned, Yakuts society is exceptional.
Radin chose the Yakuts as a typical hunter-gatherer society with only one peculiarity: “a fixed unit of exchange,” \emph{i.e.,} shell money.\footnote{Radin, \emph{World of Primitive Man}, 139.} A tribal society with a money economy is \emph{very} peculiar. An even clearer indication that this was not a typical foraging society was the institution of chieftainship. Or rather, it is typical of one type: the sedentary type. The Yakuts lived in permanent villages, although they spent the summer in camps elsewhere. They stored food, which was abundant, for the winter. In some (not all) foraging societies, sedentariness is associated with incipient political authority and stratification.\footnote{Wayne Suttles, “Coping with Abundance: Subsistence on the Northwest Coast,” in Lee \& DeVore, eds., \emph{Man the Hunter}, 56.}
Whatever merit Radin’s argument might have for such societies, it has none as applied to the nonsedentary foragers like the San. The presence of a chief marks a decisive break from that way of life. It is such “varyingly developed \emph{chiefdoms}, intermediate forms that seem clearly to have gradually grown out of egalitarian societies and to have preceded the founding of all of the best-known primitive states.”\footnote{Service, \emph{Origins of the State and Civilization}, 15–16.} Bookchin, oblivious to the consequences for his argument, agrees: “The chiefdom of a simple tribal society, for example, was a potential hierarchy, usually an emerging one.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 271–272. He could hardly say otherwise without finishing the job of repudiating his masterpiece, \emph{The Ecology of Freedom}.}
But if the Yakuts are not typical foragers, they are typical California Indian foragers. Anthropologists have referred to “the exceptional nature of California hunters and gatherers,” and they are well aware of the contrast: “The data presented in such books as \emph{Man the Hunter} [!] have served to underline the fact that most California societies bear a more striking resemblance to Melanesian chiefdoms than they do to Australian or African bands.”\footnote{Lowell J. Dean \& Thomas C. Blackburn, “Introduction” to \emph{Native Californians: A Theoretical Retrospective}, ed. Lowell J. Dean \& Thomas C. Blackburn (Ramona, CA: Ballena Press, 1976), 7.} And whether or not primitives are normally affluent, the California Indians were. According to a trapper who encountered them in 1827, they lived in “a country where the creator has scattered a more than ordinary Share of his bounties.”\footnote{\emph{The Travels of Jedediah Smith: A Documentary Outline Including the Journal of the Great American Pathfinder}, ed. Maurice S. Sullivan (Santa Ana, CA: Fine Arts Press, 1934), 72–73.}
To be sure, Yakuts chieftainship is about as modest as chieftainship can be. One might say it was incipient. The position was hereditary, but if the community is dissatisfied with a chief, they depose him and choose another chief from his family.\footnote{A.H. Gayton, “Yakuts and Western Mono Ethnography. I. Tulare Lake, Southern Valley, and Central Foothill Yakuts,” \emph{Anthropological Records} 10(1) (Berkeley, CA \& Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1948), 94 [hereafter Gayton I]; Anne H. Gayton, “Yakuts-Mono Chiefs and Shamans,” in Dean \& Blackburn, eds., \emph{Native Californians}, 219.} “The respected elders of a village exercise a practical control over the chief’s decisions”\footnote{Gayton, “Yakuts-Mono Chiefs and Shamans,” 227.}; he risks his position if he goes against their counsel. The chief’s powers, though real, are few. He decides when various ceremonies will be held (for which he is paid).\footnote{A.H. Gayton, “Yakuts and Western Mono Ethnography. II. Northern Foothill Yakuts and Western Mono,” \emph{Anthropological Records} 10(2) (Berkeley, CA \& Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1948), 163 [hereafter: Gayton II].} He is the first to leave for summer camp, although the others do not necessarily follow him right away.\footnote{Ibid.} He adjudicates disputes which are brought to him. Disputes do not have to be brought to him, but there is an advantage if they are: the loser is forbidden to take private vengeance, as he might otherwise do. The chief is the richest man in the village and he does not hunt.\footnote{Gayton I, 95; Gayton II, 163.} Some of his income he redistributes to the very poor,\footnote{Gayton I, 95.} but on nothing like the scale that prevails in Polynesia.
The basis of the chief’s alliance with the shaman is his judicial power. People know that if a shaman who is under his protection kills someone, the chief will immunize him against retaliation or prosecution. In return, the shaman uses his magic to further the chief’s interests.\footnote{Gayton, “Yakuts-Mono Chiefs and Shamans,” 211–214.} To take an extreme case, if a rich man refused to join in a fandango, thereby denying the chief his fee, the shaman might make the man sick. He would then drag out the cure in order to collect repeated fees for his housecalls. And then he would split the fee with the chief\footnote{Gayton, “Yakut-Mono Chiefs and Shamans,” 211–212.} — who would have thought that fee-splitting is not confined to civilized professionals! It was only this specific example — not shamanism in general, or even Yakuts shamanism in general — which Radin called gangsterism.\footnote{Radin\emph{, World of Primitive Man}, 140.} But to dwell on the worst possibilities distorts the picture of Yakuts shamanism, still more so of shamanism generally.
There were several factors which held all but the boldest and greediest Yakuts shamans in check.
An important one was other shamans. It was not unusual for shamans to kill each other.\footnote{Gayton, “Yakuts-Mono Chiefs and Shamans,” 199, 208.} Also, the alliance between chiefs and shamans, as between gangsters, was never easy. In some cases the chief would authorize or even order the execution of a shaman: “Such killings, however, were not infrequent; and the shaman who lives above suspicion was fortunate.”\footnote{Gayton I, 112 (quoted), 244; Stephen Powers, \emph{Tribes of California} (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1976), 380 (originally published 1877).} The friends and family of a real or supposed victim were not necessarily paralyzed by fear and trembling and, as one informant related, they “didn’t always tell the chief” before killing the shaman.\footnote{Gayton, “Yakuts-Mono Chiefs and Shamans,” 187–188} According to A.L. Kroeber, for Yakuts shamans, murder was their normal end.\footnote{Kroeber, “Religion of the Indians of California,” 332.} Yet even in this unusually, perhaps uniquely corrupt aboriginal situation, people believed that most shamans were not malicious. Withcraft was an ever-present threat, “but this does not mean that an individual lived in a perpetual state of anxiety and dread.”\footnote{Gayton, “Yakuts-Mono Chiefs and Shamans,” 217 (quoted), 217–218.} Radin himself concluded that it was not shamanism per se, but politically connected shamanism which was the source of anxiety: “The belief in spirits or, for that matter, in magical rites and formulae becomes of secondary consequence \dots{}”\footnote{Radin, \emph{World of Primitive Man}, 140–141.} Thus Radin, Bookchin’s sole reliance, refutes him.
We may therefore dismiss as malicious nonsense the ex-Director’s characterization of the shaman as “the incipient State personified.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom,} 84.} Bookchin’s position is entirely lacking in logical or empirical support. It is lacking in logic because the supposed ability to kill from afar cannot be a source of political power unless there exists a political authority to protect the shaman against retaliation — and if there is such an authority, \emph{he}, not the shaman, is the incipient state personified. Nor is there any empirical support for this nightmare of reason. Bookchin’s grandiose speculations about the origins of hierarchy are in contradiction regarding the shaman’s role. In one scenario it is the chiefs and shamans who succeed the elders and precede the young warriors and “big men” on the long march toward statehood. In another the sequence is: big men, warriors, chiefs, nobles, then “incipient, quasi, or partial states” — but no shamans!\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom,} 6–7; Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 57, 67.} It’s all delirious, pretentious fantasy, nothing more.
If even the Yakuts data utterly fail to depict shamans on the verge of founding a state, it’s highly unlikely there’s a better example lurking somewhere in the literature. There is no historical or ethnographic evidence of any transition to statehood in which shamans played any part. \emph{Priests} have played such parts, but priests, as Bookchin confirms, are not shamans.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom,} 91.} In the western United States, societies based on foraging, or mixed foraging and extractive pursuits had shamans; agricultural societies had priests.\footnote{Joseph G. Jorgensen, \emph{Western Indians: Comparative Environments, Languages and Cultures of 172 Western American Indian Tribes} (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman \& Co., 1980), 282.} As usual, increasing social complexity is associated (if not perfectly correlated) with increasing authoritarianism, in religion as in politics. The shamanism shuffle is just another example of Bookchin in all his vulgar viciousness defaming inoffensive people in a callous but clumsy attempt to score points in a petty political squabble, the kind he wasted his life on.
\chapter{Chapter 9. The Rule of Law versus the Order of Custom}
Sir Alfred Zimmern, Murray Bookchin’s favorite historian, intended some derision when he wrote that “the modern anarchists have reinvented ‘unwritten laws,’” but Sir Alfred, unlike the Director Emeritus, was right in spite of himself.\footnote{Zimmern, \emph{The Greek Commonwealth,} 127 n.1.} Malatesta expressed the anarchist view of custom: “Custom always follows the needs and feelings of the majority; and the less they are subject to the sanctions of law the more are they respected, for everyone can see and understand their use.”\footnote{Errico Malatesta, \emph{Anarchy} (London: Freedom Press, 1974), 42.} So did George Woodcock: “Customs and not regulations are the natural manifestations of man’s ideas of justice, and in a free society customs would adapt themselves to to the constant growth and tension in that society.”\footnote{George Woodcock, “The Rejection of the State,” \emph{The Rejection of the State and Other Essays} (Toronto, Canada: New Books, 1972), 25.} Custom (it is better to avoid the confusionist expression “unwritten laws”) is a basic ordering institution in primitive society which anarchists appreciate as a way to replace the law of the state with acephalous order. Where custom prevails, it expresses common values “although no common political organization corresponds to them.”\footnote{J.G. Peristiany, \emph{The Institutions of Primitive Society} (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1956), 45.}
That’s exactly why the Director Emeritus condemns “unthinking custom” as irrational, “as a dim form of inherited tradition,”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 71 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 135; Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 99 (quoted).} although that’s not why he \emph{says} he condemns it. His Commune may grudgingly tolerate the out-of-doors “personalistic” expression of values by dissident, discreditable “individualists” because their values cannot find social expression — in other words, they cannot influence life — until the assembly municipalizes them. The directionality of life is a municipal monopoly. But custom is implicit, insidious, extra-institutional and, scandalously, \emph{democratic.} It is the only decision rule which really rests on \emph{universal} suffrage. It is how affairs arrange themselves when everybody minds his own business. It is democracy when there is no hurry. If there is any social process in which democracy and anarchy coincide, it is consensus, not assembly majoritarianism, and custom is tacit consensus.
Bookchin defines custom as “behavior that is \emph{unreflective}, that is practiced unthinkingly as though it were an instinctive rather than a learned heritage.” By now we are alert to the fact that the Director Emeritus never proffers a definition of his own unless it departs substantially from what the word really means. The dictionary definition is: “A habitual or usual practice; a common way of behaving; usage, fashion, habit.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 288; \emph{New Shorter OED}, q\Slash{}v “custom.”} Reflection is irrelevant. Custom is not by definition unreflective. The ex-Director’s definition is both overinclusive and underinclusive. Overinclusive, because much, perhaps most unreflective hehavior is not custom. It is when we act in an \emph{un}usual way, and regret it, that we are wont to say, “I wasn’t thinking.”
Most unthinking behavior is not customary behavior, although some of it is habitual behavior. Compliance with law is an important example. Most motorists obey the traffic laws, if they obey them at all, unthinkingly. If they paused to reason out their every decision, they would never get out of the driveway. Activities like riding a bicycle, tying your shoes, swimming, and even breathing may actually be impeded if you think about doing them: “Your breathing goes wrong the moment your conscious self meddles with it” (George Bernard Shaw).\footnote{George Bernard Shaw, “Maxims for Revolutionists,” \emph{Bernard Shaw: The Collected Plays with Their Prefaces} (London: The Bodley Head, 1971), 2: 791.} Customs are obeyed — or rather, observed — far more willingly, or rather, more spontaneously, than laws.\footnote{Robert H. Lowie, \emph{Primitive Society} (New York: Boni \& Liveright, 1920), 398.} The traffic example further shows that the definition is defective because it fails to distinguish custom from law, as anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski may have been the first to notice.\footnote{Bronislaw Malinowski, \emph{Crime and Custom in Savage Society} (London: Kegan Paul, 1926), 50.}
The definition is also defective because it is underinclusive. To follow a custom is not necessarily unthinking. Most of the customs which anthropologists identify for a particular people are expressed in “emic” or native categories of thought, which must be reflected upon in order to be articulated to the ethnographer.\footnote{Harris, \emph{Rise of Anthropological Theory}, 571, 576–577.} It is unlikely that the first time aborigines think about their customs is when they are debriefed by an anthropologist. It can even happen in our own always aberrant society that people have to look up and learn customs not previously familiar to them, as parents may do, for example, when they set out to provide a traditional wedding for their child. By Bookchin’s defective definition, such matters are customs if you don’t have to look them up, but they’re not customs if you do.
The justification of many a custom is that it was thought through once, it worked, and nobody has to think about it anymore.\footnote{Robert Boyd \& Peter J. Richerson, \emph{Culture and the Evolutionary Process} (Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 288. As Sir John Davies, Attorney General for Ireland, wrote in 1612: “For a Custome taketh beginning and growth to perfection in this manner: When a reasonable act once done is found to be good and beneficiall to the people, and agreeable to their nature and disposition, then do they use it and practice it again and again, and so by often iteration and multiplication of the act it becometh a \emph{Custome}; \dots{}” Quoted in J.G.A. Pocock, \emph{The Ancient Constitution and the Feudal Law} (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 33.} So it is not necessarily an objection that “custom prescribes how one does certain things in a certain way but offers no rationale for doing it that way except that that is how things have ‘always been done.’” Despite Plato, Rousseau and Bookchin,\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 288; Jean Jacques Rousseau, “A Discourse on Political Economy,” in \emph{The Social Contract and Discourses}, 295.} rarely does any \emph{law} come provided with a justification either. And when it does, the preamble (the explanation) is not to be trusted: it does not control the interpretation of a statute.\footnote{Alexander Addison, “Analysis of the Report of the Committee of the Virginia Assembly,” in \emph{American Political Writing During the Founding Era, 1760–1805,} ed. Charles S. Hyneman \& Donald S. Lutz (2 vols.; Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 1983), 2: 1091.}
Custom is recurrent social behavior. Custom is collective habit. Custom is not something apart from social organization. Custom is implicit in social organization, any social organization. And “even in supposedly advanced societies, behavior is governed more by custom than by law in the usual sense of that word.”\footnote{George C. Homans, \emph{The Human Group} (New York: Harcourt, Brace \& Company, 1951), 28–29; Burton M. Leiser, \emph{Custom, Law, and Morality: Conflict and Continuity in Social Behavior} (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1969), 112 (quoted).} Custom is not something we could choose to do without, not without reversion to that state of nature in which the ex-Director disbelieves. Like some of the ex-Director’s other anthropological insights, the notion of custom as quasi-instinctual seems to have been gleaned from the Tarzan movies where, usually egged on by witch-doctors, the natives act out insane rituals like zombies. The Director Emeritus is the only person who believes it is literally true that “Custom is King.” But that is precisely what it is not.
The difference between custom and law, as everybody else knows, is coercion.\footnote{E. Adamson Hoebel, \emph{The Law of Primitive Man: A Study in Comparative Legal Dynamics} (New York: Atheneum, 1968), 26–27.} Bookchin conceives custom to be as coercive as command, if not more so. But whatever the force of custom is in modern states, that is not how it is in primitive societies, according to the Bookchin-vetted anthropologist, Paul Radin: “But customs are an integral part of the life of primitive peoples. There is no compulsive submission to them. They are not followed because the weight of tradition overwhelms a man. That takes place in our culture, not in that of aboriginal man. A custom is obeyed there because it is intertwined with a vast living network of interrelations, arranged in a meticulous and ordered manner.” There is no society in which rules are automatically followed. Thus anthropologist Edmund R. Leach scoffs at “the classic anthropological fiction that ‘the native is a slave to custom.’”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 204; Radin, \emph{World of Primitive Man}, 223 (quoted); Mair, \emph{Primitive Government}, 18; \emph{The Essential Edmund Leach}, ed. Stephen Hugh-Jones \& James Laidlow (2 vols.; New Haven, CT \& London: Yale University Press, 2000), 1: 76 (quoted).}
It does not occur to the Director Emeritus that in denouncing custom he is “unthinkingly” obeying the most fundamental of all customs: language: “All speech is a form of customary behavior.” Thus Bishop Berkeley wrote of “common custom, which you know is the rule of language.”\footnote{Hugh-Jones \& Laidlow, eds., \emph{Essential Edmund Leach}, 1: 168 (quoted); George Berkeley, \emph{Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous}, ed. Jonathan Dancy (Oxford \& New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 131. Are my sources amazing or what?} Every society, ours included, is riddled with customs (concerning child-rearing, for example), more than could ever be reduced to law. As the anarchist Herbert Read said, customs cannot be eliminated, only replaced. We already have laws which once were customs, such as driving on the right side of the road.\footnote{Herbert Read, \emph{Anarchy \& Order}, 16–17; John Chipman Gray, \emph{The Nature and Sources of the Law} (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1963), 289.} A rule can be arbitrary (driving on the left side works just as well in other countries) without being irrational.\footnote{A. John Simmons, \emph{Moral Principles and Political Obligations} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979), 194.} What would be irrational in a case like that is \emph{not} being arbitrary. Custom as such can even be incorporated into law: for instance, a legal rule may prescribe that a contract may be interpreted in light of the “usage of trade” in the industry.\footnote{Uniform Commercial Code § 1–205(2)-(4); Richard Danzig, “A Comment on the Jurisprudence of the Uniform Commercial Code,” \emph{Stanford Law Review} 27(2) (Feb. 1975): 621–635; Benjamin Cardozo, \emph{The Nature of the Judicial Process} (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1921), 58–65. British colonialism, for instance, legalized Nuer custom and enforced it in new tribunals. P.P. Howell, \emph{A Manual of Nuer Law} (London: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute, 1954), 1–2.}
There is nothing inherently irrational about custom. A regular theme in anthropology is the discovery that superficially irrational customs serve positive functions. That may even be the case with such food tabus as the sacred cow or the Jewish and Muslim abstention from pork. Most Americans have their own tabus about what animals, and what parts of animals to eat.\footnote{Gluckman, \emph{Politics, Law and Ritual in Tribal Society,} 300; Marvin Harris, \emph{Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches: The Riddles of Culture} (NY: Random House, 1974), 11–57; Marshall Sahlins, \emph{Culture and Practical Reason} (Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1976), 169–176.} The Director Emeritus, too, is a “victim of unthinking custom.” Murray Bookchin does not eat the insects in his garden.
Presumably falling under the rubric of custom is the most mysterious phrase in Bookchin’s dyslexicon, “the blood oath.” He deploys it freely, almost always without defining it, as if all the world already spoke his private language. The term is unknown to anthropology and to the dictionary. I finally located an explanation of sorts: “The loyalty of kin to each other in the form of the blood oath — an oath that combined an expression of duty to one’s relatives with vengeance for [sic] their offenders — became the organic source of communal continuity.” Thus he refers to “the archaic group cemented by the blood oath.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 51 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 135.} That’s funny, because it’s generally supposed that kin ties themselves — what the Director Emeritus would call “mere kin ties” — provide the organic source of communal continuity. As we shall see later (Chapter 10), Bookchin considers family relations biological, hence organic. Tribal peoples, he believes, have not emerged from animality. But the blood oath is not biological or organic, it is juridical. It has nothing in common with animal behavior, but very much in common with the oath of a witness or juror in court; and, like them, it’s a component of legal systems. It represents a step in the direction of culture from biology, from kinship toward polity, and from status toward contract. (Indeed, according to the Athenian democratic politician Lycurgus, “what holds democracy together is the oath.”\footnote{Quoted in Burkert, \emph{Greek Religion}, 250. This Lycurgus is a 4\textsuperscript{th} century B.C. Athenian politician, not the Spartan lawgiver.})
That is, the blood oath might represent all these things \emph{if} it existed. It doesn’t. It is a dark fantasy concocted out of Bookchin’s own family life — with the father breaching the blood oath of his marriage vows by desertion\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 23.} — compounded with misremembered scraps of 19\textsuperscript{th} century anthropology and maybe more Edgar Rice Burroughs. On the ex-Director’s account, the blood oath should be a general if not universal feature of tribal life, in which case many fieldworkers would discuss it. I can find no text or monograph which even mentions it. This is no surprise, since the notion is sociologically (if not quite logically) self-contradictory. It supposes that in a society defined by kinship, family feeling is insufficient to provide assistance or revenge, but that a voluntaristic tie, not in principle kin-based, more successfully motivates relatives to furnish help which they were already obligated to give anyway. The blood oath may be possible, but only as an anomaly, irrelevant to the rise of civilization where kin ties are supposed to weaken in cities and perhaps need ritual fortification there.
Ah, but the wily Director Emeritus has an explanation for the universal absence of something which should be universally present. “The blood-tie and the rights and duties that surround it are embodied in an \emph{unspoken oath} that comprised the only visible unifying principle of early community life.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 53 (emphasis added).} How can an unspoken oath be visible? It isn’t even audible! Unfortunately for the Sage, an oath “is oral by its very nature”; in the ethnographic record, only in rare instances are there silent oaths.\footnote{Ivan Illich, \emph{In the Mirror of the Past: Lectures and Addresses, 1978–1990} (New York \& London: Marion Boyars, 1992), 172 (quoted); John M. Roberts, “Oaths, Automatic Ordeals, and Power,” \emph{American Anthropologist} 67(6) (pt. 2) (Dec. 1965), 186.} How can anybody rely on a silent oath?
As a matter of fact, the only example of a blood oath known to me or cited by Bookchin is the one taken by the aristocratic extended families of medieval Italian city-states around 1200 A.D.:
\begin{quote}
Drawing upon a strong sense of clan and consanguinity, noblemen clustered into tight-knit associations and built fortified towers so as to defend themselves or to expand their rights and privileges. Each such \emph{consortaria} was a sworn corporate grouping, consisting of males descended from a common male ancestor. It was therefore a male lineage, although, when extinction threatened, the line might be transferred via a woman. In time the \emph{consortaria} entered into sworn association with other like neighborhood groups.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 101; Lauro Martines, \emph{Power and Imagination: City-States in Renaissance Italy} (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979), 35–36. “An intricate relationship between blood ties and territorial ties stands out as an intrinsic and defining feature of the medieval city.” Diane Owen Hughes, “Kinsmen and Neighbors in Medieval Genoa,” in \emph{The Medieval City}, ed. Harry A. Miskimin, David Herlihy, \& A.L. Udovitch (New Haven, CT \& London: Yale University Press, 1977), 95.}
\end{quote}
Here is libertarian municipalism literally with a vengeance: confederations of sovereign neighborhoods in arms. And here is kinship with the oath superadded. These communes are so many counter-examples to the theory that city loyalty necessarily supplants kin loyalty (see Chapter 9). Otherwise, the use of blood to solemnize an oath with blood through the “oath sacrifice” is best known among — Bookchin’s classical Greeks. From Homeric through classical times, oaths were accompanied by animal sacrifice and blood libations, involving immersion of the hands in the blood, and dismemberment of the animal followed by squeezing or trampling upon its testicles. This gory procedure was used to confirm contracts and treaties as well as in court.\footnote{Burkert, \emph{Greek Religion}, 250–254; Louis Gernet, \emph{The Anthropology of Ancient Greece}, tr. John Hamilton (Baltimore, MD \& London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), 167–170.} So much for urban Greek rationality.
Oddly, Bookchin never says \emph{why} the blood oath is so bloodcurdling. He relies instead on provoking the unreasoning qualms of the squeamish such as myself. The blood oath has, after all, nothing to do with blood; it is a political metaphor, something the Director Emeritus denounces almost as often as he uses one.\footnote{In \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 199–200 in six paragraphs, the Director Emeritus uses political metaphors 20 times in denouncing political metaphors. “From the very beginning political science has abounded in analogues and metaphors.” Erik Rasmussen, \emph{Complementarity and Political Science: An Essay on Political Science Theory and Research Strategy} (n.p.: Odense University Press, 1987), 48. Another Jewish mystic, Spinoza, likewise believed that “the less occasion we humans use metaphors, the greater our chance of blessedness.” Rorty, \emph{Truth, Politics and “Post-Modernism”}, 19.} Once again I am constrained to invent an argument for Bookchin’s bald conclusion. By the time I finish this book, I may have invented more arguments for Bookchin than he has.
The assumption that “blood vengeance” is “unreasoning retribution” is gratuitous and parochial, as well as forgetful of the prominent role capital punishment played in ancient Athens and in the history of Europe. What the ex-Director has in mind is some celluloid image of prehistoric McCoys and Hatfields trapped in an endless cycle of retribution.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 96 (quoted), 97.} That’s not how it worked. A feud — three or more alternating homicidal attacks — is not necessarily endless, although it may occasionally last a rather long time: on the South Pacific island of Bellona, one counterattack came after 225 years!\footnote{Rolf Kuschel, \emph{Vengeance is Their Reply: Blood Feuds and Homicide on Bellona Island. Part I: Conditions Underlying Generations of Bloodshed} (Kobenhavn, Denmark: Dansk psychologisk Forlag, 1988), 18–19. Feuds take place within, and wars take place between, political communities. Ibid., 19–20; Keith F. Otterbein, \emph{The Evolution of War: A Cross-Cultural Survey} (n.p. [New Haven, CT?]; HRAF Press, 1970), 3.} As Lewis Henry Morgan explained (with particular reference to the Iroquois), clans did avenge the murder of their members, but it was their duty first to try for an adjustment of the crime through apology and compensation.\footnote{Lewis Henry Morgan, \emph{Ancient Society} (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1877), 77–78. Kropotkin is thus in error to say “there is no exception to the rule” that bloodshed must be avenged by bloodshed. Indeed he goes on immediately to say that intra-tribal killings are settled differently, and that inter-tribal killings may be settled if the injured tribe accepts compensation. He concludes that with most primitive folk, “feuds are infinitely rarer than might be expected.” \emph{Mutual Aid}, 106–108.} Among the Nuer of the Sudan, where killings are common and the blood feud is obligatory for a lineage, compensation is usually arranged through the mediation of a leopard-skin chief. Even the headhunting Jívaro, the most warlike group in South America, accept compensation when a killing is unintentional.\footnote{Evans-Pritchard, \emph{The Nuer}, 152–155; N.W. Stirling, \emph{Historical and Ethnographical Material on the Jívaro Indians} (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1938), 41, 116–117; Karsten, \emph{Head-Hunters of Western Amazonas}, 270–271 (Stirling is plagiarizing Karsten here).} Among the German barbarians, according to Tacitus, the blood feud was an obligation, “but the feuds do not continue without possibility of settlement,” since even murder was atoned for by payment of a specific number of cattle and sheep. In the \emph{Iliad,} Ajax reminds Achilles that even the slaying of a brother or child may be compensated by a blood price.\footnote{“Germany,” in \emph{Tacitus’ Agricola, Germany, and Dialogue with Orators}, tr. Herbert W. Benario (rev. ed.; Norman, OK \& London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 7 (quoted); \emph{The Iliad of Homer}, tr. Richard Lattimore (Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1951), 215.} Thus, even in the exceptional situation, like this one, where the Director Emeritus is not making up \emph{all} of his ethnological insight, he follows sources long obsolete.\footnote{I can only find a single citation to one of these sources: Robert Briffault, \emph{The Mothers} (3 vols.; New York: Macmillan Company, 1927), cited in Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 75*, the definitive exposition of the discredited hypothesis of primitive matriarchy. The future Director Emeritus “had been influenced in this regard by the work of Robert Briffault, a Marxist anthropological writer, as far back as the 30s.” Bookchin, \emph{Marxism, Anarchism}, 117.}
Bookchin’s argument requires that the blood feud be a universal feature of kin-based primitive society. Most such societies, however, do not engage in blood feuds. In a cross-cultural study of the institution, feuding was frequent in 8 societies, infrequent in 14, and absent from 28. It was argued that certain social structural features favored feuding, specifically, patrilocal societies with “fraternal interest groups,” groups of related men who live near one another. They proved to be positively correlated, although even in 10 out of 25 patrilocal societies, feuding was absent.\footnote{Keith F. Otterbein \& Charlotte Swanson Otterbein, “An Eye for an Eye, A Tooth for a Tooth: A Cross-Cultural Study of Feuding,” \emph{American Anthropologist} 67(6) (pt. 1) (Dec. 1965), 1472, 1473 (Tables 2 \& 3).} Thus urbanization is not necessary to avert the blood feud in most primitive societies, because it is not a feature of most primitive societies.
The 19\textsuperscript{th} century evolutionists propounded the thesis that primitive justice was a punitive and automatic duty in order for there to be something for our enlightened justice — compensatory and forgiving (as we all know) — to evolve out of.\footnote{\emph{E.g.}, Herbert Spencer, \emph{The Principles of Ethics} (2 vols.; Indianapolis, MN: Liberty Press, 1978), 1: 393–400; Edward B. Tylor, \emph{Anthropology: The Study of Man and Civilization} (New York: D. Appleton \& Co., 1898), 414–415; Edward Westermarck, \emph{The Origin and Development of Moral Ideas} (2 vols.; London: Macmillan and Co. \& New York: Macmillan and Company, 1906), 1: 176–177.} Actually, the Jívaro distinction between unintentional homicide (tort, compensation) and intentional homicide (crime, punishment) is not that far removed from where American law is today, and closer still to what it used to be. Nuer custom also distinguishes unintentional from intentional homicide, both of which are compensable, but intentional homicide requires higher damages. Indeed, we (in the United States) have in many areas gone back to the strict liability rules of primitive jurisprudence (\emph{e.g.}, strict liability for defective products, workers’ compensation, and no-fault automobile insurance). The correspondence between primitive\Slash{}punitive and complex\Slash{}compensatory breaks down at the outset. The most primitive peoples, according to the Director Emeritus and the old evolutionists, are hunter-gatherers. Among them the blood feud, if it exists, tends to be \emph{less} punitive and automatic, and \emph{more} compensatory and discretionary than among tribal peoples (herders and agriculturalists): “Indeed, legal ethnologists demonstrate little sympathy for an evolutionary scheme in which principles of collective responsibility and strict liability are considered hallmarks of primitive legal systems while doctrines of justice are thought embodied in civilized legal institutions.”\footnote{R. Thurnwald, “Blood Vengeance Feud,” in \emph{Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences}, ed. Edwin R.A. Seligman (13 vols.; New York: Macmillan Company, 1937), 2: 589; Howell, \emph{Manual of Nuer Law}, 223; Norman Yoffee, “Context and Authority in Early Mesopotamian Law,” in \emph{State Formation and Political Legitimacy}, ed. Ronald Cohen \& Judith D. Toland (New Brunswick, NJ \& Oxford, England: Transaction Books, 1988), 96 (quoted).}
The passage from Lewis Henry Morgan also, it turns out, looks like the remote source of Bookchin’s misconception, because it was closely paraphrased by Engels, but not closely enough. Engels wrote: “From this — the blood ties of the gens [clan] — arose the obligation [\emph{Verpflichtung}] of blood revenge, which was unconditionally recognised by the Iroquois. If a non-member of a gens slew a member of a gens the whole gens to which the slain person person belonged was pledged [\emph{schuldeten}] to blood revenge.”\footnote{Engels, “Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State,” 520.} The first sentence, which is correct — at least for one tribe, the Iroquois — speaks of an obligation arising out of the family relation itself. Read correctly, so does the second. “Pledged” is a mistranslation of the past tense of \emph{schulden}, a word properly rendered as “owe; be indebted to.” The German words (transitive verbs) for “pledge” are not \emph{schulden} but \emph{verphaenden} or \emph{verpflichten.}\footnote{Friedrich Engels, “Ursprung der Familie, des Privateeigentums und des Staats,” in Karl Marx \& Friedrich Engels, \emph{Werke} (Berlin, Germany: Dietz Verlag, 1960), 21: 87; \emph{The New Cassell’s German Dictionary} (New York: Funk \& Wagnalls, 1971), q\Slash{}v “Schuld, -en,” “pledge.”} No word like “pledged” appears in Morgan, and there is no doubt that all Engels does here is repeat Morgan, or try to.
No primary sources, including a classic monograph by Morgan, and no secondary sources say that the Iroquois swore blood oaths. In fact, Iroquois practice rebuts the supposition of a reflexive, automatic resort to vengeance. Crime was almost unknown. Iroquois ideology idealized the “stern and ruthless warrior in avenging any injury done to those under his care,” but the kinfolk of a murder or witchcraft victim were usually expected to accept compensation from the killer. Or they might kill the offender — with impunity, \emph{if} the offender’s family admitted his guilt. Thus there was scope for discretion on both sides.\footnote{Anthony F.C. Wallace, \emph{The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca} (New York: Vintage Books, 1969), 30 (quoted), 25–26.} Even Engels must have known as much, since he wrote that “blood revenge threatens only as an extreme or rarely applied measure.” Morgan wrote that “a reconciliation was usually effected, except, perhaps, in aggravated cases of premeditated murder.”\footnote{Engels, “Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State,” 528 (quoted); Lewis Henry Morgan, \emph{League of the Iroquois} (Secaucus, NJ: Citadel Press, 1969), 330–333, 333 (quoted).} In any case, nothing can be generalized about prehistoric behavior from the custom of a single modern-day tribe. The evidentiary void is typical of Bookchin’s inept, pretentious generalizing.
The ex-Director has perhaps confused his imagined blood oath with the institution of blood \emph{brotherhood}, also known as blood pacts or blood covenants, whereby \emph{unrelated} individuals swear mutual loyalty after an exchange of blood. If so, he has again been confounded by irony. Bookchin is forever carrying on about “the stranger,” how he is feared by primitives but welcomed in the city. Blood pacts are often entered into precisely to \emph{protect} the stranger — specifically, the trader, when he ventures to distant lands where he has no kin.\footnote{“Blood Pacts or Blood Covenants,” \emph{The Dictionary of Anthropology}, ed. Thomas Barfield (Oxford, England \& Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1997), 42–43.} A well-known essay on the subject is “Zande Blood-Brotherhood” by E.E. Evans-Pritchard, who himself entered into the relationship. Among the Azande of central Africa, the principal purpose of the relationship is often business, not justice: to secure for traders a safe-conduct through, and to, hostile territory. Kinsmen \emph{never} formed a blood pact: “A man cannot exchange blood with his own kin,” for the obvious reason that “they were already bound to one another by the social ties of kinship.” Among the Tikopia, too, where the covenant does not involve exchange of bodily fluids, the primary function of bond friendship is to give a man a trustworthy confidante outside the circle of kin. Indeed, strangers are frequently taken as bond-friends. Among the Kwoma (New Guinea), a “pseudo-kin relationship is established with the young men whose blood is mixed with his at the time of adulthood.” The two are always unrelated by kin ties.\footnote{E.E. Evans-Pritchard, \emph{Social Anthropology and Other Essays} (New York: the Free Press, 1962), 257–287, 261 (quoted), 280 (quoted); Firth, \emph{Tikopia Ritual and Belief}, 110–111, 114; Whiting, \emph{Becoming a Kwoma}, 154 (quoted).}
“The Stranger” is Stranger than most of Bookchin’s tropes. He has already appeared, a solitary figure wandering in from the woods, among the big man’s “companions” (Chapter 5). Like the tall taciturn Stranger riding into a wary town in the Westerns, the ex-Director’s Stranger evokes “the primitive community’s dread of the stranger.” The primitive community hates and fears the Stranger, who is viewed as an enemy and may be slain summarily.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 147 (quoted) 138; Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 50.} The problem, see, is that “tribal and village societies are notoriously parochial. A shared descent, be it fictional or real, leads to an exclusion of the stranger — except, perhaps [!], when canons of hospitality are invoked.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 78.} Among tribesmen, the Stranger is in danger because he has no kin to protect him. Happily, history came to the rescue in the form of the city, “the shelter of the stranger from rural parochialism.” The emergence of cities began to overcome the self-enclosed tribal mentality. “As ‘strangers’ [why the quotation marks?] began to form the majority of urban dwellers in late classical and medieval times,” kin-based life became limited to urban elites. In the city, “the suspect stranger became transformed into the citizen.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Limits of the City}, 76 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 81, 50; Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 28–29 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 174 (quoted).}
It is difficult even to imagine the tableau. Who the hell \emph{is} the Stranger and what is he doing in an alien community? Is he a tourist, a hitchhiker, a backpacker? Seemingly not. If he has no apparent business there, it might not be unreasonable to suspect he is a thief or a spy. But while he might inspire distrust, it is hard to imagine why the villagers should feel fear or dread. After all, they heavily outnumber him, and so, as Bookchin says, he might be killed with impunity, or simply sent on his way. Logically, then, the Stranger should be the fearful one. Needless to say, the Director Emeritus adduces no evidence bearing on this eminently empirical question, and hedges by saying that “perhaps” customs of hospitality might protect the Stranger.
Why “perhaps”? They \emph{do} protect the Stranger in many societies, for example, among Bedouins or the Kabyles: as Kropotkin wrote, “every stranger who enters a Kabyle village has right to housing in the winter, and his horses can always graze on the communal land for twenty-four hours. But in case of need he can reckon upon an almost unlimited support.” Among pastoral Arabs in northwestern Sudan, when a traveller arrives they throw a party for him. Among peninsular Arabs, according to T.E. Lawrence (of Arabia), the law of the desert was to offer three days’ hospitality. Among the Tikopia the taking of bond-friends, just mentioned, “is done partly from the tradition of caring for the welfare of visitors.” Eskimos welcome the unfamiliar Stranger with a feast, as in many parts of the world. Among Montenegrin tribesmen (white men \emph{can} jump), “generous hospitality and honesty were prime moral values for men.”\footnote{Kropotkin, \emph{Mutual Aid}, 134–135; Ian Cunason, “Camp and Surra,” in \emph{Peoples and Cultures of the Middle East}, ed. Louise E. Sweet (2 vols.; Garden City, NY: Natural History Press, 1970), 1: 332; T.E. Lawrence, \emph{Seven Pillars of Wisdom} (New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1962), 267; Firth, \emph{Tikopia Ritual and Belief}, 114 (quoted); Franz Boas, \emph{The Central Eskimo,} Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1888), 609; Pitt-Rivers, \emph{Fate of Shechem,} 179 n. 2; Christopher Boehm, \emph{Montenegrin Social Organization and Values: Political Ethnography of a Refuge Area Adaptation} (New York: AMS Press, 1983), 86 (quoted).} And there is no better example, according to Morgan, than the Iroquois:
\begin{quote}
One of the most attractive features of Indian society was the spirit of hospitality by which it was pervaded. Perhaps no people ever carried this principle to the same degree of universality, as did the Iroquois. Their houses were not only open to each other, at all hours of the day, and of the night, but also to the wayfarer, and the stranger. Such entertainment as their means afforded was freely spread before him, with words of kindness and of welcome\dots{} If a neighbor or a stranger entered [an Indian woman’s] dwelling, a dish of hommony, or whatever else she had prepared, was immediately placed before him, with an invitation to partake. It made no difference at what hour of the day, or how numerous the calls, this courtesy was extended to every comer, and was the first act of attention bestowed. This custom was universal, in fact one of the laws of their social system; and a neglect on the part of the wife to observe it, was regarded both as a breach of hospitality and as a personal affront.\footnote{Morgan, \emph{League of the Iroquois}, 327–328.}
\end{quote}
Among the ancient Greeks, guest-friendship was an effective substitute for kinship; but any visitor, guest-friend, ambassador or Stranger, was fed before he was asked his business. For Homer, “all wanderers\Slash{}and beggars come from Zeus,” and “rudeness to strangers is not decency”; for Aeschylus, “Zeus protects the suppliant,” “Zeus the God of Strangers.”\footnote{M.I. Finley, \emph{The World of Odysseus} (rev. ed.; New York: Viking Press, 1965), 106, 134–135; Homer, \emph{The Odyssey}, tr. Robert Fitzgerald (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1963), 249 (quoted); Aeschylus, “The Suppliants,” in \emph{Prometheus Bound, The Suppliants, Seven Against Thebes, The Persians}, tr. Philip Vellacott (Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1961), 68 (quoted), 74 (quoted).} Although inhospitable tribes (such as the Dobuans) do exist, ordinarily, “savages pride themselves in being hospitable to strangers.”\footnote{Sahlins, \emph{Stone Age Economics}, 216–217, quoting \emph{Sixteen Years in the Indian Country: The Journal of Daniel Williams Harmon, 1800–1816}, ed. W.K. Lamb (Toronto, Canada: Macmillan, 1957), 43.}
Although Bookchin’s attitudes announce their own emotional, personalistic essence, a basic intellectual error enters into several of his fallacies, namely, a childish literalism. He takes everything at face value. If the rules say an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth, to him that must mean real eyes and real teeth in pairs. People of the same blood are not merely related through descent, the \emph{same} blood, the same fluid, flows in their veins, and somehow they know this. If the rule of “blood revenge” requires the retaliatory killing of a man in another clan which “owes blood,” such a killing by the same rule requires another, and so forth. Feuds must be endless. But in tribal Montenegro (whose terms I am using), that is \emph{not} what usually happened. By a variety of mechanisms, homicides were composed, if not immediately, then sooner or later, despite the ideology.\footnote{Christopher Boehm, \emph{Blood Revenge: The Anthropology of Feuding in Montenegro and Other Tribal Societies} (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1984).} There is always a difference, in Roscoe Pound’s phrase, between the law on the books and the law in action.
The first generation of anthropologists to go into the field often returned reporting conceptually elegant clockwork kinship systems. Departures from the system on the ground were minimized, explained away, or adjudged deviant, even if they went unsanctioned. Eventually, anthropologists began to see the rules as somewhat flexible, and above all open to interpretation. They might be invoked selectively and tactically, perhaps as bargaining counters, just as in our criminal justice system the legal definition of a crime enters into plea negotiations, but as only one factor. In application to particular situations, custom may be negotiable. Raymond Firth, who was in that first generation, was also one of the first to appreciate that the idealized native rules usually provide for options for action.\footnote{Raymond Firth, \emph{Elements of Social Organization} (3\textsuperscript{rd} ed.; Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1963), 65, 236; Raymond Firth, “Foreword” to E.R. Leach, \emph{Political Systems of Highland Burma: A Study of Kachin Social Structure} (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1954), vi-vii; Boehm, \emph{Blood Revenge}, 93. Firth’s own \emph{We, the Tikopia} and Evans-Pritchards’ \emph{The Nuer} are among those clockwork classics.} Thus the blood feud is not perpetual, the Stranger is often not the enemy, custom is not programming, shamans are not theocratic terrorists, and rules are made to be broken.
The reality of large-scale, long distance intertribal trade among contemporary, historic \emph{and} prehistoric primitives reveals the ex-Director’s fears for the Stranger as neurotic projections. “Interlocked regional exchange systems have been in existence since the Neolithic,” indicating extensive permanent dealings between strangers, so that Danish amber ended up in Mycenaean tombs, and faience from Egypt is found in Poland and Britain. Amber circulated in the Baltic zone from the early Neolithic (3500–2500 B.C.); by the late Neolithic (2500–1900 B.C.) it reached Germany and northern France; and by the early Bronze Age (1900–1600 B.C.) it reached Britain, southern France, Hungary, Romania and Mycenaean Greece. Circulation of goods was a basic precondition of Neolithic societies. Large volumes of luxury goods moved more than several hundred kilometers. Flint mines were up to 15 meters deep. Peasant communities were not self-sufficient.\footnote{Kristian Kristiansen, “Chiefdoms, States, and Systems of Social Evolution,” in Earle, ed., \emph{Chiefdoms}, 25; Andrew Sheratt, “Resources, Technology and Trade: An Essay in Early European Metallurgy,” in \emph{Problems in Economic and Social Archaeology}, ed. G. de G. Sieveking, I.H. Longworth \& K.E. Wilson (London: Gerald Duckworth \& Co., 1976), 559–566; Norman Yoffee, \emph{Explaining Trade in Ancient Western Asia} (Malibu, CA: Undena Publications, 1981), 3.} It was the same all over the world. Prehistoric primitives regularly interacted with middlemen, \emph{i.e.,} Strangers. So do contemporary primitives, the most famous example being the Trobrianders, but also, as previously mentioned, even the lowly San.
In real life, the Stranger “as such” is usually not hated, feared or murdered, because he has business, literally, in the village after all. “Usually” is not “always”: in Fiji, for example, the Stranger is someone you can eat.\footnote{Sahlins, \emph{Tribesmen}, 10.} Bookchin has unwittingly conjured up the protagonist of a famous essay in sociology, “The Stranger” by Georg Simmel. Unlike, say, our relation to the inhabitants of Sirius — the comparison is Simmels’ — our relation to the Stranger is part of the interaction system of a community which he is simultaneously inside and outside of. The Stranger is “an element of the group itself,” so related to it that “distance means that he, who is close by, is far, and strangeness means that he, who also is far, is actually near.”\footnote{Simmel, “The Stranger,” \emph{The Sociology of Georg Simmel}, ed. Kurt H. Wolff (New York: The Free Press \& London: Collier Macmillan, 1950), 402 (quoted), 402–403.} If that was a bit abstract, this is not: “Throughout the history of economics the stranger everywhere appears as the trader, or the trader as stranger.” His position is actually accentuated if he settles in the place of his activity. He comes in contact, sooner or later, with everyone, but he “is not organically connected, through established ties of kinship, locality, and occupation, with any single one.” And in a way, the Stranger really does anticipate urban social relations. One relates to the Stranger, unlike persons to whom one is organically connected in particularistic relationships, on the basis of more abstract, more general qualities or interests in common. In this respect too he is both near and far.\footnote{Simmel, “The Stranger,” 403 (quoted), 403–408.} The relationship with the Stranger is the first alienated, the first \emph{estranged} relationship (Simmel uses the word, the same word Marx used).
The story about the elites retiring to brood about their bloodlines while Strangers crowd into town and take over is funny but false. That never happened anywhere, including Athens, the one city you might think the Director Emeritus knows a little about (but you would be wrong). Intermarried aristocratic or patrician oligarchy is the norm in the pre-industrial city, be it Babylon or Barcelona, Alexandria or Amsterdam, Tours or Tenochtitlan (Chapter 9). As discussed in Chapter 14, as Athenian democracy reached its apex under Pericles (an aristocrat, by the way), access to citizenship became more \emph{restricted} as an influx of Strangers vastly increased the population. In fact, on the proposal of Pericles, the assembly made citizenship hereditary, \emph{i.e.}, a privilege of blood. Citizenship remained the zealously guarded prerogative of an endogamous caste until Macedonian and then Roman hegemony made it meaningless.
It is, in fact, the city — until relatively recent times usually huddled behind its walls — which is historically the epitome of the exclusivist community. And that is as true, probably \emph{more} true of the supposed urban democracies which Bookchin claims as harbingers of his Communes in Switzerland, Italy and New England. In the New England towns, for example, “strangers were discouraged or denied permission to settle.” In fact, they were “warned out”: “towns could legally eject ‘strangers’ and have constables convey them from town to town until they were returned to the town where they legally belonged. Society had to be an organic whole.” These covenanted communities — “tight little islands” — took urban exclusivism to an extreme. Between 1737 and 1788, Worcester County in Massachusetts warned out 6,764 persons: “Thus the system discriminated against unfortunate strangers.” As late as 1791, the selectmen warned over 100 persons out of Lancaster, Massachusetts. Primarily directed against the poor, warning out also served “the purpose of keeping out persons whose political or religious opinions were unsatisfactory to the towns.”\footnote{George Lee Haskins, \emph{Law and Authority in Early Massachusetts: A Study in Tradition and Design} (New York: Macmillan Company, 1960), 78 (quoted); Robert A. Gross, \emph{The Minutemen and Their World} (New York: Hill and Wang, 1976), 90–91 — a source quoted by Bookchin, 237–238; Gordon S. Wood, \emph{The Radicalism of the American Revolution} (New York: Vintage Books, 1993), 20 (quoted); Lawrence M. Friedman, \emph{A History of American Law} (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; New York: Simon \& Schuster, 1985), 89–90 (quoted); Josiah Henry Benson, \emph{Warning Out in New England, 1656–1817} (Boston, MA: W.B. Clarke Company, 1911), 18, 56, 10 (quoted).}
It requires no great psychological insight to realize that the Stranger is Bookchin himself. The fear he projects onto the communities of alien Others expresses his estrangement from them, just as his utopian Commune reflects a yearning for the lost community he imagines from his childhood. He is, like the exiled Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman, nowhere at home — in internal exile, in his case. The explanation is straightforward sociologically and begins, again, with Simmel: trade is “the sphere indicated for the stranger, who intrudes as a supernumerary, so to speak, into a group in which the economic occupations are already occupied — the classical example is the history of European Jews.” The Stranger is the Jewish peddlar anxiously approaching a Gentile village; “in the Pale of Settlement of Czarist Russia peddling was an important means of livelihood up to 1917.” Only the economic division of labor brings Jew and Gentile together. “Each distrusts and fears the other”: “Beyond this surface dealing, however, [is] an underlying sense of difference and danger.”\footnote{Simmel, “The Stranger,” 403 (quoted); H. Wasserman, “Peddling,” in \emph{Economic History of the Jews}, ed. Nachum Gross (New York: Schocken Books, 1975), 263 (quoted); Mark Zborowski \& Elizabeth Herzog, \emph{Life Is With People: The Culture of the Shtetl} (New York: Schocken Books, 1975), 66–67 (quoted).}
The Director Emeritus was born, as he relates, in the then-Jewish ghetto of the Lower East Side soon after his leftist parents arrived from the chaos of revolutionary Russia. His first language was Russian, and the new ghetto his family inhabited was Communist as well as Russian-Jewish: “In a sense, they remained a part of the Russian workers’ movement even after they came to the United States.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 15–18, 16 (quoted). He also states: “I had a better knowledge of revolutions in Russia then of events in the history of the United States.” Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 18. This hasn’t changed (see Chapters 13 \& 16).} The relevant influence is not Judaism — his parents were secular leftists — but rather the insular community of the \emph{shtetl}, the “townlet” in which Jews abided, or sojourned might be a better word, since “a long history of exile and eviction strengthens the tendency to regard the dwelling place as a husk.” The Jews and the goyim are near, yet far: “In a small stetl the Jews and the peasants may be close neighbors. In a large one, most of the Jews live in the center and the peasants on the outskirts, near their fields\dots{} The non-Jew, the goy, is a farmer. The Jew, officially proscribed from owning land, is urban.”\footnote{Zborowski \& Herzog, \emph{Life Is With People}, 62, 66.} Here is the origin of Bookchin’s urban antagonism to the country. The \emph{stetl}, however humble, is a seat of Talmudic learning, set apart from and better than the surrounding illiterate, animalistic peasantry. The Commune is not only a glorified polis, it’s a glorified \emph{stetl}, inhabited by culturally superior Strangers of well-defined exclusivist status.
That these themes really do illuminate Bookchin’s \emph{mentalite} is suggested by an unexpected source: \emph{The World of Sholem Aleichem,} by Maurice Samuel. In one of Aleichem’s stories, a Jew named Tevyeh drives his wagon through the vast Russian forest on his way back to the \emph{shtetl}: “The man on the driver’s seat, a little, bearded Jew in a ragged capote, keeps his eyes half closed, for he has no inclination to look on the beauties of nature.” Like the Director Emeritus, the urbane Tevyeh is indifferent to First Nature, or even afraid of it. As it grows dark, “he thinks of the demons who haunt the forest.” Described as a “wage-slave,” Tevyeh has been, in fact, engaged in the ecologically destructive activity of logging. Like Bookchin, he is impatient with animality: he kvetches to himself about the slowness of his horse, a “wretched beast.” Like Bookchin, he tries to conquer his fear of the natural world with words: “Tevyeh tries to spin the thread of rational discourse.” Finally, Tevyeh — Second Nature — tries to impart directionality to First Nature by talking to his horse: “Here I am at least talking, while you are dumb and cannot ease your pain with words. My case is better than yours. For I am human, and a Jew, and I know what you do not know.” According to Bookchin, “emancipated humanity will become the voice, indeed the expression, of a natural evolution rendered self-conscious, \emph{caring, and sympathetic to the pain, suffering, and incoherent aspects} of an evolution left to its own, wayward unfolding.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 202–203 (emphasis added), quoted in Black, \emph{AAL}, 98.} Here too he echoes a Hellenic theme: “In ancient Greek culture, the image of horse and rider represented the victory of reason in the eternal battle of civilization with anarchy. Horsemanship had a spiritual meaning as the discipline of our animal impulses” (Camille Paglia). The \emph{shtetl} is tiny but crowded amidst the vast Russian expanse: its ethnohistorians ask: “What are they shrinking from? Perhaps the loneliness and formlessness of space, perhaps the world of the uncircumcized, perhaps the brutalizing influence of untamed nature. They fear the bucolic.”\footnote{Camille Paglia, \emph{Vamps \& Tramps: New Essays} (New York: Vintage Books, 1994), 192 (quoted); Maurice Samuel, \emph{The World of Sholem Aleichem} (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969), 8–26 (quoted).}
So, the next time you think of Tevyeh, the Fiddler on the Roof, think of Murry Bookchin, the Fiddler With the Truth.
\chapter{Chapter 10. Before the Law}
The Director Emeritus is full of — surprises. He takes David Watson to task for “denigrat[ing] the development of writing” — actually, all Watson did was deny the “dogma of the inherent superiority of the written tradition” to the oral tradition.\footnote{Watson, \emph{Beyond Bookchin}, 24.} The irony (as always, unnoticed) is that speaking and listening are inherently sociable, whereas “reading — silent reading — is manifestly antisocial activity.”\footnote{I.A. Richards, \emph{Complementarities}, ed. John Paul Russo (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976), 206. “When Augustine first saw a man reading to himself silently (it was Saint Ambrose) he was deeply shocked. He knew Ambrose was a good man, what he did couldn’t be wicked \dots{} but still!” Ibid.} Astonishingly, Bookchin’s defense of literacy takes the form of an affirmation of \emph{law}:
\begin{quote}
Before the written word, it should be noted, chiefs, shamans [!], priests, aristocrats, and monarchs possessed a free-wheeling liberty to improvise ways to require the oppressed to serve them. It was the written word, eventually, that subjected them to the restrictions of clearly worded and publicly accessible laws to which their rule, in some sense, was accountable. Writing rendered it possible for humanity to record its culture, and inscribing laws or \emph{nomoi} where all could see them remains one of the great advances of civilization. That the call for written laws\footnote{\emph{Nomoi} also means “custom.” M.I. Finlay, \emph{The Use and Abuse of History} (New York: The Viking Press, 1975), 134; Douglas M. MacDowell, \emph{The Law in Classical Athens} (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978), 44. Notice Bookchin’s absurd implication that laws cannot be arbitrary.} as against arbitrary actions by rulers was an age-old demand of the oppressed is easily forgotten today, when they are so readily taken for granted. When Watson argues that the earliest uses of writing were for authoritarian or instrumental purposes, he confuses the \emph{ability to write} with what was \emph{actually written} — and betrays an appalling lack of historical knowledge.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 171.}
\end{quote}
(Presumably, then, these phenomena are entirely unrelated?) “I believe in law,” the Sage remarked recently. More than merely “one of the great advances of civilization,” the rise of law “marks one of humanity’s greatest ascents out of animality.”\footnote{Dave Vanek, “Interview with Murray Bookchin,” \emph{Harbinger} 2(1) (2002) (online, unpaginated); Biehl, “Interview with Murray Bookchin,” 171.} Having just denounced custom for preventing people from doing anything differently, Bookchin blithely denounces custom for allowing kings and priests to innovate! Let’s just see who betrays an appalling lack of historical knowledge.
If there remained any doubt that Bookchin is not an anarchist, this passage dispels it. To affirm law — and written law — while disparaging custom is unequivocally statist. Custom, he contends, is inherently enslaving, whereas law is at least potentially liberatory. Here’s an eerie parallel with the ex-Director’s dismissal of the actual anarchism of primitive societies and his affirmation of the, at best, potential anarchism of cities. Whether a rule or norm is enslaving or liberatory depends — not solely on whether it is custom or law, and not solely on whether it is oral or written — it also depends on its content and its source. If we consider the general tendencies and affinities of custom and law, the order of custom is characteristic of primitive societies, usually anarchist, and the rule of law is characteristic of civilized societies, always statist.\footnote{Stanley Diamond, “The Rule of Law versus the Order of Custom,” in \emph{The Rule of Law}, ed. Robert Paul Wolff (New York: Simon and Schuster, Touchstone Books, 1971), 116–118.} Everyone knows this who knows anything about the differences between primitive society and civilization. It’s a difference which ought to be of special interest to an anarchist such as Bookchin formerly mistook himself for. Bookchin’s law-and-order anarchism is nothing short of bizarre.
Unfortunately for the assertion, in almost all pre-modern legal codes including the Athenian, crimes are usually undefined. That is left to custom. If written law is sought to reduce the manipulation of custom, it must be because custom has grown too large or complex to be entrusted to memory. But most early codes are neither long nor complex. The most complete Mesopotamian code to survive (but not, as Bookchin claims, the first) is the Code of Hammurabi from about 1750 B.C. It consists of “close to three hundred laws sandwiched in between a boastful prologue and a curse-laden epilogue.”\footnote{David Cohen, \emph{Law, Sexuality, and Society: The Enforcement of Morals in Classical Athens} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 208; Samuel Noah Kramer, \emph{History Begins at Sumer} (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), 51 (quoted).} That amount of material is easily within an oral culture’s capacity for memory. The conqueror claims to be executing the will of the gods, not the will of the people:
\begin{quote}
Then did Anu and Enlil call me to afford well-being to the people,\forcelinebreak
me, Hammurabi, the obedient, godfearing prince, to cause righteousness to appear in the land\forcelinebreak
to destroy the evil and the wicked, that the strong harm not the weak\forcelinebreak
and that I rise like the sun over the black-headed people, lighting up the land.\footnote{Henri Frankfort \emph{et al.}, \emph{The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man: An Essay on Speculative Thought in the Ancient Near East} (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1946), 193.}
\end{quote}
(With small changes this might be the brag of a more recent conqueror of Mesopotamia, George W. Bush.) Only trained scribes could read the code; Hammurabi himself couldn’t read it. There is no evidence it was ever applied in judicial proceedings, or intended to be. In fact, that was impossible, as the judges were also illiterate. Rather it was propaganda for the inhabitants of recently conquered cities.\footnote{Benno Landsberger, “Scribal Concepts of Education,” in \emph{City Invincible,} ed. Carl H. Kraeling \& Robert M. Adams (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1958), 98; Yoffee, “Context and Authority in Early Mesopotamian Law,” 102–103, 106–108.} The first stages of literacy occurred within the state. It was a technology of domination:
\begin{quote}
Writing was an important part of the growth of the first imperial states, that is of the Akkadian and subsequent empires of the third and second millennia BC. Literacy was restricted to the bureaucracy, stabilized its systems of justice and communications, and so provided infrastructural support to a state despotism, though apparently in some kind of an alliance with a property-owning economic class.\footnote{John Zerzan, \emph{Elements of Refusal} (2\textsuperscript{nd} rev. ed.; Columbia, MO: C.A.L. Press \& Eugene, OR: A.A.A., 1999), 41; Mogens Trolle Larsen, “Introduction: Literacy and Social Complexity,” in \emph{State and Society: The Emergence and Development of Social Hierarchy and Political Centralization,} ed. John Gledhill, Barbara Bender \& Mogens Trolle Larsen (London \& New York: Routledge, 1995), 188; Michael Mann, “The Autonomous Power of the State: Its Origins, Mechanisms and Results,” in \emph{States in History}, ed. John A. Hall (Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell Ltd., 1988), 117–118, 118 (quoted).}
\end{quote}
In early Egypt, also, literacy was extremely restricted, limited to the pharaoh, his entourage and a not very large number of scribes. The ruling group of higher officials in Old Kingdom Egypt was about 500 people.\footnote{John Baines, “Literacy, Social Organization, and the Archaeological Record: The Case of Early Egypt,” in Gledhill, ed., \emph{State and Society}, 196; John Baines \& Norman Yoffee, “Order, Legitimacy and Wealth in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia,” in Feinman \& Marcus, eds., \emph{Archaic States}, 232.}
Most of the codes of early English kings and kinglets are brief: the laws of Hlothhere and Eadric, kings of Kent (2 pages); the laws of Wihtred, another king of Kent (barely 2 pages); the laws of Ine (8½ pages); the laws of Alfred (7½ pages); the laws of Athelstan (4 ½ pages); and King Ethelred’s code of 1108 A.D (3½ pages).\footnote{\emph{English Historical Documents}, general ed., David C. Douglas (11 vols.; New York: Oxford University Press, 1955–1959), 1: 360–409.} The earliest English (and Germanic) code, the laws of Ethelbert, is 6½ pages.\footnote{F.L. Attenborough, \emph{The Laws of the Earliest English Kings} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922), 4–17.} The Frankish \emph{Lex Salica}, which at 63 pages is copious by comparison,\footnote{“\emph{Pactus Legis Salicae},” in \emph{The Laws of the Salian Franks}, tr. Katherine Fischer Drew (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 59–167.} was promulgated by the king and for the king: “\emph{Lex Salica} is new law; and it is royal law \dots{} The mere fact of legislation makes him more of a king.” The codification of custom by this and other barbarian codes was highly selective. The Germanic codes “record just that fraction of custom that seemed enough to satisfy royal pride in legislation. The fact of their existence as books was what mattered most \dots{} The Kentish laws \dots{} reveal a little of contemporary practice \dots{} By causing them to be written down, the king makes them his own.” Most law remained customary and unwritten.\footnote{J.M. Wallace-Hadrill, \emph{The Long-Haired Kings and Other Studies in Frankish History} (New York: Barnes \& Noble, 1962), 179 (quoted), 179–181; A.W.B. Simpson, “The Laws of Ethelbert,” in \emph{Legal Theory and Legal History: Essays on the Common Law} (London \& Ronceverte, WV: The Hambledon Press, 1987), 5–6; Ian Wood, \emph{The Merovingian Kingdoms, 450–751} (London \& New York: Longman), 109–110.} Written law could not have been for the benefit of the illiterate masses.
A 12\textsuperscript{th} century source provides another example of a self-serving codification: “When the famous William, ‘the Conqueror,’ had brought under his sway the farthest limits of the island, and had tamed the minds of rebels by awful examples to prevent error from having free course in the future, he decided to bring the conquered peoples under the rule of written law.”\footnote{Richard fitz Nigel, \emph{Dialogus de Scaccario. The Course of the Exchequer and Constitutio Domus Regis}, ed. Charles Johnson (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), 64.} Actually, many Anglo-Saxon laws had already been written down, as we have seen, but William after crushing all resistance started afresh. The conquered would live under \emph{his} laws. The Anglo-Saxons were down, and the laws would help see to it that they stayed down.
Kropotkin also assumed that law originated as codified custom, but he was more realistic than Bookchin about its genesis and function:
\begin{quote}
If law, however, presented nothing but a collection of prescriptions serviceable to rulers, it would find some difficulty in insuring acceptance and obedience. Well, the legislators confounded in one code the two currents of custom of which we have just been speaking, the maxims which represent principles of morality and social union wrought out as a result of life in common, and the mandates which are meant to ensure external existence to inequality. Customs, absolutely essential to the very being of society, are, in the code, cleverly commingled with usages imposed by the ruling caste, and both claim equal respect from the crowd. “Do not kill,” says the code, and hastens to add, “And pay tithes to the priest.” “Do not steal,” says the code, and immediately after, “He who refuses to pay taxes, shall have his hand struck off.”
\end{quote}
\begin{quote}
Such was law; and it has maintained its two-fold character to this day. Its origin is the desire of the ruling class to give permanence to customs imposed by themselves for their own advantage. Its character is the skilful commingling of customs useful to society, customs which have no need of law to insure respect, with other customs useful only to rulers, injurious to the mass of the people, and maintained only by the fear of punishment.\footnote{“Law and Authority,” in \emph{Kropotkin’s Revolutionary Pamphlets}, ed. Roger N. Baldwin (New York: Dover Publications, 1970), 205–206.}
\end{quote}
We do not have to take this conspiracy theory literally to take Kropotkin’s point about the twofold nature of law, any more than we have to believe Bookchin’s tale of the common people clamoring for laws. But we may well agree with self-styled anarchist Howard Zinn that law’s twofold nature is still manifest today.\footnote{Howard Zinn, “The Conspiracy of Law,” in \emph{Rule of Law}, 26–27.} It is common knowledge. Empirical research confirms it.\footnote{Murdock, \emph{Social Structure}, 84; Morton H. Fried, “On the Evolution of Social Stratification and the State,” in \emph{Culture in Society: Essays in Honor of Paul Radin}, ed. Stanley Diamond (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960), 729; Irving L. Horowitz, “A Postscript to the Anarchists,” in \emph{The Anarchists}, ed. Irving Louis Horowitz (New York: Dell Publishing Co.. 1964), 584–585.} The Director Emeritus alludes to the legend that in 621 B.C., Draco wrote down the laws of Athens by popular demand. Actually, nobody knows if the codification was to placate popular unrest or to anticipate and preempt it.\footnote{J.B. Bury, \emph{A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great} (New York: The Modern Library, 1937), 172.} And who wrought the miracle? According to Bookchin: “The agents for the new juridical disposition [sic]in [sic] the rights of city dwellers were the strangers”! And nobody knows if the hoi polloi lived to regret it. Historian John Thorkey concludes that “whatever the full details of Draco’s code of laws, it seems it was a clear expression of the power of the aristocracy over everybody else.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom,} 150 (quoted); John Thorkey, \emph{Athenian Democracy} (London \& New York: Routledge, 1996), 10.} If the Draco tale is true, it may stand almost alone as an example of popular philonomic folly. The only verified example I know of is the demands of the freemen of Massachusetts Bay for written law.\footnote{Haskins, \emph{Law and Authority in Early Massachusetts,} 120, 123–129; Perry Miller, \emph{Errand into the Wilderness} (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1956), 41.} But they were already accustomed to living under written law; their colonial charter already had the force of law; and enough of them were literate that the content of written law could not be successfully misrepresented. Normally, as Kropotkin implies, the initiative to codify the law is taken by the state.
What little is known about the codification of the law in ancient Greece refutes any supposition that it was liberatory. “Crete,” for instance, “was far advanced in its publication of laws on stone”: the 5\textsuperscript{th} century BC Code of Gortyn was the culmination of a long legal tradition. Yet Aristotle singled out Cretan officials for their arbitrary judgments. Evidence for Cretan literacy is minimal; written law, exhibited monumentally, was intended to impress the illiterate citizenry. The chief function of writing was to legitimate the new form of political organization, the polis.\footnote{Rosalind Thomas, \emph{Literacy and Orality in Ancient Greece} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1992), 67 (quoted), 72, 145, 167.} The Athenian lawgivers likewise gave written law to the illiterate. Thirty years after Draco, Solon promulgated his new laws in \emph{poems} for recitation by heralds at public meetings. That assumes a nonliterate public. In truth, “Athens remained a largely oral culture, where only very few people could read and write.”\footnote{Eric A. Havelock, \emph{The Literate Revolution in Greece and Its Consequences} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 190; S. Cuomo, \emph{Ancient Mathematics} (London \& New York: Routledge, 2001), 15 (quoted).}
Nor does the weirdness end there. According to the Director Emeritus, the magic of “the written word” “eventually” rendered the rulers accountable “to some extent” — by implication, for the first time. He provides no places, dates or details because there are none to provide. According to Bookchin, not popular resistance, but rather the law itself, self-propelled to realize its potential, places limits on power independent of human agency. The Director Emeritus does not explain why custom could not have constrained power, as it does in primitive societies.\footnote{Clastres, \emph{Society Against the State}.} In fact it played such a role in medieval Europe. The Magna Carta, for instance, was mostly about subordinating the king to the customs of the realm.\footnote{J.C. Holt, \emph{Magna Carta} (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), esp. ch. 4 (“Custom and Law”).}
Nor does the ex-Director notice that he has made yet another category mistake, confusing the custom\Slash{}law distinction with the oral\Slash{}written distinction. All four pairings have actually existed. There is nothing about a custom that precludes its being written down, if there’s anybody around who is able to write. Thus Blackstone spoke of “the first ground and chief corner stone of the laws of England, which is, general immemorial custom, or common law, from time to time declared in the decisions of the courts of justice; which decisions are preserved among our public records, explained in our reports, and digested for general use in the authoritative writings of the venerable sages of the law.” Before Blackstone, Sir Matthew Hale identified the common law as “Usage or Custom.” In 1790, future U.S. Supreme Court justice James Wilson wrote: “The common law is founded on long and general custom. On what can long and general custom be founded. Unquestionably, on nothing else but free and voluntary \emph{consent.}”\footnote{\emph{The Works of James Wilson,} ed. James DeWitt Andrews (2 vols.; Chicago, IL: Callaghan \& Co., 1896), 185.} If I should write down that “people are expected to throw rice at the newlyweds at weddings,” my writing that down doesn’t destroy the practice as a custom any more than it turns it into a law. And law is not necessarily written. The most minimal common sense suggests that there had to be an unwritten law before there could have been a demand to write it down.
It is almost obvious why literacy is so useful to power. Everyone has a memory, but for thousands of years, few could read. Literacy does not just supplement orality, it tends to supplant it. As Plato wrote: “Those who acquire [literacy] will cease to exercise their memory and become forgetful; they will rely on writing to bring things to their remembrance by external signs instead of on their own internal resources.”\footnote{Plato, \emph{Phaedrus and Letters VII and VIII}, tr. Walter Hamilton (London: Penguin Group, 1973), 96.} Even the literate lose something by their literacy, though not as much as the new underclass, the illiterate. The state, above all the modern centralized state, strives to confront the citizen as an isolated individual. Hence its long campaign to eliminate mediating groups between state and citizen.\footnote{Robert A. Nisbet, \emph{Community \& Power} (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), esp. ch. 6.} This is the same trend which Bookchin so witlessly hails as liberation from kin ties when he is not inconsistently denouncing everything modern as privatistic and individualistic. The state levels the playing field — levels it down — but towers over that level itself. Regardless what people are reading, be it Director Emeritus Bookchin or Father Cardenal, their reading is a private experience: “Literacy brings about a break in togetherness, permits and promotes individual and isolated initiative in identifying and solving problems.” Oral culture is purely social culture, but writing encourages private thought. Furthermore, writing tends to reify and make permanent the existing social and ideological culture.\footnote{D.P. Pattanayak, “Literacy: An Instrument of Oppression,” in \emph{Literacy and Orality}, ed. David R. Olson \& Nancy Torrance (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 107 (quoted); Jack Goody \& Ian Watt, “The Consequences of Literacy,” in \emph{Literacy in Traditional Societies}, ed. Jack Goody (New York \& London: Cambridge University Press, 1968), 62, 37–38.} Oral culture is not static, partly because it is not held as a whole in everyone’s or anyone’s memory store.\footnote{Jack Goody, \emph{The Power of the Written Tradition} (Washington, DC \& London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2000), 44, 46.} It cannot be monopolized.
If it be argued that, in a world dominated by literate elites, mass literacy is liberatory, it need only be said that the inequality of knowledge and capacity for expression between literates and illiterates is simply recreated as the same kind of inequality between the highly-educated elite and the nominally literate masses. To put it another way, it is the inequality between the producers and consumers of ideology and specialized knowledge. Today, the ever worsening disadvantages of the computer-illiterate recapitulate the disadvantages of the illiterate in traditional and modern societies. After computers it’ll be something else.
That literacy is still a tool for domination is evident from the Nicaraguan literacy campaign in 1979. Over half the population was illiterate. Almost the first thing the bourgeois intellectuals of the Sandinista \emph{junta} did was to orchestrate, in metaphors and terminology purposefully military, a “Crusade” for literacy with the assistance of Cuban advisors. As one of the Sandinistas stated, they appreciated that “no matter in what nation, education serves the interests of those with power, those who dominate and control society.” Now, that was them. According to Valerie Miller, the doting “sandalista” author of a book on the Campaign, its primary purpose was political socialization, and “during the campaign, increased emphasis was given to the sociopolitical dimensions of the campaign.” The first word of the primer was “la revolucion,” and its contents were crude propaganda. Literacy would strengthen the state and its satellite organizations:
\begin{quote}
As individuals were strengthened by this learning, so, too, would the organizations and institutions to which they belonged be strengthened because of the increase in group skills. Moreover, an effective campaign would earn legitimacy and credibility for the new government and instill a sense of national consensus and pride in its citizens. The experience of helping to implement the campaign would give institutions — government agencies, citizens’ associations, and labor federations [but strikes were illegal] — practice in planning, organization, and evaluation.\footnote{Valerie Miller, \emph{Between Struggle and Hope: The Nicaraguan Literacy Crusade} (Boulder, CO \& London: Westview Press, 1985), 20, 24–25, 25 (quoted), 27 (quoted), 29, 36–37, 37 (quoted), 39 (quoted). The book was commissioned by the Nicaraguan Government and must be considered to enunciate its line. Ibid., xxi.}
\end{quote}
This is what comes of privileging the ideal over the real. Literacy serves power, although it did so in very different ways in ancient Sumer and modern Nicaragua. In American history, compulsory education was instituted, not to widen anyone’s intellectual horizons, but to Americanize immigrants. Bismarck instituted it in Germany to innoculate the workers against socialism. The ignorance of history in the younger generation which the Director Emeritus deplores is not the result of an oversight but rather of protracted miseducation.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 334.} Never has so much education at every level been extended to so many people. Students may not learn history (they never learned honest history), but they learn time-discipline, obedience to impersonal authority, a facility for carrying out meaningless tasks, and they learn to accept as normal the daily alienation of most of their waking hours. They learn how to work.\footnote{Black, “Abolition of Work,” 30.} I think the powers that be who control education have a more realistic conception of its functions than does Bookchin, befogged by abstractions.
Law versus Custom, like the ex-Director’s other antitheses, fails to bring out what the contradiction is really about: which is, disputing \emph{processes} and their relations to forms of social organization. Thus Laura Nader and Harry Todd, in the introduction to their anthology on disputing processes, write:
\begin{quote}
We shall not deal here with the question of whether these procedures are law or social control or “merely” custom. We will take a more neutral position and say that whatever we label these procedures, there are a limited number of them\dots{} The crucial variables are the presence or absence of a third party and the basis of the third party’s intervention, and the type of outcome (if any). The same basic procedural modes are used worldwide in attempts to deal with grievances, conflict, or disputes: adjudication, arbitration, mediation, negotiation, coercion (or conquest, in Kenneth Boulding’s terms), avoidance, and “lumping it.”\footnote{Laura Nader \& Harry F. Todd, Jr., “Introduction: The Disputing Process,” in \emph{The Disputing Process — Law in Ten Societies}, ed. Laura Nadar \& Harry F. Todd, Jr. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 8–9.}
\end{quote}
Even this briefest of introductions to the anthropology of law begins to expose the fallacy of the eternal blood feud. The duration of a feud is likely to depend heavily on whether or not there is third party intervention and, if so, of what kind. Thus the first case study in the anthology, obviously intended as a cautionary example, is the Jale of New Guinea, among whom “any conflict can escalate into a war.” The author does not consider the significance of the fact that such an escalation almost never happens, or else the Jale would always be at war, which is not the case. Disputes within a patrilineage where the parties live in the same men’s house may be resolved through the intervention of other residents, but if the lineage has split to live in several locations, they may not be. If disputants are nonkin neighbors, a peaceful outcome is likely, but not if they reside at a distance. But in other combinations, there may not be enough cross-linkages to prevent retaliation and then feud drawing in larger groups: in the absence of a role for third party intervention, disputes “snowball.”\footnote{Klaus-Friedrich Koch, “Pigs and Politics in the New Guinea Highlands: Conflict Resolution Among the Jale,” in ibid., 41–58.} The Jale are atypical; usually there are cross-linkages and third party agencies to resolve or localize disputes. But even this tendentious account implies that ties of kinship and neighborhood usually avert war, which is never the war of each against all, but the war of certain individuals with socially specific identities against others also socially identifiable. As a brief for the law of the state this is ludicrous at a time when the United States is on a worldwide military rampage.
Elizabeth Colson introduced the concept of cross-linkages in a famous article intended to explain the Plateau Tonga, an anarchist society “where there are no obvious political institutions concerned in the maintenance of order.” The crucial fact is that the Tonga live in small villages most of whose people are unrelated to one another. The Tonga recognize matrilineal descent but neolocal residence, so their clans, the units implicated if a feud breaks out, have no corporate character and their members are scattered. The father’s clan provides important material and ritual support for the son although he is not a member, so it, too, takes an interest in his disputes. In marriage, then, four groups are linked, and their concern will extend to offspring. Finally, there is much lending of cattle to friends and kinsmen who live elsewhere. If a dispute flares up, there are always many people obligated but reluctant to take sides in a conflict, often because they are aligned, at least remotely, with both parties. Although each disputant is in theory free to settle the dispute as he pleases, “in societies of this type, it is impossible to have the development of the feud and the institutionalization of repeated acts of vengeance, for each act of vengeance, like each original incident, mobilizes different groups whose interests are concerned in the particular case and that alone.” Hostilities are impossible within a village or between villages if kinsmen of both parties reside in the village or villages, as is usually the case.\footnote{E. Colson, “Social Control and Vengeance in Plateau Tonga Society,” \emph{Africa} 23(3) (July 1953), 199–211, 199 (quoted), 210 (quoted).} Peace prevails without law enforcement. The notion of cross-linkages is related to Max Gluckman’s notion of “multiplex” (multi-functional) relationships whose prevalence determines the form of the disputing process (negotiation or mediation).\footnote{Max Gluckman, \emph{The Judicial Process Among the Barotse of Northern Rhodesia} (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press for the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute, 1955), 18–20; Nader \& Koch, “Introduction,” 12–14.}
What disputing processes are appropriate to an anarchist society? All the voluntary ones: negotiation, mediation\Slash{}conciliation, and (nonbinding) arbitration — also avoidance, but not in the form of resignation to one’s powerlessness as it is among us. In negotiation the parties work things out by themselves: “They seek not to reach a solution in terms of rules, but to create the rules by which they can organize their relationship with one another” (P.H. Gulliver).\footnote{P.H. Gulliver, “Negotiations and Mediation,” Working Paper No.3 (Berkeley, CA: University of California, Program in Law and Society, 1973), 2–3, quoted in Nader \& Todd, “Introduction,” 10.}
In mediation, a third party facilitates a resolution, but not the way a judge does. The mediator may just engage in shuttle diplomacy (as a go-between or “crosser”); in effect this is negotiation without face to face confrontation between the parties. More often, though, the mediator helps shape a settlement to which the parties consent. That’s how it works among the Plateau Tonga, whose social structure harmonizes with mediation. In mediation, both parties agree on the mediator (who usually has a certain position of authority or prestige), and for mediation to succeed, both parties must accept the settlement. Any resort to rules is subordinate to the goal of a mutually acceptable resolution which typically accomplishes, and is accomplished by the restoration of a relationship not confined to the matter at hand, \emph{i.e.}, a multiplex relationship. For the mediator it is more important to know the people than to know the facts of the case: “Since successful mediation requires an outcome acceptable to the parties, the mediator cannot rely primarily on rules but must construct an outcome in the light of the social and cultural context of the dispute, the full scope of the relations between the disputants and the perspectives from which they view the dispute.”\footnote{Nader \& Todd, “Introduction,” 10; William L.F. Felstiner, “Influences of Social Organization on Dispute Processing,” in \emph{Neighborhood Justice: Assessment of an Emerging Idea}, ed. Roman Tomasic \& Malcolm M. Feeley (New York \& London: Longman, 1982), 48–50, 49–50 (quoted); see, \emph{e.g.,} P.H. Gulliver, “Dispute Settlement Without Courts: The Ndeneuli of Southern Tanzania,” in \emph{Law in Culture and Society}, ed. Laura Nadar (Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Company, 1969), 24–68.}
Mediation is ill-suited to hierarchic or culturally heterogeneous societies, which explains why attempts to attach mediation to the American legal system failed: “While mediation appears to be tremendously valuable in disputes between equals, in the available prototypes it appears that in disputes between nonequals, it simply replicates existing power relationships.” Its proponents touted it as getting to the root causes of disputes. Unfortunately, the root causes of many disputes include capitalism, poverty, patriarchy, racism, and other problems which are difficult to understand and impossible to resolve at the individual level. To the extent social inequalities cause disputes, “community mediators seem merely to induce disputants to accept these structural inequalities.”\footnote{Sally Engle Merry, “Defining ‘Success’ in the Neighborhood Justice Movement,” in Tomasic \& Feeley, eds., \emph{Neighborhood Justice}, 182 (quoted); Roman Tomasic, “Mediation as an Alternative to Adjudication: Rhetoric and Reality in the Neighborhood Justice Movement,” in ibid., 222–223, 223 (quoted).}
In arbitration, the parties select the arbitrator and agree beforehand to abide by his decision; otherwise it resembles adjudication in that the parties present evidence and the arbitrator finds the facts and applies rules. My impression is that arbitration is rare in primitive societies (the Jale sometimes used it), although the famous Kpelle moot, usually assumed to be mediation, looks more like arbitration to me, and the Kpelle moot is integrated into the judicial system of the Liberian state.\footnote{Klaus-Friedrich Koch, \emph{War and Peace in Jalemo: The Management of Conflict in Highland New Guinea} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 28; James L. Gibbs, Jr., “The Kpelle Moot: A Therapeutic Model for the Informal Settlement of Disputes,” \emph{Africa} 33(1) (Jan. 1963): 1–11, reprinted in \emph{Law and Warfare: Studies in the Anthropology of Conflict}, ed. Paul Bohannan (Garden City, NY: The Natural History Press, 1967), 277–289. I say this because the plaintiff alone selects the so-called mediator, there’s an evidentiary hearing (including cross-examination), and the mediator announces a decision as the consensus of those present, a decision whose observance is compelled by public opinion. This procedure could easily be called adjudication, and has been. Felstiner, “Influences of Social Organization on Dispute Processing,” Tomasic \& Feeley, eds., \emph{Neighborhood Justice} 57. Gibbs does stress that the parties air all aspects of the dispute and their relationship, with hardly anything excluded as irrelevant. But he never says if the decision is based, or is supposed to be based on pre-existing rules. If it is, it is adjudication, even if it takes place at home and out of doors on the day of rest. If not, it smacks of what Max Weber called kadi-justice.} In the contemporary United States, most arbitrations take place pursuant to collective bargaining agreements or contracts between businesses, and their awards are enforced by courts, in some cases in order to employ a decision-maker with more expertise in a specialized field than the average judge. Arbitration was also important, however, in the relatively simple preindustrial society of colonial America. As that society grew more complex and commercialized, the courts usurped the function of arbitration and all but banned it.\footnote{Jerald S. Auerbach, \emph{Justice Without Law? Non-Legal Dispute Settlement in American History} (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 25–30.} Now if any aspect of colonial history is worth looking into from an anarchist perspective, it’s arbitration, which was correctly seen by the state’s judges as a voluntaristic alternative to the state, and dealt with accordingly. But Murray Bookchin has never looked because of his myopic preoccupation with town meetings.
Adjudication is the disputing procedure unique to the state. In adjudication, third party intervention is coercive, and the decision-maker resolves the dispute by the application of impersonal rules of law, without regard to the relationship, if any, between the parties or anything else deemed “irrelevant” to just the one dispute itself. Where a mediator ideally knows the disputants, or at least is intimately familiar with their culture (which is his own), personal knowledge of a party now disqualifies a judge from resolving a dispute. Because of the heterogeneity of modern society, with its divisions by race, gender, class and creed, the judge is likely to be separated from some parties by these criteria, and he is further removed from their social reality by his professional training. The applicable rules are abstract and impersonal. The proceeding is indeed, as it is called, “adversarial,” it is itself a conflict about a conflict, which does not make for conciliation. Ideally, and usually, the result is a dichotomous decision, with a winner and a loser: every grey area in the evidence has been resolved into black or white. Psychological effects of either the process or the outcome, especially for the loser, are disregarded. But what has to be grasped as the essence of adjudication is that it is the imposition of \emph{law} by \emph{coercion.} Not surprisingly, a cross-cultural survey found specialized institutions of coercion in 23 of 27 societies which had adjudication.\footnote{Felstiner, “Influences of Social Organization on Dispute Processing,” 47–54.}
Adjudication is where law and coercion intersect and complete each other. It is inimical to anarchy,\footnote{“Anarchy is social life without law, that is, without governmental social control.” Donald Black, \emph{The Behavior of Law} (New York: Academic Press, 1976), 123. This book’s final chapter, “Anarchy” — whose return is predicted — deserves to be better known among anarchists.} which is why law singles out anarchists for oppression (only anarchists among all radicals cannot enter the United States), and why courts have so often vented their special fury on Parsons, Lingg, Berkman, the \emph{Abrams} defendants, Sacco and Vanzetti, Kaczynski, and many more. Because an anarchist society is a human-scale society, its people will know one another well enough so that any dispute is understood to involve relationships which will often be more important than the subject in dispute. Those relationships will usually be multiplex, because there will be no sharply differentiated roles like those which constitute a complex modern state society. Thus negotiation, mediation and occasionally avoidance would be how disputes are resolved — and not, for instance, by voting, as the Director Emeritus would have it. Conceivably arbitration might be used where the disputants are relatively unfamiliar with each other, such as a dispute between communities, or perhaps if it’s a technical matter. But — no courts, no judges, no jurors, no police, no jails, no gallows — no legal system whatsoever, and \emph{no institutionalized coercion}. Bookchin may not know it, or he may just maintain a prudent silence for a change, but by espousing law, he espouses adjudication and disclaims anarchism.
The ex-Director’s nomophilia caught me by surprise. This revolutionary anarchist shares Sergeant Joe Friday’s faith in the law. The policeman is your friend — potentially, which for Bookchin is always better than the real thing. Granted, in real life the cops kick your ass, but that is merely adventitious, contingent, fortuitous and secondary. I don’t know in what capacity I was more incredulous: as an anarchist or as a lawyer. It does not occur to Bookchin that a written law is necessarily more accessible to a ruling elite, which is literate or employs the literate in its service, than it is to the illiterate masses. More accessible, and more manipulable. You can forge a document, like the Donation of Constantine, but you can’t forge a custom. As Stanley Diamond writes, “law is not definite and certain while custom is vague and uncertain. Rather, the converse holds. Customary rules must be clearly known; they are not sanctioned by organized political force; hence serious disputes about the nature of custom would destroy the integrity of society. But law may always be invented \dots{}”\footnote{Diamond, “The Rule of Law versus the Order of Custom,” 118.}
Law may always be invented. And it may always be repealed. What’s more, it may always be interpreted, which comes to much the same thing. In the words of John Chipman Gray: “It is not as speedy or as simple a process to interpret a statute out of existence as to repeal it, but with time and patient skill it can often be done.”\footnote{Gray, \emph{Nature and Sources of the Law}, 192.} After a generation, Draco’s code was superseded by Solon’s, and Plutarch has this to say about that: “Besides, it is said that he was obscure and ambiguous in the wording of his laws, on purpose to increase the honor of his courts; for since their differences could not be adjusted by the letter, they would have to bring all their causes to the judges, who thus were in a manner masters of the laws.”\footnote{\emph{Plutarch’s Lives: The Translation Called Dryden’s}, corr. \& rev. H.H. Clough (5 vols.; Philadelphia, PA: John D. Morris \& Company, n.d. [1860?]), 1: 169–170.} For a thousand years, the Twelve Tables were nominally the basis of Roman law, but long before then, they’d been interpreted almost out of existence.\footnote{Gray, \emph{Nature and Sources of the Law}, 180–181.} And look at how the Torah was swamped by the Talmud.
In U.S. constitutional law, the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment was for many decades interpreted almost out of existence, then interpreted back into efficacy as a restraint — a judicial restraint, not a popular restraint — on legislative power.\footnote{Howard N. Meyer, \emph{The Amendment that Refused to Die} (Radnor, PA: Chilton Book Company, 1973).} Written law is more an opportunity for expert mystification than a guide or protection for the citizenry. The Fourth Amendment to the Constitution, for instance — dealing with warrants and with search and seizure — is a single sentence of 54 words. A treatise on the law of search and seizure is four volumes long.\footnote{Robert C. Black, “FIJA: Monkeywrenching the Justice System?” \emph{UMKC Law Review} 66(1) (Fall 1997), 31, citing Wayne R. LaFave, Jr., \emph{Search and Seizure: A Treatise on the Fourth Amendment} (4 vols.; 2d ed.; St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company, 1987).} If you want to know your Fourth Amendment rights, you are better off ignoring the words of the Fourth Amendment and navigating the treatise, if you can. But unless you’re a lawyer, you probably can’t.
The published availability of the vast mass of American statutory, regulatory and case law makes a mockery of the Director’s childish faith in the liberatory power of the Logo, the Word revealed. There are just too damned many words. Every San forager knows all the rules of his society. No North American or European, not even the most learned lawyer, knows one-tenth of one percent of the rules of his society. Caligula, one of the more over-the-top degenerate Roman emperors, was criticized for enforcing new tax laws without previously publicizing them: “At last he acceded to the urgent popular demand, by posting the regulations up, but in an awkwardly cramped spot and written so small that no one could take a copy.”\footnote{Suetonius, \emph{The Twelve Caesars}, tr. Robert Graves (2d ed.; Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1979), 174. It may be that Hammurabi had a similar sense of fun. His code was inscribed — written sideways — on a pillar 19½ feet tall. Norman Yoffee, “Law Courts and the Mediation of Social Conflict in Ancient Mesopotamia,” in \emph{Order, Legitimacy, and Wealth in Ancient States}, ed. Janet Richards \& Mary Van Buren (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 47.} For all practical purposes, this is the situation of the ordinary modern citizen with respect to the law. The lawyer is not much better off. In the words of an unusually candid Federal judge: “Any competent lawyer, during any rainy Sunday afternoon, could prepare a list of hundreds of comparatively simple legal questions to which any other equally competent lawyer would scarcely venture to give unequivocal answers.”\footnote{Jerome Frank, \emph{Law and the Modern Mind} (Garden City, NY: Doubleday \& Company, Anchor Books, 1963), 6.} Speaking professionally, I agree.
So what is there to the ex-Director’s supposition that written tradition is more reliable, more tamper-proof, than oral tradition — as to law or anything else? Bookchin inconsistently denounces oral tradition as rigid and frozen and at the same time as manipulable by self-serving elites. Those who have compared oral and written traditions haven’t identified any major difference in their reliability as historical sources. Both forms of transmission are subject to the influences of “selectivity” (what is interesting enough to preserve) and “interpretation” (the meaning of what was preserved). Sometimes the written record can be refuted by the oral, and sometimes the other way around; often they agree.\footnote{Jan Vansina, \emph{Oral Tradition as History} (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), ch. 7.}
If anything, it may be better for the cause of liberty that written law fails to fix forever the meaning of the law as it was understood at the time by those who promulgated it. In the Anglo-American legal tradition, for instance, Magna Carta, the Great Charter of 1215, is revered as the fountainhead of liberty under law. If so, it is not because of its specific provisions. Nearly all of them address the private grievances of certain barons against the reigning king or else deal with obsolete aspects of feudalism. Only three of its 64 chapters remain in some version on the English statute books.\footnote{Holt, \emph{Magna Carta}, 1 \& n. 1.} The Charter is historically important as myth — the “mythopoesis” the ex-Director despises — because of the ways jurists later misinterpreted it and ordinary people misunderstood it.\footnote{Holt, \emph{Magna Carta}, ch. 11; Ellis Sandoz, ed., \emph{The Roots of Liberty: Magna Carta, Ancient Constitution, and the Anglo-American Tradition of Rule of Law} (Columbia, MO \& London: University of Missouri Press, 1993); Robert C. Black, “‘Constitutionalism’: The White Man’s Ghost Dance,” \emph{The John Marshall Law Review} 31(2) (Winter 1998): 513–520.}
Bookchin calls for a return to left anarchist orthodoxy, but his tribute to legalism contradicts a basic tenet of classical anarchism, the outright rejection of written law. No doubt anarchists like Alexander Berkman,\footnote{Alexander Berkman, \emph{What Is Communist Anarchism?} (New York: Dover Publications, 1972), chs. 3 \& 8.} for whom law is merely a support for capitalism, are simplistic, but at least they are not utterly wrong. Kropotkin wrote that “the first duty of the revolution will be to make a bonfire of all existing laws as it will of all titles to property.”\footnote{“Law and Authority,” 212.} Proudhon agreed with Bookchin that law is a limit on government, but he still insisted on doing away with “the \emph{reign of law}.”\footnote{P.-J. Proudhon, \emph{General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century,} tr. John Beverley Robinson (London: Freedom Press, 1923), 132, 112 (quoted).} Bakunin wrote: “We reject all legislation, all authority, and all privileged, licensed, official, and legal influence, even though arising from universal suffrage, convinced that it can turn only to the advantage of a dominant minority of exploiters against the interests of the immense majority in subjection to them.”\footnote{“God and the State,” in Lehning, ed., \emph{Michael Bakunin: Selected Writings}, 135.} Even the orthodox anarchist Luigi Galleani, himself a lawyer, was of this opinion.\footnote{Luigi Galleani, \emph{The End of Anarchism?} (Sanday, Orkney, U.K.: Cienfuegos Press, 1982), 48.} Similar statements could easily be multiplied.
Bookchin is not taking the position, as did Bakunin, that law, like the state, was once a civilizing influence, but one we have outgrown. Law is a permanent part of the ex-anarchist ex-Director’s utopia: “In a libertarian municipalist society it would be necessary to fully explicate, on a rational basis, the rights and duties of people, the laws or \emph{nomoi} of the society, and their modes of self-management. And these \emph{nomoi} would derive from a rational constitution that the people who live under it would draw up.”\footnote{“Interview with Murray Bookchin,” 172.} If there is as yet not much in the way of a distinctive anarchist critique of law, it is probably because most anarchists take it for granted that the abolition of the state involves the abolition of law. State and law imply each other.\footnote{Barclay, \emph{People Without Government,} 23; Diamond, “The Rule of Law versus the Order of Custom,” 136; Black, \emph{Behavior of Law}, 105.} William Godwin is one anarchist who said so: “law is merely relative to the exercise of political force, and must perish when the necessity for that force ceases, if the influence of truth do[es] not still sooner extirpate it from the practice of mankind.”\footnote{William Godwin, \emph{Enquiry Concerning Political Justice}, ed. Isaac Kramnick (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1976), 695.} (And yet Godwin ventures some shrewd criticisms of law that go beyond its function of defending property.\footnote{Ibid., 684–695.})
Unanimity about the goal of abolishing law does not make it obvious how anarchists are to pursue that goal, or even how to conduct their lives, in a law-ridden world. It is a topic on which their abstract armchair edicts, as several of them demonstrated during the Jim Hogshire affair, tend to be more than usually foolish.\footnote{Compare Feral Ranter [now Wolfi Landstreicher], “When Is a Duck Not a Duck?” with Bob Black, “Playing Ducks and Drakes” (unpublished MSS.).} “If I am weak, I have only weak means,” says Stirner, “which yet are good enough for a considerable part of the world\dots{} I get around the laws of a people, until I have gathered strength to overthrow them.”\footnote{Stirner, \emph{Ego and Its Own}, 150.} To the thinking anarchist, this much, in the words of Thoreau, is clear: “I quietly declare war with the state, after my fashion, though I still make what use and get what advantage of her I can, as is usual in such cases.”\footnote{Henry David Thoreau, “Civil Disobedience,” in \emph{Walden and Civil Disobedience} (New York: New American Library, 1960), 236.} Regardless, the antinomian goal is clear, except to the Director Emeritus. \emph{His} goal is the city-state, not anarchy, which will express its sovereignty through law. But its law will not, as he claims, limit power, because the self-governing \emph{polis} acknowledges no limits on its self-realization through the practice of politics.
\chapter{Chapter 11. Humanists and Subhumans}
The Director Emeritus identifies himself as a humanist. Indeed, he has devoted an entire book to chastising the “antihumanists” in the ecology movement. It is as a humanist, for instance, that he is scandalized by the “blatant callousness” of David Watson.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 284; Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 36; Murray Bookchin, \emph{Re-Enchanting Humanity: A Defense of the Human Spirit Against Anti-Humanism, Misanthropy, Mysticism and Primitivism} (London: Cassell, 1995); Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 194 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Limits of the City}, 101, 124.} He has dirtied the word. A humanist is supposed to believe in the dignity and equal worth of men. What Bookchin believes is shockingly otherwise. Not only does he deny that all men are created equal, he denies that all men are men. Not only does he consider the societies and cultures of primitives inferior, he denies that primitives are social and cultural beings. They are “merely natural” — in other words, they are nothing but animals (see Chapter 10). In Bookchin’s peculiar terminology, they engage in “animalistic adaptation rather than [ ] activity”; put another way, “human beings are capable not only of \emph{adapting} to the world but of \emph{innovating} in the world. Innovation means, for Bookchin if not for the dictionary, to engage in practices “beyond everyday eating, sleeping, reproducing, excreting, and even playing.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 139, 203.} “Even playing” is denigrated as mere animality (and animals \emph{do} play) — as if it were not the case that “a certain play-factor was extremely active all through the cultural process and that it produces many of the fundamental forms of social life.”\footnote{Kropotkin, \emph{Mutual Aid}, 307; Johan Huizinga, \emph{Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play-Element in Culture} (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1955), 173 (quoted); Read, \emph{Anarchy \& Order}, 151–152.}
Herbert Read produced language very similar to Bookchin’s — to characterize the world-view of the designing “political fanatic”:
\begin{quote}
Living is fundamentally an instinct — the animalistic scrounging for food and shelter, for sexual mating, for mutual aid against adversities. It is a complicated biological activity, in which tradition and custom play a decisive part. To the pure mind it can only seem monstrous and absurd — the ugly activities of eating, digesting, excreting, copulating. It is true that we can idealize these processes, or some of them, and eating and lovemaking have become refined arts, elaborate “games.” But only on the basis of long traditions, of social customs that are neither rational nor consistent — what could be more “absurd” than a cocktail-party or the love-making in a Hollywood film? The political fanatic will denounce such customs as aspects of a degenerate social order, but his new social order, if he succeeds in establishing it, will soon evolve customs just as absurd, and even less elegant.\footnote{Read, \emph{Anarchy \& Order}, 16–17.}
\end{quote}
Purposeless play is an “affirmation of life” (John Cage).\footnote{Quoted in Richard Neville, \emph{Play Power: Exploring the International Underground} (New York: Vintage Books, 1971), 276.} Hence Bookchin is against it.
It was the rise of the city which uplifted our species — most of it, anyway — from animality to true humanity (see Chapter 10):
\begin{quote}
Human beings emerged socially out of animality, out of societies organized according to biological realities like blood ties, gender differences, and age differences that formed the real structure of aboriginal societies, and they developed the concept — \emph{as yet unfulfilled in practice} — that we share a common humanity. This idea was made possible with the emergence of the city, because the city made it possible for people from different tribes that were formerly hostile to each other, to live together without conflict. City culture made it possible for us to begin to communicate with each other as human beings, not as tribal members, and to shake off in various degrees the superstition, mystification, illusion, and particularly the authority of the dream world, which had ideological priority in tribal society.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 140. Without parsing all the piffle in the passage, the claim that the city pacified hitherto hostile tribesmen is incredible coming from a self-proclaimed close student of the Greek city-states. The Greeks had reason to believe that \emph{stasis}, social conflict, was inherent in the life of the polis, and the greatest of evils; it preoccupied a political theorist like Aristotle. M.I. Finley, \emph{Economy and Society in Ancient Greece}, ed. Brent D. Shaw \& Richard B. Saller (New York: The Viking Press, 1982), 80; Aristotle, \emph{The Politics}, ed. Carnes Lord (Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 112–114. In 4\textsuperscript{th} century Greek Sicily, on average there was a revolution every seven years. Shlomo Berger, \emph{Revolution and Society in Greek Sicily and Southern Italy} (Wiesbaden, Germany: Historia. Einzelschriften [Monographs]), 1992). Archeology in nine areas of the world including Greece indicates social conflict in every city-state. Norman Yoffee, “The Obvious and the Chimerical: City-States in Archaeological Perspective,” in \emph{The Archaeology of City-States: Cross-Cultural Approaches}, ed. Deborah L. Nichols \& Thomas H. Charlton (Washington, DC \& London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997), 260. In any event, as with any state, the tenuous internal unity of the polis merely resulted in the displacement of conflict outward, against other city-states.}
\end{quote}
There are premonitions of this viewpoint in earlier Bookchin writings in which he referred to “the biological realities of the tribal world, rooted in blood ties, gender, and age groups,”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 26.} but only now are the implications spelled out with brutal clarity. It doesn’t trouble the Director Emeritus at all that his individual\Slash{}social unbridgeable chasm does not match up with his animal\Slash{}human unbridgeable chasm. As Kropotkin, a \emph{real} social ecologist, emphasized, “Society has \emph{not} been created by man; it is anterior to man.”\footnote{Kropotkin, \emph{Mutual Aid}, 54 n. 1.} The underlying flaw is absolutizing the nature\Slash{}culture dichotomy itself: “Even the idea that ‘nature’ and ‘culture’ are two relatively distinct kinds of objects is probably not universal.”\footnote{Sherry B. Ortner, “So, \emph{Is} Female to Male as Nature Is to Culture?” in \emph{Making Gender: The Politics and Erotics of Culture} (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1996), 179.} Like the notion of objectivity, the nature\Slash{}culture distinction is itself an example of parochial Western native folk taxonomy. Theories of opposites are among the baleful aspects of our Hellenic heritage. They are not universal; “in certain Near Eastern societies,” writes G.E.R. Lloyd, “there was simply no conscious distinction drawn between the realm of Nature on the one hand and the realm of Society on the other.”\footnote{G.E.R. Lloyd, \emph{Polarity and Analogy} (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1966), 80, 211 (quoted).}
Of course it’s all crazy. The difference between animal “adaptation” as opposed to human “innovation” or “activity” is undefined and does violence to the ordinary understanding of these words. “Adaptation” and “innovation” are near-synonyms, not antonyms. “Innovation” and “activity” are not synonyms at all; the former is a subset of the latter. If adaptation means changing the environment instead of just living in (and off of) it, then it fails to distinguish primitive from civilized behavior. Primitives may transform their environment — by firing the bush, for instance, as the San do — as I pointed out in \emph{Anarchy after Leftism}. The Director Emeritus said so himself in \emph{SALA.}\footnote{John H. Bodley, \emph{Anthropology and Contemporary Human Problems} (3\textsuperscript{rd} ed.; Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1996), 50; Heinz \& Lee, \emph{Namkwa}, 56; Wiessner, “Risk, Reciprocity and Social Influence,” 65; Black, \emph{AAL}, 115–116; Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 63. The Indians of northeastern America fired the bush once or twice a year. Morgan, \emph{American Slavery, American Freedom}, 54–56. Northwest Coast Indians likewise made various uses of fire. \emph{Indians, Fire and the Land in the Pacific Northwest}, ed. Robert Boyd (Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press, 1999).} And he has also confirmed the tautology that primitive society is social: “A tribe (to use this term in a very broad sense to include bands and clans) was a truly social entity, knitted together by blood, marital, and functional ties based on age and work.”\footnote{Murray Bookchin, “Radical Politics in an Era of Advanced Capitalism,” \emph{Our Generation}, 5.} Finally, just \emph{who} is innovative? “Man”? What man? What’s his address? How many world-historical innovators are alive today? If innovation is the hallmark of the human, and if innovation means invention, then there are about six billion animals in human form walking the earth today who have never innovated anything.
Bookchin’s critique is of “the community, based on kinship \emph{alone},”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 54 (emphasis added).} but it is doubtful if many, or even any such communities ever existed. Primitive social organization is not based exclusively on kinship, gender and age. The community, for instance, “the maximal group of persons who normally reside together in face to face association,” is, besides the nuclear family, the only universal social group. Propinquity is, after all, an even simpler idea than the blood-tie.\footnote{G.P. Murdock, C.S. Ford, A.E. Hudson, R. Kennedy, L.W. Simmons, \& J.W.M. Whiting, “Outline of Cultural Materials,” \emph{Yale Anthropological Studies} 2 (1945), 29 (quoted); William Graham Sumner \& Albert Galloway Keller, \emph{The Science of Society} (4 vols.; New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1927), 1: 420.} Largely kin-based communities exist, but so do others. Furthermore, there is more to kin ties than “blood ties,” there are also affines in every type of family organization — as Claude Levi-Strauss observes, “the incest prohibition expresses the transition from the natural fact of consanguinity to the cultural fact of alliance.”\footnote{Murdock, \emph{Social Structure}, 41; Claude Levi-Strauss, \emph{The Elementary Structures of Kinship}, tr. James Harle Bell, John Richard von Sturmer, \& Rodney Needham (rev. ed.; Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1969), 30 (quoted).} Thus it was the primitives, not the civilized, who accomplished the transition from nature to culture.
The Director Emeritus cannot conceive of kinship as anything but ascriptive, arbitrary and exclusive. Presumably that’s why the “blood oath” is needed to validate kin-based society — as if without it no one would follow the rules of consanguinity and affinity. In reality, kinship, through marriage, is the basis for alliances with outside groups.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 86; Levi-Strauss, \emph{Elementary Structures of Kinship}, 478 \& \emph{passim}; Barclay, \emph{People Without Government}, 70.} Kinship can be flexible and adaptive, as it is in cases of classificatory or fictive kinship or adoption. In the 19\textsuperscript{th} century Sir Henry Maine stated that the family has been “constantly enlarged by the absorption of strangers within its circle.” Kinship can be negotiable, even volitional. In general, people enact multiple roles which may not correspond to their membership in a descent group, and the “use of kin terms often turns out to be a political strategy, not an everyday social nicety”:
\begin{quote}
Kinship norms specify how people should or would behave toward one another in a world where only kinship mattered. But actual kinsmen are also neighbors, business competitors, owners of adjacent gardens, and so on; and their quarreling and enmity characteristically derive from these relationships, as well as competition for inheritance, power in the family or lineage, and so on. Brothers should support one another. But the owner of a pig who eats your garden should pay damages. If the owner is your brother — and in small-scale tribal societies it is your kin who will most often be your neighbors and rivals — there is a “gulf” between the ensuing quarrel and ideal behavior between kin.\footnote{Henry Maine, \emph{Ancient Law} (London: Oxford University Press, 1959), 110 (quoted); Roger M. Keesing, \emph{Kin Groups and Social Structure} (New York: Holt, Rinehart \& Winston, 1975), 125–127, 126 (quoted).}
\end{quote}
Among important forms of non-kin organization, Robert H. Lowie speaks of sodalities, which include men’s tribal clubs, secret societies, age-class systems, and guilds: “The concept is of some utility in bringing home the fact that individuals associate irrespective of whether they belong to the same family, clan, or territorial group; and that such associations play a dominant part in the social lives of many peoples, rivalling sporadically and even overshadowing other ties.”\footnote{Robert H. Lowie, \emph{Social Organization} (London: Kegan Paul Ltd., 1950), 309.} Another non-kin social formation is moieties — divisions of a community into two groups — these are rather common.\footnote{Murdock, \emph{Social Structure}, 79, 88–89} Trade relations, such as the famous \emph{kula} ring in Melanesia, connect unrelated trading partners, sometimes at distances of hundreds of miles, as they did throughout Australia and New Guinea. Even the San engage in \emph{hxapo} (direct reciprocity) relations with partners within a radius of 200 kilometers.\footnote{Gluckman, \emph{Politics, Law and Ritual in Tribal Society}, 51; Sahlins, \emph{Tribesmen}, 85–86; Wiessner, “Risk, Reciprocity and Social Influence.”} Religious and recreational associations are widespread and often cut across kinship lines. The relation of villagers to their chief, where there is a chief, is not necessarily based on filiation. As often happens, the Director Emeritus has refuted himself: “Tribal peoples form social groups — families, clans, personal and community alliances, sororal and fraternal clubs, vocational and totemic societies, and the like.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 57.}
On the other hand, family, gender and age are fundamental principles of organization in \emph{civilization}. Even today they are of the foremost importance, and in the past, for thousands of years, they were even more important. Bookchin has mutilated the master-cliché of modern social theory, the \emph{Gemeinschaft}\Slash{}\emph{Gesellschaft} (community\Slash{}society) dichotomy. He has travestied the notion of development from status to contract, in Sir Henry Maine’s famous phrase, until it is even cruder than it appears in 19\textsuperscript{th} century social evolutionism. Urban anthropologists are no longer sure that the urbanization of the Third World, for example, inevitably emancipates the individual and the family from the larger kinship groupings of rural society. One of them writes: “Recent studies by anthropologists of urban situations in Africa and elsewhere attest to the remarkable vitality of traditional kinship concepts and practices.”\footnote{A.L. Epstein, \emph{Urbanization and Kinship: The Domestic Domain on the Copperbelt of Zambia, 1950–1956} (London: Academic Press, 1981), 2–5, 193 (quoted).} The modernization thesis itself, including its deformed Bookchinist version, is a product of modernization. It is Western native folk ideology expressing “the occidental world’s obsession with its uniqueness and historical destiny.” “Building on the best of the Western heritage,” brays the ex-Director, “in the great tradition of European intellectuality,” humanity will at last reach its destiny to dominate nature and attend many meetings.\footnote{John Gledhill, “Introduction: The Comparative Analysis of Social and Political Transitions,” in Gledhill, Bender \& Larsen, eds., \emph{State and Society}, 4 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 140 (quoted), 136 (quoted).} The West is the best. All hail Jim Morrison and Murray Bookchin.
The earliest urbanists, the Sumerians, knew that blood is thicker than water: “Friendship lasts a day, Kinship endures forever.” It \emph{has} endured forever. The ancient Greeks, the ex-Director’s paragons, by no means transcended the family. For them it was always the primary institution through which most of life was organized and continuity assured. Even Bookchin speaks of the power of the \emph{Oresteia} of Aeschylus “over an ancient Greek audience that had yet to exorcise the blood oath and tribal custom from their enchanted hold on the human psyche.”\footnote{Kramer, \emph{History Begins at Sumer}, 124 (quoted); Finley, \emph{Ancient Greeks}, 123; Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 54 (quoted). It occurs to me that this may be where the Director Emeritus got this gory “blood oath” stuff: he mistook Aeschylus, as he has mistaken himself, for a historian.} It is almost impossible to believe that the Director Emeritus is serious about the blood oath, but he has made his meaning quite clear. His perverse position is only explicable in terms of his visceral hatred of the family, which he would replace with communes (not Communes) — a rare spasm of lifestyle anarchism.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 333–334; Ecology Action East, “The Power to Destroy — The Power to Create,” \emph{Ecology and Revolutionary Thought} (New York: Times Change Press, 1970), 54; Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 42. In hating the family \emph{because} it is natural, the Director Emeritus is only instantiating his hatred of nature itself.}
One has to wonder how bad his childhood and marriages were. He was an only child, and the father deserted the family when he was five. That is within the age range (2–6) of the prelogical, preoperational, egotistical cognitive stage in which the child, confronted with contradiction, concludes that the evidence must be wrong, since \emph{he} cannot be wrong: “The preoperational child’s thinking was dominated by egocentrism, an inability to assume the viewpoint of others, and a lack of the need to seek validation of her own thoughts.” Normally the child progresses to concrete operational thought as social interaction with his peers gradually dissolves his cognitive egocentrism.\footnote{Barry J. Wadsworth, \emph{Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive and Affective Development} (5\textsuperscript{th} ed.; White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers, 1996), 37 n. 1, 66–67, 93 (quoted).} My hypothesis is that the too-successful resolution of the Oedipal problem (by the father’s desertion), the spoiling of the only child by the single mother, and premature isolation from his peers (by immersion in the adult world of Stalinist politics) fixed the future Director in the prelogical egocentrism and intolerance which he exhibits as an adult. Still egotistical,\footnote{Lawrence Jarach, “Manichean Anarchism or Dishonest Anarchism: Judging a Bookchin by His Cover-Ups,” \emph{Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed} No.43, 15(1) (Spring-Summer 1997), 53.} still convinced he is infallible, still unable to enter into another’s point of view even to the extent necessary to refute him, Murray Bookchin has never grown up.
As the Director Emeritus describes his parents, they were fanatic leftists obsessed with politics, just like their son. This is almost the only thing he deems important enough to tell us about them. As far as the ex-Director is concerned, his life began when he joined the Young Pioneers at age nine: “In fact, it was the Communist movement that truly raised me, and frankly they were amazingly thorough.” This much is obvious. At the tender age of 13 he became a soapbox Stalinist.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 17–39, 24 (quoted).} Here are the makings of a monster. Bookchin recounts his story with such satisfaction that he seems truly unaware that he was robbed of something irreplaceable: his childhood. He who was never fully a child will never be fully adult. In effect, he was deprived of family and raised to be a vanguard Platonic Guardian. Ever since, when he hears about a vacancy for philosopher-king, he sends his resume. The Communist Party spurned him. The Trots spurned him. SDS spurned him. The Clamshell Alliance spurned him. The Greens spurned him. Now the anarchists have every reason to spurn him.
But I digress.
Quite absurd is the nonsense category of “biological” relations consisting of kinship, gender and age. Malinowski pointed out 90 years ago that maternity and paternity are socially determined. The Director Emeritus never got the word that family, gender and age roles are socially constructed. They presuppose certain “biological realities,” but when you think about it, so do all other roles.\footnote{Bronislaw Malinowski, \emph{The Family Among the Australian Aborigines} (London: University of London Press, 1913), 179; Peter J. Richerson \& Robert Boyd, “Culture Is Part of Human Biology. Why the Superorganic Concept Serves the Human Sciences Badly,” in \emph{Science Studies: Probing the Dynamics of Scientific Knowledge}, ed. Sabine Maasen \& Matthias Winterhager (Bielefeld, 2001), 151.} There cannot be a disembodied worker, soldier, priest or professor. Kinship, wrote Robert H. Lowie, “is not biology, and kinship is differently conceived in different societies. That biological relationships merely serve as a starting point for the development of sociological conceptions of kinship. Societies may ignore or restrict the blood tie; it may artificially create a bond of kinship, and again it may extend a natural bond to an indefinite extent.”\footnote{Lowie, \emph{Social Organization,} 50 (quoted), 57.}
Similarly, “sexual relations are not a matter of sheer biology; marriage and family are the cultural superstructure of a biological foundation.”\footnote{Lowie, \emph{Social Organization,} 86.} Whatever their other shortcomings, hereditary monarchy and aristocracy are not animalistic; Marx was clothing critique with irony when he treated the distinguishing feature of the monarch as his reproductive capacity.\footnote{“What is the final, solid, distinguishing factor between persons. The \emph{body}. Now the highest function of the body is \emph{sexual activity}. The highest constitutional act of the king, therefore, is his sexual activity; for by this alone does he \emph{make} a king and so perpetuate his own body.” Karl Marx, “Critique of Hegel’s Doctrine of the State,” \emph{Early Writings}, tr. Rodney Livingstone \& Gregor Benton (New York: Vintage Books, 1975), 100.} Bookchin is of course incapable of irony. The gender-exclusive Masons and the gender- and ancestry-exclusive Daughters of the American Revolution are not based on biology. The Boy Scouts and the Girl Scouts are not hominid packs. A boys’ tree-house is no more biologically based than the Institute for Social Ecology. The Catholic priesthood is not biological. The Hair Club for Men is not rooted in animality. By Bookchin’s criterion, presumably the Mile High Club is biological. That’s the club for people who have had sex (= biological) at an altitude of at least one mile. My application is pending.
Even if the other biological characterizations made sense, age does not. Not only is age itself a cultural construct, so is our Western “folk construct” that aging is only biological.\footnote{Robert L. Rubinstein, “Nature, Culture, Gender, Age: A Critical Review,” in \emph{Anthropology and Aging}, 109–115. Rubinstein is explicitly analogizing from the literature on what by now is the conventional wisdom, the social construction of gender. \emph{E.g.}, Ortner, “So, \emph{Is} Female to Male as Nature Is to Culture?”, 21–42, 173–180.} Anyone over 50 is eligible to join the American Association of Retired Persons. Bookchin and I are both eligible.. But if we joined (I have), that would not establish a biological relation between us or between either of us and the organization or any of its members. The subject of age is one which always seems to bring out the sillies in the ex-Director. Thus his theory of the origin of hierarchy and domination is that the old men somehow take over (gerontocracy) to make sure they will be cared for when they become infirm.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 80–83.} The implication is that hierarchy and domination are natural. Why did anyone ever think that this guy was an anarchist?
It is ridiculous to say that civilization enabled people “to communicate with each other as human beings, not as tribal members.” In civilization we relate to one another as family members, neighbors, employers or employees, co-religionists, “customer service representatives” or customers, bureaucrats or their supplicants, classmates, roommates, professionals or clients, tenants or landlords, stars and fans — in fragmentary ways almost always mediated by specialized roles. The regime of roles is the social organization of alienation. From the individual’s perspective, he is compelled to play “hybrid parts, parts which appear to answer our desires but which are really antagonistic to them” — constricting yet compensatory. To play a role is always more or less to play yourself false.\footnote{Anselm Jappe, \emph{Guy Debord,} tr. Donald Nicholson-Smith (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1999), 37; Crispin Sartwell, \emph{Obscenity, Anarchy, Reality} (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996), 67.} No one’s self is fully expressed, much less fulfilled, by the sum of her roles. Civilization does not enable us to communicate as fully ourselves (as human beings, if you prefer — I don’t), rather, it impedes unmediated expression beyond the instrumental and categorical, channeling it through roles. The role of the revolutionary, as of the proletarian, is to understand the role of rules and abolish the rule of roles including his own.\footnote{Vaneigem, \emph{Revolution of Everyday Life}, 131 (quoted), ch. 15, 131.} In band or tribal societies, or in traditional village communities, people may rarely communicate with outsiders,\footnote{Black, \emph{Behavior of Law}, 42–43.} but the people they \emph{do} communicate with, they communicate with as, and with, whole human beings.
The synoecism\footnote{“The term ‘synoecism’ which uses here (literally, ‘settling together’) carried implications both of state-formation and of urbanization.” S.C. Humphreys, \emph{Anthropology and the Greeks} (London: Routledge \& Kegan Paul, 1978), 131. On whether Athens was a state (it was), see Chapter 14.} by which several tribes united (without amalgamating) to form the city of Athens did not result in tribesmen communicating with each other as human beings: it resulted in them communicating with each other as Athenians. City chauvinism simply replaced tribal chauvinism. The chronic wars of the Greek city-states indicate that their citizens barely communicated with each other as Greeks, much less as abstract universal men. If any Hellenic Greek even took a step toward recognition of universal humanity, as the Director Emeritus states, it was Pericles; and yet by the law of Pericles (451\Slash{}450 B.C.) (see Chapter 14), Athenian citizens were forbidden to marry noncitizens, a measure which was, as M.I. Finley says, “accepted without a murmer.”\footnote{Finley, \emph{Economy and Society in Ancient Greece}, 87.} Given the intense parochialism of the polis, the absence of universalist feeling among the Hellenic Greeks is to be expected.
Instead, it was the succeeding Hellenistic period of cosmopolitan empires which brought forth correspondingly cosmopolitan views of man. In the fourth century B.C., the man who first called himself a citizen of the world, \emph{cosmopolites}, was Diogenes the Cynic, the first Lifestyle Anarchist: “He coined the term ‘cosmopolitan’ — citizen of the world — to underline his rejection of conventional city states and their institutions.” As Lewis Mumford put it, “a polis could not become a cosmos.”\footnote{Richard Mulgan, “Liberty in Ancient Greece,” in \emph{Conceptions of Liberty in Political Philosophy}, 14; M.I. Finley, \emph{The Ancient Greeks: An Introduction to Their Life and Thought} (New York: The Viking Press, 1963), 113; Gay, \emph{The Enlightenment}, 1:164; Mumford, \emph{City in History}, 170 (quoted).} But a universalistic religion could: “few epochs have had a stronger and better sense than the Western and Christian Middle Ages of the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries of the universal and eternal existence of a human model.”\footnote{Jacques Le Goff, “Introduction: Medieval Man,” in \emph{Medieval Callings}, ed. Jacques Le Goff, tr. Lydia G. Cochrane (Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 3.} All are the same before God (see Chapter 8).
Bakunin observed that “the Greeks and Romans did not feel free as human beings and in terms of human rights; they thought themselves privileged as Greeks or Romans, in terms of their own society.”\footnote{“State and Society,” 147.} The very existence of the Greek distinction between Greeks and “barbarians,” \emph{i.e.,} between Greeks and everybody else, indicates that Greek civilization failed to foster a sense of common humanity. The ancient Greeks, as Simmel observes, denied the specifically and purely human attributes to the barbarians. Aristotle thought them inferior to Greeks. Polis Greeks indulged in self-flattering national stereotypes. Thus Plato spoke of the vigor and energy of Thracians and Scythians, the commercial instincts of Phoenicians and Egyptians, and “intelligence, which can be said to be the main attribute of our own part of the world.” One is reminded of the “muscularity of thought” which Bookchin modestly attributes to himself. The Athenians considered even other Greeks inferior because only the Athenians were autochthonous, born from from the very soil of Attica.\footnote{“The Stranger,” 407; Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 111, 151; Plato, \emph{Republic}, 210; Bookchin, “Thinking Ecologically,” 3, quoted in Black, \emph{AAL,} 18 — this is a quotation I never tire of; Barry S. Strauss, “The Melting Pot, the Mosaic, and the Agora,” in \emph{Athenian Political Thought and the Reconstruction of American Democracy}, ed. Peter Euben, John R. Wallach, \& Josiah Ober (Ithaca, NY \& London: Cornell University Press, 1994), 254–257.}
Aristotle thought that barbarians were slaves by nature and that slavery was a natural relationship. And for him, slaves were much like domestic animals: “Moreover, the need for them differs only slightly: bodily assistance in the necessary things is forthcoming from both, from slaves and from tame animals alike.”\footnote{Aristotle, \emph{Politics}, 36, 37 (quoted); Josiah Ober, \emph{The Athenian Revolution: Essays on Ancient Greek Democracy and Political Theory} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 173. Another of the Master’s conceits was the slave as prosthetic: “a slave is a sort of part for the master — a part of his body, as it were, animate but separate.” Aristotle, \emph{Politics}, 43. Plato also casually equated animals and slaves in speaking of “mere uninstructed judgement, such as an animal or slave might have \dots{}” Plato, \emph{Republic}, 200.} Athenian interest in communicating with barbarians may be gauged by the fact that foreign languages were not taught in Athenian schools.\footnote{William Stearns Davis, \emph{A Day in Old Athens: A Picture of Athenian Life} (New York: Biblo and Tannen, 1960), 70.} Since nearly all Athenian slaves were barbarians,\footnote{E. Barker, \emph{The Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle} (Berkeley, CA \& Los Angeles, CA: Universaity of California Press, 1966), 360.} it is understandable that Aristotle blurred the categories. Slaves were one-fourth to one-third of the population of Attica; they were widely employed in agriculture and mining as well as in personal service; one-fourth to one-third of the slaves were worked to death in the Laureion silver mines at their peak. The attitude toward barbarians “was a mixture of something akin to modern racism and nationalism.”\footnote{Paul Cartledge, “Rebels and Sambos in Classical Greece: A Comparative View,” in \emph{Crux: Essays in Greek History Presented to G.E.M. de Ste. Croix on His 75\textsuperscript{th} Birthday} (London: Gerald Duckworth \& Co., 1985), 34 (quoted), 34–35.} Thus slavery was not, as Bookchin so often insists, a surface blemish on the polis. Even aside from its economic necessity, slavery was a natural expression of polis exclusivity.
Another anarchist opinion is Rudolf Rocker’s: “Plato, the only one among the Hellenic philosophers to whom the idea of national unity of all Hellenic peoples is at all clearly apparent, felt himself exclusively Greek and looked down with unconcealed contempt upon the ‘barbarians.’”\footnote{Rudolf Rocker, \emph{Nationalism and Culture} (Los Angeles, CA: Rocker Publications Committee, 1937), 80.} And if this was true of Greek civilization, it was probably still more true of earlier, more archaic urban civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus valley. In \emph{The Ecology of Freedom}, Bookchin told us that Pericles’ Funeral Oration may take a step toward humanism but “it provides us with no reason to believe that the ‘barbarian’ world and, by definition, the ‘outsider,’ were on a par with the Hellene and, juridically, the ancestral Athenian.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 151.} But now he says that tribesmen are not human beings. We might as well enslave them, as did the godlike Greeks. Bookchin’s utopia rests on (nonexistent) high technology which he explicitly states is the functional counterpart of Athenian slave-labor, thus fulfilling one of Aristotle’s fantasies. But since another of Ari’s fantasies is that the slave is a mechanical extension of the master, whether our machines are of metal or meat would seem to be morally indifferent.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 189; Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 129; Aristotle, \emph{Politics}, 43.}
And geography is just as limiting, even as irrational a basis for consociation as kinship; and for most people, only marginally more voluntary. Many people interest or concern me more than my next door neighbors; none of my significant others resides in my neighborhood; most are at great distances. It seems I am typical. Thus in Pittsburgh as in Toronto, those with whom people have the most intimate ties are not in the neighborhood. With impressive unanimity, studies based on network analysis — identifying who, for what and how often a person relates to others — identify “personal communities” which are mostly not based on locality. These consist of half a dozen intimate ties and a dozen other active ties, half kin, half nonkin; only one or two intimate neighborhood or workplace relationships, and 6–12 further community ties to neighbors \emph{and} workmates. Similarly, in the Zambian city of Ndola, men know only one or two neighbors well, and avoid neighborhood visiting, whereas personal kinship networks are very important.\footnote{Roger S, Ahlbrandt, Jr., “Using Research to Build Stronger Neighborhoods: A Study of Pittsburgh’s Neighborhoods,” in \emph{Urban Neighborhoods: Research and Policy} (New York: Praeger, 1986), 289; Wellman, “Community Question,” 121; Barry Wellman, “The Community Question Re-Evaluated,” in \emph{Power, Community and the City}, ed. Michael Peter Smith (Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1988), 87–89; Epstein, \emph{Urbanization and Kinship}, 165–167, 224–225, 231–248.}
If, as Bookchin believes, there is any liberatory high technology, it can only be the communications and transportation technology which abolishes distance and renders localism irrelevant: but “With fast trains, the generalization of air travel, and the diffusion of cable networks and the Internet, the city has no boundaries. This change marks a shift from the old principle of contiguity to the new principle of connectivity.” What civilization and its technology have really brought us to is the brink of an atomistic contractual society of frictionless transactions, “one that transcends all geographical barriers to human relationships as well as the shackles of prenatally determined bondage that we are fond of calling citizenship.”\footnote{Dominique Lorain, “Gig@city: The Rise of Technological Networks in Daily Life,” \emph{Journal of Urban Technology} 8(3) (Dec. 2001), 3 (quoted); F.A. Harper, “Foreword” to Spencer H. MacCallum, \emph{The Art of Community} (Menlo Park, CA: Institute for Humane Studies, 1970), vii (quoted).} We come up against the state and civil society as givens. As Stirner complained, “Our societies and states \emph{are} without our \emph{making} them, are united without our uniting, are predestined and established, or have an independent \emph{standing} [\emph{Bestand}] of their own.”\footnote{Stirner, \emph{Ego and Its Own}, 198.} Blood \emph{and} soil tie us down arbitrarily; roots restrain us. If the permanence of relationships declines far enough, arguably the result may be called the Union of Egoists, Temporary Autonomous Zones, or “situational anarchy.”\footnote{Stirner, \emph{Ego and Its Own}, 160–161, 186, 192 \& \emph{passim}; Hakim Bey, \emph{T.A.Z.: The Temporary Autonomous Zone, Ontological Anarchy, Poetic Terrorism} (Brooklyn, NY: Autonomedia, 1991), 97–134; Black, \emph{Behavior of Law}, 40–44, 132, ch. 7. These are convergent, not equivalent concepts. Being the Immediatist that he is, Bey conceives the T.A.Z. as an expedient in the here-and-now which is at once an anticipatory experience of the revolution and a “tactic” toward realizing it permanently. Bey, \emph{T.A.Z.}, 101. But his idea may be bigger than that. Perhaps the revolution is a society (better, a social field) of Temporary Autonomous Zones.}
Having renounced the blood oath, why affirm the dirt oath? Isn’t it objectionable in just the same way? If blood ties represent the animal in us, so do geographical ties: some animals are territorial. Communism does not require Communes in Bookchin’s sense, namely, omnifunctional geographically bounded units: there might be “extraterritorial communes,” free associations for particular common purposes.\footnote{A. Grachev, “Anarchist Communism,” in \emph{Anarchists in the Russian Revolution}, 65 (quoted); Read, \emph{Anarchy \& Order}, 131–134 — which is exactly what’s happening in contemporary cities: Wellman, “Community Question Re-Evaluated,” 86–87.} To a significant degree, they already exist, even as states, neighborhoods and other mud-based social forms decay.
The ex-Director must mean it about primitives being animals, because he says it in several ways. If you strip away the “psychic layers” imposed by civilization and “our various civilized attributes,” there will be little if anything left except “our barest physical attributes, instincts, and emotions.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 121–122.} (Isn’t that true by definition?) But it follows that foragers, horticulturalists, herdsmen and some peasants possess nothing but physical attributes: they don’t even have minds! This understanding of primitive animality resolves several knotty problems, such as primitives’ attitude toward nature — they don’t have one, because they are part of nature themselves! “Aboriginal peoples could have no attitude toward the natural world because, being immersed in it, they had no concept of its uniqueness.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 188 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 41.} Never mind that they \emph{do} have well-documented and by no means homogeneous attitudes toward nature,\footnote{\emph{E.g.}, \emph{Indigenous Traditions and Ecology: The Interbeing of Cosmology and Community}, ed. John A. Grim (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Divinity School, Center for the Study of World Religions, 2001).} because they “could have” no such thing. But as Alexander Hamilton wrote: “However proper such reasonings might be, to show that a thing \emph{ought not to exist}, they are wholly to be rejected when they are made use of to prove that it does not exist, contrary to the evidence of the fact itself.”\footnote{[Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, \& John Jay,] \emph{The Federalist,} ed. Jacob E. Cooke (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England for the Wesleyan University Press, 1961), 209 (No.34) (Hamilton).}
The Director Emeritus has also written that in primitive society “Nature is \emph{named} even before it is deified.” How can primitives name nature if they have no concept of it? Also, that “the aboriginal vision of nature was also strikingly nonhierarchical.” How can they have any vision of nature if they don’t see it’s there? By parity of reasoning, civilized peoples can have no attitude toward civilization because, being immersed in it, they have no concept of its uniqueness. Presumably Bookchin has no concept of reality because he has nothing else to compare it with. As appalling as the ex-Director’s attitude is, he has Marx to vouch for him. In the \emph{Grundrisse}, Marx says that the natural relation predominates in pre-capitalist societies; in those where capital rules, the social, historically created element predominates.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 48 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 48 (quoted); Karl Marx, \emph{Grundrisse}, tr. Martin Nicolaus (London: Penguin Books, 1993), 107. Marx may have changed his opinion later, Mikhail A. Vitkin, “Marx and Weber on the Primary State,” in \emph{The Study of the State}, ed. Henri J.M. Claesson \& Peter Skalnik (The Hague, Netherlands: Mouton, 1981), 452–453 — but Bookchin never did.} Bookchin must prefer capitalism.
The instrument of our humanization was \emph{the state}: “Here an evil became the means for humanity to extract itself from animality, and it seems to have been unavoidable.” “Humanity had to be expelled from the Garden of Eden to attain the fullness of its humanness.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 279 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 26 (quoted). The Director Emeritus states that Bakunin called the state a “historically necessary evil.” Bakunin did say this, although he failed to say what the state was necessary \emph{for}. Sam Dolgoff, ed.,\emph{The Political Philosophy of Bakunin: Scientific Anarchism} (n.p.: The Free Press of Glencoe \& London: Collier-Macmillan Limited, 1964), 145. “This is not to say — as Marxists might believe — that the state was ‘inevitable.’” (Why the quotation marks?) Bookchin emends Bakunin and the hypothetical Marxists: the state was, not a historically necessary evil, not a historically inevitable evil, but a historically \emph{unavoidable} evil. Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 279. Which is puzzling, since “unavoidable” \emph{means} “inevitable.” \emph{New Shorter OED}, q\Slash{}v “unavoidable.” Even if Bakunin believed this, Kropotkin — and Lewis Mumford — did not. Senex, “A Scientific Basis for Regional Anarchy,” in Leonard I. Krimerman \& Lewis Perry, eds., \emph{Patterns of Anarchy: A Collection of Writings on the Anarchist Tradition} (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1966), 347.} Elsewhere the Director Emeritus credits the city, not the state — but they’re inseparable anyway. For the realization of freedom, something has to be added to the “limited passions” of mere animality, and Hegel tells us what: “This essential being is the union of the subjective with the rational will; it is the moral whole, \emph{the State}.”\footnote{Hegel, \emph{Reason in History}, 49.} To say that the state created civilization is to say that the state created civilized society or, in Hegel’s and Marx’s phrase, civil society.\footnote{Civil society is not the state, it’s society \emph{with} the state. Peter Skalnik, “The Concept of the Early State,” in Claesson \& Skalnik, eds., \emph{Study of the State}, 343.} Hegel believed this; Marx did not: “He [Hegel] wants the ‘absolute universal,’ the political state, to determine civil society instead of being determined by it.”\footnote{Marx, “Critique of Hegel’s Doctrine of the State,” 158.} Marx pointedly did not regard either civilization or the state as accomplishing the emergence from animality. Something else did that: “Men can be distinguished from animals by consciousness, by religion or anything else you like. They themselves begin to distinguish themselves from animals as soon as they begin to \emph{produce} their means of subsistence, a step which is conditioned by their physical organisation.” Bookchin once quoted this passage with seeming approval.\footnote{Karl Marx \& Frederick Engels, \emph{The German Ideology} (3\textsuperscript{rd} rev. ed.; Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1976), 37; Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 266.} By this criterion, all members of \emph{homo sapiens} have transcended animality, except retirees like the Director Emeritus. Thus Bookchin is a bad Marxist. Aristotle, who is second to none in his appreciation of urban civilization, believed that we are rendered human by speech.\footnote{Aristotle, \emph{Politics}, 37; Arlene M. Saxonhouse, \emph{Athenian Democracy: Modern Mythmakers and Ancient Theories} (Notre Dame, IN \& London: University of Notre Dame Press, 1996), 124; see also Leslie A. White, \emph{The Science of Culture: A Study of Man and Civilization} (New York: Grove Press \& London: Evergreen Books, 1949), ch. 2, “The Symbol: the Origin and Basis of Human Behavior.”} Thus Bookchin is a bad Aristotelian.
The trouble with identifying the human essence is that there are many attributes which arguably distinguish humans from animals, but there can be only one human essence. In addition to (as we have seen), the city, the state, and labor, other plausible candidates include reason, language, religion, and possession of a soul. Nietzsche nominated laughter. According to conservative Paul Elmer More, the human essence is property: “Nearly all that makes [life] more significant to us than to the beast is associated with our possessions — with property, all the way from the food which we share with the beasts, to the products of the human imagination.” Anthropologist Edmund R. Leach suggests that “the ability to tell lies is perhaps our most striking human characteristic,”\footnote{Quoted in Robert Nisbet, \emph{Conservatism: Dream and Reality} (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1986), 55; Edmund R. Leach, “Men, Bishops, and Apes,” \emph{Nature} 293 (Sept. 3–9, 1981), 21. \emph{Cf.} Italo Calvino, \emph{Invisible Cities,} tr. William Weaver (San Diego, CA: Harcourt, Inc., A Harcourt Book, 1974), 48: “There is no language without deceit.”} in which case Bookchin is indeed human, all-too-human. No rational method exists for adjudicating these inconsistent claims.
As everyone but the Director Emeritus knows, what distinguishes humans from animals is not civilization or the state, it is culture. Every society, even a small band society of almost propertyless foragers, has a culture. There must be a small spot somewhere under Bookchin’s beret where he knows that too. His shrill denunciations of primitive mysticism, custom (Chapter 9), shamanism (Chapter 8), mythopoesis, etc. are nothing but condemnations of aspects of primitive \emph{cultures}. The Director Emeritus deplores the same things the missionaries did, but the missionaries censured the primitives as culturally inferior and, at worst, morally depraved, not as \emph{Untermenschen}.
There is nothing to the postulated antagonism of territoriality and blood. Both are self-evidently universals. “Blood and soil” went together in Nazi ideology. “Perceived ethnic distinctiveness” is so characteristic of the city-state that it is often included in the definition, and “there is no ancient (city)state in which kinship does not play a major role.” It even appears that in the ancient Greek order of battle, kinsmen and tribesmen were stationed together.\footnote{Thomas H. Charlton \& Deborah L. Nichols, “The City-State Concept: Development and Applications,” Nichols \& Charlton, eds., \emph{Archaeology of City-States}, 5 (quoted); Yoffee, “The Obvious and the Chimerical,” ibid., 261 (quoted); Victor Davis Hanson, \emph{The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece} (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989), 121–123.} To trick up the appearance of an unbridgeable chasm, the Director Emeritus heroically, and arbitrarily excludes the pre-industrial cities of the Near East, Asia, and pre-Columbian America — \emph{i.e.,} most cities — from consideration as cities. The Aztec State, for instance, was for him merely a chieftainship, and its so-called cities — such as Teotihuacan, population 200,000–300,000, where the Spaniards “saw things unseen, nor ever dreamed” (Bernal Diaz) — were just “grossly oversized” pueblos! By way of comparison, contemporaneously the population of Geneva, “the largest city in a siz[e]able region,” was 10,300.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 139–140, 169; Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 68; Bookchin, \emph{Limits of the City}, 7 (quoted), 7–8; 68; Jacques Soustelle, \emph{Daily Life of the Aztecs on the Eve of the Spanish Conquest}, tr. Patrick O’Brian (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1970), 9 (Bernal Diaz quoted); E. William Monter, \emph{Calvin’s Geneva} (New York: John Wiley \& Sons, 1967), 2 (quoted). In the sixth century A.D., Tenochtitlan in Mexico, with a population of perhaps 125,000, was the sixth largest city in the world. Susan Wise Bauer, \emph{The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade} (New York \& London: W.W. Norton, 2010), 187.} The ex-Director’s discussion is not only self-serving, it “reveals a disappointing ethnocentrism” (Karen L. Field).\footnote{Field, review, 162.} Disappointing, but not surprising. Bookchin is a bigot.
Bookchin would no doubt exclude African cities too if he knew they existed. 60 years ago, the Yoruba of Nigeria were as urbanized as France, and more urbanized than Canada, and they had been so for centuries. In 1953, 12 Yoruban cities had a population of over 40,000; one of them, Ibadan, had over 100,000 people — peopled by farmers, craftsmen of many specialized goods, and long-distance traders. These communities were thus economically differentiated, just as cities are supposed to be. And yet there were nine strata in the ethnically homogeneous population, and the lower five, with at least 95\% of the people, were organized in patrilineal clans which occupied and defended their own neighborhoods, as in Renaissance Italy (see below). Even in the 1950s there was no evidence that city life weakened the lineages. By 1978, all but two cities were still kinship-dominated, typically with a population of 70\% farmers, 10\% craftsmen and 10\% traders.\footnote{William Bascom, “Urbanization Among the Yoruba,” in Ottenburgh \& Ottenburgh, eds., \emph{Cultures and Societies of Africa}, 255–267; P.C. Lloyd, “The Yoruba of Nigeria,” in Gibbs, ed., \emph{Peoples of Africa, Abridged}, 325; for other examples of stable, kinship-structured urban life, see Edward M. Bruner, “Medan: The Role of Kinship in an Indonesian City,” in \emph{Pacific Port Towns and Cities}, ed. Alexander Spoehr (Honolulu, HI: Bishop Museum Press, 1963), 1–12; Douglas S. Butterworth, “A Study of the Urbanization Process among Mixtec Migrants from Tilantongo to Mexico City,” in \emph{Peasants in Cities: Readings in the Anthropology of Urbanization}, ed. William Mangin (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1970), 98–113. The fact that most residents of Yoruban cities are peasants does not distinguish them from the inhabitants of the Transalpine European cities of the early Middle Ages. E.A. Gutkind, \emph{The Twilight of Cities} (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe \& London: Macmillan, 1962), 21.} But there’s a crucial distinction between the Italian and Yoruban urbanites: Italians are white.
Bookchin believes that it is “by building on the best of the Western heritage” that the democratic revolutions must be renewed.\footnote{Field, review, 161–162 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 140.} However, even European cities can be refractory. Kinship was a central principle in the Italian city-states dubiously claimed to be Communes, where “little neighborhood ‘communes’” with fortified towers were “held by noble families in \emph{consortia} or sworn family groupings [the blood oath!].”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 101.} Bookchin tells us this without even trying to square it with his claim that urbanism is the “solvent” of extended family ties. These city-states were wracked with conflict, often violent, “along all the lines of cleavage so familiar today: family, kinship, neighborhood, occupation, class, religion.” Here’s a description fully applicable to the Renaissance city-state as discussed by historian Lauro Martines: “Each family controls its own territory — rural village or town, an urban street or neighbourhood. Incursions are considered slights and invite a violent response. The territory is closely identified with the family as seen from the prevailing naming practices and sensitivity to even minor forms of trespassing.”
What anthropologist Anton Blok (a former teacher of mine) is describing is, however, not a Renaissance city but the modern Sicilian Mafia. He concludes: “Overwhelming evidence suggests that the power base of \emph{mafiosi} is always local.” For the medieval city dweller generally, “ties of blood sheltered him, as well as those of work, class, and religion”\footnote{Robert A.Dahl, \emph{Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy: Autonomy vs. Control} (New Haven, CT \& London: Yale University Press, 1982), 10 (quoted); Anton Blok, “The Blood Symbolism of \emph{Mafia},” in \emph{Honour and Violence} (Cambridge, England: Polity Press, 2001), 88 (quoted); Gutkind, \emph{Twilight of Cities}, 24. According to Marx, it was the village community, not the city, which accomplished the passage from kinship to territoriality: “The village community was the first association of free men not related to one another by close blood ties.” Karl Marx, “Letter on the Russian Village Community (1881),” in Karl Marx \& Friedrich Engels, \emph{The Russian Menace to Europe}, ed. Paul W. Blackstock \& Bert F. Hoselitz (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1952), 220. This was “the last phase of the primitive form of society.” Ibid., 221. This was also Kropotkin’s opinion. \emph{Mutual Aid}, 120–121. An example is the Germanic Mark. Engels, “Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State,” 571–572.} — this from E.A. Gutkind, the real founder of Social Ecology. Aristocracies of large extended families form the ruling elites of pre-industrial cities; indeed, such families are achievable only in full-blown form only by urban elites. Intermarrying aristocratic or patrician families were normal in pre-industrial cities.\footnote{Gideon Sjoberg, \emph{The Preindustrial City: Past and Present} (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1960), 110–113, 220–223.} Viewed objectively and inclusively, the historic city could and normally did incorporate considerable kinship organization.
Nor can such examples be dismissed as transitional, as the tenacious resistance of the “primal blood oath,”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 90–91. Why “primal”? Primal means first. Was there a second blood oath later?} not unless there are no failed prophecies, only prophecies which have not been fulfilled yet. We already saw the Yoruban case. A contemporary example studied in the 1950s was Bethnal Green, an old working-class neighborhood in London’s East End. There the kindred, often centered on a mother\Slash{}daughter tie, structured much social interaction. Kinship was used (for kinship is not just something that happens to people, it is something they do), not to exclude non-kin, but to network with them. Thus people met friends through relatives, and the relatives of friends through friends. Ties of extended family, class and community were compatible.\footnote{Michael Young \& Peter Willmott, \emph{Family and Kinship in East London} (Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1957). If Bethnal Green sounds vaguely familiar to the anarchist reader, that’s because it was where Rudolf Rocker edited the \emph{Arbeter Fraint} for Jewish workers. Rudolf Rocker, \emph{The London Years}, tr. Joseph Leftwich (London: Robert Anscome \& Co., 1956), 135.} My parents met on what used to be called a blind date, set up by mutual friends. Because they did, the world is a better place.
In East York, a Toronto suburb, most of the intimates identified by respondents were kin, whereas only 13\% of their intimates (be they kin or non-kin) lived in the neighborhood, and few have more than one intimate in the neighborhood.\footnote{Barry Wellman, “The Community Question: The Intimate Networks of East Yorkers,” \emph{American Journal of Sociology} 84(5) (March 1979), 120–121.} Admitting that in his theory, the city is both cause and effect of the shift from kinship to territoriality, the ex-Director bids farewell to common sense: “In fact, urban life from its inception occupies such an ambiguous place in the commonsense logic of cause and effect that we would do well to use these concepts gingerly.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 90.} If there’s an unbridgable chasm between Bookchinism and the commonsense logic of causality, then, so much the worse for logic and causality.
His latest effusions reveal that Bookchin’s atavistic obsession with blood is more than just another example of his freakish choice of words. Consider this grotesque conceit: “Nature literally permeated the community not only as a providential environment, but as the blood flow of the kinship tie that united human to human and generation to generation.” He actually believes that the blood of the parents literally runs in their children’s veins! How the father’s blood gets in there boggles the mind.
Just as there is much that is childish about Bookchin’s fetishes, so there is much that is primitive about them. As Sumner and Keller observed, “the thought of the race has centered so persistently about blood” that it must have bulked large in primitive life. The bloodline is the boundary of the kin group, the ex-Director explains, as the skin is the boundary of the body. The ex-Director’s shuddering revulsion against “blood ties” (never \emph{family} ties) and “the blood oath” expressly extends to the bodily functions: “eating, sleeping, reproducing, excreting, and even playing.” (\emph{Fucking} is too disgusting even to mention.) When he accuses anarcho-primitivists of aspiring to “four-legged animality,”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 51 (quoted), 52; Sumner \& Keller, \emph{Science of Society}, 1: 420 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 39 (quoted).} an outright fear of the feral has to underly this extraordinary phrase. His denial of the animal nature of humans is, because we \emph{are} animals, an expression of profound sickness and self-loathing. And we know that the ex-Director was then a sick man.\footnote{Sartwell, \emph{Obscenity, Anarchy, Reality}, 156–157; Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 249 n. 9.}
You can arrive at the same diagnosis by another route. Bookchin’s rigid ideology is structurally simple: it consists of dualisms, like the “unbridgeable chasm” he posited between the imaginary entities Social Anarchism and Lifestyle Anarchism. Thus, “As the Greeks well knew [but seem not to have written down anywhere], the ‘good city’ [why the quotation marks? this is not a Greek quotation] represented the triumph of society over biology, of reason over impulse, of humanity over folkdom [sic].” Another list devoted to this topic enumerated \emph{five} antitheses. Another, four.\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 57–58; Jarach, “Manichean Anarchism,” 16; anonymous review of \emph{Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism}, \emph{Green Anarchist} 42 (Summer 1996), 22; Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 174 (quoted), 24; Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 51. Here’s another one, upholding “the claims of society over biology, of craft over nature, of politics over community.” Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 97.} Anything more complex than a binary opposition is correspondingly ambiguous and thus a source of anxiety. For the authoritarian personality, binary thinking is a mechanism to circumvent ambivalence or keep it unconscious: “The most outstanding of these mechanisms consist in terms of dichotomies, \emph{i.e.}, in terms of pairs of diametrical opposites, and in an inclination toward displacement. Thus, glorification of the ingroup and rejection of the outgroup, are familiar from the sphere of social and political beliefs, can be found in as a general trend in some of our clinical data, predominantly to those relating to high scorers [on the authoritarianism index].”\footnote{T.W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswick, Daniel J. Levinson, \& R. Nevitt Sanford, \emph{The Authoritarian Personality} (New York: W.W. Norton \& Co., 1969), 451–452.} So says one of Bookchin’s oft-quoted favorites, Theodor Adorno. Humanists, according to Philip Slater, often try “to devise a conceptual system in which all the things one likes fall into one conceptual category and all those things one dislikes into another. But ‘good’ and ‘bad’ are always orthogonal to important distinctions.”\footnote{Philip Slater, \emph{The Pursuit of Loneliness: American Culture at the Breaking Point} (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1970), 154.}
Bookchin’s idea of an argument is to assign his preference to the positive side of his list of dichotomies:
\begin{quote}
Social Anarchism \& Lifestyle Anarchism
Mind \& Body
Society \& Individual\Slash{}Biology
Politics \& Statecraft
Humanity \& Animality
Culture \& Nature
Reason \& Emotion\Slash{}Faith
The General Interest \& Self-Interest
Potentiality \& Actuality
Moralism \& Mysticism
Civic Compact \& Blood Oath
Temporality \& Eternality
City \& Country
Delegation \& Representation
Territory \& Kinship
Civilized \& Primitive
Social Ecology \& Deep Ecology
History \& Cyclicity [sic]
Two Legs \& Four Legs
Rationality \& Custom\Slash{}Myth
Majority Rule \& No Rule [An-archy]
Western Civilization \& Eastern Civilization
Organization \& Spontaneity
High Technology \& Convivial\Slash{}Appropriate Technology
Paris 1793, 1871, 1936 \& Paris 1968
Moral Economy \& Zerowork
Craft \& Nature
Literalism \& Myth\Slash{}Metaphor
The 30s \& The 40s, 50s, 60s, 70s, 80s, 90s \dots{}
The Left That Was \& The Post-Left That Is
The Town Meeting \& The Town Drunk
Old age \& New Age
Etc.
\end{quote}
Some of these polarities might seem relatively unimportant, but that is to misunderstand the ex-Director’s dynamic dualism. Every dichotomy is equally important because every dichotomy is \emph{all}-important. Every dichotomy is all-important because every dichotomy manifests the same dichotomy, the master dichotomy, which can be called either \emph{Good vs. Evil} or \emph{Us vs. Them}.
Dualism is the simplest form of classification. Mythic thinking, which the Director Emeritus supposedly detests, is binary.\footnote{G.E.R. Lloyd, \emph{Polarity and Analogy: Two Types of Argumentation in Early Greek Thought} (Cambridge: at the University Press, 1966), 80; \emph{Essential Edmund Leach}, 2: 30.} It is the imperatives of the policing process, defining in ever more detail the distinctions between regulated and unregulated behavior, which multiply binary oppositions.\footnote{Patrick H. Hutton, “Foucault, Freud, and the Technologies of the Self,” in \emph{Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault}, ed. Luther H. Martin, Huck Gutman, \& Patrick H. Hutton (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1988), 126 (summarizing the early historical research of Michel Foucault).} Philosophies of the Many authorize pluralism; philosophies of the One authorize inclusiveness; but philosophies of the Two condemn half of reality to hell or nihility. They are about \emph{shutting out}. Totalitarian ideologies are always dualistic. Dualistic thinking has an affinity for what Hakim Bey calls gnostic self-disgust.\footnote{Bey, \emph{T.A.Z}, 38, 41; \emph{cf.} Peter Lamborn Wilson, “Spiritual Anarchism: Topics for Research,” \emph{Fifth Estate} No.359, 37(4) (Winter 2002–2003), 28. Bey and Wilson are the same person. This is, however, unfair to the Gnostics, who, going by what little survives of their writings, exhibit no self-disgust, and usually no ultimate dualism (they were not Manicheans or Zoroastrians), but rather garden-variety mystics like Wilson\Slash{}Bey himself, only they took it more seriously.} And thus it is the organizing principle of moralism, a prominent feature of the ex-Director’s ideology.\footnote{Heider, \emph{Anarchism}, 76.} Anarchist James L. Walter speaks of “how far the philosophy of Egoism differs from the logomachy of the Moralists, who, not content with dividing men into sheep and goats, would be glad to divide ideas of facts in the same way and on the lines of their own prejudices. With them the facts must be opposites, absolute opposites all the way through, if there be opposition in them in some relation.”\footnote{James L. Walker, \emph{The Philosophy of Egoism} (Colorado Springs, CO: Ralph Myles Publisher, 1972), 29.} All difference is opposition.
Despite its bracing negativity, anarchism is not dualistic: “The traditional dualism in human thought that pitted humanity against animality, society against nature, freedom against necessity, mind against body, and, in its most insidious form, man against woman is transcended by due recognition of the continuity between the two, but without a reductionalism [sic] or ‘oneness’ that yields, in Hegel’s words, ‘a night in which all cows are black.’”\footnote{Murray Bookchin, \emph{The Modern Crisis} (Philadelphia, PA: New Society Publishers, 1986), 80.} That’s what Bookchin used to say.
To think one’s way into some overworld is to deny and devalue this world, the real world of which we are each an indefeasible part, and thus to deny and devalue oneself\Slash{}one’s self.\footnote{Sartwell, \emph{Obscenity, Anarchy, Reality}, 3–4, 62.} At first blush, the doctrine of essentialism might seem to protect a thing’s irreducible integrity, but you can always redefine a whole as a part of a larger whole — a citizen, for instance, as a part of the state — if you like \emph{its} essence better. Thus Murray Bookchin’s whole bloody philosophy of social ecology would reject wild nature, nature as it is, by \emph{humanizing} it, as if to correct a defect. Because conscious humanity is the highest form of being, it is ultimately the only part of nature which is allowed to be itself.\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 97–99.} It’s not that the relation of humanity to nature is \emph{like} the relation of mind to body — analogy and allegory are too complex for Bookchin — humanity \emph{is} nature’s mind, and nature is humanity’s body. As a mythical charter for the domination of nature, this tops even the Biblical assignment of dominion to man. As an ecofeminist critic acutely observes, “Bookchin rarely mentions nonhuman nature without attaching the word ‘mere’ to it.”\footnote{Val Plumwood, “The Ecopolitics Debate and the Politics of Nature,” in \emph{Ecological Feminism}, ed. Karen J. Warren (New York \& London: Routledge, 1994), 67.} It’s a travesty for the Director Emeritus to identify his philosophy, as he does, as any kind of naturalism.\footnote{Murray Bookchin, \emph{The Philosophy of Social Ecology: Essays in Dialectical Naturalism} (2\textsuperscript{nd} rev. ed.; Montreal, Canada: Black Rose Books, 1995).} You cannot be a naturalist if you loathe nature. He misconstrues the value of consciousness: “The fundamental mistake is simply that, instead of understanding consciousness as a tool and particular aspect of the total life, we posit it as the standard and the condition of life that is of supreme value\dots{} But one has to tell [the philosophers] that precisely this turns life into a monstrosity,” adds Nietzsche.\footnote{Friedrich Nietzsche, \emph{The Will to Power}, tr. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Vintage Books, 1968), 376.}
It is Bookchin’s ideology, not Watson’s, which is anti-humanist, unless Adorno is right about humanism: “In the innermost recesses of humanism, as its very soul, there rages a prisoner who, as a Fascist, turns the world into a prison.” The Director Emeritus has to be the only humanist (note my restraint in abstaining from ironic quotation marks) who believes that “humanity \dots{} is still less than human.”\footnote{Adorno, \emph{Minima Moralia,} 89 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 202 (quoted).} This is the \emph{reductio ad absurdum} of assigning potentiality a higher order of reality than actuality: finally, nothing that exists is real, which makes nonsense of the words “exists,” “is,” and “real.” It is also pure Buddhism: the experienced world is \emph{Maya}, illusion. If man is less than human, he must be an animal — a “mere” animal — after all! Nietzsche was right: man is something to be surpassed:
\begin{quote}
Most men represent pieces and fragments of man: one has to add them up for a complete man to appear. Whole ages, whole peoples are in this sense somewhat fragmentary; it is perhaps part of the economy of human evolution that man should evolve piece by piece. But that should not make one forget for a moment that the real issue is the production of synthetic men; that lower men, the tremendous majority, are merely preludes and rehearsals out of whose medley the whole man appears here and there, the milestone man who indicates how far humanity has advanced so far \dots{} [W]e have not yet reattained the man of the Renaissance, and the man of the Renaissance, in turn, is inferior to the man of antiquity.\footnote{Nietzsche, \emph{Will to Power}, 470–471. “One recognizes the superiority of the Greek man and the Renaissance man — but one would like to have them without the causes and conditions that made them possible.” Ibid., 471.}
\end{quote}
Murray Bookchin: Ecce Homo! Zarathustra!
Bookchin is a racist. His delineation of the true humans precisely traces the color line. The tableau of primitives doing nothing but eating, sleeping, reproducing, excreting, and (as if all this were not vile enough) \emph{even playing} evokes the crudest racist caricatures of lazy, dirty, lascivious Africans, Arabs, Amerindians and other “natives.” So does the ex-Director’s comic book caveman image of the prehistoric man who “grunted” as he tried and failed to practice the division of labor.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 40.} Fully developed urban civilization was created only by European whites, whose superior civilization he stoutly affirms. Amerindians, Asians and Africans tried and failed at urbanism — although it is an Asian invention — as the primitives tried and failed with the division of labor. Contemporary primitives, the object of Bookchin’s piggish prejudices, are also nonwhites who have failed to become civilized or else they “literally devolved.” If only in principle, Bookchin’s humanism is worse than Nazism. At least the Nazis grudgingly acknowledged that the Jews were a depraved, demonic kind of human being. That is a higher status than the Burlington humanist accords the aborigines (and, apparently, all the rest of us). To him they are, as I prophetically put it in \emph{Anarchy after Leftism}, little more than talking dogs.\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 121.}
\chapter{Chapter 12. Nightmares of Reason}
Unconscious irony has become a hallmark of Late Bookchinism, the Highest Stage of Leftism. Well-known examples include Bookchin’s denunciations of leftists with alluring academic careers just as the then-Director retired from an alluring academic career; his scathing contempt for John P. Clark’s “cowardly” hiding behind a pseudonym the way Bookchin did in the 60s\footnote{So successfully that in 1968, his Situationist critics thought that Lewis Herber was his follower, not his pseudonym. \emph{Situationist International: Review of the American Section of the S.I.} No.1 (June 1969) (reprint ed.; Portland, OR: Extreme Press, 1993), 42. They must have been taken in by Bookchin’s citations to Herber. Bookchin, “Ecology and Revolutionary Thought,” 35 nn. 1 \& 3. These footnotes, and a section on “Observations on ‘Classical’ Anarchism’ and Modern Ecology,” are omitted from \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}. I wonder why? Perhaps because the section openly reveals what Bookchin now denies, his extreme technophilia, as well as his pseudonym chicanery. Ibid., 33.}; his personalistic abuse of individuals he accuses of personalism; his vilification of other writers for appearing in the same yuppie publications he’s been published by or favorably reviewed in; his denunciation of the political use of metaphor in a book whose title, \emph{Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism: An Unbridgeable Chasm}, contains a political metaphor; and his denunciations of anarchists for agreeing with what he used to say. Although inconsistency, not to say hypocrisy, is nothing new for Bookchin, lately the devolution of his reasoning powers is dizzying. Paradoxically — or is it? — his intellectual decline coincides with his increasingly shrill defense of Reason with a Capital R against the Lifestyle Anarchists and the rest of the irrationalist hordes. To borrow one of the ex-Director’s favorite cliches, you might say that his commitment to Reason is honored in the breach.
The Director Emeritus taxes David Watson (that poor “philosophical naif”) for referring “to science (more properly, the sciences, since the notion of a Science that has only one method and approach is fallacious)”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 200; a point I have made too: Black, \emph{AAL}, 97.} — for speaking of Science in the singular. In \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, Bookchin, who is never fallacious, or even facetious, nonetheless found it meaningful, not only to speak of Science in the singular, but to say strikingly Watsonish things about it: “Indeed, we have begun to regard science itself as an instrument of control over the thought processes and physical being of man. This distrust of \emph{science} and of \emph{the} scientific method is not without justification.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 57 (emphasis added).} Distrust of Murray Bookchin is likewise not without justification. He has never understood that science is a social practice, not a juristic codification of information or a rulebook.
Someone who admires or pities the Director Emeritus more than I do might like to interpret this as a cautious condonation of methodological pluralism, what the late Paul Feyerabend called “epistemological anarchism.” Alas, it is not so. Bookchin is no more an epistemological anarchist than he is any other kind of anarchist. Elsewhere in the same interminable paragraph, the ex-Director rules out any such possibility: “Watson is free to say anything he wants without ever exposing it to the challenge of reason or experience. As Paul Feyerabend once wrote: ‘Anything goes!’”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 199–200.}
In the sequence in which Bookchin places it, the Feyerabend quotation — unreferenced — looks like a summons to freak out. In fact, it was only an endorsement of pluralism in methodology. Feyerabend’s point was that scientific discovery does not necessarily or even normally result from following rules, including the rules of \emph{the} scientific method (which, Bookchin formerly agreed, does not exist). The tales of Archimedes in the bathtub or Newton under the apple tree may be mythical, but, as good myths do, they express a truth non-literally. In principle, any context may serve as the logic of discovery: religion, drugs, psychosis, chance — anything. “Irrational processes” may sustain the context or logic of discovery, because “there is no such thing as ‘scientific’ logic of discovery.”\footnote{Imre Lakatos, \emph{Mathematics, Science and Epistemology: Philosophical Papers}, ed. John Morrall \& Gregory Currie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 2: 137 (emphasis deleted).}
According to the Director Emeritus, “mythopoesis” (mythmaking) has a place, but only in art. But the “experience” to whose authority he so selectively appeals confirms a wider role for mythopoesis and nonsystematic sources of insight. As Feuerabend put it: “There is no idea, however ancient or absurd that is not capable of improving our knowledge.”\footnote{Paul Feyerabend, \emph{Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge} (New York: Verso, 1978), 27–28. The young André Breton wrote: “When will we grant arbitrariness the place it deserves in the creation of works or ideas?” “For Dada,” in \emph{The Lost Steps,} tr. Mark Polizzotti (Lincoln NE \& London: University of Nebraska Press, 1996), 51.} Thus one stimulus to the theory that the earth moves was Hermetic writings (also carefully studied by Newton\footnote{Betty Jo Teeters Dobbs, \emph{The Foundations of Newton’s Alchemy: or, “The Hunting of the Greene Lyon”} (Cambridge \& New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980).}) reviving that long-discredited Pythagorean teaching. The research of Copernicus, who believed in astrology, was guided in part by “the Renaissance revival of an ancient mystical philosophy which saw the sun as the image of God.” Copernicus saw himself as going back beyond Ptolemy and Aristotle to Plato, Pythagoras and the Pre-Socratics.\footnote{Feuerabend, \emph{Against Method}, 47 (quoted), 49; Thomas S. Kuhn, \emph{The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought} (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1957), vii; Alexandre Koyre, \emph{From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe} (New York: Harper \& Brothers, 1958), 28–29.} The earliest explorers of chemistry were alchemists and craftsmen.\footnote{Allen G. Debus, “Renaissance Chemistry and the Work of Robert Fludd,” in Allen G. Debus \& Robert P. Multhauf, \emph{Alchemy and Chemistry in the Seventeenth Century} (Los Angeles, CA: Wiliam Andrews Clark Memorial Library, 1966), 3–29.} Kepler and Tycho Brahe, like Ptolemy before them, practiced astrology. “All the great discoveries of modern science,” writes Kropotkin, with only a little hyperbole, “where do all these originate if not in the free cities [of pre-industrial Europe]?”\footnote{Thomas S. Kuhn, “The Function of Measurement in Modern Physical Science,” in \emph{The Essential Tension: Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change} (Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1977), 214, 276–277; Kropotkin, “The State: Its Historic Role,” in Baldwin, ed., \emph{Kropotkin’s Revolutionary Pamphlets}, 234 (quoted).} Nor was Bookchin’s beloved Enlightenment as scientific and secular as the Director Emeritus imagines: “The eighteenth century was far too deeply involved with the occult to have us continue to associate it exclusively with rationalism, humanism, scientific determinism, and classicism. Manifestations of irrationalism, supernaturalism, organicism, and Romanticism appeared throughout.”\footnote{Flaherty, \emph{Shamanism and the Eighteenth Century}, 7.}
The ex-Director’s reverence for Reason rises in inverse proportion to his practice of it. He now says that he has “long been a critic of mythopoesis, spiritualism, and religion,” although I have found no such criticism in his extant writings of the 60s and 70s.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 198.} He also claims to be a longstanding critic of conventional, analytic, instrumental Reason. Much more revelatory, he says, is dialectical reason, “the rationality of developmental processes, of phenomena that self-elaborate into diverse forms and complex interactions — in short, a secular form of reason [there’s a religious form?] that explores how reality, despite its multiplicity, unfolds into articulated, interactive, and shared relationships.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 199.}
What, if anything, this means is anybody’s guess. Do all “developmental processes” partake of an inherent rationality? What’s rational about gangrene or cancer? Bookchin died of developmental processes. By definition, relationships are interactive and shared, so what do these adjectives add to whatever the Director Emeritus is blabbing about? Are there no editors at AK Press? Casting about for a dimension of reality which, despite its multiplicity, unfolds into articulated, interactive, and shared relationships, what first comes to mind is capitalism.
In \emph{Anarchy after Leftism}, I quoted the ex-Director’s admission that his is “a fairly unorthodox notion of reason.”\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 100, quoting Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 10.} To say the least. His brand of reason, he claims, is dialectical, but only in the sense I once defined dialectics, “a Marxist’s excuse when you catch him in a lie.” Like Nietzsche, “I consider dialectic as a symptom of decadence.”\footnote{Nietzsche, “Ecce Homo,” Kaufman, ed., \emph{Basic Writings of Nietzsche}, 679.} To hear the Director Emeritus talk, what dialectical reason adds to the ordinary variety is the developmental dimension, but none of his bombast makes any more sense diachronically than synchronically. Processes which make sense to the rational mind are precisely what are lacking in his connect-the-dots histories of urbanism (Chapter 13) and of the emergence of hierarchy (Chapter 5).
Bookchin denounces his renegade discipline John P. Clark for mistaking dialectics for functionalism, which is (he says) the notion that “we can identify no single cause as more compelling than others; rather, all possible [sic\footnote{Misspeaking yet again, the Director Emeritus says “possible” when he must mean “actual.” No one claims that possible but nonexistent factors are even a bit determining, although that position would be consistent with Bookchin’s teleological metaphysics.}] factors are mutually determining”:
\begin{quote}
This morass of “reciprocity,” in which everything in the world is in a reciprocal relationship with everything else, is precisely what dialectical causality is not, unless we want to equate dialectics with chaos. Dialectics is a philosophy of development, not of mutually determining factors in some kind of static equilibrium. Although on some remote level, everything does affect everything else, some things are in fact very significantly more determining than others. Particularly in social and historical phenomena, some causes are major, while others are secondary and adventitious\footnote{Here the Director Emeritus collapses two distinctions. The dichotomy between primary and secondary causes is not the same as the dichotomy between necessary and contingent (“adventitious”) factors. A contingent factor — such as the death of an important individual — may be a primary cause, a weighty cause, although it is not a necessary cause rooted in an underlying process of social development. Writes Peter Laslett, “there is no point in denying the contingency even of epoch-making historical occurrences.” Peter Laslett, \emph{The World We Have Lost: Further Explored} (3\textsuperscript{rd} ed.; New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1984), 334 n. 8.}. Dialectical causality focuses on what is \emph{essential} in producing change, on the underlying motivating [sic\footnote{Motives are not causes. Ludwig Wittgenstein, \emph{The Blue and Brown Books} (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1969), 15; Gilbert Ryle, \emph{The Concept of Mind} (New York: Barnes \& Noble, 1949), 83–93.}] factors, as distinguished from the incidental and auxiliary.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 176.}
\end{quote}
So then what’s so distinctive, so dialectical about it? Every positivist knows that in explaining change, some things are more important than others. Is that what the fuss is all about? As Michael Albert and Robin Hahnel have written, “[Marxist] dialecticians have never been able to indicate exactly how they see dialectical relations as different from any of the more complicated combinations of simple cause\Slash{}effect relations such as co-causation, cumulative causation, or simultaneous determination of a many variable system where no variables are identified as dependent or independent in advance\dots{} there is only the word and a lot of ‘hand waving’ about its importance.” Peter Kropotkin, who — unlike Bookchin — was an anarchist and a scientist, dismissed dialectics as unscientific.\footnote{Michael Albert \& Robin Hahnel, \emph{Unorthodox Marxism: An Essay on Capitalism, Socialism and Revolution} (Boston, MA: South End Press, 1978), 52–53 (quoted); Kropotkin, “Modern Science and Anarchism,” 152. The quotation does not imply that I agree with Kropotkin’s positivism, which was out of date even in his lifetime: “Kropotkin wants to break up all existing institutions — but he does not touch science.” Paul Feyerabend, “‘Science.’ The Myth and Its Role in Society,” \emph{Inquiry} 18(2) (Summer 1975), 168. Nor should quotation from Michael Albert imply approval of this businessman statist and unscrupulous manipulator who, well aware that he is no anarchist, nonetheless pretends to be one — but only when trying to sell something to anarchists.}
Murray Bookchin can kiss my morass.
What the Director Emeritus denounces is not functionalism. As a prominent functionalist explains, “‘function’ is the contribution which a partial activity makes to the total activity of which it is a part. The function of a particular social usage is the contribution it makes to the total social life as the functioning of the total social system.” A social system exhibits functional unity when all the parts work together without persistent, unregulable conflicts.\footnote{A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, \emph{Structure and Function in Primitive Society: Essays and Addresses} (New York: The Free Press \& London: Collier Macmillan, 1965), 181 (quoted); Meyer Fortes, “The Structure of Unilineal Descent Groups,” \emph{American Anthropologist} 55(1) (Jan.-March 1953), 20; Robert K. Merton, \emph{Social Theory and Social Structure} (rev., enl. ed.; New York: The Free Press \& London: Collier-Macmillan, 1957), ch. 1. Functionalism has been denounced as conservative, but the anarchist Paul Goodman espoused it. “On Treason Against Natural Societies,” in \emph{Drawing the Line: The Political Essays of Paul Goodman}, ed. Taylor Stoer (New York: Free Life Editions, 1977), 11. In fact, Radcliffe-Brown knew Kropotkin and was called Anarchy Brown in his university days. Alan Barnard, \emph{History and Theory in Anthropology} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 70.} Nothing is assumed about how weighty a particular structure’s contribution is or even that it is necessary to sustain the totality, only that it does in fact contribute thereto. Thus another prominent functionalist, criticizing a different theory, wrote that “a serious limitation to this [other] point of view is that it is bound to treat everything in social life as of equal weight, all aspects as of equal significance.” Functionalism has been heavily criticized, and no one nowadays calls himself a functionalist.\footnote{Fortes, “Structure of Unilineal Descent Groups,” 20 (quoted); Percy S. Cohen, \emph{Modern Social Theory} (London: Heinemann, 1968), ch. 3.} “But any attempt at describing the structure of a society must embody some assumptions about what is most relevant in social relations. These assumptions, implicitly or openly, must use some concepts of a functional kind, by reference to the results or effects of social action” (Raymond Firth).\footnote{Firth, \emph{Elements of Social Organization}, 35.}
If functionalism cannot explain change, dialectical naturalism cannot explain observed stability and coherence. Thus Bookchin’s criticism recoils on himself. For lack of a systemic dimension, his dialectics, far from elaborating forms, are mired in a formless world of evanescent moments — a Heraclitean “world of Yuppie nihilism called postmodernism.” As Feuerbach said of Hegel, “his system knows only \emph{subordination} and \emph{succession}; co-ordination and coexistence are unknown to it.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society,} 165 (quoted); Feuerbach, “Towards a Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy,” \emph{The Fiery Brook: Selected Writings of Ludwig Feuerbach}, tr. Zawar Hanfi (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1972), 54 (quoted).}
The ex-Director’s phrase “static equilibrium,” used as an aspersion, indicates that his thinking is not remotely ecological. If it is not a tautology, the expression can only refer to a system of unchanging immobility, such as Marx’s Asiatic mode of production, which has probably never existed. Ecology is about systems in dynamic equilibrium. Sir Arthur Tansley, in the seminal article which introduced the word \emph{ecosystem,} wrote:
\begin{quote}
The relatively stable climax community is a complex whole with a more or less definite structure, \emph{i.e.,} inter-relation of parts adjusted to exist in the given habitat with one another. It has come into being through a series of stages which have approximated more and more to dynamic equilibrium in those relations.
\end{quote}
As leading ecologist Eugene P. Odum explains, the components of an ecosystem “function together”: “The ecosystem is the basic functional unit in ecology.”\footnote{A.G. Tansley, “The Use and Abuse of Vegetational Concepts and Terms,” \emph{Ecology} 16(3) (July 1935), 291, 306 (quoted); Eugene P. Odum, \emph{Basic Ecology} (Philadelphia, PA: Saunders College Publications, 1983), 13 (quoted).} Ecology, therefore, is broadly functionalist. If Social Ecology is not functionalist, it is not ecology. But wasn’t it Bookchin who, in praising Greek science, stated: “Analysis must include an acknowledgement of functional relationship, indeed of a metaphysical \emph{telos}, which is expressed by the intentional query, ‘why’”?\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 102.} Why indeed?
Social conflict, as Georg Simmel and Lewis Coser have argued, can be functional.\footnote{Georg Simmel, \emph{Conflict \& The Web of Group Affiliations}, tr. Kurt H. Wolff (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1955); Lewis Coser, \emph{The Functions of Social Conflict} (New York: The Free Press \& London: Collier-Macmillan, 1964).} Machiavelli thought that conflict in Republican Rome was functional for liberty: “I maintain that those who blame the quarrels of the Senate and the people condemn that which was the very origin of liberty, and that they were probably more impressed by the cries and noise which these disturbances occasioned in the public places, than by the good effect which they produced.”\footnote{Machiavelli, “Discourses,” 119.} Edwin R. Leach, while he insisted that the functionalist assumption of equilibrium is an analytical fiction, demonstrated that it was consistent with chronic conflict in highland Burma where the equilibrium operates as a cycle over a period of 150 years.\footnote{Leach, \emph{Political Systems of Highland Burma}, ix-xii; E.R. Leach, \emph{Rethinking Anthropology} (London: Athlone Press, 1961), 1–2.} In social change there is always something which persists: “Even a changing system must be seen as structured at a point of time if it is to be called a system at all.”\footnote{J.H.M. Beattie, \emph{The Nyoro State} (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), 244.}
Objective ethics; the subjectivity and directionality of nature; articulated multiplicity; humanity as second nature; collective consciousness; “the actualizing of rationally unfolding possibilities” (what about \emph{ir}rationally unfolding possibilities? and doesn’t “actualizing” = “unfolding”?) — all this jargon and gibberish mark mucid Murray as mystical. He admits that the source of his untutored visions is \emph{intuition:} “Indeed, every intuition tells us that human beings and their consciousness are results of an evolutionary tendency toward increasing differentiation, complexity, and subjectivity.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society,} 43.} Except that there is no such tendency in natural history. Since humans are part of nature, “their destruction of nature can be seen as a function of natural evolution.”\footnote{Stephen Jay Gould, \emph{Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin} (New York: Harmony Press, 1996); Lori Gruen, “Revaluing Nature,” in \emph{Ecofeminism: Women, Culture, Nature,} ed. Karen J. Warren (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1997), 358. Although Charles Darwin could be equivocal in public about progress, the master-myth of his own Victorian England, in private he denied that it was any part of his theory of evolution. “Never say higher or lower,” he wrote to an evolutionist paleontologist in 1872: “After long reflection, I cannot avoid the conviction that no innate tendency to progressive development exists.” Quoted in Gould, \emph{Full House,}, 137. Just as Hobbes rejected, in advance, Bookchin’s Hobbesian political anthropology, so Darwin rejected, in advance, his notion (“theory” is too grand a word) of biological evolution.} The ex-Director’s doctrine is theistic: “Thus the purpose of God is an idea, true or false; but the purpose of Nature is merely a metaphor; for obviously if there is no God there is no purpose” (G.K. Chesterton).\footnote{G.K. Chesterton, “The Republican in the Ruins,” \emph{What I Saw in America} (London: Dodd, Mead \& Company, 1922), 196.} Bookchin’s pseudo-system is exactly what Marx said Hegel’s system was: “logical, pantheistic mysticism.”\footnote{Marx, “Critique of Hegel’s Doctrine of the State,” 61.} The ex-Director may not refer to God by name, but his abstract universal principle of directional development is the World-Spirit which Hegel identified with the Christian God. Bookchin’s philosophy resembles that of the Catholic theologian Fr. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin.\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 100–101; Robyn Eckersley, “Divining Evolution: The Ecological Ethics of Murray Bookchin,” \emph{Environmental Ethics} 11 (1989), 104.} If it looks like a God, acts like a God, and (through His oracle, the Director Emeritus) quacks like a God, it’s probably God, up to His old tricks. Calling Him, or It, Something Else makes no difference.
For the Director Emeritus, “there is existent and permeating, on earth, in the air and in the water, in all the diverse forms assumed by persons and objects, one and the same essential reality, both one and multiple \dots{}” It explains “the existence and activities of all forms of being, their permanence and their metamorphoses, their life and death\dots{} this principle is present everywhere at once, and yet it is individual in certain persons.”\footnote{Lucien Levi-Bruhl, \emph{The “Soul” of the Primitive}, tr. Lillian A. Clarke (London: George Allen \& Unwin, 1965), 16–17.} Another of my tricks: Lucien Levi-Bruhl is describing primitive thought (in his terms, “pre-logical” thought) — which is the same as Bookchin’s. The ex-Director’s cosmology is what the Victorian anthropologist E.B. Tylor called animism, a “theory of vitality” which posits a world of spirit beings. Animism “characterizes tribes very low in the scale of humanity.”\footnote{Tylor, \emph{Primitive Culture}, 1: 109, 421 (quoted), 424–427, 436 (quoted). “Hunting peoples” have “strong animist beliefs.” Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 2.} The Director Emeritus is basically an animist who believes everything is more or less alive (and life, he affirms, is not an accident) — that there is “a latent subjectivity in substance itself.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 355–356, 364 (quoted).} In his utopia, as he has written, “culture and the human psyche will be thoroughly suffused by a new animism.” The “animistic imagination” senses the subjectivity of nature.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 119 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 234–238.}
Animism, after all, is not confined to the worship of a multiplicity of spirits. The Director Emeritus believes that a principle of self-activity is inherent in nature. The natives call it \emph{mana}, something “present in the atmosphere of life,” “an active force,” an impersonal power which “attaches itself to persons and things.” “Bookchin and others talk about latent potentialities, but what are these? It seems that defining inherent value in terms of such intangible natural properties doesn’t help much.”\footnote{Codrington, \emph{Melanesians}, 119 (quoted), 191; Gruen, “Revaluing Nature,” 358 (quoted).} Bookchin really should trade in his toga for a loincloth.
Even if none of his other doctrines did, the ex-Director’s moralism would discredit his already shaky claim to reason. There is no such thing as an objective ethics: “For these words of Good, Evill, and Contemptible, are ever used with relation to the person that useth them: There being nothing simply and absolutely so” (Hobbes).\footnote{Hobbes, \emph{Leviathan}, 120. “Our judgments concerning the worth of things, big or little, depend on the \emph{feelings} the things arouse in us.” William James, “On a Certain Blindness in Human Beings,” in \emph{Pragmatism and Other Essays} (New York: Pocket Books, 1963), 251.} As Thrasymachus maintained in \emph{The Republic}, what is passed off in certain times and places as objectively true morality is only the morality which then and there is imposed by power.\footnote{Plato, \emph{Republic}, 75–101. As presented, Socrates refutes the crude version of Thrasymachus, but then Adeimantus and Glaucon restate the case for injustice. Instead of refuting their formulation, Socrates enters upon a digression on the ideal society which occupies the remaining 75\% of the dialog. He never answers their arguments directly. Socrates regularly hijacked topics the way Bookchin tried to hijack “social anarchism,” changed the subject, and then often didn’t even answer his own question, as in \emph{Charmides} and \emph{Laches}.} To say something is good simply expresses approval of it and invites agreement. At one time, Bookchin reported approvingly that “organic societies do not make the moral judgments we continually generate,” instead, they “are normally concerned with the \emph{objective} effects of a crime and whether they are suitably rectified, \emph{not} with its subjective status on a scale of right and wrong.” Some disagreements over ethics may be rooted in disagreement about the facts, but not all of them, and insofar as they are not, there is no rational method for resolving the difference in values.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 115; Charles L. Stevenson, \emph{Facts and Values: Studies in Ethical Analysis} (New Haven, CT \& London: Yale University Press, 1963), 11–12, 24–25, 28–29.} The only difference between objective morality and subjective morality is the police.
As John Locke observed, no matter how far you range across space and time, you will never find a universally accepted moral tenet.\footnote{John Locke, \emph{An Essay Concerning Human Understanding}, ed. Peter H. Nidditch (Oxford: at the Clarendon Press, 1975), 66–84.} And if you did, that wouldn’t prove that it was true. Anarchists, of all people, should appreciate that a near-universal belief can be false — such as the beliefs in God and the state — as did Bakunin: “Until the days of Copernicus and Galileo everybody believed that the sun revolved around the earth. Was not everybody mistaken? \dots{} Nothing, in fact, is as universal or as ancient as the iniquitous and absurd.”\footnote{Bakunin, “God and the State,” 121.} Already many of the favorite theories of 20\textsuperscript{th} century science — \emph{tabula rasa} behaviorism, nondrifting continents, table climax ecosystems — have turned out to be “ridiculous nonsense.” It is a sobering truth that “all past beliefs about nature have sooner or later turned out to be false” (Thomas S. Kuhn).\footnote{Anderson, “New Textbooks Show Ecological Anthropology Is Flourishing,” 238 (quoted); Thomas S. Kuhn, \emph{The Trouble with the Historical Philosophy of Science} (Cambridge: Harvard University Department of the History of Science, 1992), 14 (quoted).} If that is the fate of the truths of our physics, it is surely the fate of our ethics. The only universal truth about moral propositions is that they express the subjective values of those who believe in them. In the words of the anarchist egoist James L. Walker, “What is good? What is evil? These words express only appreciations.”\footnote{Walker, \emph{Philosophy of Egoism}, 54.} This is one respect in which Bookchin’s regression to Marxism has not gone far enough, for Marx and Engels noticed early on that morality was not only relative, it was relative to class interests.
As usual with Bookchin’s dichotomies, his moralism\Slash{}amoralism distinction fails to match up with his Social Anarchism\Slash{}Lifestyle Anarchism distinction. Some Lifestyle Anarchists, such as David Watson, also subscribe to objective moralism. And some Social Anarchists reject it, such as Emma Goldman. In her essay “Victims of Morality,” anarcho-communist Goldman denounced the unimpeachable “Lie of Morality”: “no other superstition is so detrimental to growth, so enervating and paralyzing to the minds and hearts of the people, as the superstition of morality.”\footnote{Emma Goldman, “Victims of Morality,” in \emph{Red Emma Speaks: Selected Writings and Speeches}, ed. Alix Kates Shulman (New York: Random House, 1972), 127.} For elaborations, look into Stirner, Nietzsche, Benjamin Tucker and Raoul Vaneigem. Bookchin has never even tried to justify a belief which, in our culture, invariably derives from revealed religion. But it is not just that he affirms moralism and falsifies reason — he equates them: “What is rational is ‘what ought to be,’ and we can arrive at that ‘ought’ through a process of dialectical reasoning.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Marxism, Anarchism,} 347.}
What Bookchin describes is determinism, not dialectics. It’s what Marx called mechanical materialism. The assertedly distinctive feature of dialectical reasoning is the progressive approximation to truth through the clash of opposites and their supersession: “Truth exists not in unity with, but in refutation of its opposite. Dialectics is not a monologue that speculation carries on with itself, but a dialogue between speculation and empirical reality” (Feuerbach).\footnote{Feuerbach, “Towards a Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy,” 110.} The ex-Director has never engaged in genuine dialogue with anyone, much less with empirical reality. Faced with empirical reality, the Director Emeritus talks to himself, a habit which long preceded his senility. In action, Bookchin deploys the rhetoric of dialectic as camouflage or cover on those occasions when he does not understand the subject at hand. These arise often, as his self-miseducation ranges all across the sublunary sphere. The mystifications obscure the political ambitions. George Orwell: “When there is a gap between one’s real and one’s declared aims, one turns as it were instinctively to long words and exhausted idioms like a cuttlefish squirting out ink.” Political language — and it is the only language Bookchin speaks — “is designed to make lies sound truthful \dots{} and to give an appearance of solidity to pure wind.”\footnote{“Politics and the English Language,” in \emph{The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell}, ed. Sonya Orwell \& Ian Angus (4 vols.; New York: Harcourt, Brace \& World, 1968), 4: 137, 139.} Like Stalin, his first teacher in politics, Bookchin unleashes the jargon of dialectics to justify his extreme ideological reversals and his opportunistic changes of “line.”
Bookchin’s dialectical naturalism may be restated as follows: nature follows a “law of evolution” consisting of “an integration of matter and concomitant dissipation of motion; during which the matter passes from an indefinite incoherent homogeneity to a definite coherent heterogeneity; and during which the retained motion undergoes a parallel transformation.”\footnote{Herbert Spencer, \emph{Principles of Sociology} (6\textsuperscript{th} ed.; New York: D. Appleton, 1912), 367.} Not to keep you in suspence — it’s Herbert Spencer, high priest of so-called Social Darwinism\footnote{Using the term in its popular, but literally inaccurate sense. Spencer’s social evolutionism preceded Darwin’s biological evolutionism, which might be called Biological Spencerism. Harris, \emph{Rise of Anthropological Theory},122–125, 209 (quoted). Another Spencer affinity is method. As Edwin R. Leach says with reference to another ex-Stalinist, Karl Wittfogel, Bookchin’s “method of demonstration is that of Herbert Spencer and the very numerous later exponents of nineteenth-century ‘comparative method.’ The investigator looks only for positive evidence which will support his thesis; the negative instance is either evaded or ignored.” E.R. Leach, “Hydraulic Society in Ceylon,” \emph{Past \& Present} 15 (April 1959), 5.} and laissez-faire capitalism. There’s something developmental but nothing dialectical about Spencer’s “rigid and mechanical” formula.\footnote{Harris, \emph{Rise of Anthropological Theory}, 209.} Its political implications are as conservative as Spencer was. Industrial capitalism with its division of labor is the supreme example of definite coherent heterogeneity. In the words of Spencer’s disciple William Graham Sumner, “the sentimentalists have been preaching for a century notions of rights and equality, of the dignity, wisdom and power of the proletariat, which have filled the minds of ignorant men with impossible dreams.” Society must be left alone to work out its destiny “through hard work and self-denial (in technical language, labor and capital).” Should we arrive at “socialism, communism, and nihilism,” “the fairest conquests of civilization” will be lost to class war or mob rule.\footnote{William Graham Sumner, “Sociology,” in \emph{Darwinism and the American Intellectual: An Anthology}, ed. R. Jackson Wilson (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; Chicago, IL: The Dorsey Press, 1989), 123, 124.}
As is typical of Stalinist disputation, vulgar determinism in the abstract accompanies an opportunistic voluntarism in practice. In George Orwell’s \emph{1984}, one day Oceania would be at war with Eurasia — it had always been at war with Eurasia — the next day, Oceania would be at war with Eastasia, it had always been at war with Eastasia.\footnote{George Orwell, \emph{1984} (New York: Signet Books, 1950), 123, 124.} Do I exaggerate? Am I unfair? The Director Emeritus claimed to be an anarchist for 45 years. “Today,” he writes, “I find that anarchism remains the very simplistic individualistic and antirationalist psychology [sic] \emph{it has always been}.”\footnote{Bookchin, “Communalist Project,” n. 18, unpaginated.}
It is the same with John P. Clark, the ex-Director’s Emmanuel Goldstein. Bookchin says that “it is difficult to believe that from the mid-1970s to early 1993, the author was a close associate of mine,” that they “had a personal friendship that lasted almost two decades.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 217, 218, 220.} Betrayed and insulted by his erstwhile acolyte, the Director Emeritus asks: “How could Clark have so completely misjudged me for almost two decades?” \emph{Clark} misjudged \emph{him}? A better question would be: How could Bookchin the Great have so completely misjudged Clark for almost two decades? How could so penetrating, so principled an intellect as Bookchin’s have failed for so long to detect this snake in the grass?
The ex-Director’s answer, what there is of it, is Orwellian. “Our ideas,” he says, “indeed, our ways of thinking, are basically incompatible”: “I could never accept Clark’s Taoism as part of social ecology.” And yet, he continues pharisaically, “despite the repugnance I felt for some of his ideas, I never wrote a line against Clark in public”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 220.} — not until he had no further use for Clark, or Clark had no further use for him. Bookchinism is basically incompatible with Clarkism, starting today. Oceania has always been at war with Eastasia, starting today.
I have no interest in defending Clark, who is at least as much in need of excuses as Bookchin for their long-term relationship. And Taoism is so peripheral to anarchism that how reconcilable they may be hardly matters to most of us (see Chapter 2). But there’s something important, and disturbing, about the way the Director Emeritus is going about discrediting Clark. Clark, says Bookchin, came to anarchism from the right; he was “never a socialist.” As a young man, Clark was a “right-wing anti-statist,” a Goldwater Republican in 1964: “Causes such as the workers’ movement, collectivism, socialist insurrection, and class struggle, not to mention [but mention them he does] the revolutionary socialist and anarchist traditions, would have been completely alien to him as a youth; they were certainly repugnant to the rightwing ideologues of the mid-1960s, who afflicted [sic] leftists with conservatism, cultural conventionality, and even red-baiting.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 218–219. Another affliction for the English language. To afflict someone with something is to do something to him. The right did not afflict the left with conservatism and cultural conventionality, it simply thought and acted in those ways, as the left thought and acted in its own ways.} The Director Emeritus prefers reverse red-baiting:
\begin{quote}
In any case, 1964, the year Goldwater ran for president, was also the year when the best and the brightest Americans of Clark’s generation were journeying to Mississippi (in the famous Mississippi Summer), often risking their lives to register the state’s poorest and most subjugated blacks for the franchise. Although Mississippi is separated from Louisiana, Clark’s home state, by only a river [the Mississipi is “only a river”?], nothing Clark ever told me remotely suggests that he was part of this important civil rights movement movement. What did Clark, at the robust age of 19, do to help these young people?\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 220.}
\end{quote}
What an extraordinary reproach! Probably no more than 650 volunteers participated in Freedom Summer.\footnote{John Dittmer, \emph{Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi} (Urbana, IL \& Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 244. 43 is not as robust an age as 19, but there were men of Bookchin’s generation, such as Walter Reuther and Martin Luther King, Jr., who took their chances in Mississippi to serve the cause. Far more than most Americans, the Director Emeritus had that opportunity: his own CORE chapter sent volunteers, including Mickey Goodman, who was killed in Mississippi. Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 65. He could have served if he hadn’t been lazy or cowardly.} SNCC turned many volunteers away. If by this demanding standard Clark should be condemned as a political or moral slacker, then so must virtually the entire 60s generation, since only a small percentage participated, and few of them in more than a small way.\footnote{Russell Hardin, “Participation,” in Clarke \& Foweraker, eds., \emph{Encyclopedia of Democratic Thought}, 487.} But Bookchin only began bashing the 60s generation, as he does now,\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 346.} after that became fashionable and when his prospects for recruiting from it dimmed. At the time, the Director Emeritus slobbered all over the New Left and the counterculture in the essays collected in \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}. These scornful words are nothing but part of a personalistic vendetta, yet they recklessly censure a generation.
Assuming all Bookchin says to be true, what are the implications for anarchist revolution? Apparently, anyone who has never been an old-fashioned revolutionary leftist can never be, or be trusted to be, a revolutionary anarchist today. Very few living Americans have ever been socialists or social anarchists, and most of them are elderly. Even those who were Old Leftists in the 50s and 60s, when the Director Emeritus competed with them, are by now in their 60s and 70s, and there were very few recruits thereafter. Bookchin, who reflexively accuses Clark and other so-called Lifestyle Anarchists of elitism,\footnote{\emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 237 (“the little professor is a blooming elitist!”).} is the one who is imposing an extremely exclusionary entrance requirement on the millions of Americans he claims are itching for anarchism. In opinion polls, twice as many Americans identify with the right as with the left. No doubt the prevailing level of political consciousness is a major obstacle for revolutionaries, but to approach almost everybody as a forever damned political enemy is to give up. It is the action of a provocateur. There will be no anarchist revolution unless there come to be more than a handful of anarchist revolutionaries. The Director Emeritus has devoted two books to reducing their numbers still further. So long as ideologues like Bookchin continue to think in terms of left and right, so long as they choose their enemies by these obsolete criteria, the right will always win, or if the left wins, it will make little difference. Bookchin’s nostalgia for the Left That Was is literally reactionary.
Bookchin’s expressed horror for critics of reason (other than himself), insofar as it is not ingenuous, itself reflects an irrational dread of profanation of the holy. He has so far reified and privileged one method of apperception as to turn it into an object of reverence. As such it is beyond criticism, and anything beyond criticism is beyond understanding. Thus for the Director Emeritus, reason does this and reason does that, whereas it is really the reasoner who does this and that by an intellectual process which nearly always involves axioms and shared antecedent suppositions (faith and traditions) and which is psychologically impossible without emotional impetus. His critique of instrumental reason is “unorthodox,” Watson’s is “irrational,” but these adjectives do not disclose the difference, they only judge it. Bookchin claims to surpass instrumental reason so as to divert attention from his inability to master it. Bookchin does not even want to think about whether, as Paul Feyerabend wrote, “science has ceased to be an ally for the anarchist.”\footnote{Feyerabend, “‘Science,’” 177.} The Age of Reason was one thing; the Old Age of Reason is something else again.
Himself a superficial thinker (“not strikingly original”\footnote{Zimmerman, \emph{Contesting Earth’s Future}, 151, noticing that Bookchin owes much to Lewis Mumford’s organicism.} either), Bookchin in his childlike nominalism regularly mistakes words for their objects. To criticise reason as the critic understands it is to criticise reason as the ex-Director understands it, if he did. It is almost as if other discourses, even other people don’t really exist for him. He does not even conceive of the possibility that someone else might have the right to depart from the everyday meaning of a word with the same free rein he does (see Chapter 12). His attitude is all too familiar: “Ecological rationalism merely puts a new, ‘radical’ spin on the old reason supremacy of the Western tradition which has underlain so much of its history of colonization and inferiorization [sic] of those ‘others’ cast as outsider.”\footnote{Plumwood, “Ecopolitics Debate and the Politics of Nature,” 68.} Many criticisms in this vein I consider caricatures, but Bookchinism \emph{is} a caricature, a self-caricature. My previous writings have been criticized as knocking down a straw man. Bookchin \emph{is} a straw man. He cannot be parodied, only quoted. Perhaps the lesson in all this, if there is one, is what Paul Feyerabend wrote in his last book: “The notion of reality makes excellent sense when applied with discretion and in the appropriate context.”\footnote{Paul Feyerband, \emph{Conquest of Abundance: A Tale of Abstractness Versus the Richness of Living}, ed. Bert Terpstra (Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 9.}
\chapter{Chapter 13. The Communalist Hallucination}
The ex-Director’s emphatically prioritizing the social over the individual does not apply when \emph{he} is the individual. When it comes to English usage, he is, in the rugged individualist tradition of Thoreau, a majority of one.\footnote{“Moreover, any man more right than his neighbors, constitutes a majority of one already.” Henry David Thoreau, “Civil Disobedience,” \emph{Walden and Civil Disobedience} (New York: New American Library, 1960), 230.} Bookchin expresses his sovereignty in many ways. Redundancy makes for a vigorous, emphatic style: thus, “airless vacuum,” “fly apart in opposite directions,” “etymological roots,” “presumably on the assumption,” “determining cause,” “arduous toil,” “unique, indeed unprecedented,” “domination and rule,” “mechanical robots,” and “direct face-to-face.” Superfluous tics like “as such” and “in effect” add style if not substance. Like raising one’s voice, \emph{italics} promote understanding. Bookchin is at liberty to reverse a word’s meaning, such as using “explicitly” to mean “implicitly,” as where the right to bear arms “explicitly goes far beyond the reticent wording of the Second Amendment.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 237.} (One wishes he were explicit, in his sense, more often.) The Director Emeritus denounces metaphors except when they are mixed, like his: “to lift oneself up by one’s bootstraps from the rich wealth of historical facts,” as his often are.
In a departure from normative punctuation practice, the Director Emeritus does not confine quotation marks to quotations, he more often employs them to indicate disagreement or disapproval, as his reviewer Karen Field does when she refers to “Murray Bookchin, ‘social ecologist.’” Bookchin freely coins words even though corresponding terms are available in standard English: “precivilizatory,” “utopistic,” “evidentiality,” “civicism,” “respiritization,” “decentralistic,” “matricentricity,” “existentiality,” “spiritized,” “folkdom,” “equivocable,” “antiscientism,” “civically,” “mentalizing,” “progressivistic,” “bureaucratism,” “cyclicity,” “sectoriality,” “clannic,” “entelechial,” and “statified” (he complains of having had to coin this final word, so he must think the rest of them really exist).\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society,} 70 (quoted); Field, review, 161 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 32.} Sometimes, wrestling with Bookchin’s muscular prose, I thought I was reading English as a second language. It turns out that I was.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 18.}
Most important — yea, essential — to the ex-Director’s discourse is the redefinition of key words like “state,” “politics,” and “anarchism,” assigning them meanings not only different from but contrary to their use in ordinary language and in standard anarchist usage. Given these inversions, it follows that Bookchin and his libertarian municipalism are anarchist by definition (until yesterday), and his critics are unimaginative, obtuse contrarians.
The dictionary bedevils the Director Emeritus at every turn. \emph{Polis}, he grumbles, “is commonly mistranslated as the ‘city-state,’” and so it is.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 33; \emph{New Shorter OED}, q\Slash{}v “polis” (“A city-State, esp. in ancient Greece; \emph{spec.} such a State considered in its ideal form”).} This is a particularly egregious failing: “Defined in terms of its etymological roots [as opposed to its etymological branches?], \emph{politics} means the management of the community or \emph{polis} by its members, the citizens. \emph{Politics} also meant the recognition of civic rights for strangers or ‘outsiders’ who were not linked to the population by blood ties. That is, it meant the idea of a universal \emph{humanitas}, as distinguished from the genealogically related ‘folk.’”\footnote{Bookchin, “Radical Politics in an Era of Advanced Capitalism,” 7.} Who would have thought one word could mean so much? Not the ancient Greeks. There’s a whole civics lesson in this one word.
Etymologically — in other words, for the Greeks themselves — “polis” meant “city”: “In normal usage, \emph{polis} meant ‘city-state.’”\footnote{\emph{New Shorter OED}, q\Slash{}v “polis”; Humphreys, \emph{Anthropology and the Greeks}, 130 (quoted).} The Director Emeritus speaks Greek better than the Greeks, just as he speaks English better than the Anglo-Americans. By definition — his definition — the polis is a democracy, although most Greek city-states were oligarchies.\footnote{Finley, \emph{Economy and Society,} 88; Josiah Ober, \emph{Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens: Rhetoric, Ideology and the Power of the People} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989), 7.} Where Bookchin draws a crucial distinction between “politics” and “statecraft,” the dictionary defines them to be synonymous.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 32–33, 40–41, 53–54, 57–58 \& \emph{passim}; \emph{New} \emph{Shorter OED}, q\Slash{}v “politics,” “statecraft.”} Even the dictionary definition of “communalism,” which, he says, is not as defective as some others, is riddled with errors: “a theory and system of government [sic — his sic, not mine] in which virtually autonomous [sic — him again] local communities are loosely in a federation.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 151.} For the Director Emeritus, there is something \emph{sic} about the dictionary defining words as what they contingently, superficially mean and not what they essentially, processually mean.
For Hobbes, “in wrong, or no Definitions, lyes the first abuse [of Speech]: from which proceed all false and senslesse Tenets.”\footnote{Hobbes, \emph{Leviathan}, 106.} The ex-Director’s reliance on a private language discourages disputation, since the critic has to fight to recover his vocabulary before he can even begin to argue. But the mysterious terminology also has a direct repressive effect. Posing the political alternatives as “politics” and “statecraft,” Bookchin forecloses an alternative which rejects both because of what they have in common. Prior to Bookchin, that alternative was known as anarchism. If he has his way, it will lose its name — he will expropriate it — and what cannot be named cannot even be spoken of, as he appreciates: “something that cannot be named is something that is ineffable and cannot be discussed.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 230. In accord is the arch-fiend Stirner: “Stirner [who is speaking in the third person] speaks of the Unique and says immediately: ‘Names (345) name you not.” Max Stirner, “Stirner’s Critics,” \emph{Philosophical Forum} 8(2–4) (1978), 67; see also Stirner, \emph{Ego and Its Own}, 324. Apparently the Director Emeritus has never read Stirner, for while he often takes his name in vain, he never cites him accurately, \emph{e.g.,} Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 64–65 n. 38 (references to a nonexistent subsection and a nonexistent subtitle). He probably gleaned his notions of Stirner from Marx and from Sydney Hook in his Stalinist phase. Bookchin claims that “Stirner’s own project, in fact, emerged in a debate with the socialism of Wilhelm Weitling and Moses Hess, where he evoked egoism precisely to counterpose to socialism.” Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 54. This is what the ex-Director’s source really said there: “A social associate of Friedrich Engels, published in one of the journals edited by Karl Marx, Stirner’s socialist antagonists were Weitling and Hess and the French propounders of the same ideology, all more prominent at that moment.” James J. Martin, “Editor’s Introduction,” Max Stirner, \emph{The Ego and His Own}, tr. Steven Byington (New York: Libertarian Book Club, 1963), xviii. Martin does not say that Stirner worked out egoism in debate with Weitling and Hess, only that he and they were “antagonists.” In fact, Hess’s critique of egoism was a \emph{rebuttal} to Stirner and so played no part in the formation of Stirner’s theory. Moses Hess, “The Recent Philosophers,” Stepelevich, ed., \emph{Young Hegelians}, 359–375 (published in 1845). Stirner devoted only a small number of pages to criticizing socialism and communism. Bookchin always assumes that what is important to him has always been important to everybody.} For the ex-Director, “lifestyle anarchism” is literally unspeakable in every way.
Like a sovereign lifestyle Stirnerist, Bookchin wields a power Roman Emperors refused, according to John Locke: “And therefore the great \emph{Augustus} himself in the possession of that Power which ruled the World, acknowledged, he could not make a new Latin Word: which was as much to say, that he could not arbitrarily appoint, what Idea any Sound should be a sign of, in the Mouths and Common Language of his Subjects.”\footnote{Locke, \emph{Essay Concerning Human Understanding}, 408.} The anarchists were not the first beneficiaries of the ex-Director’s creativity: “‘Ecological’ is a term of distinction for Bookchin, one that applies only to approaches congruent with his own ‘social ecology.’”\footnote{John M. Meyer, \emph{Political Nature: Environmentalism and the Interpretation of Western Thought} (Cambridge \& London: The MIT Press, 2001), 31.} We must perforce review Bookchin’s vocabulary. In 1982, in some moods he despaired of rehabilitating so ruined a word as “freedom”: “Thus, “to merely ‘define’ so maimed and tortured a word would be utterly naive.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 142.} (Why the quotation marks?)
In this desperate hour, he throws caution to the winds. “Autonomy” and “freedom” are not, he insists, synonymous, although the dictionary says they are.\footnote{\emph{New Shorter OED}, q\Slash{}v “autonomy,” “freedom.”} Autonomy is (only) individual, and bad; freedom is (only) social, and good, “despite looser usages.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 144–145.} Here is a clear example of elimination by definition. As we have seen (Chapter 3),\footnote{See Ch. 10 \emph{supra}.} Sir Isaiah Berlin analysed, not freedom vs. autonomy, but “two concepts of liberty,” positive freedom (Bookchin’s “freedom”) vs. negative freedom (Bookchin’s “autonomy”). He too had a definite preference — for negative freedom — but he did not try to expropriate and monopolize the word freedom. He refined the ordinary meaning, he did not replace it. Nothing is lost. In contrast, Bookchin covets the word for its favorable connotation, which he would deny to dissenters from his new orthodoxy. He has narrowed its meaning to suit his program. If there are one or two concepts of freedom, there might be a third, or maybe two other ones,\footnote{Samuel Fleischacker, \emph{A Third Concept of Liberty: Judgment and Freedom in Kant and Adam Smith} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999); C.B. Macpherson, \emph{Democratic Theory: Essays in Retrieval} (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), 118–119 (“counter-extractive” versus “developmental” liberty).} and they might all be valued and conceivably even synthesised. But autonomy and freedom, since they are not synonymous, must refer to two different things, neither of which admits of subdivision (a single meaning is indivisible). What is more, they are exhaustive by definition, and between them stretches an unbridgeable chasm.
“Democracy” is an even more straightforward case of elimination by definition, and the departure from normal usage is still more extreme: “By democracy, I do not mean a type of representative government but rather face-to-face, direct democracy.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 146 (quoted), 147;} Of the two types of democracy — direct and representative — Bookchin denies the definition to the only kind that presently exists, the kind to which the word, sans adjective, always refers in common parlance.\footnote{\emph{New Shorter OED}, q\Slash{}v “democracy.”} First he assigns to the word an unfamiliar (but admissible) meaning, then he denies the word its familiar meaning. The gambit is something like what Imre Lakatos charged Rudolph Carnap with doing: “So Carnap first widens the classical problem of inductive justification and then omits the original part.” But “it has no meaning to say that a game has always been played wrong” (Wittgenstein).\footnote{Imre Lakatos\emph{, Mathematics, Science and Epistemology}, ed. John Morrall \& Gregory Currie (Cambridge \& New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 144 (quoted, emphasis deleted); Ludwig Wittgenstein, \emph{On Certainty}, ed. G.E.M. Anscombe \& G.H. von Wright (New York \& Evanston, IL: J. \& J. Harper Editions, 1969), 65e (quoted).} As Jeremy Bentham exclaimed, “How childish, how repugnant to the ends of language, is this perversion of language! — to attempt to confine a word in common and perpetual use, to an import to which nobody ever confined it before, or will continue to confine it!” As Wittenstein says, “it is shocking to use words with a meaning they never have in normal life and is the source of some confusion.”\footnote{“Anarchical Fallacies,” in \emph{The Works of Jeremy Bentham}, ed. John Bowring (11 vols.; New York: Russell \& Russell, 1962), 2: 505 (quoted); Ludwig Wittgenstein, \emph{Wittgenstein’s Lectures, Cambridge, 1930–1932}, ed. Desmond Lee (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1980), 73 (quoted); see also J.P. Plamenatz, \emph{Consent, Freedom and Political Obligation} (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 2. “For a \emph{large} class of cases — though not for all — in which we employ the word ‘meaning’ it can be defined thus: the meaning of a word is its use in the language.” Ludwig Wittgenstein, \emph{Philosophical Investigations,} tr. G.E.M. Anscombe (3\textsuperscript{rd} ed.; New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., n.d.), 20 (§ 43).} No kidding.
The dictionary defines “politics” in several ways. All include the state explicitly or implicitly, except for a clearly analogous and derivative sense in which there can be office politics, etc.\footnote{\emph{New Shorter OED}, q\Slash{}v “politics.”} In the case of this crucial word, the Director Emeritus dismisses the ordinary meaning. \emph{His} definition “reserves the word \emph{politics} for the self-administration of a community by its citizens in face-to-face assemblies, which in cities with relatively large populations would coordinate the administrative work of the city councils, composed of mandated and recallable assembly deputies.” In short, “politics” \emph{means} Bookchin’s politics. The antithesis of politics is “\emph{statecraft}, the top-down system of professional representation that is ultimately based on the state’s monopoly of violence.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 324–325. Statecraft is simply “the art of conducting State affairs; statesmanship.” \emph{New Shorter OED} q\Slash{}v “statecraft.”} For the Director Emeritus, politics is what it is not, and it is not what it is. George Orwell anticipated Bookchin’s method: “[Newspeak’s] vocabulary was so constructed as to give exact and often very subtle expression to every meaning that a Party member could properly wish to express, while excluding all other meanings and also the possibility of arriving at them by indirect methods.”\footnote{Orwell, \emph{1984}, 246 (Appendix, “The Principles of Newspeak”).}
As for whether Communalism is anarchism or not, anarchism by definition seeks the abolition of the state. Definitions of the state vary, but one widely favored by social scientists, historians and (I had supposed) anarchists goes something like this (from Charles Tilly): “Let us define states as coercion-wielding organizations that are distinct from households and kinship groups and exercise clear priority in some respects over all other organizations within substantial territories.”\footnote{Charles Tilly, \emph{Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990–1992} (rev. pbk. ed.; Cambridge \& Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), 1. Tilly immediately relaxes the requirement of substantial territory, as well he might in a world where at least 73 states have populations of a million or less. Jose Villamil, “Size and Survival: Planning in Small Island Systems,” in \emph{Microstate Studies 1}, ed. Norwell Harrigan (Gainesville, FL: The Center for Latin American Studies \& The University Presses of Florida, 1977), 1. For present purposes it does not matter, for Tilly considers the Renaissance city-states and similar polities to be states, and Bookchin considers some of them Communes in his sense.} In the near-absence of any statement by Bookchin on this vital matter, we have to resolve it indirectly, by examining cities he considers communes to see if they are states. We need also examine whether they are Communes, \emph{i.e.}, whether they are — ruled? managed? or whatever you call that thing they do — by a face-to-face citizen assembly. We have to assume that the Director Emeritus in selecting examples is putting forward the clearest cases of Communal politics.
Above all there is Athens. Despite his show of indignation that anyone should claim that he regards Athens as an ideal or a model,\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 157 n. 4, 158 n. 9, 325} that’s exactly what Bookchin has said that it is: “My concern with the way people commune — that is, actively associate with each other, not merely form communities — is an ethical concern of the highest priority in this work\dots{} To a great extent, this is the Greek, more precisely, the Athenian, \emph{ideal} of civicism [sic], citizenship, and politics, an \emph{ideal} that has surfaced repeatedly throughout history.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization,} 14. Communalism is treated as an uninterruptedly existent, usually subterranean \emph{being} which occasionally comes to the surface like the sand-worms in \emph{Dune}. For Fredy Perlman, on the other hand, the worm was civilization. \emph{Against His-Story, Against Leviathan!} (Detroit, MI: Black \& Red, 1983), 27. Since the Director Emeritus thinks Mesopotamian cities were originally Communes, Bookchin apparently believes the worm is coterminous with urban society. Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 58. Why the worm never surfaced in the cities of Africa, the Far East or the New World he does not explain. Nor has the worm ever visited the same place twice.} Again: “Athens and Rome ultimately became legendary \emph{models} for two types of ‘popular’ government: a democracy and a republic.” (Actually, these words have always meant the same thing.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 47, 14 (quoted); Robert A. Dahl, \emph{On Democracy} (New Haven, CT \& London: Yale University Press, 1998), 16–17.})
Athens must be our primary focus because it \emph{is} the model for all later self-governing cities, the first and the most fully realized: “In contrast, later ideals of citizenship, even insofar as they were modeled on the Athenians, seem more unfinished and immature than the original — hence the very considerable discussion I have given to the Athenian citizen and his context.” The declension is surprising since, as Aristotle says, “most ancient things are less fully articulated than modern things.” It suits me fine to regard Athens, as others including Robert A. Dahl regard it, as the closest as well as the best-known approximation to direct democracy.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 83 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 176; Aristotle, \emph{Politics,} 78 (quoted); Dahl, \emph{On Democracy}, 12.} We shall judge Athens in the next chapter. First we consider the more unfinished, immature examples. In the absence of any systematic definition from the Director Emeritus, I shall use the following as requisites for a full-fledged urban Commune: (1) most or all policy-making power belongs to a citizen assembly which (2) meets face-to-face and (3) frequently. (4) There are few if any elected or appointed officials and they are without independent authority and answer to the assembly. (5) At least a substantial minority of adult males is enfranchised and (6) at least a substantial minority of those eligible to attend the assembly actually do. (7) The military consists of a nonprofessional citizen army or militia. (8) The city or town is federated with others. (If it were up to me, I would not incorporate (8) into the \emph{definition} of a commune, but it’s a part of the dictionary definition which meets with the ex-Director’s approval.)
In parts of \emph{Switzerland}, open-air popular assemblies have functioned for centuries, but there is nothing in the contemporary situation to support the Director Emeritus. Only a few of the smaller cantons, the \emph{least} urbanized ones, still practice assembly democracy, where the citizens assemble just once a year to elect representatives to public office, which is not direct democracy.\footnote{Hanspater Kriesi, “Political Power and Decision Making in Switzerland,” in \emph{Switzerland in Perspective}, ed. Janet Eve Hilowitz (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), 36.} Bookchin’s source, Benjamin Barber, hymns the early modern assembly in Graubinden but does not describe its workings. It would not be an example of Bookchin’s urban Commune anyway because it is not urban, although Bookchin himself seems confused on this point.\footnote{Benjamin Barber, \emph{The Death of Communal Liberty} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974); Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 115, 229–230, 12.} (If the ex-Director knew that the \emph{urban} Swiss cantons were all centralized oligarchies,\footnote{James Murray Luck, \emph{A History of Switzerland, The First 100,000 Years} (Palo Alto, CA: The Society for the Promotion of Science and Scholarship, 1985), 58; Ursula K. Hicks, \emph{Federalism: Failure and Success — A Comparative Study} (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 159 (in the 14\textsuperscript{th} century “there was not a breath of democracy”).} the irony would be lost on him. He thinks they were Communes.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 97.}) These rural \emph{Landsgemeinden} only assembled annually.\footnote{Luck, \emph{History of Switzerland}, 58.} And when they did, it was to elect a council to conduct everyday business. They were representative democracies with public voting, not direct democracies.\footnote{W.D. McCrackan, \emph{The Rise of the Swiss Republic: A History} (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed., rev. \& enl.; New York: AMS Press, 1970), 184. I do not have access to good sources on Swiss history, but Bookchin’s are worse.} Bookchin gratefully quotes Alexis de Tocqueville’s encomium on the New England town meeting. He ignores the same author’s statement that from an early time the Swiss cantons were small aristocracies, closed or self-recruiting, and in most of them, three-quarters of the population was excluded from even indirect participation, not to mention that each canton had a subject population. Only one-thirteenth of the population was governed by direct democracy.\footnote{Alexis de Tocqueville, \emph{Democracy in America}, ed. J.P. Mayer (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1969), 738, 740.} So much for Communes in Switzerland.
\emph{Spanish} cities are best known to history for the revolt, in 1520–1521, of the \emph{comuneros,} thrillingly recounted by the Director Emeritus, albeit without source references.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 167–169.} We are presumably to assume that the insurgent cities were democratic. They were not. They revolted out of resentment of foreign influence over the new king, Charles V, and against taxation, and perhaps for greater autonomy from the state, but not to defend or create democratic institutions. It was “members of the urban oligarchies and lower nobility in Castile [who] rose up in arms in what is known as the \emph{Comunero} movement (from community or communal).” In the more radical Valencia uprising, the violence was directed against “city officials and local nobility”; thus it is reasonable to assume the absence of sovereign popular assemblies. Contrary to Bookchin, “the cities never tried to create a form of political organization that could have been a Castilian version of the urban republics.”\footnote{Teofilo F. Ruiz, \emph{Spanish Society, 1400–1600} (Harlow, England: Longman, 2001), 28, 195.}
A monograph on the revolt by Stephen Haliczer dispells the myth — not that there even is one outside of Bookchin’s head — of an urban democratic revolution. Prior to the uprising, Spanish cities were governed by royally appointed \emph{corregidores} who presided over city councils of \emph{regidores}, who were royal appointees for life. The uprising was as much a revolt \emph{by} as against these officials. In Valencia, for example, the ruling revolutionary Junta was “dominated by the members of the city council and by delegates from the cathedral chapter and parishes.” Only the parish delegates, a minority, were elected democratically by assemblies.
Where the Comunero movement departs most drastically from the model is at the level few of the ex-Director’s other examples even get to, the federated communes or, we might say, the Junta of Juntas, or, officially, the Cortes. In some cities this Junta appointed corregidores and judges as the Crown had done. It also demanded payment, to it, of the very royal taxes which were a major cause of the revolution. The Junta reached all the way down to the parishes, appointing several members to be responsible for collections. At the death of the archbishop of Toledo, it forced the canons to elect its nominee as succesor. Dissatisfied with the performance of the local militias (another Bookchin favorite) — which looted villages regardless which side they were on — the Junta raised a standing army recruited from former royal guards.\footnote{Stephen Haliczer, \emph{The Comuneros of Castile: The Forging of a Revolution, 1475–1521} (Madison, WI \& London: University of Wisconsin Press, 1981), 125, 162 (quoted), 162–175, 198–199, 205; Pablo Fernandes Albaladejo, “Cities and the State in Spain,” \emph{Theory and Society} 18(5) (Sept. 1989), 730 (quoted).} In its internal arrangements, the Cortes was as anti-federal as in its tax policies: “In order to provide for efficient decision-making, the Junta operated by majority vote and took policy decisions on the spot, without waiting for delegates to ask their cities for further instructions.”\footnote{Haliczer, \emph{Comuneros of Castile}, 169.} Only in its final failing phase did radicals displace former council members and hidalgos (minor nobility) and take power in a few of the local Juntas, and by then the movement had lost so much popular support that these transient takeovers cannot be considered democratic.
Otherwise, I found only scattered scraps of information on the governance of Spanish cities, but all conform to the standard model of pre-industrial urban oligarchy, its composition varying somewhat at different times and places. In the 13\textsuperscript{th} century the monarchy sanctioned the \emph{regimiento}, an oligarchy of the urban gentry.\footnote{Pablo Fernandez Alboladejo, “Cities and the State in Spain,” in \emph{Cities and the Rise of States, 1000–1800}, ed. Charles Tilly \& Wim P. Blockmans (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1944), 172.} By the end of the 12\textsuperscript{th} century, non-noble “knights” controlled urban government; in the 15\textsuperscript{th} centuries the \emph{rics homens ciutans}, “rich citizens,” a small number of very rich men, controlled city government.\footnote{Joseph F. O’Callahan, \emph{A History of Medieval Spain} (Ithaca, NY \& London: Cornell University Press, 1975), 290, 613.} In medieval Aragon, including Catalonia, municipal government was in the hands of patricians (“honored citizens”), \emph{jurats} elected by the citizens or, in some cases, choosing their own successors (cooptation). They were expected to consult the general assembly of townsmen on important matters.\footnote{T.N. Bisson, \emph{The Medieval Crown of Aragon: A Short History} (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), 164; H.J. Chaytor, \emph{A History of Aragon and Catalonia} (New York: AMS Press, 1969), 116.} In Barcelona specifically, government was by a Council of the One Hundred presided over by five or six of the councillors. The Council had the sole legislative initiative and authority over expenditures. By Crown directive, “honored citizens” (who were rentiers) monopolized the Council and coopted their successors.\footnote{James S. Ameleng, \emph{Honored Citizens of Barcelona: Patrician Culture and Class Relations, 1490–1714} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 18, 25, 30; see generally ch. 2, “The Evolution of Oligarchy.”} In Galicia in 1633, positions were reserved for a handful of men picked by their colleagues for life; later the urban gentry were admitted to share power.\footnote{James Casey, \emph{The Kingdom of Valencia} (Cambridge \& London: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 167.} There is no hint of a governing popular assembly anywhere.
In \emph{Italy} the Renaissance city-states were just that, states. Only a handful of Italian cities were independent, and they all rested on the exploitation of their \emph{contados} — extensive rural hinterlands administered by officials from the city, as even Kropotkin admits.\footnote{Giorgio Chittolini, “Cities, ‘City-States,’ and Regional States in North-Central Italy,” in Tilly \& Blockmans, eds., \emph{Cities and the Rise of States}, 30–31; Kropotkin, \emph{Mutual Aid}, 202–203.} Exploitation of powerless peasants seems to be a universal feature of sovereign cities (except for Athens, which exploited its empire and its slaves instead of its hinterland). The Director Emeritus avers that the Italian commune was more than a town, “it was above all an association of burghers who were solemnly united by an oath or \emph{conjuratio}” which committed them to subordinate personal interest to the common good and even “to orderly and broadly consensual ways of governing themselves with a decent respect for individual liberty and a pledge to their mutual defense.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 99.} The word “burghers” is carefully chosen to mislead. It can mean merely a townsman, but that meaning is obsolete.\footnote{\emph{New Shorter OED}, q\Slash{}v “burgher.”} It suggests the common people, or perhaps all the people of a town. The common people were never invited into these sworn brotherhoods. The parties to the \emph{conjuratio} were aristocrats and later, also rich commoners. A chapter title from a source Bookchin quotes says it all: “The Early Commune and Its Nobility.” Entirely excluded were the poor, self-employed craftsmen, wage workers, and even merchants of the middling sort. Even at their most democratic, under the rule of the \emph{popolini}, the active citizenry still excluded unskilled and farm workers, recent immigrants — the Stranger! — and many artisans. When their guilds came to power, they forbid new guilds from forming.\footnote{Martines, \emph{Power and Imagination}, ch. 3 (esp. 18–19), 66–67, 186. Inasmuch as the short-lived \emph{popolo} phase consisted of guild rule, it is an example, not of a Bookchin Commune, but of syndicalism, which the Director Emeritus considers antithetical to Communalism. Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 262–263; Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 326–327.}
It required a lot of cutting and pasting to turn this source, Lauro Martines, into a support for Bookchin’s thesis: “We know that its members [the consulate] were chosen at a general assembly of the commune itself, a popular assembly that ‘was quite likely convened with some regularity, and in times of trouble even more often,’ Lauro Martines tells us. ‘Here the views of leading men were heard and important decisions taken, usually by acclamation. We know, too, that this general assembly ‘of all the members of the commune’ was the ‘oldest communal institution’ of these Italian cities, and further, that the consuls usually ‘sounded out’ the general assembly’ before they made any major decisions about such issues as war and peace, taxes, and laws.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 99–100.} Even after spinning his source like a top, the Director Emeritus offers an account which shows that the commune of history is not the Commune as he has redefined it. The assembly elects the consuls but, having done so, its role is reduced to consultation at the option of the consuls, who decide war and peace, taxes, laws — in short, everything.
It proves interesting to restore these fragments of quotation (italicised) to their context: The \emph{oldest communal institution} was the general assembly \emph{of all the members of the commune}.
\begin{quote}
These were the founding members and their descendants, in addition to all those who were taken into the commune from time to time. The consuls were always drawn from this corps. During the first generation or so of the commune’s existence, the general assembly \emph{was quite likely convened with some regularity, and in times of trouble even more often. Here the views of leading men were heard and important decisions taken, usually by acclamation.} Later, as the commune expanded and assembly meetings became more difficult to manage, the “parliament of the whole” was called less often — on Sundays, say, or even once a year — and it carried less weight, save in emergency sessions.\forcelinebreak
Voting in the general assembly was done by fiat: men shouted yes or no. All real communal authority issued from this body and could return to it. A parliament was the supreme authority, the fnal decision-making body. But the legislative initiative, the power to move change, lay with the consuls; and historians suspect that no true discussion was permitted in the general assembly. The consuls introduced all proposals. One of the leading consuls defended the motion before the assembled commune; then, possibly, two or three of the more experienced notables were invited to speak and the assembly moved directly to a vote by acclamation.\forcelinebreak
The consulate, the assembled body of consuls, was the commune’s highest executive and judicial magistracy. All important daily matters were discussed and decided here. Having \emph{sounded out the general assembly}, the consuls made war and peace, led the communal armies, were responsible for the defense of the city, levied taxes, sired legislation, and served as the final appellate court. The consulate was the focus of power in the early commune: it was always coveted, always prized by the ambitious. The number of consuls varied according to time and place. A range of from four to twenty consuls was not uncommon; more often they numbered from four to twelve. Generally speaking, a term of office was for one year — initially at Genoa for three years — and an incumbent could not return to the consulate until after the elapse of one or two additional terms. But this practice was abolished. The commune sheltered groups in favor of a tighter hold over elections and over the sorting out of power. Triumphing, these groups evolved the practice whereby consuls elected their own successors directly or indirectly. To be effective, consulates doubtless sought to have amicable relations with the commune’s collective manifestation, the general assembly. But it is clear, too, that some limiting principle, attaching most likely to \emph{quality} [Martines’ italics] as a function of property and status, served to restrict effective power to a select number of men and families.\footnote{Martines, \emph{Power and Imagination}, 27–28.}
\end{quote}
And here is something else the ex-Director did not quote: “The nobility dominated the consulate, manipulated the general assembly, and ruled the city \dots{} “\footnote{Martines, \emph{Power and Imagination}, 29.} So cynical an instance of deceit by selective quotation does not come along often unless one often reads Bookchin.
The Director Emeritus must think his readers have the attention span of a hyperactive toddler. At one point he admits the real import of the sources: “What is insufficiently known about the Italian commune is the extent to which it became a stage for a working democracy and its actors a new expression for [sic] an active citizenry.” Translation: \emph{we don’t know} if the Italian communes were democratic. He ought not to be even talking about them. But \emph{two sentences later} his knowledge is now sufficient and the findings are gratifying: “Democracy clearly emerged in the early Italian cities, not only representative forms of governance and oligarchies of various kinds, only to submerge and then reappear again for a short time in richly articulated forms.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization,} 98.}
Only a tiny fraction of the “burghers” could hold office — elites numbering in the hundreds ruling city populations numbering in the tens of thousands.\footnote{Martines, \emph{Power and Imagination}, 47.} In Venice, with a population of 120,000 in 1300 and 115,000 in 1509, 200 patrician families belonged to the Great Council. In Florence at its most democratic (1494–1512), 3,500 males out of a population of 60,000 belonged to the officeholding class. Generally, in the 14\textsuperscript{th} and 15\textsuperscript{th} centuries the officeholding class was about 1\% of the population.\footnote{William J. Connell, “City-states, communes, and republics,” in \emph{The Encyclopedia of Democracy}, ed. Seymour Martin Lipset (4 vols.; Washington DC: Congressional Quarterly, 1995), 1: 222; Martines, \emph{Power and Imagination}, 148.} Bookchin repeats the old cliché that “urban air makes for freedom,” but very often it did not:
\begin{quote}
Benefiting from this collective solidarity supposed a citizenship that was in reality difficult to acquire. It implied admission, sponsorship, and inclusion in a trade or the purchase of property. Becoming a part of the people was not an easy matter, and most inhabitants without means proved incapable of penetrating the internal walls erected by jealous minorities.
\end{quote}
“The elusive citizen” that Bookchin stalks through history is elusive because he is one among a small select elite.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 96; Jacques Rossiaud, “The City-Dweller and Life in Cities and Towns,” Le Goff, ed., \emph{Medieval Callings,} 141, 142 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 55 (quoted).}
In most cities, assemblies met only annually and were passive, “of a formal character,” and were later reduced to an annual exchange of oaths of service and obedience with the consuls who held the real power. The trend was toward tighter oligarchy. “The true core of the city-state was formed by the magistracy of the consuls” who chose their own successors and whose offices were family monopolies. As another historian puts it — another irony for Bookchin the anarchist — “virtually all Italian cities developed true governments with consuls.”\footnote{David Nicholas, \emph{The Growth of the Medieval City: From Late Antiquity to the Early Fourteenth Century} (London \& New York: Longman, 1997), 159–160 (quoted); Martines, \emph{Power and Imagination}, 27–29; John H. Mundy \& Peter Riesenberg, \emph{The Medieval Town} (Princeton, NJ: D.V. Van Nostrand Company, 1958), 50–51. The Director Emeritus quotes the latter book on another point, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 94, 290 n. 33, but he somehow overlooked the pages that refute his conception of the medieval commune. He is similarly selective in using other sources, such as Lauro Martines and Robert Gross.} All these so-called Communes were oligarchies.\footnote{C.W. Previte-Orton, “The Italian Cities Till c. 1200,” in \emph{The Cambridge Medieval History}, ed. J.R. Tanner, C.W. Previte-Orton, \& Z.N. Brooke (8 vols.; New York: The Macmillan Company \& Cambridge: at the University Press, 1924–1936), 5: 220–237; Connell, “City-states, communes and republics,” 222.} Talk of their “richly articulated forms” is moonshine. The Director Emeritus is no doubt correct that the Italian communes were inferior to Athens in their realization of the ideal. They selected their rulers by indirect election or by cooptation or by lot, but never by direct election. As Peter Burke writes, “there was no true Italian parallel to the Athenian assembly.”\footnote{Daniel Waley, \emph{The Italian City-Republics} (3\textsuperscript{rd} ed.; London \& New York: Longman, 1988), 37; Peter Burke, “City-States,” in Hall, ed., \emph{States in History}, 148 (quoted).} No assembly, no democracy.
Before we depart sunny Italy for the stony fields of New England, let us pay a courtesy call on Niccolo Machiavelli, who has fallen into bad company: Bookchin’s. The Director Emeritus claims that “Machiavelli’s argument clearly tips toward a republic and an armed citizenry rather than a prince and a professional army.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 48–49, 49 (quoted).} Never mind that he titled his book \emph{The Prince} and dedicated it to Lorenzo di Medici! As I have remarked, his “\emph{Il Principe} was clearly not directed to a mandated and revocable delegate responsible to the base, but rather to a man on horseback, somebody like Caesare Borgia.”\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 78.} Machiavelli offered no argument that even tipped toward a republic. His preference for militia over mercenaries is explicitly addressed to princes and republics alike: one chapter title is “Princes and Republics Who Fail to Have National Armies are Much to Be Blamed.” Machiavelli, like other Florentine intellectuals, rejected Athens and favored Sparta as a model. He had ideologues like the ex-Director in mind when he wrote that “it appears to me more proper to go to the real truth of the matter than to its imagination; and many have imagined republics and principalities which have never been seen or known to exist in reality.”\footnote{Roberts, “Creation of a Legacy,” 85; Machiavelli, \emph{Prince and the Discourses}, “The Prince,” 3–4 (dedication); “The Discourses,” 175–176 (quoted), 56 (quoted).} It used to be that Bookchin grossly distorted what his sources say. As now he soon fatigues, he takes it easy and just makes it all up.
Cities in the rest of \emph{medieval Europe} lend not even a shadow of support to the ex-Director’s line. Emperors and kings held a share of power; as Ptolemy of Lucca observed at the time, “cities live politically [\emph{i.e.}, they are self-governing] in all regions, whether in Germany, Scythia or Gaul, although they may be circumscribed by the might of the kings or emperors, to whom they are bound by established laws.” The South German free cities “never attained the full autonomy of city-states.” They were usually ruled by oligarchies of mixed merchants and rentiers. Bookchin claims the Hanseatic League for direct democracy, but, “although the Hanse often forced kings and princes to capitulate, no one had the idea of founding a ‘modern’ city-state.”\footnote{Ptolemy of Lucca, \emph{On the Government of Rulers. De Regimine Principum}, tr. James M. Plythe (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997), 217 (quoted); Thomas J. Brady, Jr., \emph{Turning Swiss: Ciies and Empire, 1450–1650} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 1 (quoted), 1–2; Peter Moraw, “Cities and Citizenry as Factors of State Formation in the Roman-German Empire of the Late Middle Ages,” \emph{Theory and Society} 18(5) (Sept. 1989), 654 (quoted).}
Contrary to Bookchin,\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 97.} the \emph{Flemish} cities were representative, not direct democracies. There were no assemblies. Even after revolutions made the guilds participants in political power, “the administration of the town remained in the hands of the \emph{echevins} [magistrates] and the council, and no essential modification took place.”\footnote{Henri Pirenne, \emph{Early Democracies in the Low Countries: Urban Society and Political Conflict in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance} (New York: Harper \& Row, 1963), 162.} In \emph{the Netherlands}, “a state of 55 cities,” the \emph{vroedschap}, a council chosen for life by cooptation, elected two to four burgomasters and seven or more aldermen. By the 17\textsuperscript{th} century, the size of the council was reduced, and so was the number of families admitted to government.\footnote{Marjolein t’Hart, “Intercity Rivalries and the Making of the Dutch State,” in Tilly \& Blockmans, eds., \emph{Cities and the Rise of States}, 199; Connell, “City-states, communes and republics,” 222.} Contrary to Bookchin,\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 97.} \emph{German} towns were ruled by “elected bourgeois city councils” which were always oligarchical. From the 13\textsuperscript{th} century, they increasingly adopted the “law of Lübeck” whereby the councils renewed their memberships by cooptation.\footnote{Nicholas, \emph{Growth of the Medieval City}, 228–229, 234; Fritz Roerig, \emph{The Medieval Town} (Berkeley, CA \& Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1967), 25–27; Peter Moraw, “Cities and Citizenry,” 110 (quoted).} \emph{French} communes of the 11\textsuperscript{th} and 12\textsuperscript{th} centuries elected mayors and \emph{jures} (magistrates), but they would lose even that much autonomy to the centralization of the French state.\footnote{Nicholas, \emph{Growth of the Medieval City}, 150–152; R.H. Hilton, \emph{English and French Towns in Feudal Society: A Comparative Study} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 88–90.} In the 16\textsuperscript{th} century, towns were governed by corporations of municipal magistrates.\footnote{Janine Garrisson, \emph{A History of Sixteenth-Century France, 1483–1598: Renaissance, Reformation and Rebellion}, tr. Richard Rex (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995), 32.}
Bookchin speaks vaguely of a “European” communal movement, but the great cities of Europe — Paris, London, Madrid, Lisbon, Palermo, Rome, Naples, Vienna, Moscow, Constantinople — were under direct royal control, and so were the cities and towns of entire countries. In late medieval and early modern times, oligarchy was universal along the Dalmatian coast, in Austria, England, Serbia and Bosnia, Poland, Hungary, Portugal and throughout northern Europe.\footnote{Barisa Krekic, “Developed Autonomy: The Patricians in Dubrovnik Dalmatian Cities,” in Tilly \& Blockmans, eds., \emph{Cities and the Rise of States}, 213; Sergij Vilfon, “Towns and States at the Juncture of the Alps, the Adriatic, and Pannonia,” in ibid., 446–447, 449–450; Stephen Rigby, “Urban ‘Oligarchy’ in Late Medieval England,” in \emph{Towns and Townspeople in the Fifteenth Century}, ed. John A.P. Thomson (Gloucester, England \& Wolfboro, NH: Alan Sutton Publishing, 1988), 63–64; Jennifer I. Kermode, “Obvious Observations on the Formation of Oligarchies in Late Medieval English Towns,” in ibid., 87–106; Hilton, \emph{English and French Towns}, 91–92; Lorraine Attreed, \emph{The King’s Towns: Identity and Survival in Late Medieval English Boroughs} (New York: Peter Lang, 2001), 33–41 \& \emph{passim}; Sima Cirkovic, “Unfulfilled Autonomy: Urban Society in Serbia and Bosnia,” in \emph{Urban Society of Eastern Europe in Premodern Times}, ed. Barisa Krekic (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1977), 175; Barisa Krekic, “Developed Autonomy: The Urban Development of Medieval Poland with Particular Refrence to Krakow,” in ibid., 63–136; Andrei Wyrobisz, “Power and Commonwealth in the Polish Gentry Towns: The Polish-Lithuanian State in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,” in Tilly \& Blockmans, eds., \emph{Cities and the Rise of States}, 152; Marianna D. Birnbaum, “Buda Between Tatars and Turks,” in ibid., 137–157; Antonio Manuel Hespanha, “Cities and the State in Portugal,” in ibid., 184, 191; Nicholas, \emph{Growth of the Medieval City}, 228–229.} This should surprise no one but libertarian municipalists.
Only Bookchin believes that the \emph{New England} town meeting is now more than a remnant of what it was, and it was never as robust as its celebrants believe. A creature of state legislation, it spends considerable time executing state mandates. It meets annually, and the officials it elects are not answerable to anyone between town meetings. Most townspeople stay home rather than bother with administrative technicalities. In Massachusetts it is not unusual for attendance to fall below 10\%; in one Vermont town in the early 60s, attendance was barely 15\%; in another, in 1970, it was 25\%; in others, hardly anyone is present except officials who are required to be.\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 67; Andrew E. Nuquist, \emph{Town Government in Vermont} (Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Government Research Center, 1964), 4–5, 10–11, 18–19; Jane L. Mansbridge, \emph{Beyond Adversary Democracy} (New York: Basic Books, 1980), 48, 346 n. 1; Joseph F. Zimmerman, \emph{Town Meeting: A Tenacious Institution} (Albany, NY: State University of New York Graduate School of Public Affairs, 1967), 27–29, 77.} James Thurber, attending his first town meeting in 1940 (with one-seventh of the population present), summed it up thusly: “It had the heat and turmoil of the first Continental Congress without its nobility of purpose and purity of design.” Town meetings narrowed considerably in the 20\textsuperscript{th} century.\footnote{James Thurber, “Town Meeting,” in \emph{One Man’s Meat} (new enl. Ed.; New York \& Evanston, IL: Harper \& Row, n.p.), 150, 151 (quoted); J.G. Bullpitt, “Participation and Local Government: Territorial Democracy,” \emph{Participation in Politics,} ed. Geraint Perry (Manchester, England \& Totowa, NJ: Rowman \& Littlefield, 1972), 295.} But how vital was the town meeting in its prime? Were Communes scattered across the stony New England landscape?
The government of Massachusetts Bay created the town meeting system for its own administrative convenience. In the early years, the General Court (the legislature) legislated in reference to the most important internal affairs of the towns. At all times “no one was allowed to treat the orders of the General Court with disrespect.” The courts, an important institution of governance, were at all times controlled by the General Court.\footnote{Michael Zuckerman, \emph{Peaceable Kingdoms: New England Towns in the Eighteenth Century} (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970), 10–13; Anne Bush Machear, “Early New England Towns: A Comparative Study of Their Development,” \emph{Studies in History, Economics and Public Law} 29(1) (1908), 21 (quoted), 44; Konig, \emph{Law and Society in Puritan Massachusetts}, 18–19.} At the town meeting, attendance was compulsory, which is probably why attendance was not recorded. (In 18\textsuperscript{th} century Rhode Island, where attendance was voluntary, it never exceeded 30\%, and was usually much less — much like Athens [see Chapter 14].) Low attendance was also chronic in Connecticut.\footnote{Bruce C. Daniels, \emph{Dissent and Confrontation on Narragansett Bay: The Colonial Rhode Island Town} (Middletown CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1983), 96–98.}) In the 17\textsuperscript{th} century the town meeting met, on average, twice a year; in the 18\textsuperscript{th}, its modest apogee, four or five times a year. Although its authority extended, in principle, to almost anything, in practice, most matters were decided by the “selectmen” — annually elected magistrates.
A 1639 resolution reveals to what extent the townspeople resemble Bookchin’s civic-minded yeomen: “whereas it has been found by general experience that the general meeting of so many men in one [assembly to consider] of the common affairs thereof has wasted much time to no small damage, and business is nothing furthered thereby, it is therefore now agreed by general consent that these seven men hereunder named we do make choice of and give them full power to contrive, executie, and and perform all the business and affairs of this whole town — unto the first of the tenth month next.”\footnote{Quoted in Kenneth A. Lockridge, \emph{A New England Town: The First Hundred Years} (enl. ed.; New York \& London: W.W. Norton \& Co., 1985), 38.} In 17\textsuperscript{th} century Dedham, Massachusetts, selectmen served an average of ten terms each, in effect for life; in the 18\textsuperscript{th} century, for half that long.\footnote{Haskins, \emph{Law and Authority in Puritan Massachusetts}, 72–79; Lockridge, \emph{A New England Town}, 37–49, 119–138.} In another Puritan colony, Connecticut, the town meeting transferred administrative authority to six or seven selectmen from among the town’s most prominent citizens.\footnote{Richard L. Bushman, \emph{From Puritan to Yankee: Character and the Social Structure in Connecticut, 1690–1765} (New York: W.W. Norton \& Company, 1970), 35–36.} In Rhode Island, the most radically democratic colony, legislation required town meetings only quarterly, and sometimes towns met less often, although the 18\textsuperscript{th} century average — the highest anywhere — was over five meetings a year.\footnote{Daniels, \emph{Dissent and Confrontation on Narragansett Bay,} 100; Sydney V. James, \emph{Colonial Rhode Island — A History} (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1975), 147.}
The Massachusetts (and Connecticut) towns fail to be Communes by still another test: they were not federated. There is nothing to Bookchin’s claim that they “were networked into [sic] the interior of the New England colonies and states.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 233.} They had no political ties to one another; each was subordinated to the central government.
The Director Emeritus, supposing it confirms his vision of New England towns as places for “the active involvement of the citizen in participatory politics, public security, and the direct face-to-face [as opposed to the indirect face-to-face?] resolution of community problems,” quotes historian Robert A. Gross: “When the eighteenth-century Yankee reflected on government, he thought first of his town. Through town meetings, he elected his officials, voted his taxes, and provided for the well-ordering of community affairs. The main business of the town concerned roads and bridges, schools, and the poor — the staples of local government even today. But the colonial New England town claimed authority over anything that happened within its borders. [Examples follow.]” Bookchin fails to notice that only the second sentence refers to the town \emph{meeting}. The rest of it refers to the \emph{town}, which acts through selectmen and other officials as well as, and much more often than, the town meeting. With characteristic dishonesty, the Director Emeritus forbears to quote the next page: “Democracy and equality played no part in their view of the world.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 237–238; Robert A. Gross, \emph{The World of the Minutemen} (New York: Hill and Wang, 1976), 10–11 (quoted), 12 (quoted).}
The real social context is missing from the ex-Director’s sentimental invocation of “the strong-minded yeomanry” of the interior towns — 70\% of the colonial population — bearers of the democratic legacy, whose farming for subsistence rather than trade was “a challenging moral statement” that theirs was “a virtuous life, not a bountiful one.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 233–236, 234 (quoted).} Actually, “never a purely subsistence society, the New England colonies were thus from early in their histories [before 1660] and increasingly during the seventeenth century heavily involved in trade.”\footnote{Jack P. Greene, \emph{Pursuits of Happiness: The Social Development of Early Modern British Colonies and the Formation of American Culture} (Chapel Hill, NC \& London: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 62.} It goes without saying that the farmers started out, as a matter of survival, producing for subsistence. But, “early in the colonial era, New England developed a diverse and tightly integrated economy.”\footnote{John J. McCusker \& Russell R. Menard, \emph{The Economy of British America, 1607–1789} (Chapel Hill, NC \& London: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 110.} After 1700, during the Golden Age of the town meeting, “more and more of the migrants began to produce wheat, cattle, and horses for sale in the coastal cities and in the West Indies [to sustain plantation slavery].” Commercial agriculture underpinned the towns with their peculiar political systems. The commercial orientation of colonial New Englanders, as of Americans generally, was expressed in their intense involvement in land speculation.\footnote{James A. Henretta, \emph{The Evolution of American Society, 1700–1815: An Interdisciplinary Analysis} (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath \& Co., 1973), 6 (quoted); Gordon S. Wood, “Inventing American Capitalism,” \emph{New York Review of Books}, June 9, 1994, 44–49.}
By the early 18\textsuperscript{th} century, Americans generally viewed virtue and self-interest as compatible, even mutually reinforcing. They had never shown a lot of public spirit, and now they showed less. Colonial politics offered little prospect of fame and fortune, “indeed, throughout the course of the early eighteenth century, there seems to have been a significant devaluation of the public realm \dots{} every society in colonial British America, including New England after about 1700, exhibited a basically private orientation, a powerful underlying predisposition among the members of its free population to preoccupy themselves with the pursuit of personal and family independence.”\footnote{Greene, “The Concept of Virtue in Late Colonial America,” in \emph{Imperatives, Behaviors, and Identities}, 222–223, 226–232, 229 (quoted), 231 (quoted).}
According to the ex-Director’s paramour Biehl,
\begin{quote}
[\dots{}] their town-planning practices reflected this orientation toward democratic community. The original group who founded a town would collectively receive from the colony itself a deed to the land, which they divided among themselves. Each male inhabitant was given a one-to-ten acre plot of land as a freehold, on which he could support himself and his family. Land ownership was thus kept roughly egalitarian \dots{}\footnote{Janet Biehl, \emph{Politics of Social Ecology} (Montreal, Quebec, Canada: Black Rose Books, 1997), 32.}
\end{quote}
The size of the allotments is grossly understated to substantiate the egalitarian myth. They corresponded to the social hierarchy. In Sudbury, the largest allotment, 75 acres, went to the minister; the smallest was one acre. The town “ranked all of these men in an economic hierarchy which was to be fixed and final,” as reflected by their previous holdings in Watertown, their previous place of residence; in Sudbury, allotments ranged from zero acres of upland (10 out of 50 settlers) to 124 acres, with just 7 men receiving 30 acres or more. Similarly, a man’s “rank and quality,” in Dedham, was a major criterion for allotment: “a clearly defined social hierarchy was also a part of the ideal of the founders, and the town’s land policies were set accordingly.”\footnote{Powell, \emph{Puritan Village,} 84 (quoted), 189–190 (Appendix VI); Lockridge, \emph{New England Town}, 12 (quoted), 11 (quoted).} While town founders were religious communicants, “at the outset, those attending the town meeting consisted of the proprietors to whom allotments of land had been made.” The towns were founded by profit-seeking entrepreneurs who obtained grants, negotiated with the Indians, created a landholding corporation, admitted shareholders, etc.: “every town reflected the character of a business in either the structure of its institutions or the apportionment of rights.” I quote from a study with the witty title \emph{Profits in the Wilderness}.\footnote{Haskins, \emph{Law and Authority in Early Massachusetts,} 73 (quoted); John Frederick Martin, \emph{Profits in the Wilderness: Entrepreneurship and the Founding of New England Towns in the Seventeenth Century} (Chapel Hill, NC \& London: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 294–299, 303 (quoted).} Bookchin has elaborated out of the ether a New England with neither Puritans nor Yankees.
Invoking the aid of yet another discredited old theory, the Director Emeritus evokes (without credit) Frederick Jackson Turner’s hoary theory that the frontier promoted American democracy: “An incredibly loose democracy and mutualism [sic] prevailed along a frontier that was often beyond the reach of the comparatively weak national government.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 296.} (But usually within reach of the comparatively \emph{strong} state governments.\footnote{William J. Novak, \emph{The People’s Welfare: Law and Regulation in Nineteenth-Century America} (Chapel Hill, NC \& London: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).}) The frontier was no more democratic than the older settled areas. The 18\textsuperscript{th} century Connecticut town of Kent, for instance, had a town meeting system just like the one we have seen in eastern Massachusetts, which was not a frontier area. That is, the assembly met annually to elect selectmen and other officials (constables, grand jurors, tax listers, tax collectors, tithing men and fence viewers). Justices of the peace were chosen by the colonial government.\footnote{Charles S. Grant, \emph{Democracy in the Connecticut Frontier Town of Kent} (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), 133–135.} Quite democratic for its time \dots{} but not by Bookchin’s definition. A very thorough, quantified study of the frontier period in Trempealeau County, Wisconsin — which, like Kent, had annual town meetings — found town and county governments very democratic, but \emph{less} so at its frontier beginnings than after two decades of development.\footnote{Merle Curti, \emph{The Making of an American Community: A Case Study of Democracy in a Frontier County} (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1959), 448. Nor did the settlers create democracy out of their wrestlings with nature. The structures of local government were laid out beforehand by state statute: “We are confronted with the semantic absurdity, in Trempealeau at least, of the frontier being self-governing before it was settled.” Ibid., 261.} And even Turner dismissed the cliché of the weak and distant national government: “The frontier reached by the Pacific Railroad, surveyed into rectangles, guarded by the United States Army, and recruited by the daily immigrant ship, moves forward at a swifter pace and in a different way than the frontier reached by the birch canoe and the pack horse.”\footnote{Frederick Jackson Turner, “The Significance of the Frontier in American history,” in \emph{The Frontier in American History} (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1962), 10.}
The frontier was never much different politically from the rest of the country, and it was always as much like the rest of the country as the settlers could make it. Thus, as Richard Hofstadter concludes, “while it is probably true that life was frequently more egalitarian in frontier communities than in settled areas, the truly significant facts are the brevity of the frontier experience, the small numbers of people who are involved in and directly affected by it, and the readiness with which, once the primitive stage of settlement is past, the villages and cities only recently removed from their frontier life reproduce the social stratification, political forms, and patterns of leadership and control that exist in similar communities far to the east.” New towns quickly fell under the control of powerful local elites.\footnote{Richard Hofstadter, \emph{The Progressive Historians: Turner and Beard} (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969), 130–131(quoted); Lacy K. Ford, Jr., “Frontier Democracy: The Turner Thesis Revisited,” \emph{Journal of the Early Republic} 13(2) (Summer 1993), 148–149. “Like democracy, individualism was brought to the frontier.” Hofstadter, \emph{Progressive Historians}, 142. Comparative history supports this interpretation. There seems to have been nothing democratizing about the South African, Brazilian and Siberian frontiers.}
The traditions of the Puritans were hierarchic, deferential and thoroughly undemocratic; civil authority was of God.\footnote{Haskins, \emph{Law and Authority in Early Massachusetts}, 17–19; Bushman, \emph{From Puritan to Yankee}, ch. 1; Lockridge, \emph{New England Town}, 10–12; Konig, \emph{Law and Society in Puritan Massachusetts}, 4–5.} Democracy was a dirty word in 17\textsuperscript{th} century America as it was everywhere else. The emergence of the town meeting was unintended, fortuitous and adventitious. Clearly it was never autonomous or direct-democratic enough to qualify as a Commune. The towns reveal a dysjuncture between Bookchin’s political and social ideals to which he is oblivious. In his usual dualistic way, the Director Emeritus assigns everything to categories of good and evil and then affirms the connection or coherence of the items in each category. For Bookchin, the politically good is the Commune, and the socially and economically good is the “moral economy” (\emph{i.e.,} subsistence farming consciously chosen instead of commerce), communitarian solidarity, and the pursuit of virtue rather than prosperity.
Anticipating the obvious empirical objections to this ideological construct, the ex-Director pulls a dialectical rabbit out of his beret, insisting on considering the Puritan towns “not simply as they existed at any given moment of time, but as they evolved, eventually to become centers of social rebellion, civic autonomy, and collective liberty.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 233.} Fine, let’s think developmental. Evolving political and social trends did move — \emph{in opposite directions.} As the political system moved toward a broader franchise, more frequent and vigorous town meetings, and greater town power relative to the colonial government, there was simultaneously economic diversification, increasing production for sale instead of use, continued land speculation on an ever wider scale, movement out of the country towns to the commercial centers or the frontier, dispersal out of the original nucleated settlements into the countryside, increasing litigation, religious diversity, the breakdown of congregational discipline, and in general, the ascendancy of individualism and material self-interest. The town meeting became more active precisely because communal consensus was giving way to contention premised on heterogeneity.\footnote{Jamil Zainaldin, “The New Legal History: A Review Essay,” \emph{Northwestern University Law Review} 73(1) (March-April 1978), 216–220.} The oligarchic communally-oriented Puritan mutated into the acquisitive democratic Yankee. The ex-Director’s analysis could not be more wrong.
In any case, at no time during these developments was the town meeting truly democratic. If only because of stringent control over access to eligibility, “the town meetings of Massachusetts fall short of any decent democratic standard.”\footnote{Michael Zuckerman, “The Social Context of Democracy in Massachusetts,” \emph{William \& Mary Quarterly}, 3\textsuperscript{rd}. ser., 25(4) (Oct. 1968), 539.} Still less was it ever even slightly libertarian. Historians “emphasize the degree to which nearly every aspect of town life was minutely regulated by town officials, far beyond what might be supposed to have been the needs of local government.”\footnote{Haskins, \emph{Law and Authority in Puritan Massachusetts}, 77.} While there is some doubt about how democratic any of Bookchin’s showcase direct democracies were — not only the Puritan towns but also Athens and revolutionary Paris — there is no doubt about their extremely intrusive paternalism bordering on totalitarianism. The regimes he commends to anarchists aren’t merely non-anarchist, they stand out as exceptionally authoritarian.
At last we come to Bookchin’s prize exhibit, the Parisian sections during the French Revolution. He has more to say about them than about anything since the polis, although his learning rests on a slender scholarly base. He does not cite the foremost expert on the “sections,” Albert Soboul, but I will. The sections, originally electoral districts, were later used as governing bodies (note their statist origin). The National Assembly reduced their number from 60 to 48, but the sections “largely ignored the National Assembly’s decrees” — except that one. In July 1792, the sections abolished the distinction between “active” and “passive” citizens — eliminating a property qualification — and welcomed the sans-culottes of the lower classes. A year later, the National Assembly voted to pay the poor 40 \emph{sous} to attend assembly meetings, but at the same time reduced the meetings to twice a week. Each section had a president, renewed monthly, and a committee to assist him; drawn from a small number of militants, they were routinely reelected every month.\footnote{Albert Soboul, \emph{The Sans-Culottes: The Popular Movement and the Revolutionary Government, 1793–1794,} tr. Remy Inglis Hall (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980), 164–167, 118–125, 179.}
According to the Director Emeritus, “attendance fluctuated widely from a hundred or less when the agenda was routine to overflowing halls (usually in state-commandeered churches and chapels) when serious issues confronted the revolutionary people.”\footnote{Ibid., 164–165, 168–177; Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization,} 116–118, 118 (quoted).} But he also says that “they were often attended by only fifteen or twenty people out of one or two thousand.” Actually, attendance was usually small even for important meetings. In the militant Droits de l’Homme, the section of \emph{enrage} Jean Varlet, over 3,000 citizens were eligible to vote, but on June 17, 1793, only 212 voted in the critical election for commander-in-chief of the Paris National Guard.\footnote{“Interview with Bookchin,” 157; R.B. Rose, \emph{The Enrages: Socialists of the French Revolution?} (Sydney, Australia: Sydney University Press, 1968), 16–17.}
Finally the Director Emeritus tells us what the sections do. They appoint committees: civic committees, police commissions, vigilance committees, military committees, agriculture committees, etc. Each section had a court system and justices of the peace. Among the assembly’s “enormous powers” were spying (“sources of information on counterrevolutionaries and grain speculators”), vigilantism (“dispensers of a rough-and-ready justice”), social work (poor relief, refugee relief), and relieving the peasants of their crops.\footnote{Biehl, \emph{Politics of Social Ecology}, 38.} It’s unusual for an anarchist to celebrate a government’s possession of enormous powers, but Bookchin is nothing if not an unusual anarchist.
Bookchin is more comfortable with structure than function: “The forty-eight sectional assemblies, in turn, were coordinated by the Paris Commune to which each section elected three deputies at an \emph{assemblee primaire}.” That “special assembly” elected the \emph{Bureau} of the Commune, which was the mayor and several executive officials associated with him. The Communal Assembly elected from its members 16 \emph{administrateurs} whose duties are not specified, but have something to do with the executive committee. With the addition of 32 more members the Bureau becomes the 48-member General Council of the Commune.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 118–120.} The division of responsibilities among these bureaucrats, which is rather involved, is not described. But it’s clear that the Commune of Paris acted as a separate power from the sections\footnote{Ferenc Feher, \emph{The Frozen Revolution: An Essay on Jacobinism} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press \& Paris, France: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1987), 92.} — a violation of Bookchin’s confederal requirements.
Even from this version, it’s obvious that sectional sovereignty was severely compromised by the existence of other levels of government. Bookchin scoffs at the national legislature (it went through several names), but almost anytime it felt like intruding into the sectional system, it did so. It reduced the number of sections, reduced the number of meetings, and put the poor on its own payroll. Although there were several popular irruptions into the National Assembly, it was nonetheless always the case that the central government commanded the army and at least part of the National Guard. The government tolerated the sections because each successive regime used them as its popular base, until the day came when the new regime (the Revolutionary Government of the Jacobins) decided that it could dispense with the sections, and then it put them out of business within a few months: “The Revolutionary Government had decided to govern; as soon as it did that, there was an end to the ‘popular movement.’”\footnote{Cobb, \emph{French and Their Revolution}, 226–227.} In 1795, Napoleon with his “whiff of grapeshot” proved that the people in arms felt no qualms about firing on the people in the streets.
Bookchin is wary of the Paris Commune and rightly so: it didn’t “coordinate” the sections, it governed the city as a representative democracy invested, says Kropotkin, with extensive and diverse powers. In composition it was much less representative than the sections; only a third of its members were plebeians (small masters, artisans, shopkeepers, and two workers). If, as Bookchin says, the Commune was consistently less radical than the sections,\footnote{Peter Kropotkin, \emph{The Great French Revolution} (Montreal, Quebec, Canada: Black Rose Books, 1980), 364; Soboul, \emph{Sans-Culottes}, 139–141; R.B. Rose, \emph{The Making of the Sans-Culottes: Democratic Ideas in Paris, 1789–92} (Manchester, England \& Dover, NH: Manchester University Press, 1983), 167; Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 119.} what does this say about his scheme of federated sectional assemblies? Would the Commune of Communes be less radical still?
The Sections were not the exclusive vanguard of the Revolution. The political clubs and popular societies — in 1793 there were over 1,500 of them in France — likewise played major mobilizing roles. Many were affiliated with the Jacobin Society, many others with the Cordeliers Club, a few with both. Clubs and sections both sent forth emissaries to radicalize the Army. After September 9, 1793, when daily meetings of the sectional assemblies were banned, the militants continued to meet as societies whose membership was a fraction of the citizen body; they served more or less as the assemblies’ radical caucuses. In the following months of sans-culotte ascendancy, the societies controlled sectional offices. By their power to issue or withhold \emph{certificates de civisme,} they could control the appointments to municipal government and even remove officeholders.\footnote{Soboul, \emph{Sans-Culottes}, 193–196, 203–221; Morris Slavin, \emph{The Hebertistes to the Guillotine: Anatomy of a “Conspiracy” in Revolutionary France} (Baton Rouge, LA \& London: Louisiana State University Press, 1994), 54. Michael L. Kelly, \emph{The Jacobin Clubs in the French Revolution, 1793–1795} (New York \& Oxford, England: Berghahn Books, 2000); Rose, \emph{Making of the Sans-Culottes,} 147; Cobb, \emph{Police and the People}, 179.} Territorial units are not uniquely revolutionary forms; in the French Revolution, non-territorial associations were more consistently radical.
And now to consider what else the ex-Director left out. He has repeatedly said that the Parisian sections refute the critics who say that a major city is too big for direct democracy.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 115.} The smallest section had 11,775 inhabitants; the largest, 24,977.\footnote{Soboul, \emph{Sans-Culottes}, 26.} After the property qualification was dropped, a few thousand men (and in a few cases women) would be eligible to attend the assembly in even the smallest section. That’s not a face-to-face group; even a substantial minority of that would not be a face-to-face group; not even Notre Dame could hold them. The example proves that the critics are right.
Except that a substantial majority of citizens did not attend — at any time. By one estimate, attendance was never more than 10\%; by another, the range was 4–19\%. There existed a rather small elite of politically conscious \emph{sectionnaires}, 3,000 to 4,000 in a population of 650,000 to 700,000, or 12 to 20 men per section at the most.\footnote{Rose, \emph{Making of the Sans-Culottes}, 179; Albert Soboul, \emph{The Parisian Sans-Culottes and the French Revolution, 1793–94} (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964), 168; R. Cobb, “The People in the French Revolution,” \emph{Past \& Present} 15 (April 1959), 63–64; Richard Cobb, \emph{The Police and the People: French Popular Protest, 1789–1820} (Oxford: at the Clarendon Press, 1970), 122.} The entry of the sans-culottes, important municipal elections, “crises” — nothing ever produced more than a small spike in attendance. In a careless interview, Bookchin himself admits that the assemblies “were often attended by only fifteen or twenty people out of one or two thousand.” (No section was as small as 1,000.) They were the best of times, they were the worst of times, but most people didn’t have the time for the times. Or the inclination. The assemblies did not fulfill the ex-Director’s dream of mentally muscular deliberation: “As a rule, meetings appear to have been disorderly, with many heated arguments even when the sans-culottes were in complete control; frequently, no discussion at all was possible.”\footnote{“Interview with Murray Bookchin,” 157 (quoted); Soboul, \emph{Parisian Sans-Culottes}, 167.} As at Athens, mass citizen abstention was the prerequisite for self-appointed elites to rule in the name of the people.
The remarkable unity of the sections derives from more than mass solidarity. When the sans-culottes entered the assemblies, moderates left. Militants from a radical section would drive out the “aristocracy” [sic] in control of another section (this was called “fraternization”). “There was nothing democratic in this type of action, of course,” notes Morris Slavin. Or militant “hard bottoms” might just outsit the majority, until twenty-odd determined militants remained to act in the name of the assembly.\footnote{Soboul, \emph{Parisian Sans-Culottes}, 170; Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 119–120; Rose, \emph{The Enrages}, 54, 17; Morris Slavin, \emph{The Making of an Insurrection: Parisian Sections and the Gironde}, (Cambridge \& London: Harvard University Press, 1986), 159 (quoted) \& ch. 2.} Within the assemblies, in the most radical phase voting was by acclamation, intimidating dissenters, as it was intended to do. According to Janet Biehl, “during even the most militant periods of the revolution, royalists and moderates still turned out for meetings, as well as extreme radicals.”\footnote{Cobb, \emph{Police and the People}, 183, 206; Biehl, \emph{Politics of Social Ecology}, 38 (quoted).} According to history, they stayed away in droves, but this was not always enough to save them from arrest or even execution. It is no accident that summer and autumn 1793, “the high tide of the \emph{sans culotte} movement,” corresponds to the Reign of Terror, which was launched on September 5. Militants sought out the counterrevolutionaries who, they supposed, lurked everywhere. There were men who were arrested only because they did not attend the assembly or did not have a record of active support of the revolution. It was in this spirit that St. Just denounced Danton: “Are you not a criminal and responsible for not having hated the enemies of the fatherland?”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 117; Soboul, \emph{Sans-Culottes}, 147–148; St. Just quoted in Stirner, \emph{Ego and Its Own}, 182; F. Furet, C. Mazauric, \& L. Bergeron, “The Sans-Culottes and the French Revolution,” in \emph{New Perspectives on the French Revolution: Readings in Historical Sociology}, ed. Jeffry Kaplow (New York: John Wiley \& Sons, 1965), 235. The last source is the only one cited by Bookchin, except an idiotic Stalinist book by Daniel Guerin criticized in this same article, ibid., 232, but wherever the ex-Director got most of his material, it wasn’t here. He is unacquainted with the modern authorities on the popular movement in the Revolution (Cobb, Rude, Rose, Slavin, and Soboul).} Failure to wear the tricolor cockade in one’s hat was grounds for arrest. There was every reason to stay away: “To the ‘silent majority,’ after four years of uproar still too bored or too busy to involve themselves in interminable assembly debates and committee business, the vindictiveness and potentially lethal violence of factional power struggles added fresh reinforcements.”\footnote{Rose, \emph{Making of the Sans-Culottes}, 179; Soboul, \emph{Sans-Culottes}, 169–170, 183.} To speak out against the government in the assembly would be suicide. Even to mutter against it on the street invited arrest. Under these circumstances, democracy, direct or otherwise, is a sham.
In listing the administrative personnel elected by the sections, the Director Emeritus failed to mention that they were detailed to the Commune — they were city employees — and thus not exclusively answerable to their appointing bodies. Increasingly they identified with their employer, who paid them: “The civic committees, developed in the same fashion as the autonomous sectional institutions. At first, agents of their fellow citizens, the status of the commissars changed as the revolutionary government increased its control by creating a cadre of low-grade officials, soon to be nominated by committees, finally salaried by the municipality.” Likewise the Commune indemnified the members of the revolutionary committees (in charge of security), transforming them into its salaried employees.\footnote{Soboul, \emph{Sans-Culottes}, 189–191.} The Commune drained off the most active militants, turning them into bureaucrats, lost to their sections. After five years of activism, other militants were burnt out — still a common phenomenon on the left. One study found that out of 400 Revolutionary Committee members, 150 went into the state bureaucracy, often the police department. A paid job in the War Ministry or the police, says Cobb, offered consolation to disappointed democrats: “The government bought off some of the best militants, ‘bureaucratized’ some of the most effective popular institutions — there was no doubt an agreeable irony in getting the militants to do the government’s dirty work and in transforming former \emph{tribunes} into policemen.”\footnote{Rose, \emph{Making of the Sans-Culottes}, 181–182; Soboul, \emph{Sans-Culottes}, 259–262; Richard Cobb, \emph{The French and Their Revolution}, ed. David Gilmour (New York: The New Press, 1998), 226 (quoted); Cobb, \emph{Police and the People}, 192.}
In a final irony, the sections fell victim to their own bellicosity. They had always been the war hawks, flourishing in the wartime atmosphere of 1793, and supporting the \emph{levee en masse} of August 23. In the army there were promotions for some “who had served their apprenticeship in the Paris sections.” The majority of the militants were now conscripted themselves. Even the army recruited in Paris, with many sans-culottes, was unswervingly loyal to the revolutionary government and the Convention, with no desire to replace them with direct democracy or a new hierarchy of sectional societies.\footnote{Soboul, \emph{Sans-Culottes}, 179–190, 259–262; Alan Forrest, \emph{The Soldiers of the French Revolution} (Durham, NC \& London: Duke University Press, 1990), 55 (quoted); Cobb, \emph{French and Their Revolution}, 81.}
The domination of the sections by several thousand ideologically supercharged militants, many of them commencing careers in government, calls for qualification of Bookchin’s claim “that this complex of extremely important activities was undertaken not by professional bureaucrats but, for the most part, by ordinary shopkeepers and craftsmen.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 161.} In the first place, they were not quite so “ordinary.” The \emph{sans-culottes,} who were not a class, were rather a socially heterogeneous political coalition whose only common material interest was as consumers (hence the primacy of the price of bread as an issue). They were mostly self-employed artisans and craftsmen, along with their journeymen and apprentices who expected to become self-employed someday. The better-off owners and masters shaded into the bourgeoisie. The lower reaches of the bourgeoisie, sometimes including merchants, factory owners and lawyers, supplied most of the sectional militants and officials. Offices requiring literacy were closed to most sans-culottes. Justices of the peace were mostly drawn from the former legal professions (which had been technically abolished in 1791\footnote{Donald B. Kelley \& Bonnie G. Smith, “What was Property? Legal Dimensions of the Social Question in France (1789–1848),” \emph{Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society} 128 (1984), 203.}). Years of activism turned the militants into political professionals who in many cases brought their skills into government (especially the police and the military). In experience, temperament and employment prospects, they were different from the masses, and so were their interests. What was supposed to be a shining example of direct democracy is actually a striking example of the Iron Law of Oligarchy.
Superficially — that is to say, on Bookchin’s level — the revolutionary sections might look like “the most dazzling, almost meteoric example of civic liberty and direct democracy in modern times.” If so, it is only because there are no other examples. In reality, the sections had even less power than the New England town meetings. The town meeting had the power to tax and money to spend. The Parisian section, which had neither, had mainly a population, and it even lost some of that to national conscription. New England had locally based militias in a colony lacking a standing army. The \emph{sectionnaires} gained partial control of the National Guard, but the rest of it along with the enormous army was under central government control, and sans-culotte National Guardsmen never came to the defense of the sections. Their supporters were armed but not organizable for anything except crowd action. New England towns controlled local administration. The apparently extensive administrative powers of sectional officials actually belonged to the municipal government. The sections were not federated; the Paris Commune was not a Commune of Communes. The fundamental contradiction was their support for policies, from war to price controls, which strengthened the central government. From the pinnacle of their influence they plummeted to nothing: “After the decree of 5 frimaire [November 26, 1794], the sections played no part at all in the revolutionary government.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 115; Soboul, \emph{Sans-Culottes}, 104.}
The sans-culottes were not “pushed from the stage of history and shot down by the thousands in the reaction that followed the tenth of Thermidor (July 28, 1794), when Robespierre and his followers were guillotined.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 120–121.} Robespierre and his colleagues and followers (104 of them) were indeed guillotined,\footnote{Georges Fefebvre, \emph{The French Revolution From 1793 to 1799}, tr. John Hall Stewart \& James Friguglietti (London: Routledge \& Kegan Paul and New York: Columbia University Press, 1964), 136.} but they were not sans-culottes. Some sans-culottes were even released from prison then. The sections were quiet during the coup. There was no widespread repression of sans-culotte militants until after the later failed insurrection of Prairial (May 20–23, 1795). Then some 1200 were arrested, and others were disarmed. While this gave a strong impetus to the nascent White Terror, it was outside Paris, especially in the south of France, that patriots were slaughtered in large numbers: “But, in Paris at least, there were no massacres” (Albert Mathiez). Thermidor was not particularly bloody even for Section Droits-de-l’Homme, where, “in numerous individual cases, [the Thermidorians] released their political opponents and allowed them to return to normal life.”\footnote{George Lefebvre, \emph{The Thermidorians \& The Directory}, tr. Robert Baldick (New York: Random House, 1964), 128–137; Albert Mathiez, \emph{After Robespierre: The Thermidorian Reaction}, tr. Catherine Alison Phillips (New York: Grosset \& Dunlap, Universal Library, 1965), 178–183, 183 (quoted); Morris Slavin, \emph{The French Revolution in Miniature: Section Droits-de-l’Homme, 1789–1795} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), 405 (quoted).}
Actually, Bookchin also tells another story of the demise of the sections: “The movement for sectional democracy met defeat during the insurrection of June 2, 1793 — not at the hands of the monarchy, but by the treachery of the Jacobins.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 155.} The insurrection of June 2 was in support of a Jacobin coup directed at the majority Girondins in the Convention, using muscle from the sections. The Girondin debuties were expelled and two dozen were guillotined. The Girondins did not support, and were not supported by, the sans-culottes, whom they held in “open contempt.” It’s ludicrous to say, as does Biehl, that “[the sans-culottes’] leaders were among the first to be arrested by the Jacobin regime when it came to power in June 1793.”\footnote{Kropotkin, \emph{Great French Revolution,} 344; Biehl, \emph{Politics of Social Ecology}, 39 (quoted).} If direct democracy didn’t flourish in June-December 1793, it never did. The sections regarded the putsch as their victory. They supported the new regime’s policies of war, conscription, and price controls on staples.
The months following June 2 and preceding Thermidor were the “high tide of the sans-culotte movement,” in Bookchin’s words. However, the sections came to see that the centralization and regimentation imposed by the revolutionary government undermined their power (whereas the Reign of Terror taking place at the same time neither threatened nor displeased them — indeed, they were its foot soldiers). The sans-culottes were sufficiently disenchanted with the Jacobins as to make no move to defend them at Thermidor; some even participated in the anti-Jacobin coup. But the new regime correctly concluded that with the newly strengthened military and police apparatus at its disposal (including sans-culottes from the sections), the sections were irrelevant; soon they were nonexistent.\footnote{George Rude, \emph{The Crowd in the French Revolution} (Oxford: at the Clarendon Press, 1959), 113–114; Rose, \emph{Making of the Sans-Culottes}, 182; Slavin, \emph{Making of an Insurrection}, 4 (quoted).} The short life of sectional direct democracy corresponds to the Reign of Terror, which was inherently anti-democratic. It holds no lessons, except authoritarian ones, for our time.
The Parisian Sections were remarkable if short-lived institutions, but they were not Communes, nor was the Paris Commune a Commune of Communes. Bookchin claims the sections were “coordinated by a commune that, at its revolutionary highlight [sic], called for a complete restructuring of France into a confederation of free communes.” The sections weren’t “coordinated” by anyone. The Paris Commune never made a ludicrous appeal to federate 44,000 French communes. The pamphleteer Jean Varlet, the foremost ideologue of sectional democracy, could not even get his own ultra-radical Droit l’Homme section to mandate its Convention delegates to support direct democracy.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 116 (quoted); Rose, \emph{Making of the Sans-Culottes}, 169.}
As a Marxist, the Director Emeritus has to claim that history is behind him as well as ahead of him. He excoriates Nietzsche, but borrows his most preposterous idea, Eternal Recurrence. Communes, which never existed anywhere, he sees everywhere: “The historical evidence of their efficacy and their continual reappearance in times of rapid social change is considerable and persuasive.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}\emph{, 247.}} To obtain such “historical evidence,” Bookchin has invented it or (as with respect to Renaissance city-states) selectively censored sources so outrageously that it is tantamount to forgery. His theory that communes appear in times of rapid social change is easily falsified: the Industrial Revolution, for instance, produced no Communes, whereas the democracy of Athens was the result of political maneuver, not social change. \emph{We} live in a time of rapid social change, and Bookchin has been predicting Communes for decades, but there are none. In revolutionary Paris, in colonial America, and throughout preindustrial Europe — throughout the civilized world! — society, especially urban society, was hierarchic and deferential.
To sum up: such European cities as escaped royal control for any period of time were sometimes redefined as self-governing by exclusive organizations of the wealthy who dominated the general assemblies, in the minority of cities where they ever existed, and soon instituted ruling magistracies elected or coopted by, and from, their own ranks. The communal movement was about urban autonomy from kings, bishops and feudal lords, and nothing else. To employ Carl Becker’s distinction, it was about home rule, not who was to rule at home, much less how. Certainly there never existed, not even briefly, under normal conditions of life, a broad-based urban general assembly which met frequently and which elected and controlled all functionaries. By Bookchin’s own criteria, the urban Commune never existed in medieval or modern Europe. Did it even exist at Athens?
\chapter{Chapter 14. The Judgment of Athena}
If Athens was not \emph{by his own definition} anarchist, Murray Bookchin is not an anarchist.
Whatever it was, Athens was exceptional. Most of the Greek city-states were oligarchies. Indeed, in an atypically accurate statement which refutes his whole theory of urban destiny, Bookchin says that city-states naturally tend toward oligarchy.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization,} 40; Finley, \emph{Economy and Society in Ancient Greece}, 88; Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 76; Ober, \emph{Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens}, 7; Roberts, “Creation of a Legacy,” 83.} The Director Emeritus errs in claiming that Aristotle (and Plato!) approved of democracy in the right circumstances. Aristotle clearly stated his preference for “polity,” described as a mixture of democracy and oligarchy. He disapproved of democracy, as M.I. Finley puts it, “on principle.” What’s more, he thought Athens was democracy at its worst, the worst being lawless democracy based on vulgar people, merchants, and the multitude of laborers.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 11; Aristotle, \emph{The Politics}, 187; Barker, \emph{Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle}, 453; M.I. Finley, \emph{Democracy Ancient and Modern} (2d ed.; London: Hogarth Press, 1985), 5 (quoted), 29; David Held, “Democracy: From City-States to a Cosmopolitan Order,” in \emph{Contemporary Political Philosophy}, 80 (Aristotle is “one of the most notable critics of Greek democracy”); Richard Mulgan, “Was Aristotle an ‘Aristotelian Social Democrat’?” \emph{Ethics} 111(1) (Oct. 2000), 84–85. For Aristotle, the worst form of democracy is one where majority rule is unconstrained by law; then “the people are a sort of monarch.” Aristotle, \emph{Politics}, 125–126.} Socrates and Plato, and lesser Athenian intellectuals, were anti-democratic. For Plato the worst form of government was tyranny followed by “extreme” — \emph{i.e.}, Athenian — democracy. If for Plato democracy was not the worst form of government, neither was it the best — that would be monarchy.\footnote{Arihiro Fukuda, \emph{Sovereignty and the Sword: Harrington, Hobbes, and Mixed Government in the English Civil Wars} (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 9.} The only possible exception to the anti-democratic consensus might be Herodotus (his is the earliest extant use of the word democracy), who was not Athenian, and he’s not a clear case.\footnote{A modern study mentions his “frosty view of the young Athenian democracy \dots{}” Daniel Gillis, \emph{Collaboration with the Persians} (Wiesbaden, West Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag GMBH, 1979), 16.}
“It is curious,” writes A.H.M. Jones, “that in the abundant literature produced in the greatest democracy in Greece there is no statement of democratic theory.”\footnote{Roberts, “Creation of a Legacy,” 84–85; Anthony H. Birch, \emph{The Concepts and Theories of Modern Democracy} (London \& New York: Routledge, 1993), 45; Finley, \emph{Ancient Greeks}, 112; David Held, \emph{Models of Democracy} (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), 16; A.H.M. Jones, \emph{Athenian Democracy} (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1957), 41 (quoted); David Stockton, \emph{The Classical Athenian Democracy} (Oxford \& New York: Oxford: at the Clarendon Press, 1972), 167–168; Finley, \emph{Democracy Ancient and Modern}, 49.} Nothing curious about it: no Athenian democrat was up to the job. Athenian democracy has found its critics among those who knew direct democracy by direct experience, and it has found its champions among those who have not. (Since writing the previous sentence, I found that Hegel agreed with me: “Those ancients who as members of democracies since their youth, had accumulated long experience and reflected profoundly about it, held different views on popular opinion from those more a priori views prevalent today.”\footnote{G.W.F. Hegel, “On the English Reform Bill,” in \emph{Political Writings}, ed. Laurence Dickey \& H.B. Nisbet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 235.} I have several times had such agreeable experiences in writing this book.)
Every Greek would have agreed with M.I. Finley that “Athens had gradually stretched the notion of a direct democracy (as distinct from a representative system) about as far as was possible outside utopia.”\footnote{M.I. Finley, \emph{The Use and Abuse of History} (New York: The Viking Press, 1975), 35.} Something else every Greek would agree with is that the Athenian polis was a state. Plato thought so. Aristotle thought so.\footnote{Barker, \emph{Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle}, 13;} And Aristotle even reveals the source of confusion on that score: it is “our use of the word polis to mean both the state and the city.”\footnote{Quoted in Ian Morris, “The Early Polis as City and State,” in \emph{City and Country in the Ancient World}, ed. John Rich \& Andrew Wallace-Hedril (London \& New York: Routledge, 1991), 25.} It’s impossible to cite more than a small fraction of the historians, philosophers and social scientists who have considered Athens, as a polis, a state, because they all do.\footnote{\emph{E.g.}, Barker, \emph{Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle}, 460; Finley, \emph{Use and Abuse of History}, 48; James F. McGlew, \emph{Tyranny and Political Culture in Ancient Greece} (Ithaca, NY \& London: Cornell University Press, 1993), 149–150; Alvin L. Gouldner, \emph{Enter Plato: Classical Greece and the Origins of Social Theory} (New York \& London: Basic Books, 1965), 5; C. Hignett, \emph{A History of the Athenian Constitution to the End of the Fifth Century B.C.} (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958), 177; Lewis H. Morgan, \emph{Ancient Society} (New York: Henry Holt \& Co., 1877), 269–270, 273; R.K. Sinclair, \emph{Democracy and Participation in Athens} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 6; Stockton, \emph{Classical Athenian Democracy}, 4, 113; Bruce G. Trigger, \emph{Time and Tradition: Essays in Archaeological Interpretation} (New York; Columbia University Press, 968), 163. “The ancient cities were absolutely identical with the state.” Henri Pirenne, \emph{Early Democracies in the Low Countries: Urban Society and Political Conflict in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance} (New York: Harper \& Row, 1963), 16. For all its vaunted democracy, the politicized Athenian stratification system approximated the typical pre-industrial city far more than it does a modern city. Sjoberg, \emph{The Preindustrial City}, 80.} That is also the Marxist position.\footnote{\emph{The Ethnological Notebooks of Karl Marx: Studies of Morgan, Phear, Maine, Lubbock}, ed. Lawrence Krader (Assen, Netherlands: Van Gorcum, 1972), 215 (referring to the Athenian \emph{Stadtsbuerger}, \emph{i.e.,} state citizen); Engels, “The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State,” ch. 5, “The Rise of the Athenian State.”}
In Chapter 13, I use eight requisites which, if present together, denote a Commune according to the Director Emeritus. As best I can tell, anyway. Considering how much he talks about the Commune, Bookchin is very reticent about the specifics. It is not always clear which features of the Athenian polity he considers constitutive of direct democracy. I will show that, with respect to every one of these eight criteria, Athens did not meet it, or barely and debatably met it, or met it formally by means divesting the institutions of democratic content. Athens was not a Commune; it was not even close.
But even before entering into those specifics, Athens must be disqualified as a democracy, and even as an urban society, because it was founded on a non-political, biological, animalistic basis. The turning point of human history, as Bookchin so often reminds us, is the urban revolution against the mindless exclusivity of kin organization, with the polis in the urban vanguard and Athens the first and finest example. The city
\begin{quote}
[\dots{}] exorcises the blood oath from the family with its parochial myths and its chauvinistic exclusivity, while retaining or reworking its concept of socialization\dots{} The municipal space of Athens, in effect [sic], was expanded to create a largely civic citizenry [?], unencumbered by the mindless tribal obligations and blood oaths that impeded the rights of the stranger but in a form that wore the symbols and enjoyed the prestige of tribal tradition.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 30.}
\end{quote}
It is not so. \emph{The Athenian polis was based on the blood oath}. The Athenian body politic was defined by heredity just as surely as any other aristocracy, and as exclusively as any, even the Brahmin caste. By a law moved by Pericles himself — Pericles, whose funeral oration is the supreme expression of Athenian democracy — the citizen body was restricted to current citizens and their descendants. At the same time, it was made illegal for an Athenian to marry a foreigner; thus their children would be bastards as well as noncitizens, and the noncitizen spouse would be sold into slavery. According to Plutarch, many lawsuits over legitimacy ensued, and over 5,000 unsuccessful claimants to citizenship were sold into slavery, 14,040 having passed the test.\footnote{Plutarch, “Pericles,” 1: 335–336; “Birds,” \emph{Aristophanes: Plays: I}, 71.} This had unswerving citizen support; introduced in 451\Slash{}450 B.C., reaffirmed (after irregularities during the Peloponnesian War) in 403–402 B.C., and further buttressed during the fourth century by ancillary legislation and procedural innovation.\footnote{David Whitehead, “Norms of Citizenship in Ancient Greece,” in \emph{City-States in Classical Antiquity and Medieval Italy}, ed. Anthony Molho, Kurt Raaflaub \& Julia Emlen (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1991), 140.}
When an Athenian male turned 18, he applied for ratification of his citizenship to his deme (local district), in which membership was likewise hereditary. Citizens felt race pride, like the two con-artists in the “Birds” of Aristophanes who congratulate themselves: “we \emph{are}\Slash{}Family-tree perfect: Athenians\Slash{}For generations, afraid of no one.” Or the “Wasps”: “We are the only\Slash{}Aboriginal inhabitants — the native race of Attica,\Slash{}Heroes to a man, and saviours of this city.”.\footnote{Aristophanes, “Birds,” 6; “Wasps,” 205.} Athens took its racism seriously. In 403\Slash{}402 B.C., after the overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants put in power by Sparta, the assembly voted down a bill to extend citizenship to the slaves who had helped to overthrow the tyrants: “Allowing slaves to be citizens would deny the linkage between patriotism and citizen blood.”\footnote{Ober, \emph{Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens}, 97–98.}
We have already seen what the Director Emeritus means by the blood oath (Chapter 9). If it means that relatives jointly swear to defend or avenge family members, then I am unaware of any primitive societies which have or ever had this practice. They may exist, but this is not the normal practice of kin-based societies. Your kin are the people you can take for granted. It’s when people are \emph{un}related that they may feel the need for an artificial support for their solidarity, such as medieval townsmen entering into a \emph{conjuratio}, as the Director Emeritus has described (Chapter 13). Besides, the point of an oath is to intimidate the oath-taker with supernatural sanctions, which is irrational,\footnote{There was plenty of emotionalism and institutionalized irrationality in Greek culture. Finley, \emph{Ancient Greeks}, 117, 125; Mumford, \emph{City in History}, 158; E.R. Dodds, \emph{The Greeks and the Irrational} (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1957). Fifth-century B.C. Athenians were pre-Stoic, and their psychology and values, Finley suggests, are best represented by the \emph{Bacchae} of Euripides. At all levels of society, “crude magical and superstitious practices flourished.” Finley, \emph{Ancient Greeks}, 125, 117 (quoted). Indeed, a recent anthology of translations contains \emph{three hundred} supernatural classical texts. Daniel Ogden, \emph{Magic, Witchcraft and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Source Book} (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).} whereas trusting one’s blood relatives is often a rational course of action, and that is not how the pineapples are supposed to line up according to Book’s gutter \emph{Gemeinschaft\Slash{}Gesellschaft} schedule. Athenian racism really renders further discussion unnecessary: nonethless I proceed to consider the case for Athens as a Commune.
\emph{Policy-Making Assembly.} Athens, of course, had an assembly which met often, but the evidence of its influence over policy is “slender.” It shared a substantial amount of this authority with another body. The council (\emph{boule}) of 500 met whenever the assembly did not, that is, nine days out of ten — and on assembly days after the meeting — about 275 out of 354 days. Its most important function was to prepare the agenda for assembly meetings to which no proposal could be added from the floor. Except for the generals (see below), nobody outside the council had a right to address it or move proposals, nor could there be proposals from the floor of the assembly. One of Robert A. Dahl’s five requirements for democracy is that the body of citizens (in his word, the \emph{demos}) should have exclusive control over the political agenda.\footnote{Dahl, \emph{Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy,} 6, 9.} The council could always prevent assembly action; it had, in effect, an anticipatory veto power over all legislation.\footnote{P.J. Rhodes, \emph{The Athenian Boule} (Oxford: at the Clarendon Press, 1972), 63.}
This arrangement might raise fewer objections on democratic grounds if the assembly elected the council; but it did not. Council members were nominated annually from men aged 30 and over not in the lowest income class, from those who put themselves forward, by the demes (see below) grouped in tribes for this purpose. Demes were units of local government wherein membership was hereditary, and because they were of very disparate sizes, the council was malapportioned.\footnote{Stockton, \emph{Classical Athenian Democracy}, 59. Specifically, the city was substantially underrepresented relative to the coast and the interior.} At least twice the number of officeholders required were supposed to be nominated, thus providing for alternates.
The final decision was by lot conducted by the outgoing council, which usually amounted to deciding which nominees would be council members and which would be substitutes.\footnote{Rhodes, \emph{Athenian Boule}, 3–6, 211–213; Robin Osborne,\emph{Demos: The Discovery of Classical Attica} (London: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 77–82.} Thus council members were chosen by a combination of local election and sortition, but not by the assembly. The Director Emeritus is thus twice incorrect in saying that each tribe selected its council members by lot.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 72.} In the initial phase, selection was by election, and in the final phase, the outgoing council, not the tribe, conducted the lottery. In any event, the council members were not answerable to the assembly; they could not be recalled or mandated. They were, in a word, \emph{representatives}.\footnote{Roberts, “Creation of a Legacy,” 90; Hansen, \emph{Athenian Democracy}, 247–248, 250–251, 253; Hansen, \emph{Athenian Assembly}, 36–37; Dahl, \emph{On Democracy}, 22; Walter Eder, “Who Rules? Power and Participation in Athens and Rome,” in \emph{City-States in Classical Antiquity and Medieval Italy}, 175.}
Council membership was limited to citizens 30 and over and from the top three of the four income classes (what are these doing in a Commune?). It is not clear how strictly the income limitation was enforced, but the age limitation substantially restricted participation. Over 60\% of Athenians, and one-third of Athenians reaching adulthood, never lived to age 30.\footnote{Richardson, \emph{Old Age Among the Ancient Greeks}, 231.} The significance of this fact has escaped the attention of historians who claim that almost all citizens could expect to serve on the council sooner or later. For many of them it was sooner or never. Despite the alleged “emergence of the city, followed by the increasing supremacy of town over country and territorial over kinship ties,”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 63.} the council, like the court system, was something of a gerontocracy, which Bookchin would have to consider a biological institution, like the family.
Anyone who has ever been involved with a parliamentary body appreciates the tremendous importance of setting the agenda. Scarcely less important than power over what goes on the agenda is power over the order of business. That can influence the outcome and, in at least two situations, absolutely determine it: when the meeting adjourns before decision, and in those circumstances where the Voter’s Paradox (discussed in Chapter 17) creates a situation of a closed cycling majority.\footnote{Kenneth Arrow, \emph{Social Choice and Individual Values} (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; John Wiley \& Sons, 1963), 2–3, 94–95.} The assembly was passive; the council took the initiative: “Certainly the assembly had sovereign power and consented to or dissented from the motions put before it, but this final responsibility is not the same as effective power to initiate the policy.”\footnote{Osborne, \emph{Demos}, 65.}
With, to be sure, several important exceptions, the council exercised the powers of the assembly between meetings. The exceptions included limitations on imprisonment without bail, on the death penalty, on the imposition of large fines, and on war and peace. Otherwise the council could promulgate decrees on its own authority, of which the assembly ratified about half. In addition, assembly decrees might authorize the council to make additions and amendments.\footnote{Rhodes, \emph{Athenian Boule,} 179–180, 188–190; Hansen, \emph{Athenian Democracy,} 255. However, on occasion the council ordered executions on its own authority. MacDowell, \emph{Law in Classical Athens}, 189–190.} The council exercised comprehensive supervision over the many boards of officials. “It is impossible to give a full account here of all the Council’s administrative duties and powers,” writes a recent historian of Athenian democracy:
\begin{quote}
It was involved in the control of all sanctuaries in Athens and Attica and the running of many of the religious festivals; it had the duty to inspect all public buildings, most notably the defenses of the city and the Piraeus; it was responsible for the navy and the naval yards, for the building of new vessels and the equipping and despatch of fleets, and it had oversight of the cavalry. It acted as administrator of the public finances in collaboration with various other boards; and, last but not least, it had daily responsibility for foreign policy.\footnote{Hansen, \emph{Athenian Democracy}, 255–256, 259 (quoted).}
\end{quote}
Bookchin’s depiction of Athenian government as the work of part-timers and amateurs begins to look misleading. Council members may not have been the trained career professionals of an ideal-type Weberian bureaucracy, but for a year they were paid, full-time legislators and administrators.\footnote{Hignett, \emph{History of the Athenian Constitution}, 249.} A bureaucracy of amateurs is still a bureaucracy. They might be reelected once, and in any given year, 100–125 of them would have had previous council experience.\footnote{Hansen, \emph{Athenian Democracy}, 249.} Bookchin’s distinction between policymaking and administration is not as sharp as he announces it. Denounce it though he will, the “melding” of policy and administration is normal in public administration.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 215–216; Aaron Wildavsky \& Jeffrey L. Pressman, \emph{Implementation} (3\textsuperscript{rd} ed., exp.; Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984), 143.}
The judicial system is another branch of administration with a popular character but not responsible to the assembly. 6,000 judges were elected from the demes for one year of paid service. Eligibility was as for the council: at least 30 years old and not poor. On a daily basis, if there was business for them, they would be empanelled in “batches of hundreds” of jurors, usually 200–1,000, to hear cases.\footnote{Zimmern, \emph{Greek Commonwealth}, 160–161; Hignett, \emph{History of the Athenian Constitution}, 249; Stockton, \emph{Classical Athenian Democracy}, 99–101; MacDowell, \emph{Law in Classical Athens}, 34.} Decision was by secret ballot, without deliberation, and there was no appeal from the jury’s verdict. Without going into the details of this system, it may be noted that there was no due process as we would understand it. The parties made set speeches as best they could. They could not normally employ advocates, although they could hire speech-writers. The parties might question each other, but they could not testify themselves. There was no cross-examination of non-party witnesses. The only witnesses were, in our terms, character witnesses, friends and family vouching for the virtue of the party they advocated for.\footnote{MacDowell, \emph{Law in Classical Athens}, 243; Sally Humphreys, “Witnesses in Classical Athens,” \emph{History and Anthropology} 1 (pt. 2) (1985): 313–369. Slave testimony was admissible only if produced under torture. MacDowell, \emph{Law in Classical Athens}, 245–246.} Slaves might testify — but only if they had been tortured (I’m not making this up). There were emotional appeals to the jury, as in modern systems, but unrestrained by the court. Aristophanes shows us a dog put on trial for stealing a Sicilian cheese; the bitch has her puppies whine for her.\footnote{“Wasps,” 1970), 188, 199–203.} There was no one to instruct the jurors in the law, because the presiding officers were as ignorant as they were.
In fact, the Draconian innovation of written law, hailed by the Director Emeritus, sometimes failed to provide the legal certainty claimed as its great virtue. A party relying on a law had to prove it as a fact; it was not assumed that the law, being written, was known to everyone. Evidently there were cases of the law being faked, as “a law prescribed death as the penalty for anyone found to have presented a non-existent law.”\footnote{MacDowell, \emph{Law in Classical Athens}, 251–252, 242 (quoted).} There was no right to counsel. Juries expected litigants to speak for themselves unless they were utterly incapable, and it was a crime to represent another professionally, \emph{i.e.}, to practice law.
It was an all-amateur legal system. But while there were no lawyers, there were “sycophants,” individuals who brought frequent groundless prosecutions to obtain either blackmail money or 20\% of any fine imposed.\footnote{Stockton, \emph{Classical Athenian Democracy}, 97–99; MacDowell, \emph{Law in Classical Athens}, 62–63, 250–252. If, however, less than 20\% of the jurors voted to convict, the prosecutor was heavily fined. MacDowell, \emph{Law in Classical Athens}, 64.} They are reminiscent of our ambulance-chasers. Finally, some of the punishments prescribed were cruel and unusual. The painless, peaceful death of Socrates was exceptional. The usual methods of execution were extremely brutal. An early form was “precipitation,” where the condemned was thrown off a precipice and left for dead. That is cruel enough, but as the Athenians became more civilized, their punishments became even more brutal. In the method favored later, the condemned was fitted with a heavy iron collar and clamped to a pole in a standing position to suffer a lingering death by starvation, exposure and something like crucifixion, only it lasted longer. Some of the Samian prisoners were tortured in this way for ten days and then their tormentors grew impatient and bashed their heads in.\footnote{MacDowell, \emph{Law in Classical Athens}, 254–255; Gernet, \emph{Anthropology of Ancient Greece}, 254, 268 n. 10. Although it is not \emph{criminal} punishment, it merits mention that during the Peloponnesian War the Athenians executed thousands of prisoners of war. From Mytilene alone, “rather more” than 1,000 were executed — and that was in lieu of executing all the men and enslaving the rest! Thucydides, \emph{History of the Peloponnesian War}, 212–223.} Contemporaries judged the Athenian legal system harshly. Plato and Aristotle divided democracy, like monarchy and aristocracy, into good and bad variants. The bad variant was where the rule of law did not prevail. They considered Athens the worst kind of democracy, the lawless kind.\footnote{Aristotle, \emph{Politics}, 126; \emph{The Laws of Plato}, 121 (optimal population is 5,040).}
Conclusion: a substantial share of policymaking authority was exercised by a full-time council which, as Aristotle stated, represented an oligarchic element, a check on the assembly.\footnote{Aristotle, \emph{Politics}, 106–107.}
\emph{Face-to-Face Assembly Meetings.} “Face-to-face” is an expression beloved of Bookchin, among too many others, but his use of it is fraught with confusion. Is he talking about a face-to-face \emph{assembly} or a face-to-face \emph{society}? Properly the phrase refers to a local community in the anthropological or sociological sense — something social, not political. It was originally applied by Peter Laslett to the pre-industrial English village community; later it was extended to other localities, like urban neighborhoods, where people know each other.\footnote{Peter Laslett, “The Face to Face Society,” in \emph{Philosophy, Politics and Society, First Series}, ed. Peter Laslett (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1975), 157–184.} Band societies are such communities. So are tribal societies, as the Director Emeritus has observed.\footnote{Bookchin, “Toward an Ecological Solution,” \emph{Ecology and Revolutionary Thought}, 45.} So were the pre-industrial English villages studied by Laslett, with populations in the hundreds.\footnote{Laslett, \emph{World We Have Lost}, 54–55.} Aristotle thought the optimum population of a polis is one in which the polis can be taken in at a single view. The urban architect Constantinos Doxiadis points out that prior to the 18\textsuperscript{th} century, in 99\% of cities one could walk from the center to the periphery in ten minutes. Laslett himself, in working out the meaning of a face-to-face community, stated that a polis never had more than 10,000 citizens and often only 1,000\footnote{Aristotle, \emph{Politics}, 163; Constantinos A. Doxiadis \& Truman B. Douglass, \emph{The New World of Urban Man} (Philadelphia, PA \& Boston, MA: United Church Press, 1965), 64–65; Laslett, “Face to Face Society,” 162–163.} — obviously overlooking Athens.
Thus the face-to-face model is “an absurd model” for Athens, with its population of 250,000–300,000. In an article on the origins of the Athenian polis, Ian Morris states that Athens was no face-to-face society. As early as 500 B.C., the population was probably 25,000, rising to 30,000 by 450 B.C. Historian Josiah Ober, in a generally sympathetic account of Athenian democracy, points out that Athens was neither a village nor (had he been reading Bookchin?) a confederation of villages. He puts the \emph{citizen} population at 20,000–40,000.\footnote{Osborne, \emph{Demos}, 64–65 (quoted); Hansen, \emph{Athenian Assembly}, 34, 37–38; Ober, \emph{Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens}, 31–32. Sociologists call the face-to-face group a primary group. Homans, \emph{Human Group}, 1.} Even Ober’s lower figure is far beyond a size at which everyone knows, or at least knows \emph{of}, everybody else. A passage from Thucydides reveals just how impersonal life was in Athens. In 411 B.C., a coup installed an oligarchy, the Thirty, which held power for eight months. Thucydides gives one reason why the pro-democratic majority acquiesced in the collective tyranny: “They imagined that the revolutionary party was much bigger than it really was, and they lost all confidence in themselves, being unable to find out the facts because of the size of the city, and because they had insufficient knowledge of each other.”\footnote{Thucydides, \emph{History of the Peloponesian War}, tr. Rex Warner (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1972), 576.}
Was the assembly, then, a face-to-face gathering? Not to nearly the extent that, say, the United States Congress is, but not since the Anti-Federalists has anyone thought the size of the legislature was critical to its democratic character.\footnote{And they wanted a \emph{larger} legislature to reflect a wider range of interests. Herbert J. Storing, \emph{What the Anti-Federalists Were For: The Political Thought of the Opponents of the Constitution} (Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 17–18.} A highly sympathetic account of the assembly acknowledges that “in an assembly attended by 6,000 citizens it was impossible to have an open discussion.” Robert Michels made the same point about assemblies on that scale.\footnote{Hansen, \emph{Athenian Assembly}, 56; Robert Michels, \emph{Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy}, tr. Eden \& Cedar Paul (New York: The Free Press \& London: Collier-Macmillan Limited, 1962), 65.} That would be like calling the fans at a major league baseball game a face-to-face group because, if gifted with hawklike vision, almost everyone would be in a line of sight from everyone else. But the crowd cannot deliberate, and the only decision it ever makes is when to do “the wave.” Aristotle asked, “For who can be the general of such a vast multitude, unless he have the voice of Stentor?”\footnote{Aristotle, \emph{Politics}, 163.} If each of 6,000 citizens attending a 12 hour assembly meeting speaks, he will speak for an average of 12 seconds (but it was rarely 12 hours, as the meeting almost always adjourned by noon).\footnote{Stockton, \emph{Classical Athenian Democracy}, 73.} Obviously a handful of people did the talking; the rest were, at best, \emph{represented} by the speakers. Less than one hundred full-time politicians (\emph{rhetores}) dominated the debates.\footnote{Ober, \emph{Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens}, 108.}
Conclusion: Athens was neither a face-to-face society nor a face-to-face democracy.
\emph{Few if Any Elected or Appointed Officials.} Finley states that “there was no bureaucracy or civil service, save for a few clerks, slaves owned by the state itself, who kept such records as were unavoidable, copies of treaties and laws, lists of defaulting taxpayers, and the like.”\footnote{Finley, \emph{Democracy Ancient and Modern}, 18.} That is the traditional story, but the situation rewards closer examination. As Finley also says, Athens employed financial and engineering experts. Treasurers of the Delian League (which was turned into the Athenian Empire) were probably elected.\footnote{Finley, \emph{Democracy Ancient and Modern}, 15; James Day, \emph{Aristotle’s History of Athenian Democracy} (Amsterdam, Netherlands: Adolf M. Hakkert, 1967), 182.} Ambassadors and official negotiators were elected. So were holders of certain technical jobs, like architects; certain religious officiants; and the secretaries and treasurers of various boards in charge of funds. Since state and church were one, there were cults whose funds were under public control.\footnote{Stockton, \emph{Classical Athenian Democracy}, 107; Robert Parker, \emph{Athenian Religion: A History} (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 195.} There were enough of these offices for Aristophanes to complain of placemen and sinecures.\footnote{“Lysistrata,” \emph{Aristophanes: Plays: II}, 99.} Even taken together, these positions might be considered minor exceptions. But there are, in addition to the council, three major exceptions to assembly sovereignty: the generals, the police, and the demes.
The assembly annually elected a board of ten generals (\emph{strategoi}), and they were the most powerful men in the government. It was in this capacity that Pericles and his successor Cleon dominated the assembly. In a state which was at war, on average, two out of every three years,\footnote{Finley, \emph{Economy and Society}, 88.} the Generals had considerable power, and it was not limited to strictly military matters:
\begin{quote}
[T]he Board of Generals must, at any rate in the fifth century, have exercised \emph{de facto} a considerable power. Its members were not only supreme in military matters; they had the functions of a treasury as well as those of a war-office, and were concerned in raising the funds which they required. They had charge of foreign affairs; and they must even have exercised some sort of discretionary power, in order to discharge their duties of preventing and punishing treason, and protecting the democratic constitution. They were appointed by election, and not by lot; on them depended much of the security of the Athenian democracy; and they supplied along with the Council something of that executive strength which a democracy particularly needs.\footnote{Barker, \emph{Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle}, 457.}
\end{quote}
In a departure from usual Athenian practice, generals might be reelected, and some of them were, year after year, like the wealthy aristocrat Pericles,\footnote{Hignett, \emph{History of the Athenian Constitution}, 249.} who served without interruption for 15 years. In the fifth century, generals largely overlapped with the career politicians, the \emph{rhetores} or demagogues who drafted, moved and debated bills in the assembly. Often the \emph{rhetores} were formally trained in “rhetoric.” The ruling elite was invariably drawn from the wealthy and well-educated.\footnote{Hansen, \emph{Athenian Assembly}, 51–66; Hansen, \emph{Athenian Democracy}, 268–274; Ober, \emph{Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens}, 93; Eder, “Who Rules?” 184; Sinclair, \emph{Democracy and Participation,} 137.}
In addition to the centralized state focused on council and assembly, Athens had units of local government: the demes, which were numerous enough (there were over 100) to be true face-to-face assemblies. Most of the demes were individual villages outside the walls — a reminder that only one-third of the citizens lived in the city. In size they ranged from 130 to 1,500, resulting in extreme malapportionment. In direct contradiction of the ex-Director’s central theme — that cities in general, and the polis in particular, phased out “the biological facts of blood, sex, and age” — deme membership was hereditary.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 225–226, 226 (quoted); Zimmern, \emph{Greek Commonwealth}, 153, 156; Osborne, \emph{Demos}, 64, 45.}
The elected demarch, who presided over the deme assembly, had several executive functions: renting out deme property, policing religious practices and rituals, collecting the tax on non-demesmen owning land in the deme, listing the property of public debtors, and — very important, where citizenship is so highly valued — judging who in the deme was an Athenian citizen. The demarch, then, was “little more than an executive cog in the machinery of central government.” And yet he was not accountable to the assembly. If we are surprised to hear of “central government” at Athens, it is because the glorificatory accounts like Bookchin’s ignore the part of the state that was genuinely local and face-to-face — and \emph{its} democracy was representative, not direct.\footnote{Deme membership was inherited; in time considerable numbers of demesmen lived outside their demes. Still, demesmen mostly knew each other and lived near each other. Stockton, \emph{Classical Athenian Democracy}, 65.} The demes, grouped in tribes, nominated the Council candidates by vote. As Robin Osborne, the expert on the demes, writes: “Through the demes, what was in theory a direct democracy was in practice a subtle representational one.”\footnote{Osborne, \emph{Demos}, 64, 74–92, 92 (quoted).} An innovation of Cleisthenes, “these new demes formed the groundwork of the Athenian state in the fifth century.”\footnote{Zimmern, \emph{Greek Commonwealth}, 154.} The principles of the groundwork of the Athenian state, then, were blood and representation. The power of the hereditary demesmen and the elected demarchs, taken in conjunction with the power of the elected Generals, establishes that Athens was not a direct democracy “as such,” as the Director Emeritus might say: it was in substantial part a representative democracy also.
Finally, Athens had that quintessential state institution, a police force. As Friedrich Engels (no less) relates:
\begin{quote}
Thus, simultaneously with their state, the Athenians established a police force, a veritable gendarmerie of foot and mounted bowmen — \emph{Landjaeger}, as they say in South Germany and Switzerland. This gendarmerie consisted — of \emph{slaves}. The free Athenian regarded this police duty as being so degrading that he preferred being arrested by an armed slave rather than perform such ignominious duties himself. This was still an expression of the old gentile [= clan] mentality. The state could not exist without a police force, but it was still young and did not yet command sufficient moral respect to give prestige to an occupation that necessarily appeared infamous to the old gentiles.\footnote{Engels, “Origin of the Family,” 545.}
\end{quote}
Barely mentioned by Athenian apologists like Zimmern, never mentioned by Bookchin, the police were numerous and ubiquitous: “The ‘Scythians’ as they are called from their usual land of origin, or the ‘bowmen’ from their special weapon, which incidentally makes a convenient cudgel in a street brawl. There are 1200 of them [another estimate is 300], always at the disposal of the city magistrates. They patrol the town at night, arrest evil-doers, sustain law and order in the Agora, and especially enforce decorum, if the public assemblies or the jury courts become tumultuous.”\footnote{Zimmern, \emph{Greek Commonwealth}, 176 n. 2, 301; Davis, \emph{A Day in Old Athens}, 56.} The use of foreign slaves (equipped with bow, whip and saber) as a public force anticipates the Janissaries of Turkey and the Mamlukes of Egypt. In our time another dubiously democratic city-state, Singapore, uses foreigners — Gurkhas — as its political police. Here the Athenian penchant for amateurism and taking turns has slammed to a stop.
It goes without without saying that the slave police stood ready to repress revolt. In “Lysistrata,” when the women staged a sex strike (is this the first General Strike?) and occupied the Acropolis, it was the Scythian police who were routed trying to retake the place.\footnote{Aristophanes,“Lysistrata,” 94–95.} It is where a regime seems to act out of character that one should look for its secrets. The Athenians did not trust each other with police powers because they would put them, as they put everything, to political use. It’s happened in other urban democracies, namely, American cities — whose police traditionally were also foreign-born, tools of the political machine, and disrespected by the citizens. Nearly all discussions of the Athenian polity assume that it lacked that state requisite, a distinct coercive force. Here it is: “Athens was no different [from other states], having a prison and prison officials, the Eleven, who were responsible for some aspects of the public order. The Eleven had at their disposal a group of public slaves who functioned inter alia as prison attendants, executioners, and police.”\footnote{Virginia J. Hunter, \emph{Policing Athens: Social Control in the Attic Lawsuits, 420–320 B.C.} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 186.}
Conclusion: Without denying the assembly’s broad power, so much authority was vested elsewhere, in critical matters (law enforcement, the military, foreign affairs, initiating legislation) and other areas less critical but still important (local government, citizenship, religious practice), that Athens could not be said to have been governed in substantially all important respects by the assembly.
\emph{At Least a Substantial Minority of Adult Males are Enfranchised.} One estimate of population in fifth-century Athens is 250,000 to 300,000. That includes 30,000 adult male citizens, 25,000 metics, and 80,000 slaves, as well as the women and children of citizens. Citizens were thus not more than 30\% of the adult male population,\footnote{Thorkey, \emph{Athenian Democracy}, 77.} and 12\% of the total population, probably less — evidently enough to satisfy Bookchin, but others might find that rather small for \emph{the} exemplary direct democracy of all time. If we count the subject people of the over 200 cities in the Athenian Empire (see below), who had no political rights in Athens, then the Athenian citizen body appears in its true character as a narrow oligarchy.
\emph{At Least a Substantial Minority of Citizens Attend the Assembly.} There were 20,000–40,000 citizens eligible to attend the assembly. Bookchin always says 40,000 to make Athens look less oligarchic, but it was probably much less, and by the close of the Peloponnesian War it was certainly much less, 21,000–25,000. A recent estimate of how many usually attended the assembly is approximately 6,000, which was also the quorum for certain decisions (for most decisions there was no quorum). That is also the number of people who could find room on the Pnyx, the hillside which was the usual meeting place. Another estimate is that one-seventh to one-fifth of the citizens attended.\footnote{Sinclair, \emph{Democracy and Participation in Athens}, 114–118; Stockton, \emph{Classical Athenian Democracy}, 84.} Thus the typical assembly meeting involved 2\%-2.4\% of the entire population, excluding powerless imperial subjects. It is easy to consider this system an oligarchy.
How many have to participate to make participatory democracy meaningful is of course somewhat arbitrary and subjective. Bookchin, normally so loquacious, is silent on this crucial issue, but what he calls “the zeal with which the Greeks served their communities”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 178.} is not conspicuous at Athens. I find 15–30\% of eligibles to be startlingly low, considering the inducements to attend. The Athenian citizen’s vote counted for far more than anyone’s vote in a modern representative democracy. The anti-individualist public-service ideology encouraged attendance, which in theory was compulsory. Many citizens were free for assembly meetings and other political responsibilities because their slaves relieved them of the need to work. Slave ownership was very widespread above the pauper class: it is said that “every Athenian citizen tries to have at least \emph{one} slave.”\footnote{Cartledge, “Rebels and Sambos in Classical Greece,” 32–33; Davis, \emph{A Day in Old Athens}, 54 (quoted).}
In theory, attendance was compulsory, but attendance must have fallen to what was considered too low a level, judging from what was initiated at the beginning of the fourth century B.C: payment for attendance. The majority attended because they were paid to. Payment was instituted, according to Aristotle, because previously “the people would not come.”\footnote{\emph{Aristotle’s Constitution of Athens and Related Texts} (New York \& London: Haffner Publishing Company, 1964), 114 (quoted); Aristotle, \emph{Politics}, 150.} One fourth-century politico, Demades, sounding like a Tammany ward heeler, called the payments “the glue of the democracy.”\footnote{Hansen, \emph{Athenian Assembly in the Age of Demosthenes}, 14–19, 46–47, 47 (quoted), 125, 193 n. 804.} Bookchin opposes both compulsion and payment to secure attendance, so in this respect he concedes an Athenian departure from democracy. He says that citizens were paid to participate only “in the declining period of the \emph{polis}.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 337–338, 338 (quoted).} Yes, but before that they had to be compelled, which is no better. Either way, the point is that most Athenians were at no time civic-minded enough to exercise their democratic birthright without extrinsic inducement, and usually not even then. In their indifference to politics, they resemble the citizens of all states, always and everywhere.
\emph{Nonprofessional Army or Militia}. Athens had a nonprofessional army, all right: it had a \emph{conscript} army. And beginning after the Peloponnesian War, Athenian male citizens aged 18–20 underwent compulsory military service and performed garrison duty.\footnote{Davis, \emph{A Day in Old Athens}, 101–102; Stockton, \emph{Classical Athenian Democracy}, 106;} Thereafter they were called up as required, up to age 60, an age attained by very few. The conscripts were paid. No doubt most of them went to war willingly to protect their privileges, but the fact remains: military conscription is the essence of statism and the antithesis of anarchy.
\emph{Federation with Other Cities}. Athens belonged to a federation in only an ironic sense. She emerged from the Peloponnesian War as the head of the Delian League (478\Slash{}477 B.C.), an anti-Persian defensive alliance which Athens, as treasurer and by far the strongest military power, converted into a tributary empire in 454 B.C. When the allied cities (there were almost 200 of them) revolted or fell in arrears on their tribute payments, they were subjugated.\footnote{Day, \emph{Aristotle’s History}, 181–182.} In 452 B.C., Athens appropriated the league treasury, providing funds for general purposes including the major public works program which built the Parthenon and employed many poor citizens.\footnote{Plutarch, “Pericles,” 1: 304–305.}
A federation is voluntary by definition. The Athenian empire was not confined to states whose membership was initially voluntary. Athens added others by outright conquest. The most famous example is Melos, an island which maintained its neutrality during the Peloponnesian War for 16 years until Athens sent an army and fleet to compel submission. In the famous dialog with the Melians, the Athenian representatives claimed no right but the right of the stronger: “Our opinion of the gods and our knowledge of men lead us to conclude that it is a general and necessary law of nature to rule whatever one can.” When the Melians refused the ultimatum, the Athenians besieged the Melians — starving them out, as Aristophanes casually remarks — until they surrendered; then they killed the men, enslaved the women and children, and planted a colony of their own.\footnote{Thucycides, \emph{Peloponnesian War}, 400–408, 404 (quoted); Aristophanes, “Birds,” 12.}
A cardinal principle of federation is non-intervention in the internal affairs of the members. Athens actively intervened to support or install democratic, \emph{i.e.}, puppet regimes, installed garrisons, and sent out officials to guide the local magistrates and archons. According to a contemporary critic known as the Old Oligarch, “they realize that it is inevitable that an imperial power will be hated by its subjects \dots{} that is why they disfranchise the respectable element and fine, exile or kill them, but support the masses.” In the imperial context, “democracy” meant rule by the pro-Athenian faction: “the word \emph{demokratia} in the fifth century had emotive force but little empirical content.”\footnote{Russell Meiggs, \emph{The Athenian Empire} (Oxford: at the Clarendon Press, 1972), 206–213; Day, \emph{Aristotle’s History}, 182; [Old Oligarch,] “The Constitution of the Athenians,” in \emph{Aristotle and Xenophon on Democracy and Oligarchy}, tr. J.M. Moore (Berkeley, CA \& Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1975), 40 (quoted); Rafael Sealey, \emph{A History of the Greek City-States, ca. 700–338 B.C.} (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1976), 305 (quoted).} The Athenians were not always welcomed as liberators; oligarchy must have had some popular support if most city-states were oligarchies. In 441 B.C., Athens seized Samos, took hostages, and installed a democracy. Soon the Samians revolted and set up an oligarchy. After an eight-month siege, Athens reconquered the island and imposed democracy again. Ironically, then, the oligarchic revolt had popular support.\footnote{Plutarch, “Pericles,” 1: 320–324; Graham Shipley, \emph{A History of Samos: 800–188 BC} (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), 43, 116–119.} This was positive freedom at its most muscular. This was not without precedent. In the anti-Persian revolt of the Ionian cities which brought on the Persian Wars, the revolutionaries often replaced democracies with tyrannies. When the Persians regained control, they ousted the tyrants and restored democracy!\footnote{Gillis, \emph{Collaboration with the Persians,} 16.}
To speak of an “Athenian empire” (his ironic quotation marks) is, according to the Director Emeritus, “overstated.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 148.} Tell it to the Melians. Other Greeks spoke of the “rule” (\emph{arkhe)} of the Athenians over their ostensible allies. The Athenians themselves were unapologetic, not shysterly about their imperialism. Pericles, the principal architect of empire, was frank about its nature: “Your empire is now like a tyranny: it may have been wrong to take it; it is certainly dangerous to let it go.” He should know: he raised the tribute by 33\%. His successor Cleon, also a general, told the assembly “that your empire is a tyranny exercised over subjects who do not like it and who are always plotting against you.”\footnote{Sealey, \emph{History of the Greek City-States}, 304; Thucydides, \emph{History of the Peloponnesian War}, 161 (quoted), 213 (quoted); Plutarch, “Aristides,” 2: 239; McGlew, \emph{Tyranny and Political Culture}, 184.} Thucydides, relating the various reasons Athenians supported the disastrous Sicilian expedition, mentions that “the general masses and the average soldier himself saw the prospect of getting pay for the time being and of adding to the empire so as to assure permanent paid employment in future.”\footnote{David Konstan, “Introduction” to Euripides, \emph{Cyclops,} tr. Heather McHugh (Oxford \& New York: Oxfor University Press, 2001), 5 (quoted); Thucydides, \emph{History of the Peloponnesian War}, 425 (quoted).} The citizens were regularly reminded of their imperialism: every year, during the Great Dyonisia festival when the tragedians competed, “there was a display of the tribute that had been paid by the subject states in Athens’ empire.”
Athenian domination went well beyond exploitation: “In addition to their military and financial responsibilities, fifth-century Athens required the states it ruled to adopt its coinage, present legal cases to its juries, and even to honor its deities and make religious contributions to Athens as if [they were] its colonies.” Athens planted some 10,000 colonists amidst the territories of their subjects or where the original inhabitants had been, like the Melians, exterminated: thus “the most naked kind of imperial exploitation directly benefited perhaps 8–10 per cent of the Athenian citizen body.”\footnote{McGlew, \emph{Tyranny and Political Culture}, 183–184; Old Oligarch, “Constitution of the Athenians,” 40–41; Finley, \emph{Democracy Ancient and Modern}, 84; Finley, \emph{Economy and Society in Ancient Greece}, 51–52, 52 (quoted).}
So far, with little help from Bookchin, we have toiled to measure Athens by his own standards of direct democracy, and found it more or less wanting in every way. But he is not the only one with ideas about what a democracy should be. He invokes Rousseau’s “praise of the Greek popular assembly based on face to face democracy.” No such praise is to be found in Rousseau. Like Machiavelli before him, Rousseau “was seized by a fervid passion for the Spartans which led him to deploy the Athenians as a foil to their legendary virtues.” Rousseau, the great (and almost the only) theorist of direct democracy, thought that “Athens was in fact not a Democracy, but a very tyrannical Aristocracy, governed by philosophers and orators.”\footnote{Roberts, “Creation of a Legacy,” 86; Bookchin, \emph{Toward an EcologicalSociety,} 102 (quoted); Rousseau, “Discourse on Political Economy,” 291 (quoted).} As I am not a democrat, I am not putting forward my own requirements, but rather address a point which democrats have usually considered essential.
I refer to individual rights, especially freedom of speech. There was no individual freedom in ancient Greece. Most scholars agree that the ancient Greeks had no rights as we understand them and no conception of rights, much less natural or constitutional rights. Indeed they had no concept of the individual — as even the Director Emeritus comes close to admitting — in this respect resembling some primitive peoples, such as the Jívaro headhunters.\footnote{Mulgan, “Liberty in Ancient Greece,” 9; Finley, \emph{Economy and Society in Ancient Greece,} 92; Ober, \emph{Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens}, 10; Constant, “Liberty of the Ancients,” 312; Martin Ostwald, “Shares and Rights: ‘Citizenship’ Greek Style and American Style,” in \emph{Demokratia: A Conversation on Democracies, Ancient and Modern} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 54–57; Robert W. Wallace, “Law, Freedom, and the Concept of Citizens’ Rights,” in ibid., 107; Victor Ehrenberg, \emph{Man, State, and Society: Essays in Ancient History} (London: Methuen \& Co., 1974), 23; Laslett, “Face to Face Society,” 166; Birch, \emph{Concepts and Theories of Modern Democracy}, 45; Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 323 (hailing the Greeks’ “faltering steps toward individuality”); Karsten, \emph{Head-Hunters of Western Amazonas}, 272–273.} There was almost no “negative freedom.”\footnote{Wallace, “Law, Freedom,” 107; Finley, \emph{Economy and Society in Ancient Greece}, ch.5.} There was formal protection against only a few flagrant abuses, such as execution without trial.\footnote{Wallace, “Law, Freedom,” 111.} In principle, the state was absolute. The best example is ostracism, by which a citizen, without any charge of wrongdoing, could be exiled by majority vote (by secret ballot, unlike usual Athenian practice). With, no doubt, some bias, Aristotle stated that ostracism removed those superior in virtue, wealth and abundance of friends, or some other kind of political strength. Plutarch says it was applied to those “whose station exposed them to envy.” In the American system this is known as a bill of attainder and it is unconstitutional. Ostracism could be imposed almost frivolously. Aristides the Just was ostracized by citizens who were tired of hearing him called “the Just.” Victor Ehrenberg has written: “When we read the names of Aristeides, Thermistocles, Cimon, etc., scratched on ancient potsherds, often wrongly spelt, we may be excused from casting some doubt on the propriety of popular sovereignty.”\footnote{Finley, \emph{Democracy Ancient and Modern} 116; Aristotle, \emph{Politics}, 106–107; Plutarch, “Aristides,” 2: 211, 217–218; U.S. Const., art. I, § 9; Ehrenberg, \emph{Man, State, and Society}, 30 (quoted).} As Benjamin Constant observed, ostracism rests on the assumption that society has total control over its members. As a modern scholar also observes, “ostracism symbolizes the ultimate power of the community over the individual and the individual’s relative lack of rights against the community.”\footnote{Constant, “Liberty of the Ancients,” 321.}
In Athens, the law may permit this or that privilege from time to time, but there is no notion of a claim to an entitlement as against the state. What at first glance looks like a right, the honor (\emph{time}) of holding office, is more like a duty.\footnote{Ostwald, “Shares and Rights,” 54; Mulgan, “Liberty in Ancient Greece,” 14 (quoted).} And that is the secret of the Athenian state and its law: it proceeds from the assumption that the citizen exists to serve the state, not the state to serve the citizen. Thucydides has the Corinthian delegation to the Spartans say about the Athenians, “as for their bodies, they regard them as expendable for their city’s sake, as though they were not their own.” Similarly, freedom of speech means freedom to speak in the assembly. In contrast, most of our rights are instrumental for the accomplishment of our diverse non-political ends.\footnote{Thucydides, \emph{History of the Peloponnesian War,} 76 (quoted); Finley, \emph{Economy and Society in Ancient Greece}, 82.} Socrates was not the only philosopher to be silenced. The philosophers Anaxagoras, who was Pericles’ teacher, and Protagoras were ostracized. The books of Anaxagoras were ordered burned in the agora — the earliest known case of book-burning.\footnote{MacDowell, \emph{Law in Classical Athens}, 200–201.} Even Aristophanes was prosecuted for slandering Pericles’ successor, Cleon. The prosecution of Socrates for the vague and undefined crime of “impiety” was not exceptional. Athenian democracy recognized no rights of conscience. Whether Socrates was guilty as charged is, for present purposes, beside the point, which is: disbelief in the traditional gods was a capital crime.\footnote{Cohen, \emph{Law, Sexuality, and Society}, ch. 8.}
As for the extreme patriarchal dimension of the Athenian state and society, it would take a book to describe it. Happily, that book has already been written: \emph{The Reign of the Phallus} by Eva C. Keuls. I am sometimes dubious, at best, about what is supposed to be feminist scholarship, but this one’s a slam dunk. The plentiful illustrations alone, which rarely appear in print and never massed as they are here, would indict the Athenians as phallocrats even without any text. I’ll just quote the first sentence of the book:
\begin{quote}
In the case of a society dominated by men who sequester their wives and daughters, denigrate the female role in reproduction, erect [!] monuments to the male genitalia, have sex with the sons of their peers, sponsor public whorehouses, create a mythology of rape, and engage in rampant saber-rattling, it is not inappropriate to refer to a reign of the phallus. Classical Athens was such a society.\footnote{Eva C. Keuls, \emph{The Reign of the Phallus: Sexual Politics in Ancient Athens} (New York: Harper \& Row, 1985), 1.}
\end{quote}
Without having undertaken systematic comparative history, my casual opinion is that I know of no Western society in any period which was as oppressive and devaluing of women as Murray Bookchin’s Athens.
The reader who has persevered this far is in for a real treat: Murray Bookchin’s own arguments why Athens was not a state. Finding even as many as I did was what the ex-Director used to call (one of his redundant tautologies) arduous toil. He has usually been offhanded or dismissive, as if there were no serious issue about Athenian statism. Some of the following comments possibly were not even intended to be arguments. With him it’s hard to tell.
\begin{quote}
\emph{Athens had a “state” in a very limited and piecemeal sense. Despite its governmental system for dealing with a sizeable slave population, the “state” as we know it in modern times could hardly be said to exist among the Greeks, unless we are so reductionist as to view any system of authority and rule as statist. Such a view would grossly oversimplify the actual conditions under which people lived in the “civilized world.”}\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 34. It’s ridiculous to pretend that Athens was a state vis a vis the slaves but anarchy vis a vis the citizens. Aside from this being self-evidently impossible, most of the same laws applied to both, although ostracism was only for citizens.}[Why the quotation marks? Is Athens uncivilized?]
\end{quote}
Of course the state as we know it in \emph{modern} times did not exist in \emph{ancient} times. The question is whether Athens was a state, not whether it was a modern state. The subject, “state,” takes several predicates: archaic state, patrimonial state, nation-state, capitalist state, city-state, feudal state, degenerated workers’ state, modern state, even “theatre state”\footnote{Clifford Geertz, \emph{Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980).} and — why not? — post-modern state. If calling Athens a state grossly oversimplifies the living conditions of its people, than calling any political system a state grossly oversimplifies the living conditions of its people. The word “state” is not designed for characterizing living conditions. There are other words for that. And the implication that the “governmental system” was only for controlling the slaves is false.
Whether authority and rule are statist depends on what you mean by authority, rule, and state. The implication is that Athens had authority and rule, but no state. Something is missing. But what? The Director Emeritus does not say. Elsewhere, he makes clear that domination and rule are the same thing, namely, hierarchy, which in turn is the same thing as the state!\footnote{“I was calling for the abolition of hierarchies as well, of states, not of economic power alone. Hierarchy was a kind of psycho-institutional power based on social status — in other words, \emph{rule and domination}, not only exploitation for material gain.” Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 55. All of this may have been new to Bookchin — it would be new to most Marxists — but it was not new. His exciting discovery is called anarchism.} All he is doing is chasing his tail.
\begin{quote}
\emph{To consider Athens a state, “we would have to assume that the notion of a state is consistent with a body politic of some forty thousand male citizens, admittedly an elite when placed against a still larger population of adult males possibly three times that number who were slaves and disenfranchised resident aliens. Yet the citizens of Athens could hardly be called a ‘class’ in any meaningful sense of the term.”}\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 35.}
\end{quote}
Apparently, the number of enfranchised Athenian citizens is, absolutely or relatively, relevant to whether they are the citizens of a state. Bookchin gives no reason why. He cannot mean 40,000 is too large, because the enfranchised citizen population of India is hundreds of millions, yet India is a state. He cannot mean that 40,000 is too small, because the Spartiate class in Sparta at its peak numbered barely 5,000,\footnote{A.H.M. Jones, \emph{Sparta} (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1967), 20.} yet Sparta was a state. Unless Bookchin were to take the position that Sparta was not a state, in which case none of the Greek cities were states, and Hellenic civilization was entirely anarchist. But in fact the Director Emeritus has referred to the Spartan State.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society,} 68.} There have certainly been many ruling elites, taking in several thousand years and most parts of the world, which numbered less than 20,000–40,000, and there have been many that numbered more. The English electorate in 1704 was 200,000, or about one in thirty of the population — a manageable number in more ways than one. In pre-contact Nigeria, the kingdom of Shani consisted of three towns and the population of the town-state of Gulani was 2,000–3,000.\footnote{J.H. Plumb, \emph{The Origins of Political Stability: England, 1675–1725} (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1967), 29; Ronald Cohen, “Evolution, Fission, and the Early State,” in Claesson \& Skalnik, eds., \emph{Study of the State,} 111, 101.}
This line of argument is also dispositive if relative numbers are determinative. The only possible meaning then is that when 25\% of a body politic is enfranchised citizens, that is too large for the the polity to be a state. But again, in the modern world, universal suffrage is indeed universal, so there are today much higher proportions of citizen voters in all the democracies, which are states.
Finally, whether or not the Athenian citizenry was a “class” is irrelevant to whether or not the polity was a state. The American electorate is not a class, but America is a state.
\begin{quote}
\emph{We would also have to assume that the notion of a state is consistent with a consciously amateur system of governance, based on almost weekly popular assemblies, a judicial system structured around huge juries that represent the assemblies on an attenuated scale, the selection and rotation of civic officials by sortition, that is, the use of the lot, and the absence of any political professionalism or bureaucratism, including military forces that are authentic militias of armed citizens instead of professional soldiers.}\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 35.}
\end{quote}
The presence of some oddball features does not imply that a polity is not a state. Some other indubitable states have had consciously amateur systems of governance. As discussed in Chapter 13, colonial America employed such systems. To a slightly lesser extent, so did medieval England, whose system was so decentralized and participatory that one historian calls it “self-government at the king’s command” and considers it proto-democratic.\footnote{Albert Beebe White, \emph{Self-Government at the King’s Command: A Study in the Beginnings of English Democracy} (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1933).} There was no police force, and local face-to-face judicial institutions like tithings and hundreds performed most of the day-to-day work of social control.\footnote{Peter Coss, \emph{Lordship, Knighthood and Locality: A Study in English Society, c.1180-c.1280} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 4; C.T. Flower, \emph{Introduction to the Early Curia Regis Rolls, 1199–1230} (London: Bernard Quaritch for The Selden Society, 1944), 65–66, 84; Reginald Lane Poole, \emph{Obligations of Society in the XII and XIII Centuries} (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946), 81, 87; A.J. Musson, “Sub-keepers and Constables: The Role of Local Officials in Keeping the Peace in Fourteenth-Century England,” \emph{English Historical Review} 117(470) (Feb. 2002), 2–3 \& \emph{passim}.} There was no well-defined judicial hierarchy.\footnote{William Holdsworth, \emph{A History of English Law} (17 vols.; London: Methuen \& Co. and Sweet \& Maxwell, 1956–1972), 2: 256.} Juries were not as large as at Athens, but they were impanelled often, for a variety of purposes. The preeminent royal courts at Westminster had only twelve judges. Parliament rarely convened, and in the earlier part of the period it did not exist. There were no tax collectors and, usually, no taxes. There was no capital city; the king, like his judges, perambulated. The military, when it was raised, was a combination of feudal levies and mercenaries under the amateur leadership of feudal lords. Except for the central courts and the Exchequer, there was almost nothing in the way of a central administration. Clearly this was not a state “in the modern sense,” but no one has ever doubted that it was a state.
\begin{quote}
\emph{Despite slavery, imperialism and the degradation of women, “by the same token, we cannot ignore the fact that classical Athens was historically unique, indeed unprecedented, in much of human history, because of the democratic forms it created, the extent to which they worked, and its faith in the competence of its citizens to manage public affairs.”}\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 69.}
\end{quote}
Read one way, the argument is that a social organization which is historically unique, or perhaps \emph{very} historically unique, is not a state. But every state is historically unique. Athens was freakish, all right, but so was Sparta, whose government — drawn from a hereditary military class living off a class of state serfs — consisted of a popular assembly, a council of elders, magistrates (ephors), and \emph{two} kings! As one of its historians remarks with some understatement, “the political development of Sparta was abnormal.” David Hume wrote: “Were the testimony of history less positive and circumstantial, such a government would appear a mere philosophical whim or fiction and impossible ever to be reduced to practice.” Nonetheless, Bookchin confirms that Sparta was a state.\footnote{Jones, \emph{Sparta}, 13, 26, 27 (quoted); David Hume, “Of Commerce,” quoted in Gerald Stourzh, \emph{Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government} (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1970), 71–72; Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 68.}
Read another way, the claim is that Athens was not a state because it had democratic institutions; these institutions worked; and the citizens believed in them. In other words, a democracy is not a state. But that begs the question, which is precisely whether a democracy is a state. The rest is verbiage. That governmental institutions work effectively does not make them democratic. The Chinese mandarinate and the Prussian civil service functioned effectively in the service of states. Victorious armies, be they Roman, Mongol, Napoleonic or Nazi, have been effective, but they served states. Finally, to believe that a polity is democratic does not mean that it \emph{is} democratic. Many people believe that the United States government is democratic, but according to the Director Emeritus, it is not.
\begin{quote}
\emph{Statecraft refers to “armies, bureaucrats, judicial systems, police, and the like.”}\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 69.}
\end{quote}
With the debatable exception of bureaucracy, Athens had all these institutions “and the like.” Even if, as Bookchin claims, there are “\emph{degrees} of statehood,”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 136–137.} Athens exhibits a high degree of statehood. We considered states which had less of these enumerated attributes than Athens did. Zululand, Norway, and Mongolia lacked bureaucrats, judicial systems and police, but they were states. Colonial America lacked bureaucrats, police and armies, but it was part of an imperial state. Statecraft does not refer to armies, bureaucrats, judicial systems and police. Statecraft refers to “the art of conducting State affairs; statesmanship.”\footnote{\emph{Shorter OED}, q\Slash{}v “statecraft.”} It refers to the behavior of government officials, not to the institutions of government, whatever they might be.
Perhaps the basic flaw in the system is ideological. For the ancients — for the Athenians — there was no connection between freedom and equality. In this respect it is interesting that Bookchin, when he identifies “the most basic principles” of leftism, or the “fourfold tenets” of anarchism, omits equality.\footnote{Mulgan, “Liberty in Ancient Greece,” 10; Bookchin, \emph{SALA,} 86, 60.} It is not something he often discusses. Even while trumpeting his renewed allegiance to leftism, he neglects its fundamental value. Indifference to equality accounts for his indifference to Athenian racism, slavery, patriarchy, imperialism, and even poorly attended assembly meetings, be they in ancient Athens or in tomorrow’s Communes. What he really wants is not democracy, except as a mystifying façade, but rather a meritocracy of mouth.
The time has come for the judgment of Athena. As even Bookchin concedes, where there is rule, there is a state. Aristotle confirms in several places that democracy is a system in which the citizens \emph{rule} and \emph{are ruled} in turn: “One principle is for all to rule and be ruled in turn.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 34; Aristotle, \emph{Politics}, 71, 92, 144 (quoted), 205–206. In the “Ecclesiasuzai” of Aristophanes, the women take over the assembly. One woman had trouble understanding him when her husband tells her that the state is hers. Bewildered, she asks, “Mine to do what? Weave?” “No; boss, rule!” \emph{Aristophanes: Plays: II}, 266.} Anarchism is the refusal of both roles. As it is phrased in a poem by John Henry Mackay and quoted approvingly by Emma Goldman:
\begin{quote}
I am an Anarchist! Wherefore I will\forcelinebreak
Not rule, and also ruled I will not be.\footnote{Quoted in \emph{Red Emma Speaks}, 47. “I am fully capable of Ruling myself! I do not desire to rule anyone. I just want to be FREE!” Ernest Mann [Larry Johnson], \emph{I Was Robot (Utopia Now Possible)} (Minneapolis, MN: Little Free Press, 1990), 63. Someone should restore to memory this loveable utopian and his inspiring works.}
\end{quote}
Athens was a state. In fact, I agree with Hans Gerth and C. Wright Mills: Athens was a \emph{totalitarian} state!\footnote{C. Wright Mills \& H.H. Gerth, \emph{Character and Social Structure: The Psychology of Social Institutions} (New York: Harcourt, Brace \& Co., 1953), 228.} — but I’ll demonstrate that some other time. For now, just this: Murray Bookchin is a statist.
\chapter{Chapter 15. City-Statism and Anarchy}
Let us summarize what we know. The city of Athens was not a Commune and it was a slave-based imperialist state, and so it was not anarchist. The self-governing cities of pre-industrial Europe were not Communes and they were states. The towns of colonial New England were not Communes, again by Bookchin’s definition, and they were subordinate to higher levels of state. Revolutionary Paris was not a Commune or a Commune of Communes, and it was subordinate to a national state. It is time for a general characterization of the relationship between the city and the state.
According to the ex-Director’s latest ukase, the town and city “historically antedate the emergence of the state.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 225.} His opinion is dictated by his politics. If the state preceded the city, the city is at least in part the creation of the state. Another implication is that anarchy is prior to the city, since the state is prior to the city and anarchy is prior to the state. From which it follows that anarchy outside the commune is possible (and was once universal), whereas cities are always statist. The burden of proof is thus on those who espouse the anarchist city to demonstrate its very possibility.
When Bookchin states that \emph{the} city preceded \emph{the} state, if he is not making an abstract claim which is meaningless, he is making an empirical claim which is false. Most of the world’s cities, aside from a few former city-states, originated by conquest or colonization. Many of my European readers live in cities founded by the Romans. Most of my American readers must reside in or near towns or cities which were founded under state auspices. In the American west the Federal government created local governments around its extension agents.\footnote{Don Martindale, “Prefatory Remarks: The Theory of the City,” in Max Weber, \emph{The City}, tr. Don Martindale (New York: The Free Press \& London: Collier-Macmillan, 1958), 11; Norton E. Long, “Political Science and the City,” in \emph{Urban Research and Policy Planning}, ed. Leo F. Schnore \& Henry Fagin (Beverly Hills, CA \& London: Sage Publications, 1967), 255.} There were no cities north of Mexico until the Europeans invaded. The invaders of several nations sought various benefits here — land, gold, slaves, furs, sometimes even religious freedom — but anarchy was not one of them. On the contrary, they displaced or demolished the anarchist societies they found everywhere.
The discussion of the New England towns in Chapter 13 reveals how the towns were chartered by the Massachusetts Bay central government pursuant to legislation, which also prescribed the powers and duties of the towns. It was the same everywhere. Companies chartered by the Crown built the first towns and sponsored new settlements. Even when, later on, people settled in places where the authority of the central government was weak, they brought the state with them. As rapidly as possible the frontier civilized itself by erecting the courthouse, the gallows and the jail. Even wagon trains, which were only out of American jurisdiction for a few weeks, created an ambulatory legal system. Even squatters, lawbreakers themselves, formed “claims associations.” Miners formed miners’ meetings and claims clubs.\footnote{John P. Reid, \emph{Law for the Elephant: Property and Social Behavior on the Overland Trail} (San Marino, CA: Huntington Library, 1997); John P. Reid, \emph{Policing the Elephant: Crime, Punishment, and Social Behavior on the Overland Trail} (San Marino, CA: Huntington Library, 1996); James Willard Hurst, \emph{Law and the Conditions of Freedom in the Nineteenth-Century United States} (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1956), 3–5; Stephen L. Schechter, “The Founding of American Local Communities: A Study of Covenantal and Other Forms of Association,” \emph{Publius} 10(40) (Fall 1980), 171.} The Wild West was far more law-abiding than legend has it.\footnote{Roger McGrath, \emph{Gunfighters, Highwaymen, and Vigilantes: Violence on the Frontier} (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984).} I am not necessarily saying that no story of liberty can be told about the frontier and the west, but it will not make sense outside the context of state power.\footnote{During the 19\textsuperscript{th} century, when most of the west was Federal territory, when the settlers were not whining about Federal oppression they were living off Federal subsidies, exploiting public land, and calling on the Army for protection. Patricia Nelson Limerick, \emph{The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West} (New York \& London: W.W. Norton \& Company, 1988); Richard Hofstadter, \emph{Turner and Beard: American Historical Writing Reconsidered} (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1960). Frederick Jackson Turner’s theory that the frontier promoted democracy has been demolished.}
The truth is, as so often with Bookchin, the opposite of what he says: \emph{there has never been a city which was not a state, or subject to a state}. The state always precedes and produces the city, as it did in the earliest (archaic) states. It did so in Mesopotamia, in China, in Mesoamerica and in Peru-Bolivia — the “pristine” states, \emph{i.e.,} “those whose origin was \emph{sui generis} out of local conditions and not in response to pressures already emanating from an already highly organized but separate political entity.”\footnote{Fried, “On the Evolution of Social Stratification and the State,” 13 (quoted), 6. Egypt is now thought to be a secondary state. Haas, \emph{Evolution of the Prehistoric State}, 88.} All other historical states, and all existing states, are secondary states. The state preceded the city in archaic Greece, including Attica.\footnote{K.C. Chang, \emph{Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to Political Authority in Ancient China} (Cambridge \& London: Harvard University Press, 1983); John Baines \& Norman Yoffee, “Order, Legitimacy, and Wealth in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia,” in Beinman \& Marcus, eds., \emph{Archaic States}, 199, 216–218; John A. Wilson, “Egypt Through the New Kingdom,” in \emph{City Invincible}, 126–130; Jorge E. Hardoy, \emph{Pre-Columbian Cities} (New York: Walker and Company, 1964), 14, 25–27; Morris, “The Early Polis as City and State,” in Rich \& Wallace-Hedrill, eds., \emph{City and Country in the Ancient World}, 40, 43; William T. Sanders \& Barbara J. Price, \emph{Mesoamerica: The Evolution of a Civilization} (New York: Random House, 1968), 10, 29, 44–47, 53, 226; Stuart Piggott, \emph{Prehistoric India to 1000 B.C.} (London: Cassell, 1962), 134–135, 140–141. “The State existed, in rudimentary form, before the city.” Zimmern, \emph{Greek Commonwealth}, 70.} Two archaeologists of Mesoamerica state the case succinctly: “While urbanized societies are invariably states, not all states are urban.”\footnote{Sanders \& Price, \emph{Mesopotamia}, 235.} The statist origin of the city is not only a matter of inference, but of record. As Lewis Mumford states: “I suggest that one of the attributes of the ancient Egyptian god, Ptah, as revealed in a document derived from the third millennium B.C. — \emph{that he founded cities} — is the special and all but universal function of kings.”\footnote{Mumford, \emph{The City in History}, 35. Another ancient source is Lucretius: “\emph{Kings began to found cities} [emphasis in original] and establish citadels for their own safeguard and refuge.” \emph{On the Nature of the Universe,} tr. R.E. Latham (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1951), 205.} In a comparative study of 23 early states, pristine and secondary, urbanisation was absent in eight of them.\footnote{Henri J.M. Claessen \& Peter Skalnik, eds., \emph{The Early State} (The Hague, Netherlands: Mouton, 1978). I would not count Tahiti and Hawaii as states, as the editors do; on the other hand, I would move Norway into that category, as discussed below.} Truly urban agglomerations depend on the state, whose emergence is the political aspect of class society.\footnote{Robert M. Adams, “Patterns of Urbanization in Early Southern Mesopotamia,” in Ucko, Tringham \& Dimbleby, eds., \emph{Man, Settlement and Urbanism}, 735; see also Robert McC. Adams, \emph{The Evolution of Early Society: Early Mesopotamia and Prehispanic Mexico} (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1966).} That is the “more modern view,” according to Elman R. Service: “We now know that some archaic civilizations lacked cities, while others became states before their cities developed.”\footnote{Elman R. Service, “Classical and Modern Theories of the Emergence of Government,” in \emph{Origins of the State: The Anthropology of Political Evolution}, ed. Ronald Cohen \& Elman R. Service (Philadelphia, PA: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1978), 26 (quoted); Henri J.M. Claessen, “The Internal Dynamics of the Early State,” \emph{Current Anthropology} 25(2) (April 1984), 367; \emph{e.g.}, Sanders \& Price, \emph{Mesoamerica}, 53, 226.} “Urbanization” can be very straightforward: “when a state-level society takes over and tries to control peoples who are not used to obeying kings and rulers (i.e., tribal and other nonstate peoples), a common practice is to force people to live in towns and cities where they can be watched and controlled more easily than if they live scattered across the landscape.”\footnote{Michael E. Smith, “The Earliest Cities,” in \emph{Urban Life: Readings in the Anthropology of the City}, ed. George Gmelch \& Walter P. Zenner (4\textsuperscript{th} ed.; Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 2002), 7 (quoted); Haas, \emph{Evolution of the Prehistoric State}, 211.}
If the city preceded the state, then there can be states without cities. At first the notion of a cityless state may challenge the imagination, but actually, every reader has heard of the examples I will discuss. Eric R. Wolf mentions one way it was done: “in some societies, the rulers merely ‘camped’ among the peasantry, as the Watusi rulers did until very recently among the Bahuto peasantry of Ruanda Urundi.”\footnote{Eric R. Wolf, \emph{Peasants} (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall, 1966), 10. This is the background of “the bloody warfare between the Tutsi and the Hutu” of which Bookchin speaks. Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 283. Bali prior to the 20\textsuperscript{th} century was a complex civilization of many contending kingdoms but with virtually no urban settlements. Geertz, \emph{Negara,} 46.} Another technique is itineration: the monarch and his retinue, having no fixed abode, move about the land, accepting the hospitality of his subjects. The earliest Dukes of Normandy did that,\footnote{David Bates, \emph{Normandy before 1066} (London \& New York: Longmans, 1982), 151. When the Dukes became kings of England, they continued the practice, although their new realm included towns and cities. “Both Henry I [of England] and Philip Augustus [of France] received from their forebears regimes founded on two essential features: an ambulatory central court and fixed local officials. This system functioned effectively because the relatively small size of the royal dominions permitted the itinerant royal court to keep in contact with local officers.” C. Warren Hollister \& John W. Baldwin, “The Rise of Administrative Kingship: Henry I and Philip Augustus,” \emph{American Historical Review} 83(4) (Dec. 1978), 868. This well-known article reveals the nonsense of Bookchin’s claims that these two monarchs only “tried” to centralize their realms, and that after William the Conqueror, England was only “nominally centralized” for three centuries. Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 85 (“tried”); Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanism}, 139–140 (“nominally centralized”). Administratively and judicially, England was highly centralized under “administrative kingship” and became ever more so, regardless of the power fluctuations between kings and barons. J.C. Holt, \emph{Magna Carta} (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 27–29.} and the kings of England still did it in the 13\textsuperscript{th} century.
Although they were not ambulatory, the kings of the Zulus ruled a formidible cityless state until the Zulu War of 1879–1880. The Zulu nation was forcibly formed in the 19\textsuperscript{th} century through the conquest and amalgamation of many tribes by a series of ruthless kings. They controlled the population through massive terror. The kings eliminated the clans as corporate groups just as Cleisthenes eliminated the Athenian tribes as corporate groups. The rapid progress of military tactics corresponded to the progress of state formation. Low-casualty “dueling battles” characterized the tribal stage; “battles of subjugation” led to the development of chiefdoms; and “battles of conquest” gave rise to the state.\footnote{Eugene V. Walter, \emph{Terror and Resistance: A Study of Political Violence} (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), 188–189, 211–218; Keith F. Otterbein, “The Evolution of Zulu Warfare,” Bohannan, ed., \emph{Law and Warfare}, 351–355.} The king, who officially owned all the land, ruled a population of 250,000–500,000 through local chieftains, who might in turn have subchieftains under them. Power was delegated from the top down, and the lower the level, the less power. There were no cities or towns; the king lived on a tract of land occupied by royal homesteads and military barracks. But “during the time of the kings, the State bulked large in the people’s lives.”\footnote{Max Gluckman, “The Kingdom of the Zulu of South Africa,” in Fortes \& Evans-Pritchard, eds., \emph{African Political Systems}, 25–55, 46 (quoted).}
Another warlike, expansionist state without cities was Mongolia under Genghis Khan. 1206, the year Temuchin became Genghis Khan, can be considered “the birthday of the Mongol state.” The Great Khan, who was neither libertarian nor municipalist, destroyed more cities than anyone in history. By the 11\textsuperscript{th} century, Mongol society already included “a ruling class, a steppe aristocracy,” each noble having a retinue of bodyguards who followed him in war and managed his household in peacetime.\footnote{Anatolii M. Khazanov, “The Early State among the Eurasian Nomads,” in Claesson \& Skalnik, eds., \emph{Study of the State}, 162 (quoted), 161.} There were territorial divisions for fiscal and civil administration. A state signifier was the presence of “a purely military and permanent establishment.” There was an assembly of notables, the \emph{khurildai}, a “quasi-political assembly under the direction and rule of the Khan.”\footnote{Bat-Ochir Bold, \emph{Mongolian Nomadic Society: A Reconstruction of the “Medieval” History of Mongolia} (Richmond, Surrey, England: Curzon Press, 2001), 81–86.} And yet this was still a society of pastoral nomads. The tribes migrated seasonally, and so did the Great Khan himself. Having no cities in which to make his capital, he itinerated long distances, moving seven times a year.\footnote{John Andrew Boyle, \emph{The Mongol World Empire, 1206–1370} (London: Variorum Reprints, 1977), ch. 6.} Qara Qorum, on which construction began in 1235, was only an enlarged camp which a European visitor in the 1250s likened to a large French village.\footnote{Thomas T. Allsen, “Spiritual Geography and Political Legitimacy in the Eurasian Steppe,” in \emph{Ideology and the Formation of Early States}, ed. Henri J.M. Claessen \& Jarich G. Oosten (Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1996), 122–123.} This was a no-frills, no-nonsense state barely beyond chieftainship, but it was state enough to conquer most of Eurasia.
A final example of a state without cities — I am deliberately choosing well-known societies — is Norway in the Viking Age. It was built on the basis of an aristocratic society of chieftains, free men and thralls (slaves). King Harold Fairhair (c. 870\Slash{}880-900 A.D.) commenced the reduction of the chieftains of southwest Norway. There were no cities or towns, so, until 1050, he and his successors, with their retinues, their skalds and warriors, “travelled from farm to farm taking goods in kind, that is to say, living off the produce of their landed property as well as from contributions from the local population. This was the only way of effectively exercising royal power before a more permanent local administration was developed.” The king’s \emph{hird} (bodyguard) was more than that, it was the permanent part of his army.\footnote{Rolf Danielson \emph{et al.}, \emph{Norway: A History from the Vikings to Our Own Times}, tr. Michael Drake (Oslo, Norway: Scandinavian University Press, 1995), 21, 23–24, 24 (quoted), 25; Gwyn Jones, \emph{A History of the Vikings} (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 92, 145–147, 152–153.} The relation of state to urbanism is straightforward: the kings promoted the development of towns in the 11\textsuperscript{th} century and that was when towns appeared. Except for a few minor bishoprics, they would always be subordinate to the king. For the king, towns offered greater comfort and security than itineration, and better control over the surrounding districts.\footnote{Danielson, \emph{Norway}, 38; Anders Andren, “States and Towns in the Middle Ages: The Scandanavian Experience,” \emph{Theory and Society} 18(5) (Sept. 1989), 587.}
The city-state, then, is only a variant on the statist city, the only sort of city which has ever existed. The state preceded the city. The earliest states were, in fact, mostly city-states. As we learn from Murray Bookchin’s favorite authority — Murray Bookchin: “It was the Bronze Age ‘urban revolution,’ to use V. Gordon Childe’s expression, that slowly eliminated the trappings of the social or domestic arena from the State and created a new terrain for the political arena.”\footnote{Bookchin, “Radical Politics,” 6.} The self-governing city is the beginning but not, as the Director Emeritus claims, the climax of political development. The only one now existing, the Singapore police state, is a fluke of history and geography — it never sought independence but was expelled from Malaysia.\footnote{Michael Haas, “A Political History,” in \emph{The Singapore Puzzle}, ed. Michael Haas (Westport, CT \& London: Praeger, 1999), 19, 23–36; Darrick Davies, “The Press,” ibid., 77–106; Francis T. Seow, “The Judiciary,” ibid., 107–124.} The Greek city-state was an evolutionary dead end, doomed to extinction: “Born at the conjunction of historical developments, some originating well outside the borders of Greece, Greek city-states were fragile and flourished briefly, to be submerged within the wake of larger historical trends and also undermined by their own success.” The Renaissance city-state, too, proved a dead end; it was not even antecedent to the nation-state.\footnote{Walter G. Runciman, “Doomed to Extinction: The \emph{Polis} as an Evolutionary Dead End,” in \emph{The Greek City From Homer to Alexander}, ed. Oswyn Murray \& Simon Price (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990): 347–367; Yoffee, “Obvious and the Chimerical,” 263, 259 (quoted); Waley, \emph{Italian City-Republics}, xvi; Tilly, \emph{Coercion, Capital, and European States}, 64–65.}
The trouble with arguing that the polis is not a fully modern state is that where the Director Emeritus stops — just shy of the polis — is arbitrary. Measured against some Platonic archetype of statehood, other political entities might come up short, and yet any anarchist would consider them states. Hegel believed that the United States was not a \emph{real} state.\footnote{Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel, \emph{The Philosophy of History}, tr. J. Sibree (New York: Willey Book Co., 1950), 85.} Surprisingly, some historians and political scientists agree with him. According to James Q. Wilson, “by European standards [the American government] is not truly a ‘state’ — that is, a sovereign body whose authority penetrates all aspects of the nation and brings each part of the nation within its reach.”\footnote{James Q. Wilson, \emph{Bureaucracy} (new ed.; New York: Basic Books, 2000), 310–311.} Statements like this one are common (I almost said “not uncommon”): “The United States moved from a society which was scarcely governed to one in which, by century’s end, government regularly touched the daily lives of the people.”\footnote{Allen Steinberg, \emph{The Transformation of Criminal Justice: Philadelphia, 1800–1880} (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 2 (quoted); Sam Bass Warner, Jr., \emph{The Private City: Philadelphia in Three Periods of its Growth} (Philadelphia, PA: Pennsylvania University Press, 1968), 9.} Nonetheless, for anarchists, that government is best which governs not at all.
Most of an entire subfield of American history — policy history — holds that for much of its history, and certainly before the Civil War, the United States was not a state. Thus one of them writes that the Civil War “created” the American state, which “had become a mere shell by 1860,” with “only a token administrative presence in most of the states.”\footnote{Richard Franklin Bensel, \emph{Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 1859–1877} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), ix, 2. In 1801, the Federal government had 3,000 employees. In 431 B.C., before the war, Athens had 17,000 citizens on the payroll. Zimmern, \emph{Greek Commonwealth}, 175–177. In 1815, the post-war United States military establishment the authorized strength was 12,000, but it was never up to strength. Francis Paul Prucha, \emph{The Sword of the Republic: The United States Army on the Frontier, 1783–1846} (London: Macmillan Company, 1969), 119–120. Athens, with a fraction of the American population, had 6,000 men on active service in peacetime. Zimmern, \emph{Greek Commonwealth}, 177.} In an oft-cited address, historian William Leuchtenburg asks: “When did we first have a state in America? Was it always here, or did it not really arrive until the late nineteenth or early twentieth century, as the most recent scholarship indicates?”\footnote{Wiliam E. Leuchtenburg, “The Pertinence of Political History: Reflections on the Significance of the State in America,” \emph{Journal of American History} 73(3) (Dec. 1986), 594.} I reject that opinion as I reject Bookchin’s, but at least these scholars aren’t playing games with the concept of the state as the Director Emeritus does. I also point out that the policy historians are \emph{much more plausible} than the Director Emeritus. Colonial America was far less statified than ancient Athens, but the easygoing statism of the colonies was still not anarchy.
Consider colonial Virginia. The House of Burgesses (the legislature), whose members were gentlemen amateurs, was the only elected body in the Old Dominion. Most counties had no towns; the county was the unit of local government. And that government was in the hands of — a court! Government existed only once a month, on court day. Gentlemen “conducted the court, lending their personal influence to what was nearly the sum and substance of government at the time — adjudicating disputes, recording transactions, and distributing small favors to the fortunate.” They swore in the juries, grand and petit, impanelled by the sheriff. In addition to its civil and criminal jurisdiction, the court was responsible for the administrative business of the county, such as issuing licenses and letting out contracts, and it “supervised the conduct of ordinaries” (taverns, one of which faced every courthouse). “The court was central to the organization of the society”: court day was also a market day, and it was the only time the community came together.\footnote{Charles S. Sydnor, \emph{Gentlemen Freeholders} (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1952), 13–18; A.G. Roeber, “Authority, Law and Custom: The Rituals of Court Day in Tidewater Virginia, 1720–1750,” \emph{William and Mary Quarterly}, 3\textsuperscript{rd} ser., 37(1) (Jan. 1980), 32–34; Rhys Isaac, \emph{The Transformation of Virginia, 1740–1790} (New York \& London: W.W. Norton \& Company, 1982), 88–94, 90 (quoted), 93 (quoted).} There was no legislative branch. The only other governmental institution was the militia, mustered intermittently under gentry officers.\footnote{Isaac, \emph{Transformation of Virginia}, 109.} Amending Skowronek’s phrase, we could say that colonial Virginia was a state of courts and parties — without the parties.
In other colonies too, the county court “became the critical institution for dealing with important matters of local community concern,”\footnote{David Thomas Konig, \emph{Law and Society in Puritan Massachusetts: Essex County, 1629–1692} (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1979), 36 (quoted); Friedman, \emph{History of American Law}, 40.} although in some colonies, as we have seen, elected town selectmen were also important. Either way, government consisted entirely of part-time amateurs (and that also goes for colonial and 19\textsuperscript{th} century legislatures too, which held only brief intermittent sessions and most of whose members were newcomers\footnote{James Willard Hurst, \emph{The Growth of American Law: The Law Makers} (Boston, MA: Little, Brown \& Co., 1950), 47–52.}). Therefore, on Bookchin’s criteria, there was no state (or rather, no states) prior to the Revolution. So much the worse for Bookchin’s criteria.
Although the argument from authority should never be decisive, previous anarchist opinion as to the anarchist character of the Commune carries some weight. If anarchists have not often rejected the Commune explicitly, it is because it was considered it just another utopian pipedream if they thought about at all, a rival whose irrelevance was taken for granted. But they sometimes dealt with it, if only by pronouncing on the anarchist nature \emph{vel non} of the Athenian Commune. To reject the alleged anarchy of Athens is to reject Bookchin’s Communalism \emph{in toto}.
Kropotkin is the only prominent anarchist claimed by Bookchin as supporting his view that Athens and the medieval communes were anarchist. So far as I can tell, Prince Kropotkin thought otherwise, judging from his hatred of the “commune-State”: “Sometimes as the central government, sometimes as the provincial or local state, now as the commune-State, it pursues us at each step, it appears at every street corner, it imposes on us, holds us, harasses us.”\footnote{Quoted in \emph{Quotations from the Anarchists}, ed. Paul Berman (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1972), 48.} I found nothing in \emph{Mutual Aid} to support Bookchin’s claim except possibly a passing reference to the “folkmote.” I found a great deal of appreciative exposition of the self-governance of guilds and their federations, which if anything supports syndicalism, something the Director Emeritus roundly criticises.\footnote{Kropotkin, \emph{Mutual Aid,} 181–199; Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 193–194.} If Kropotkin is really a libertarian municipalist, then in this, as in his anarcho-trenchist support for the Allies in World War I, he stands virtually alone. But in fact, in \emph{Mutual Aid} — and in a passage Bookchin has quoted! — Kropotkin clearly identifies the medieval communes as states:
\begin{quote}
Self-jurisdiction was the essential point, and self-jurisdiction meant self-administration. But the commune was not simply an autonomous part of the State — it was a State in itself. It had the right of war and peace, of federation and alliance with its neighbors. It was sovereign in its own affairs, and mixed with no others. The supreme political power could be vested in a democratic forum, as was the case in Pskov, whose \emph{vyeche} sent and received ambassadors, concluded treaties, accepted and sent away princes, or went on without them for dozens of years; or it was vested in, or usurped by, an aristocracy of merchants or even nobles as was the case in hundreds of Italian and middle European cities. The principle, nevertheless, remained the same: the city was a State \dots{}\footnote{Kropotkin, \emph{Mutual Aid}, 178–179, quoted in Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 128.}
\end{quote}
“The structure of the law-and-order States which we see in Europe at present was only outlined at the end of the eighteenth century.”\footnote{Kropotkin, \emph{Great French Revolution}, 5. In contrast, de Tocqueville, after describing the monarchy of the \emph{ancien regime}, thought it to be essentially the system prevailing after the Revolution: “Is not this the highly centralized administration with which we are familiar in present-day France?” Alexis de Tocqueville, \emph{The Old Regime and the French Revolution,} tr. Stuart Gilbert (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1955), 57.} So it seems to be Kropotkin’s position that medieval cities were real states, not just “outlined,” but that Bourbon France, Georgian England and the Prussia of Frederick the Great, which came later, were not quite states. A paradox worthy of the Director Emeritus, but not one that supports his position on city-states.
Proposals for “direct Government” were in circulation in Proudhon’s time. As he stated the case: “Let the Constitution and the laws become the expression of our own will; let the office holders and magistrates, who are our servants elected by us, and always subject to recall, never be permitted to do anything but what the good pleasure of the people has determined upon.” But government of all by all is still government:
\begin{quote}
The principle, that is to say, Government, remaining the same, there would still be the same conclusion.\forcelinebreak
“No more hereditary royalty,\forcelinebreak
“No more presidency,\forcelinebreak
“No more representation,\forcelinebreak
“No more delegation,\forcelinebreak
“No more alienation of power,\forcelinebreak
“Direct government,\forcelinebreak
“THE PEOPLE! In the permanent exercise of their sovereignty.”
\end{quote}
“What is there at the end of this refrain which can be taken as a new and revolutionary proposition, and which has not been known and practised long before our time, by Athenians, Boeotians, Lacedemonians, Romans, \&c.?” For Proudhon, nothing. Direct government leads straight to dictatorship. Let there be no laws passed, either by majority vote or unanimously.\footnote{P.-J. Proudhon, \emph{General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century} tr. John Beverley Robinson (London: Freedom Press, 1923), 109–110 (quoted), 110 (quoted); \emph{Selected Writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon}, ed. Stewart Edwards, tr. Elisabeth Fraser (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1969), 99.}
Errico Malatesta, the anarchist’s anarchist, also addressed the issue directly. By “state,” anarchists mean “government”; other usages are to be distinguished. For anarchists, “state” does not mean society, and it does not mean “a special kind of society, a particular human collectivity gathered together in a particular territory irrespective of the way the members of the said collectivity are grouped or of the state of relations between them” — it does not mean, for example, a nationality. And it does \emph{not} mean the Commune: “The word \emph{State} is also used to mean the supreme administration of a country: the central power as opposed to the provincial or communal authority. And for this reason others believe that anarchists want a simple territorial decentralisation with the governmental principle left intact, and they thus confuse anarchism with \emph{cantonalism} and \emph{communalism}.”\footnote{Malatesta, \emph{Anarchy}, 14.}
Emma Goldman, who emphatically prioritized the individual over the social, spurned “the majority for centuries drilled in State worship, trained in discipline and obedience and subdued by the awe of authority in the home, the school, the church and the press.” She considered that “more pernicious than the power of a dictator is that of a class; the most terrible — the tyranny of the majority.”\footnote{“The Individual, Society and the State,” \emph{Red Emma Speaks}, 93, 98. Malatesta also wrote of “the masses, accustomed to obey and serve,” who would submit to any social system imposed on them. “Anarchist-Communism,” in Richards, ed., \emph{Malatesta}, 36–37, 36 (quoted).}
No need for any extended explanation why the Anarcho-Syndicalists are anti-Communalist. For them the basic political unit is not the town or neighborhood, it is the trade union. The unions in a locality federate in Industrial Alliances (Rudolf Rocker’s term) or Trade Federations (Pataud and Pouget’s term), and these federations federate, etc., to organize production. Local unions would also federate with the unions of their trade in other localities in Labor Cartels (Rocker’s term) or Labor Exchanges (Pataud and Pouget’s term), and these federations federate, etc., to organize consumption.\footnote{Rudolf Rocker, \emph{Anarcho-Syndicalism} (London: Pluto Press, 1989), 93–95; Emile Pataud \& Emile Pouget, \emph{How We Shall Bring About the Revolution: Syndicalism and the Cooperative Commonwealth} (London: Pluto Press, 1990), 113–114, 124–127.} Pataud and Pouget made quite clear what this system implied for the commune: “Public life had henceforth other centres: it was wholly within the Trade Unions. From the communal and departmental point of view, the Union of local Trade Unions, — the Labour Exchange, — was about to gather to itself all the useful functions; in the same way, from the national point of view, functions with which the State had adorned itself were about to return to the Trade Federations, and to the Confederation, a union of district and national organisations, — Labour Exchanges and Trade Federations.”\footnote{Pataud \& Pouget, \emph{How We Shall Bring About the Revolution}, 113–114.}
It goes without saying that Max Stirner would reject the polis as statist: “Political liberty means that the \emph{polis}, the state, is free,” not the egoist.\footnote{Max Stirner, \emph{Ego and Its Own}, 97. “Every state is a \emph{despotism}, be the despot one or many, or (as one is likely to imagine about a republic) if all be lords, that is, despotize one over another. For this is the case when the law given at any time, the expressed volition of (it may be) a popular assembly, is thenceforth to be \emph{law} for the individual, to which \emph{obedience is due} from him or towards which he has the \emph{duty} of obedience.” Ibid., 75.} Leo Tolstoy, the original Green anarchist, would reject the urban commune if only because it was urban: he hated cities and favored the simple life of the peasant. He predicted (erroneously), and approved, a major shift of population from city to country: “All men should contribute equally to food production, and this requires men of all walks of life, not just peasants, to return to the countryside and perform manual labor.” He also rejected voting and officeholding: “To take a part in elections, courts of law, or in the administration of government is the same thing as a participation in the violence of the government.”\footnote{E.B. Greenwood, \emph{Tolstoy: The Comprehensive Vision} (London: J.M. Dent \& Sons, 1975), 37; Walter Smyrniw, “Discovering the Brotherhood of the Destitute: Tolstoy’s Insight into the Causes of Urban Poverty,” in \emph{Leo Tolstoy and the Concept of Brotherhood}, ed. Andrew Donskov \& John Woodsworth (New York: LEGAS, 1996), 201–202; Leo Tolstoy, \emph{Writings on Civil Disobedience and Nonviolence} (Philadelphia, PA \& Santa Cruz, CA: New Society Publishers, 1987), 300 (quoted). Tolstoy might have approved of cantonal and village peasant assemblies such as had been abolished in Russia as recently as 1861, but he left no record of such an opinion. David Redfearn, \emph{Tolstoy: Principles for a New World Order} (London: Shepheard \& Walwyn, 1992), 61–62.}
The Individualist Anarchists would reject the Commune — not for being a collectivity, for they favored and formed intentional communities — but for its governance by majority rule. Lysander Spooner observed that “obviously, there is nothing in the nature of majorities, that insures justice at their hands.”\footnote{“An Essay on the Trial by Jury,” in \emph{The Collected Works of Lysander Spooner} (6 vols.; Weston, MA: M \& S Press, 1971), 2: 206 (quoted), 206–207, 218–219.}
Finally, William Godwin might be expected to accept the Commune, since his vision of anarchy does include the occasional meetings of parish assemblies. But Godwin rejected majority rule as emphatically as Thoreau did: “If the people, or the individuals of whom the people is constituted, cannot delegate their authority to a representative, neither can any individual delegate his authority to a majority, in an assembly of which he is himself a member.”\footnote{Godwin, \emph{Political Justice}, 216.}
Thus, with one possible exception, all major anarchist theorists reject Murray Bookchin’s Commune as not anarchist. Direct democracy is not anarchist. Thus Benjamin R. Barber — Bookchin’s source on Swiss democracy — opposes direct democracy to anarchy, and in fact penned the most scurrilous attack on anarchism in recent times. Communalism, considered as the self-governing community of equal citizens, “is nearly the opposite” of anarchist communism.\footnote{Benjamin R. Barber, \emph{Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age} (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984), 98–102; Benjamin R. Barber, \emph{Superman and Common Man: Freedom, Anarchy, and the Revolution} (New York \& Washington DC: Praeger Publishers, 1971), 14–36; Johnson Kent Wright, \emph{A Classical Republican in Eighteenth-Century France: The Political Thought of Mably} (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997), 108.}
\chapter{Chapter 16. Fantasies of Federalism}
One of its proponents insists that face-to-face direct democracy has to meet a very demanding standard:
\begin{quote}
The first and most important positive act of political recognition which a participatory democracy must pay to its members is to give each of them frequent and realistic opportunities to be heard, that is to say, access to assemblies sufficiently small so all can reasonably be assured time to speak, and to matters of sufficient moment to command practical attention.\footnote{H. Mark Roelofs, “Democratic Dialectics,” \emph{Review of Politics} 60(1) (Winter 1998), 23.}
\end{quote}
Bookchin’s standard is just as high:
\begin{quote}
The Greeks, we are often reminded, would have been horrified by a city whose size and population precluded a face-to-face, often familiar relationship between citizens\dots{} In making collective decisions — the ancient Athenian ecclesia was, in some ways, a model for making social decisions — all members of the community should have an opportunity to acquire in full the measure of anyone who addresses the assembly. They should be in a position to absorb his attitudes, study his expressions, and weigh his motives as well as his ideas in a direct personal encounter and through direct face-to-face discussion.
\end{quote}
Direct democracy must “literally be direct, face-to-face, of the kind that prevailed in the Athenian polis, the French revolutionary sections of 1793, and the New England town meetings.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 79 (quoted); Bookchin, “Radical Politics,” 8; Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 215 (quoted).} That is what did \emph{not} prevail in the Athenian assembly, as we saw in Chapter 14, but that is what would \emph{have} to prevail if libertarian municipalism is to be anything but a façade for oligarchy. Here, then, is the core of the ex-Director’s grand theory, Libertarian Municipalism, filched from Milton Kottler.\footnote{Milton Kotler, \emph{Neighborhood Government: The Local Foundations of Political Life} (Indianapolis, IN \& New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1969).}
The Director Emeritus will not provide an estimate of the population of an urban Commune, but it would be within reasonable walking distance of its neighbors. He does put its area at one to twelve blocks. Elsewhere, he appears to approve of Plato’s Pythagorean figure, in the \emph{Laws}, of a polis population of 5,040.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 195; Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 102–103; “Laws,” in \emph{The Dialogues of Plato}, tr. B. Jowett (5 vols., rev. ed.; Oxford: at the Clarendon Press, 1875), 5: 309.} Janet Biehl says that municipalities “may range from a small village or town in a rural area, to a small city, to a neighbourhood in a vast metropolis like New York.” The Director Emeritus seems to contemplate a lower upper limit when he says the Commune would be based on neighborhoods, wards, “even blocks.”\footnote{Biehl, \emph{Politics of Social Ecology}, 54 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 312–313 (quoted).} But which wards? Which blocks? Bookchin ignores the questions where, how, and by whom, the all-important boundaries of the Commune are to be drawn.
The Commune is, we are told, an “organic” unit. For once the ironic quotation marks are unwittingly appropriate. The constituent elements of Communal society are treated as givens: “Popular, even block, assemblies can be formed irrespective of the size of the city, provided its organic cultural components can be identified and their uniqueness fostered.” (Identified by whom? And what happens to the people in areas where it can’t?) Cities consist of neighborhoods, “largely organic communities that have a certain measure of identity, whether they are defined by a shared cultural heritage, economic interests, a commonality of social views, or even an esthetic tradition such as Greenwich Village.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 246.} Actually this approximates the definition of a \emph{community}, a geographical clustering of people with shared interests, characteristics and association.\footnote{Roland L. Warren, \emph{The Community in America} (3\textsuperscript{rd} ed.; Chicago, IL: Rand McNally College Publishing Co., 1978), 5–6; Michael Taylor, \emph{Community, Anarchy and Liberty} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 26.} But for Bookchin the community is useless, despite its much greater functional reality, because it is usually not a face-to-face aggregation useable as the Commune’s atomic unit. Sad to say, neighborhood or community, call it what you will, cannot be taken for granted by the would-be builders of the municipal state: “The notion of a community as a cohesive, locally based social system with shared values and a sense of belonging is not the most useful way to conceptualize the complex textures of urban social systems. Communities in this sense do occur in cities, yet many urbanites live in areas which do not resemble the traditional community.”\footnote{Merry, “Defining ‘Success’ in the Neighborhood Justice Movement,” 176.}
Even to speak of a \emph{tribal} society as “organic,” as the Director Emeritus used to do,\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, ch. 2.} is to speak metaphorically by analogy from living organisms. Bookchin may not know this, since he thinks primitive societies are biological, like wolf packs or anthills (Chapter 11). In fact, “organic” is the sort of political metaphor that he irrationally denounces as irrationalist, even fascistic.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 201–203.} The typical urban neighborhood is so far from resembling an organism as to make the metaphor mystifying. Except for incorporated villages, few territories of, say, 1,000 people serve any significant functions — if only \emph{because} they now lack political institutions by which to function, and often also because their residents share few interests or attitudes. The boundary of a biological organism is its skin. The boundary of a state is the border. The boundary of a neighborhood is often vague and flexible.\footnote{Bullpitt, “Participation and Local Government,” 285–286.} Residents often disagree about the boundaries and with the opinions of outsiders as to where the boundaries are. Whether a city has neighborhoods at all is an empirical question.\footnote{Maurice R. Stein, \emph{The Eclipse of Community: An Interpretation of American Studies} (exp. ed.; Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972), 104.} Which is hardly surprising, since whether they exist or where they are is at present irrelevant. But it will be highly relevant under Communal rule.
The entire quixotic theory of urban municipalism presupposes that the politically viable muncipalities are \emph{already here}. Thus Biehl writes, “Libertarian municipalism refers to such potential political communities as \emph{municipalities}. To be sure, the municipalities that exist today vary widely in size and legal status [sic: neighborhoods have no legal status]; they may range from a small village or town in a rural area, to a small city, to a neighborhood in a vast metropolis like New York. But they still have sufficient features and traditions in common that we may use the same name for them.”\footnote{Biehl, \emph{Politics of Social Ecology}, 54.} Although the Director Emeritus has often ridiculed E.F. Schumacher, whose fame he envies, for saying “small is beautiful,” he is not above appropriating the positive resonance of “small.” The constant use of quantitative language without any quantification invites suspicion that Bookchin is being designedly vague because any figure he mentions could be pounced upon as inconsistent with one aspect or another of his utopia. I daresay any figure will be too small for viable sovereignty or too large for direct democracy. Indeed, he often speaks, as Biehl does here, of the municipality as the primary political unit; but elsewhere the municipality is a federation of neighborhoods, and \emph{it} is the primary political unit. If the representative government of a municipality is the sovereign, then Communalism has none of the virtues claimed for it.
Communal boundaries are neither self-evident nor self-constructing. The only way all Communes could have “sufficient features and traditions in common” is the way Biehl makes sure they do — by definition. Do you need features \emph{and} traditions or features \emph{or} traditions? New communities will usually have features but no traditions in common. In others, the only “traditions” shared are what they share with millions of other massified middle-class whites, such as conventional piety and what Dwight Macdonald called Masscult. There may be nothing to distinguish them as people from the neighborhoods around them, not even an arbitrary sense of neighborhood. Such people tend to be those who are satisfied with the status quo and content to leave politics to representatives, experts and outsiders. If features-and-traditions is a requirement for municipality status, many neighborhoods don’t satisfy it. Will these attributes be engineered by the neighborhoods that \emph{do} have them, exercising a colonial protectorate?
According to Bookchin, the spread of Communes will be a protracted, uneven process: “Some neighborhoods and towns can be expected to advance more rapidly than others in political consciousness.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 327–328, 328 (quoted).} For an extended period of time, there will be assemblies in some neighborhoods but not others. A small, unrepresentative minority (of Organization militants, usually) will have a free hand to define the Commune’s identity more or less permanently in a manner at once self-serving and self-fulfilling. There will be a strong temptation to gerrymandering — to drawing the lines so as to benefit those who are drawing them, especially since there is no organized opposition across the boundary. The apportioners may draw the lines to exclude enclaves of minorities, on the pretext, if they feel they need one, that the minorities lack the requisite ethnic, economic or ideological “identity” with the designated dominant group. Neighborhoods will become more parochial than they already are — an odd consequence of a universalistic ideology. The line might be drawn to include valuable real estate (a street, a gas station, a library) and exclude nuisances (a laggard Commune may find itself stuck with the city dump). Belatedly organized Communes will not accept the justice of first-come, first-served, but there is no higher authority for them to apply to for redress.
Since Bookchin is almost indifferent to the economic organization of his ideal society (Chapter 17), it is hard to be sure what absurdities await there. There are resources critically important to cities — oil fields, hydroelectric power dams, mines — located far from them. Who owns them? The nearest one-horse town? Who maintains interstate highways, a string of truck stops? Does a college own its college town? Does a company town own its company? Does Washington’s Capitol Hill neighborhood where I used to live own the Capitol and the Library of Congress? How does the common situation play out of a large factory in a small town? There may be far more workers than townsmen, maybe even more workers who live outside of town than townsmen. In Pittsburgh, for instance, in the 1980s, only 20\% of workers worked in or near their neighborhoods.\footnote{Ahlbrandt, “Using Research to Build Stronger Neighborhoods,” 292.} The “capitalist industrial city” is characterized by segregation by land use function and by class-based neighborhoods. Everybody but Bookchin knows that productive industry has fled the cities for the suburbs and exurbs. No longer the center of production and distribution, the city is fortunate if it serves as a center of administration, information exchange and service provision.\footnote{Rayna Rapp, “Urban Kinship in Contemporary America,” in \emph{Cities of the United States: Studies in Urban Anthropology,} ed. Leith Mullings (New York: Columbia University Press), 222 (quoted); John D. Lasarda, “Deindustrialization and the Future of American Cities,” in \emph{The Challenge of Social Control: Citizenship and Institutions in Modern Society}, ed. Gerald D. Suttles \& Mayer N. Zald (Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1985), 183–192.} Because we live in the kind of complex technological society celebrated by the ex-Director, neither neighborhood nor city self-sufficiency is even remotely possible. All the critical economic decisions are made elsewhere.
Taking the Director Emeritus at face value, it would seem that the town could manage the factory (or even a dozen factories in an industrial park) in its own interest, although such decisions are as important or more important to the workers (and to distant consumers) as to the townsmen. As workers without civic rights, they resemble the metics of Athens. It is no use their taking their problems home to their assemblies, because even if the assemblies cared about the personalistic extraterritorial problems of some of their citizens, they are powerless to act beyond their borders. About all that Bookchin says, and says often, relevant to the problem is that assemblies are not to legislate in their own “particularistic” interests, but in the general interest. That solves the problem all right, but only by justifying \emph{any} form of government, since it doesn’t matter who rules as long as they are guided by the general interest. There would then be no need to set up anything as cumbersome and inefficient as libertarian municipalism.
How many levels of organisation would be required to federate a national population of 262,761,000 [when I first wrote these pages: now it is over 306 million], of which 189,524,000 are over 18? Bookchin and I have independently concluded that four federal levels beyond the Commune would be necessary to reach the national level. In his final pre-anarchist days as a democratic decentralist, Bakunin thought it would be three levels, but he was thinking of the much smaller nations of 19\textsuperscript{th} century Europe, so his estimate is on the same scale as mine.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 313; “Principles and Organization of the International Brotherhood” [1866], in Lehning, ed., \emph{Michael Bakunin: Selected Writings}, 71–74.} For a demonstration, we have to make some assumptions. The first is that the average size of a Commune is 1,000 people, of which, using the national average, 75.12\% or 751 are adults.\footnote{\emph{U.S. Bureau of the Census. State and Metropolitan Area Data Book 1997–98} (5\textsuperscript{th} ed.; Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1998), 2 (Table A-3), 56 (Table A-55).} The Director Emeritus would apparently go that high, maybe higher, since Communes may be based on “neighborhoods.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 312–313.}
One thousand, I submit, is obviously too large to satisfy even a weak standard of face-to-face interaction — for everybody to know everybody else, more or less — especially considering the anomie prevailing in most urban neighborhoods. It is a rare individual in any neighborhood who knows even 50 of his neighbors, unless he is a politician. Many urbanites have contacts with very few neighbors. And characteristically they interact with others “in highly segmental roles” (Louis Wirth). In fact, urban social relations typically exhibit what Simmel called “reserve,” an indifference or even mild repulsion, such that “we frequently do not even know by sight those who have been our neighbors for years.” As the pioneering urbanist Robert E. Park put it: “We don’t ever really get to know the urbane person hence never know when to trust him.”\footnote{Louis Wirth, “Urbanism as a Way of Life,” in Smith, ed., \emph{Urban Life}, 72 (quoted); Suzanne Keller, \emph{The Urban Neighborhood: A Sociological Perspective} (New York: Random House, 1968), 97; “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” in \emph{Sociology of Georg Simmel}, 415 (quoted); Robert E. Park, \emph{Race and Culture} (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1950), 14 (quoted).}
Furthermore, unlike the organic neighborhoods of urban legend, today’s urban neighborhoods are populated in great part by people coming from or, sooner or later, going to somewhere else. The “organic” ethnic neighborhoods are among the most transient, as Luc Sante states: “Neighborhood stability has been something of a chimera in Manhattan’s history. In many if not most cases, especially after the great waves of immigration, an ethnic group’s hard-fought settlement of an area was immediately followed by its moving elsewhere [as did Murray Bookchin]\dots{} When a relative degree of prosperity was achieved by the inhabitants of a quarter, they would throw that quarter away, and it would be picked up and moved into by their successors on the lower rung.”\footnote{Luc Sante, \emph{Low Life: Lures and Snares of Old New York} (New York: Vintage Books, 1991), 20 (quoted), 21 (quoted); Bullpitt, “Participation and Local Government,” 285.} The geographically mobile tend to believe, with some justification, that if any politics at all is relevant to their lives it is state and national politics. That’s why voter turnout is lowest — consistently so — in local elections, in which ordinary members of the general public rarely participate except to vote. Their indifference is justified: the general trend is toward reducing local autonomy still further.\footnote{Demetrios Careley, \emph{City Governments and Urban Problems: A New Introduction to Urban Politics} (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977), 329, 337; Howard D. Hamilton, “Voting and Nonvoting,” \emph{American Political Science Review} 65(4) (Dec. 1971), 1135; Stein, \emph{Eclipse of Community}, 107–108.}
In a big city, there is the opportunity to meet more people, but there will be little tendency for one’s acquaintances to reside in one’s own neighborhood. In fact, for many the lure of the big city is precisely the possibility (which is usually a probability) of geographical and social separation of residence from occupational, religious, recreational and other associational activities.\footnote{Simmel, “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” 416–417.} Thus one source of local political apathy is that vocational interests have become more important.\footnote{Warren, \emph{Community in America}, 17.} In modern conditions, mere propinquity is a relatively unimportant basis of common interests, and without common interests, there is little reason to get to know the neighbors. The neighbors shop at 10 supermarkets and 5 malls instead of at the general store; they worship in 20 different churches or nowhere; they drink in a dozen different bars depending on whether they are gay, black, students, sports fans, singles, wine snobs, winos, etc. In Pittsburgh, for example — which has clearly delineated neighborhoods — less than half the residents use their neighborhoods for shopping or religious, health, or recreational services.\footnote{Ahlbrandt, “Using Research to Build Stronger Neighborhoods,” 290.} The reality is that “community implies an association of like minds, but the fact is that a residential neighborhood is generally an aggregate of strangers who happen to live next door to one another.”\footnote{Richard C. Schrager, “The Limits of Localism,” \emph{Michigan Law Review} 100(2) (Nov. 2001), 416.} The extreme yet revealing expression of urban reserve is where urbanites ignore a crime or a crime victim when they could easily call 911.\footnote{Howard S. Becker, \emph{Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance} (New York: The Free Press \& London: Collier-Macmillan, 1963), 124; Stanley Milgram, “The Urban Experience: A Psychological Analysis,” in Smith, ed., \emph{Urban Life}, 86–87; Bibb Lantane \& John M. Darley, \emph{The Unresponsive Bystander: Why Doesn’t He Help?} (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1974).}
Highly neighborly neighborhoods do exist, usually resting on an ethnic base — what Bookchin calls “culturally distinct neighborhoods” or “colorful ethnic neighborhoods” — but there are not many of them and their number is dwindling.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 334; Black, \emph{AAL}, 84, quoting Bookchin, \emph{Limits of the City}, 72.} Fantastically, the Director Emeritus claims that New York City \emph{today} consists of “largely organic communities that have a certain measure of identity.” (There are many former New Yorkers like him, “now living elsewhere in a suburb or a small city, who wax nostalgic about their former lives in the ‘big city.’”)\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 246 (quoted); Walter P. Zenner, “Beyond Urban and Rural: Communities in the 21\textsuperscript{st} Century,” in Smith, ed., \emph{Urban Life}, 59 (quoted).} You do tend to find the Bloods and Crips in different neighborhoods. But the ethnic neighborhood is usually, for the second generation (Bookchin is typical), a place of assimilation soon left behind. The Jewish radical Lower East Side which the Director Emeritus fondly remembers (as one of “a thousand villages”) is gone. Indeed, as he remembers it, it was never there. Its German, then Jewish and then Italian neighborhoods “were transformed within decades and eventually vanished as their cohort of residents voluntarily relocated to better neighborhoods only to be replaced by newcomers of different ethnic backgrounds.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 18 (quoted); Christopher Mele, “Private Redevelopment and the Changing Forms of Displacement in the East Village of New York,” in \emph{Marginal Spaces}, ed. Michael Peter Smith (New Brunswick, NJ \& London: Transaction Publishers, 1995), 73–74 (quoted).} The “veneration of the Lower East Side” commenced at the end of World War II, by which time, not coincidentally, most of its Jewish population had moved elsewhere. It was young Jewish writers of the 1960s who created the myth of “the Lower East Side as a place where Jews had resisted the rule of bourgeois respectability.”\footnote{Hasia R. Diner, \emph{Lower East Side Memories: A Jewish Place in America} (Princeton, NJ \& Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2000), 167 (quoted), 173 (quoted), 181.} The Director Emeritus, who denounces myth, is an example of its power.
It was the same everywhere. In Brooklyn, early 20\textsuperscript{th} century communities like Canarsie, Flatbush, Bensonhurst and Brownsville are communities no longer.\footnote{Warren, \emph{Community in America}, 3.} Gone too are Boston’s West End (Italian), Detroit’s Poletown, and many similar urban communities. And the irony is that those that remain feel more or less besieged by current urban trends and react with a defensive conservatism which makes them among the less likely neighborhoods to take up Bookchin’s radical proposals, unless in a reactionary way. I can think of only one argument which might attract them: when they are self-governing, no one can stop them from keeping out blacks, something zoning already serves to do. Even participatory democrat Benjamin R. Barber weakly admits that only “education” might thwart exclusivist bigotry. For Bookchin, the best neighborhood for a Commune is a homogeneous neighborhood. Let’s be blunt: “Homogeneous neighborhoods are almost always white neighborhoods.”\footnote{Barber, \emph{Strong Democracy,} 297; Catherine E. Ross, John R. Reynolds, \& Karlyn J. Geis, “The Contingent Meaning of Neighborhood Stability for Residents’ Psychological Well-Being,” \emph{American Sociological Review} 65(4) (Aug. 2000), 583 n. 1 (quoted); Robert H. Nelson, “Privatizing the Neighborhood: A Proposal to Replace Zoning with Private Collective Property Rights to Existing Neighborhoods,” in \emph{The Voluntary City: Choice, Community, and Civil Society,}, ed. David T. Beito, Peter Gordon, \& Alexander Tabarrock (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2002) 318.} South Boston, after all, is as organic as a neighborhood gets. In Pittsburgh, primary ties are strongest in white ethnic Catholic neighborhoods.\footnote{Ahlbrandt, “Using Research to Build Stronger Neighborhoods,” 296.} Then there are the gated communities with their physical barriers, security guards and well-screened affluent, homogeneous populations. These might be called “colorless ethnic neighborhoods.” There are 30,000 gated communities with almost four million residents, and they are increasing rapidly. Bookchin can only babble that “even these enclaves are opening up a degree of nucleation that could ultimately be used in a progressive sense.”\footnote{Mona Lynch, “From the Punitive City to the Gated Community: Security and Segregation Across the Penal Landscape,” \emph{University of Miami Law Review} 56(1) (Oct. 2001), 49–50; Nelson, “Privatizing the Neighborhood,” 342; “Interview with Murray Bookchin,” 152 (quoted).}
Bookchin is convinced that his historical examples prove that direct democracy is workable even in large cities, such as Athens with over 250,000 people, or Paris with over 750,000 (one of the three figures he’s provided). Attendance would be on the level of revolutionary Paris or ancient Athens (how can he possibly know this?)\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 246; Bookchin, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 160–164; Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 341.} — which one? It was usually much higher in Athens. But Athens and Paris are \emph{counter}-examples (Chapters 14 and 13). So is the New England town meeting (Chapter 13). In fact, every known example is a counter-example. After extolling Athenian democracy, M.I. Finley admits: “But, then as now, politics was a way of life for very few members of the community.”\footnote{Finley, \emph{Economy and Society in Ancient Greece}, 82.}
Whether attendance is large or small, here lies a contradiction. The more citizens who attend, the less the assembly can be said to be a face-to-face group. But the fewer citizens who attend, the less legitimacy the assembly has in claiming to speak for all. As in any case of sampling, the smaller the attending group, the less accurately it reflects the composition of the total population.\footnote{Michael G. Maxfield \& Earl Babbie, \emph{Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology} (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1995), 189.} A larger group is more representative, but a smaller group is more effective. And the Director Emeritus ought not to take for granted the obedience of the predictable huge nonattending majorities which trouble him not at all. In 18\textsuperscript{th} century Rhode Island, a colony founded by refugee dissidents, chronic low attendance provoked protests against the legitimacy of town meeting decisions. Poorly attended meetings hesitated to take action. And on six occasions, town meetings reversed the acts of the previous meetings when different people showed up.\footnote{Daniels, \emph{Dissent and Confrontation on Narragansett Bay}, 96–97.}
One might say that if certain people attend with regularity, they will get to know one another. But that does not escape the dilemma, it intensifies it. The regulars will know each other, work together, and together acquire political experience and skill. Because they interact frequently with each other, they will tend to like each other.\footnote{Homans, \emph{Human Group}, 111.} They will know more about the business of the assembly than those who attend occasionally; whereas, in a large group, the typical participant is less likely to prepare himself because he will not affect the decision anyway.\footnote{Mancur Olson, \emph{The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups} (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), 53.} Through regular interaction, even the views of adversaries tend to converge, as happens, for instance, in “courtroom work groups” consisting of prosecutor, defense attorney and judge whose relations are supposedly neutral or adversarial.\footnote{Homans, \emph{Human Group}, 120, 133; David W. Neubauer, \emph{America’s Courts and the Criminal Justice System} (5\textsuperscript{th} ed.; Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1996), 70–75; James Eisenstein \& Herbert Jacob, \emph{Felony Justice: An Organizational Analysis of Criminal Courts} (Boston, MA: Little, Brown \& Co., 1977), ch. 2. Lesser members of the group include the clerk, bailiff, and sometimes certain police officers.} Groups exert pressure toward conformity, and the larger the group, the greater the pressure. Participation in a decision increases support for it.\footnote{Sidney Verba, \emph{Small Groups and Political Behavior: A Study of Leadership} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961), 2, 226.} In combination, these forces make for a cohesive in-group which, because it has its own stake in decisions once made, tends to differ in opinion to an ever-increasing degree from the amorphous general population.
The citizens were already unequal, before they entered the meeting room, in respects which always tend toward inequality of participation. Participants will differ from nonparticipants in the same ways that, among participants, leaders and active participants will differ from passive participants. Political participation as measured by voting is higher for those with higher income, education, occupational status, and age, and among whites and long-term residents.\footnote{Seymour Martin Lipset, \emph{Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics} (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1963), 189 (Table 1).} Similarly, the more influential jurors and those most likely to be chosen as foremen are those with higher levels of education, income and organizational skills. Persons of higher social rank have a wider range of interactions, and they are more likely to originate their interactions they “innovate” rather than “adapt”: — they are leaders.\footnote{Fred L. Stodt, Rita James, \& Charles Hawkins, “Social Status and Jury Deliberations,” \emph{American Sociological Review} 22(6) (Dec. 1957), 716; Homans, \emph{Human Group}, 145–146.}
It is fine to posit that people will not be the same after the Revolution,\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 280.} but education, occupation, age, race, gender and basic personality, will not be changed by the ex-Director’s revolution. Any crackpot can say that by a fantastic stroke of fortune, the process of constructing his utopia is exactly what it takes to trim people to fit it. Even if people entered the assembly as equals, small-group research demonstrates that, purely as a matter of group dynamics, “as members of a group interact in the performance of a task, inequality of participation arises.” And the larger the group, the greater the extent by which the most active person stands out.\footnote{Peter J. Burke, “Leadership Role Differentiation,” in \emph{Experimental Social Psychology}, ed. Charles Graham McClintock (New York: Holt, Rinehart \& Winston, 1972), 516 (quoted), 520.} With successive meetings, differentiation increases.\footnote{Albert A. Harrison, \emph{Individuals and Groups: Understanding Social Behavior} (Monterey, CA: Brooks\Slash{}Cole Publishing Co., 1976), 392.} In any political setting, most decisions are made by groups of considerably less than 20 people.\footnote{Verba, \emph{Small Groups and Political Behavior}, 4, 12.} There is no reason why the assembly should be any different. In Athens the activist elite, the \emph{rhetores}, less than one hundred men out of 20,000 to 40,000 citizens, were superior in ability, education and wealth. They drafted the bills and did the talking.\footnote{Ober, \emph{Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens}, 113–118.}
In fact, we know that there will be an elite group in Bookchin’s assembly because that is part of the plan. Although Organization militants are of course to play “leading roles” at the outset of revolution, it is after the revolution that their role is critical and they must form “a more structured type of vanguard” if they have not already done so. Like the Bolshevik Party in 1917, the vanguard Organization is not just for seizing power, it is for wielding it after the masses have overthrown the old ruling classes. It “would consist of interlinked affinity groups that would play a leading role in democratic popular assemblies in towns, neighborhoods, and cities.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 296.}
Since “the establishment of popular assemblies would likely involve primarily the most politically concerned people, possibly only a fraction of a whole,”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 341–342.} assemblies would likely by founded by Organization activists. As the Director Emeritus wisely says, political parties are “often synonymous with the state when they are in power.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 243.} The founders will bring to the assembly their working unity, organizational skills, ideological certitude, and the prestige of their victorious revolution. As a group, or as the nucleus of a broader insider group, they will dominate meetings. Citizens who occasionally attend, whose motivation to do so was not high anyway, will notice their own lack of influence and their attendance will decline, further enhancing the power of the clique. The outcome is oligarchy, just as it is under representative systems. Every Commune will be, not only a state, but a one-party state.
Thus a compact minority — a minority of the minority — has the power; power can be abused; and where power can be abused, it will be. Inevitably a clique will oppress minorities (and probably majorities), if only because it can. The people in power will be the same kind of people who were in power before.\footnote{Robert A. Dahl, \emph{After the Revolution: Authority in a Good Society} (rev. ed.; New Haven, CT \& London: Yale University Press, 1990), 54.} Minorities will find themselves more susceptible to oppression than under the old government, in several respects. Small units tend to be more homogeneous than large ones, simply because their capacity to accommodate diversity is more limited, and the likelihood of a dissenter finding allies is lower. And the importance of allies cannot be overstated: “If even one person supports a dissenter against a group, the chance of the dissenter’s conforming drops drastically, and a dissenter is more likely in a large group to find someone to give such support.”\footnote{Mansbridge, \emph{Beyond Adversary Democracy}, 283.} James Madison argued, in support of the Constitution, that “whilst all authority in [the federal republic] will be derived from and dependent on the society, the society itself will be broken into so many parts, interests and classes of citizens, that the rights of individuals or of the minority, will be in little danger from interested combinations of the majority. In a free government, the security for civil rights must be the same as the security for religious rights. It consists in the one case of the multiplicity of interests, and in the other, in the multiplicity of sects. The degree of security in both cases may be presumed to depend on the extent of country and number of people comprehended under the same government.”\footnote{\emph{Federalist}, 351–352 (No.51) (Madison) (quoted); ibid., 63–65 (No.10) (Madison); \emph{Records of the Federal Convention of 1787}, ed. Max Farrand (4 vols.; New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1937), 1: 36.} However effective this safeguard actually is, it will not affect the Commune very much. The smaller the group, the fewer the interests represented or to put it another way, the less proportionality, and the greater the likelihood of oppression.\footnote{Mansbridge, \emph{Beyond Adversary Democracy}, 281; Arend Liphart, “Electoral systems,” \emph{Encyclopedia of Democracy}, 2: 419; McConnell, \emph{Private Power and American Democracy}, 6.} There is some incentive not to oppress where the oppressive majority of today may be the oppressed minority of tomorrow. The Commune, in contrast, is as if designed to constitute permanent oppressive majorities.
To the evil of majoritarian tyranny is added that of faction. Although Madison was speaking of a government for a republic, direct democracy provided his examples:
\begin{quote}
From this view of the subject, it may be concluded, that a pure Democracy, by which I mean a society, consisting of a small number of citizens, who assemble and administer the Government in person, can admit of no cure for the mischiefs of faction. A common passion or interest will, in almost every case, be felt by a majority of the whole; a communication and concert results from the form of Government itself; and there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the weaker party, or an obnoxious individual. Hence it is, that such Democracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence and contention; have ever been found incompatible with personal security, or the rights of property; and have in general been as short in their lives, as they have been violent in their deaths.
\end{quote}
All the American Founders denounced Athens and\Slash{}or direct democracy.\footnote{\emph{The Federalist}, 61 (No.10) (Madison) (quoted); Roberts, “Creation of a Legacy,” 87–95.} The Director Emeritus predicts factional struggles in the assembly. The founders would be in a minority, and “an attempt will be made by other interests, including class interests, to take over the assemblies.”\footnote{“Interview with Bookchin,” 159.} Take over from whom? From the founding faction whose dominance is assumed to be permanently desirable. An assembly is performing well for him so long as the Bookchinist ideological minority perpetuates its initial dominance.
No rights, not even rights of political participation, are fundamental or “entrenched” in the sense that the decrees of the assembly cannot violate them. Such rights are incompatible with the sovereignty of the assembly, whose power is in principle unlimited. Thus, as we saw in Chapter 14, the Athenian citizen had virtually no rights. Thus Murray Bookchin nowhere speaks of rights against the power of the assembly, and he denounces all negative freedom (Chapter 3), which is the form rights usually take. He once held that the assembly would have a constitution, but the only content he mentions is the structure of government, majority rule, and the right to vote. The perspicacious Hobbes denied that there was more liberty in a democracy than in monarchy: “For even if \emph{liberty} is inscribed on the gates and towers of a city in the largest possible letters, it is not the \emph{liberty} of the individual \emph{citizen} but of the \emph{city}; and there is no better right to inscribe it on a \emph{popularly} governed than on a \emph{Monarchically} governed city.”\footnote{“Interview with Bookchin,” 172–173; Thomas Hobbes, \emph{On the Citizen}, ed. \& tr. Richard Tuck \& Michael Silverthorne (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 121 (quoted).}
With his usual lying, disdainful quotation marks, the Director Emeritus spurns the “sovereign rights” and “natural rights” supposedly claimed by Lifestyle Anarchists.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 11–12, quoted in Black, \emph{AAL}, 37. The ex-Director has never cited any such claim.} Truly, any right purportedly assured by the Commune would be merely a quote\Slash{}unquote “right.” Every individual right infringes positive freedom, which is, for him, the only kind of freedom there is.\footnote{Expressed in other words, “all rights are made at the expense of liberty — all laws by which rights are created or confirmed. No right without a correspondent obligation.” Bentham, “Anarchical Fallacies,” 503.} The only apparent exception is also the only apparent exception at Athens: the right to participate in the assembly and hold office.\footnote{Held, \emph{Models of Democracy}, 17; Bullpitt, “Participation and Local Government,” 288.} Freedom of speech means freedom to speak in the assembly and, at its most expansive, freedom to speak out of doors about matters which may come before the assembly. That leaves open to mini-state control all the speech of most people and most of the speech of all people. In other words, there is freedom of speech when it serves the system, but not for the benefit of the individual. Bookchin cannot even imagine that people might want to talk about anything besides politics. Censorship is here a simple matter because the Commune owns the media.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 147..} And there is no suggestion of recourse, in case even these few participation-related rights are violated, to anyone except the body violating them, the assembly. As a last resort, Athens had ostracism; any Commune might also ostracise.
\emph{Or so it seemed} from everything by Bookchin that I’ve seen. In \emph{The Politics of Social Ecology}, his puppet Janet Biehl repeats his line that the Communes “retain their freedom and their identity and their sovereignty even as they confederate.” By definition, the sovereign possesses the ultimate authority. Yet now we are told that any Commune could require a \emph{popular referendum} of all the citizens of the federated Communes to vote on allegations that some other Commune “was wreaking ecological mayhem (dumping its wastes in the river) or violating human rights (excluding people of color)”! In direct contradiction to the principles of direct democracy, a majority of nondeliberative, non-face to face (yuk!) \emph{individuals} drawn from other Communes could impose its will upon one supposedly sovereign Commune.\footnote{Biehl, \emph{Politics of Social Ecology}, 101 (quoted), 108 (quoted), 108–109.} There is thus no Communal sovereignty; the Confederacy is sovereign; for sovereignty, as Rousseau and the Antifederalists\footnote{Lance Banning, \emph{The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology} (Ithaca, NY \& London: Cornell University Press, 1978), 108; Wood, \emph{Creation of the American Republic,} 527–529.} insisted, is indivisible. There is no escaping the confederal dilemma:
\begin{quote}
If a federal government possesses a constitutional authority to intervene by force in the government of a state for the purpose of ensuring the state’s performance of its duties as a member of the federation, there is no adequate constitutional barrier against the conversion of the federation into a centralized state by vigorous and resolute central government. If it does not possess such an authority, there is no adequate assurance that the federal government can maintain the character of the system when vigorous and resolute state governments take full advantage of their constitutional freedom to go their own ways.\footnote{Arthur N. Holcombe, “The Coercion of States in a Federal System,” in \emph{Federalism: Mature and Emergent}, ed. Arthur W. MacMahon (New York: Doubleday, 1955), 139–140.}
\end{quote}
One of two things happens: either the federation collapses or it becomes a centralized state. Collapse, such as befell the ancient Greek and medieval Italian federations, is by far the more common fate. But occasionally the central “coordinating” apparatus of a confederation transforms itself into a state, which usually takes a long time. Examples are the United States, the Netherlands and Switzerland. Quite recently, the Director Emeritus confirmed that his Confederation is the sovereign power. Proudhon and Bakunin regrettably “allowed for the possibility that a single community could opt out of the confederation if it so desired\dots{} But I don’t agree that this should be permitted.”\footnote{Vanek, “Interview with Murray Bookchin.”}
“Why, then,” one may ask, “is there reason to emphasize the assembly form as crucial to self-governance? Is it not enough to use the referendum, as the Swiss profess to do today, and resolve the problem of democratic procedure in a simple and seemingly uncomplicated way?” No, because, for one thing, “the autonomous individual \emph{qua} ‘voter’ [why the quotation marks?] who forms the social unit of the referendum process in liberal theory is a fiction.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 248.} Indeed he is a fiction — Bookchin’s fiction. If “voters” are fictions, how is it that they elect candidates who take office and rule? “The referendum, conducted in the privacy of one’s voting booth or, as some ‘Third Wave’ enthusiasts would have it, in the electronic isolation of one’s home privatizes democracy and thereby subverts it.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 250.} In other words, voting is incompatible with democracy, which completes the severance of the word democracy from all terrestrial moorings. Just what does assembly voting add to voting? The assembly provides a forum for deliberation, of course — this, indeed, is the ex-Director’s only argument against the “farce” of electronic voting\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 342.} — but deliberation need not coincide with voting and it need not take place in the assembly. So it must be something else. Bookchin’s real objection, which he is ashamed to express, can only be to the \emph{secret ballot}. He seeks a return to the corrupt politics of the 19\textsuperscript{th} century when voting was public and voters were exposed to intimidation and reprisals. Public voting made a mockery of Italian and Parisian democracy, where it perpetuated the oligarchy of entrenched elites. This kind of freedom, if you care to call it that, is only formal, not substantive.
Biehl’s thoughtless, half-assed scheme teems with latent difficulties. As the proposal is phrased, any one Commune can trigger a referendum just by demanding one. Isn’t it obvious that Communes on the losing side in Confederal decisions will take a second bite out of the apple by compelling referenda? They have nothing to lose. Even if neighborly harmony prevails within Communes, it is not to be expected among Confederal delegates who have no authority to negotiate, compromise or even persuade. Referenda will thus be routine, perhaps weekly events. This will inconvenience everybody. In places where referenda are now held, although they are not frequent, often only a tiny minority votes. It may be that every assembly will have to devote a substantial part of its agenda to discussing and voting on referendum questions to the detriment of its own affairs. Or use Internet voting, which, “farce” or not, has already been tried successfully.\footnote{Dahl, \emph{After the Revolution?} 55; Ted Baker \& Christina Slaton, \emph{The Future of Teledemocracy} (Westport, CT \& London: Praeger, 2000).} There’s no conceivable reason why the assemblies won’t just send in their vote tallies directly — by ConFederal Express! — as is done in all elections today, rather than dispatch their delegate with a briefcase. What’s more, the incessant practice of referenda will accustom citizens to voting on a Confederation-wide, translocal, equal suffrage basis. The value of deliberation declines when there is no opportunity to deliberate with the vast majority of the people voting. The citizens will adopt representation, and all the usual centralizing processes will go into play.
What happens if the wayward Commune refuses to abide by majority vote, as the Paris sectionnaires did when they expelled Girondin delegates from the Convention whom others had elected? Will the Confederation call out the militias the way an American president can “federalize” (\emph{i.e.,} nationalize) the National Guard? That would establish beyond doubt the statist character of the Confederation. Or merely expel the wayward Commune? If that meant economic strangulation for the Commune, this is coercion as surely as is military force. But what if the miscreant Commune, whether it is in or out of the Confederation, persists in its wrongdoing? Its polluting or prejudicial practices remain as obnoxious as ever. The question of coercion arises either way. And what if the polluting or discriminatory Commune is in \emph{another} Confederation? If it is, perhaps, just across that river it is polluting? The Communes of the virtuous Confederation have no right to compel a referendum anywhere else, and there is no guarantee that if one is held, that the cause of virtue will win. What if it doesn’t? What then — war? Isn’t this scenario substantially that of the American Civil War or, as the South refers to it, the War Between the States? Anyway, the faith of Biehl \emph{qua} Bookchin in the referendum as a safeguard for minorities is self-refuting, since the proposal is precisely to use it to coerce minorities. Direct democracy through referenda “does have the further disadvantage of removing any power from minority groups.”\footnote{P.J. Taylor \& R.J. Johnston, \emph{Geography of Elections} (London: Croom Helm, 1979), 485.}
Even if there were something like constitutional rights, there would be no courts to enforce them. In fact, there are apparently no courts to enforce anything. That courts may have a place in a direct democracy, Bookchin well knows, since he defends the Athenian system of hired mass juries and ad hoc judges, and he mentions that the sections of Paris had their courts and justices of the peace.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 35.} But I have found no references in his writings to courts as Communal institutions.
Now as an anarchist I am supposed to spurn paper laws and dismiss courts as merely a source of oppression, not a protection against it. That is too facile, although the history shows that courts are most likely to act as tools of the state, of which they are a part, against the enemies of the state.\footnote{Robert G. McCloskey, \emph{The Modern Supreme Court} (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972). Concerning Sacco and Vanzetti, Mencken wrote: “No government is ever fair in its dealings with men suspected of enmity to it. One of the principal functions of all government, indeed, is to put down such men, and it is one of the few governmental functions that are always performed diligently and \emph{con amore.}” H.L. Mencken, “Reflections on Government,” in \emph{A Second Mencken Chrestomathy}, ed. Terry Teachout (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995), 43.} Such factors as the relative independence of the judiciary, and the relative autonomy of the law as a professionally elaborated body of expert knowledge, imply that law cannot simply be deduced from immediate state (or class) interests, as Marx (a one-time law student) appreciated.\footnote{Isaac D. Balbus, “Commodity Form and Legal Form: An Essay on the ‘Relative Autonomy’ of the Law,” \emph{Law \& Society Review} 11(3) (Winter 1977): 571–588; Maureen Cain, “The Main Themes of Marx’ and Engels’ Sociology of Law,” in \emph{Law and Marxism}, ed. Piers Beirne \& Richard Quinney (New York: John Wiley \& Sons, 1982), 63–73.} My insistence that state and law are mutually entailing (Chapter 10) implies, intentionally, that anarchy excludes law.
I further willingly agree that the “abstract, impersonal legal subject,” the legal person regarded in his juridical aspect, is the abstract Economic Man of bourgeois ideology.\footnote{Evgeny B. Pashukanis, \emph{Law and Marxism: A General Theory}, tr. Barbara Einhorn (London: Ink Links, 1978), 115; Robert C. Black, “Legal Form and Legal Fetishism: Pashukanis and His Critics” (unpublished MS., 1983).} Legal rights attain their highest development in the bourgeois state. They would be meaningless in an anarchist society as I understand it. But they would not be meaningless in the Commune, where they are not available, because the Commune is a state. Bookchin would not have boomed written law so stridently (Chapter 10) unless the rule of law, not the order of custom, is to govern the Commune. I would want rights there if I wanted them anywhere. The only thing worse than law is law without rights.
It’s a bit beguiling to fantasize about the upper reaches of the worldwide Confederal hierarchy. Assuming Communes of about 1,000, there will be about 262,761 Communes in the United States. They will not be face-to-face groups but their dominant elites will be. Artificial city boundaries having become irrelevant, the Communes, which are really neighborhoods, will federate locally (the Municipal Confederation). Here the number of those federated has to be large enough to bring together Communes with substantial common interests, yet small enough for face-to-face relations between delegates.
Now we have to posit the optimal size for an assembly of delegates. Here we cannot count on apathy to keep attendance down. All but a few of the delegates will show up for meetings, first, because they want to and were chosen to, and second, because they will be replaced if they don’t.
As Madison urged, the body must not be too small or too large, “for however small the Republic may be, the Representatives must be raised to a certain number, in order to guard against the cabals of a few; and that however large it may be, they must be limited to a certain number, in order to guard against the confusion of a multitude.”\footnote{\emph{The Federalist}, 62–63 (No.10) (Madison).} History offers some guidance. The Athenian Council, a full-time deliberative body, had 500 members, although even that is really too high for a face-to-face deliberative body. The U.S. House of Representatives, which has 435 members, has been considered a face-to-face group, but if it is, it’s because the vast majority of members are incumbents, often with many terms behind them, and so they already know each other. If most members of our Council are long-term incumbents, we would suspect oligarchy. If they are not, we would suspect an atomistic, nondeliberative body. 1,000 people, initially strangers to one another, is just a crowd, unsuitable for widespread participation. Even with membership set at 500, and assuming continuity based on a core of incumbents (which tends toward oligarchy), the assembly of the local federation is a face-to-face group only in a very loose sense.\footnote{Hansen, \emph{Athenian Assembly}, 80.} But anything much smaller would necessitate even more levels of federation than the five I envisage for the Tower of Babel we are erecting. So we will not exceed 500, and often go much lower.
For a reasonable next tier within statistical parameters, there is the Metro area. Anything smaller would arbitrarily divide an economic and ecological unity. Because the statistical metro area in my Albany example is small in population (under 900,000) and rather underestimates the centripetal influence of the three largest cities, it might be extended in several directions, and across state lines, to take in many small towns and much countryside for a population of perhaps 2 million. These areas could be represented at the national level by a convenient number of delegates, 132, but there’s a vast political field to be traversed there. Surely there should be a Regional level, which might in a few cases correspond to a state, but would usually encompass a few of them. With populations of 20 million and more, the Regions could be represented at the National Council by as few as 12 or 13 delegates, although more would be preferable to reflect the wide diversity of interests within regions, except that nobody in this Roman melodrama is supposed to represent interests. There might be a Continental or Hemispheric Council, and assuredly an International Council.
Here is the whole hierarchy:
\begin{quote}
Communal → Municipal → Metropolitan → Regional → National → \dots{} \emph{n}
\end{quote}
Thus the average comrade in the Commune is subordinate to at least five hierarchically ordered levels of government, counting the assembly. In Spain, the anarcho-syndicalist CNT proposed four,\footnote{Vernon Richards, \emph{Lessons of the Spanish Revolution} (London: Freedom Press, 1972), 17.} which is the most I have ever heard suggested till now. No federation in history was ever like this. Our Federal system, whose complexities prolong law school by at least a year, is simple by comparison: two levels above the citizen. (Local government, which has no independent constitutional standing, is just a department of state government.) Bookchin’s system is not, as he calls it, the Commune of Communes. Rather, it is the Commune of Communes of Communes of Communes of Communes. The idea that the representative of the representative of the representative of my representative represents \emph{me} is laughable. The Communal comrade will probably not even know the names of his representatives except maybe the lowest one, and vice versa.
There is no reason \emph{a priori} why the number of levels which is optimal for effective administration is also optimal for effective representation. And just as they do in traditional representative systems, successively higher levels of government aggravate inequality. Indirect elections are well known to have this consequence, which is why they are the favorite kind of elections for conservatives. In his history of the French Revolution, Kropotkin noted that they favor the wealthy. The U.S. Electoral College, for instance, was supposed to consist of “a small number of persons, selected from their fellow citizens from the general mass, [who] will be most likely to possess the information and discernment requisite to so complicated an investigation.”\footnote{Kropotkin, \emph{Great French Revolution,} 309; \emph{The Federalist}, 458 (No.68) (Hamilton). “It was also peculiarly desirable, to afford as little opportunity as possible to tumult and disorder.” \emph{The Federalist}, 458 (No.68)} All the oligarchic influences within the Commune are multiplied, with cumulative impact, at each higher level. The Municipal delegates will be higher in class, wealth, education, political aptitude — and whiteness — than the Communards generally. The Metropolitan delegates will score even higher in these respects, and so forth twice more. The National Council will not look like America, it will look like the U.S. Senate or the Microsoft board of directors.
Direct democracy and federalism are antagonistic principles. Consider, for instance, a delegate to the Municipal Council. His claim to legitimacy rests on his familiarity with the people of his neighborhood as well as his election by a plurality of the minority that showed up for the assembly on election day. In the Municipal Council, in contrast, he is at first a stranger. He must ingratiate himself with his colleagues until he shares a community of experience with them as he does with his neighbors. In other words, he has to join a second face-to-face group in order to serve the first. But time devoted to one group is time taken from the other. He cannot serve his neighbors effectively without losing touch with them, with the result that, again, he cannot serve his neighbors effectively. He can serve effectively, but then it is not his neighbors whom he serves.
At the next level, what is a delegate supposed to do? Now he has \emph{three} face-to-face groups to keep up with. As this is impossible, he is likely to slight the Commune, whose leash is the longest. Formally he represents the Municipal Council, but what if the Council mandates a position he believes to be against the interests of his Commune? His mandate precludes his reopening the question at the Metropolitan level, and the Council will recall him if he tries. He belongs to a deliberative body, but he cannot even speak his mind, much less deliberate in good faith. Conscientious or conflicted delegates will lose influence relative to opportunists and loose cannons who know what they want and go for it. It is the latter who will choose delegates (from among themselves) to the Regional Council, where the same process will assure that members of the National Council will be a different kind of people than ordinary Americans.
The rejoinder is that the higher the level, the less authority it possesses, implying that the Regional and especially the Federal levels are almost supernumerary. Thus the Director Emeritus claims that “Switzerland has rendered the nation-state utterly superfluous.” To which I raised the obvious objection, “if the Swiss nation-state is \emph{utterly} superfluous, why does it exist at all?”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 229 (quoted); Black, \emph{AAL}, 72–73, 73 (quoted).} His own sources confirm that the national (federal) government of Switzerland has been gaining power at the expense of the cantons for centuries.\footnote{Barber, \emph{Death of Communal Liberty}; Alexis de Tocqueville, \emph{Democracy in America}, 740.} That always happens in federations, as it has happened in the United States, unless they break up first. Since the Swiss state is superfluous now, somehow it must have been \emph{less} than superfluous in the 19\textsuperscript{th} century when de Tocqueville criticized it as the most imperfect confederation in history.\footnote{De Tocqueville, \emph{Democracy in America}, Appendix II, 744, quoted in Black, \emph{AAL}, 73.} In the 16\textsuperscript{th} through 18\textsuperscript{th} centuries, it must have been less than less than superfluous. It was, of course, never superfluous at any time.
As unsatisfactory as Bookchin’s historical examples of Communes are, he at least provides a little detail. When it comes to historic federations, he tells us nothing relevant. There were “at least 15” ancient Greek federations, for instance, but nearly all are now just names, and the Director Emeritus does not even provide most of the names. One striking feature of some of the Greek federations was intercity citizenship: if they made the trip, citizens of one city could attend the assembly of another city. The ex-Director does not advocate this aspect of Greek federal practice. From the little he says about their functions, it appears that the Greek federations were primarily military alliances, which again has no contemporary relevance.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 147–152.} Something he does not tell us is that they all had some sort of a central government.\footnote{J.A.O. Larsen, \emph{Representative Government in Greek and Roman History} (Berkeley, CA \& Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1955), 49.} James Madison undertook a more searching scrutiny of the Greek federations. He thought their bad example was an argument for the U.S. Constitution. But really the truth is that we know little about these federations except that they were failures, and usually short-lived failures.\footnote{\emph{The Federalist}, 110–117 (No.18) (Madison); Dahl, \emph{On Democracy}, 12; Charles Alexander Robinson, Jr., “Federal Unions,” in \emph{The Greek Political Experience: Studies in Honor of William Kelly Prentice} (New York: Russell \& Russell, 1969), 93–108.}
The United States, which also had a central government under the Articles of Confederation, is a glaring if understandable omission from the ex-Director’s discussion. The familiar story of how the failings of an American confederation led to the adoption of a more centralized national government is not one that Bookchin cares to tell. But the issue evokes another peevish outburst. “Even as a word,” he states — when Bookchin gets hold of a word, you know what to expect — “‘confederation’ implies a commitment to liberatory ways of associating.” Not so; in fact, it usually or especially refers to a union of states.\footnote{\emph{New Shorter OED}, q\Slash{}v “confederation.”} Somehow the Articles of Confederation were replaced in a devious way: “It is notable that the first American constitution was deliberately called ‘Articles of Confederation,’ which, for all its limitations, was cynically and secretively replaced by a so-called ‘federal’ constitution, one that Hamilton and his supporters foisted on the American people as the next best alternative to a constitutional monarchy.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 258.} This tale is popular with uneducated leftists like Bookchin.
It is indeed true that the Articles of Confederation were named “deliberately,” not accidentally, but not because of the liberatory implications of the word “confederation,” because then, as now, the word had no such implications. Joel Barlow, for instance, referred to the system under the Constitution as a confederation. So did future Supreme Court Jusice James Wilson addressing the Convention. In 1787, the word “federate” “was almost exactly synonymous with “confederate.”\footnote{Joel Barlow, “To His Fellow Citizens of the United States. Letter II: On Certain Political Measures Proposed to Their Consideration,” in Hyneman \& Lutz, eds. \emph{American Political Writing}, 2: 1106; “Speech in Convention of 26\textsuperscript{th} of November 1787,” in \emph{The Works of James Wilson}, 1: 559–560; Clinton Rossiter, \emph{1787: The Grand Convention} (New York: Macmillan Company, 1966), 159. Barlow also states that “it has been concluded, and very justly, that \emph{pure democracy}, or the immediate autocracy of the people, is unfit for a great state; it might be added, that it is unfit for the smallest state imaginable, even a little town.”} Addressing the House of Representatives in 1791, James Madison, the Father of the Constitution, referred to the system under the Constitution as “the Confederation.”\footnote{\emph{The Writings of James Madison,} ed. Gailard Hunt (New York \& London: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1906), 6: 38.} Actually, whatever “confederation” meant precisely to the person who made up the name, we know that, for him, it did \emph{not} exclude a sovereign union with a Congress of theoretically unlimited authority, because that is what John Dickinson proposed in his first draft of the “Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union.”\footnote{Merrill Jensen, \emph{The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781} (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1940), 130, 255 \& ch. 5.} His title, but little else of his draft — which designed a highly centralized state — was retained in the final version.
The Articles were not “secretively replaced” by the Constitution — that is childish conspiracy theory. They were superseded after extensive public debate (Anti-Federalist campaign literature alone fills five volumes\footnote{\emph{The Complete Anti-Federalist}, ed. Herbert J. Storing (7 vols.; Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1981) (volumes 2–7 consist of Anti-Federalist texts).}) as the conventions meeting in nine states (shortly joined by three more) publicly ratified the proposal. Because, until ratified, that’s all it was, a proposal, so it is not too important that it was formulated in closed session. The Convention followed the procedure established in the states for the writing or amendment of constitutions by an ad hoc body instead of the legislature, with the new constitution then placed before the people for ratification.
Indeed the Confederation Congress cooperated in its own overthrow. When the Convention forwarded the proposed Constitution to Congress, the latter had it “transmitted to the several Legislatures in order to be submitted to a convention of delegates chosen in each State by the people thereof, in conformity to the resolves of the convention.” After all, 10 of the 31 Congressmen were Philadelphia Framers. Not only was it Congress which summoned the delegates to Philadelphia, it paid the Convention’s expenses and even extended franking privileges to the delegates. Congress actively assisted in its own demise.\footnote{Gordon S. Wood, \emph{The American Revolution: A History} (New York: Modern Library, 2002), 144–145; Wood, \emph{Creation of the American Republic}, 318–319, 337–343; letter of Congress quoted in Ronald D. Rotunda, \emph{Constitutional Law: Principles and Cases} (St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company, 1987), 578 n. 1; Rossiter, \emph{1787}, 275–277.} Devised in secret — and its critics made the charge of “conspiracy”\footnote{“Centinel” called the Convention “the most formidible conspiracy against the liberties of a free and enlightened nation, that the world has ever witnessed.” [Samuel Bryan,] \emph{The Letters of Centinel}, ed. Warren Hope (Ardmore, PA: Fifth Season Press, 1998), 31.} one of their strongest arguments — nonetheless, the Constitution “was widely, fully, and vigorously debated in the country at large; and it was adopted by (all things considered) a remarkably open and representative procedure.”\footnote{John P. Roche, “The Convention as a Case Study in Democratic Politics,” in \emph{Essays on the Making of the Constitution}, ed. Leonard W. Levy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 180–181; Herbert J. Storing, \emph{What the Anti-Federalists Were For} (Chicago \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 7–8, 3 (quoted); John Hart Ely, \emph{Democracy and Distrust: A Theory of Judicial Review} (Cambridge \& London: Harvard University Press, 1980), 5–6.}
The image of Hamilton the Machiavellian monarchist persists, although no historian has believed in it since the 19\textsuperscript{th} century. At the Convention, Hamilton had no influence or supporters. He was consistently outvoted by his two New York colleagues (voting was by states), and when they went home early (going on to be prominent Antifederalists), that left Hamilton with not even a losing vote to cast, so he went home too. He was not a monarchist; he stated that Britain had the best form of government, not that it was the best form of government for the United States.\footnote{John C. Miller, “Hamilton: Democracy and Monarchy,” in \emph{Alexander Hamilton: A Profile}, ed. Jacob E. Cooke (New York: Hill \& Wang, 1967), 162–165.} (As Fisher Ames — least democratic of Federalists — later recalled, “the body of the federalists were always, and yet are, essentially democratic in their political notions.”\footnote{Fisher Ames, “The Dangers of American Liberty,” in Hyneman \& Lutz, eds., \emph{American Political Writing}, 2: 1303.}) In a five hour speech to the Convention, Hamilton offered a plan for a highly centralized government (but not a monarchy) as a talking piece only. It was politely received and ignored. As another delegate put it, “the gentleman from New York \dots{} has been praised by everybody, he has been supported by none.” Briefly returning in September, a few days before the final draft Constitution was completed, he bluntly expressed his “dislike of the scheme of government”! And in a self-epitaph he wrote in 1804, near the end of his life, he wrote that no one had done more to sustain the Constitution than he had, but “contrary to all my anticipations of its fate \dots{} I am still laboring to prop the frail and worthless fabric.”\footnote{Max Farrand, \emph{The Framing of the Constitution of the United States} (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1913), 89 (quoted), 94, 97; Hamilton quoted in Rossiter, \emph{1787,} 225, and in Roger H. Brown, \emph{The Republic in Peril: 1812} (New York \& London: Columbia University Press, 1964), 7. The big speech was almost Hamilton’s only action at the Convention}
Quite mysterious are the functions of Bookchin’s federations. The delegates thereto are mandated and revocable, but do not make policy decisions.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 271.} Then what are they mandated to do? And who does make the decisions? It has to be the Communes, but how do one thousand oil-consuming Communes in the northeast obtain their winter heating oil from one thousand oil-producing Communes in the southwest? The consumer Communes can send up their requisitions to be aggregated at the regional level, but has the corresponding producer federation the authority to assign production quotas to the federations at the next level down, and so forth? There are a hundred unanswered questions like these.
The federations are without coercive authority, they just “coordinate” — meaning what? To coordinate is to “Cause (things or persons) to function together or occupy their proper place as parts of an interrelated whole.”\footnote{\emph{New Shorter OED}, q\Slash{}v “coordinate.”} How do you cause buyers and sellers to function together? The usual methods are through money (the market) or coercion (the state), but Bookchin rejects these institutions. Coordination is either consent or a euphemism for coercion. Consent is forthcoming only when the participants in an activity share a common purpose. Otherwise, coordination means coercion, and “telling another person to coordinate, therefore, does not tell him what to do. He does not know whether to coerce or bargain, to exert power or secure consent.”\footnote{Wildavsky \& Pressman, \emph{Implementation}, 133–134, 134 (quoted).} The Communes have not told the federations what to do, only how not to do it. Power and market, the impersonal methods of coordination, are not the only ones. But coordination by personalized consent is only possible for a small number of participants usually already connected through preexisting relationships.
Actually, Bookchin could use some coordination himself. He says the confederations will coordinate the Communes, but he also refers to “the self-administration of a community by its citizens in face-to-face assemblies, which in cities with relatively large populations would coordinate the administrative work of the city council, composed of mandated and recallable assembly deputies.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 324–325.} If he is self-contradictory about who coordinates “the work,” he is silent as to who \emph{does it}. This is one of those occasions on which the ex-Director’s head is in the clouds, or somewhere else: “The decision to build a road, for example, does not mean that everyone must know how to design and construct one.” After devoting four paragraphs to this topic, Biehl concludes, almost as an afterthought:
\begin{quote}
Finally, the road itself would have to be constructed [as if that were the easy part]. Unlike the other stages of the process, the construction of the road would be strictly an administrative responsibility — it would require no deliberation, no voting [what a relief]. The road-builders would carry out the decision made by the assembly, building the road according to the chosen plan. This strictly technical process of execution is an example of administration — in which no policy-making is involved.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization,} 247 (quoted); Biehl, \emph{Politics of Social Ecology}, 106 (quoted).}
\end{quote}
Building a road is \emph{not} a strictly administrative process! And what if the construction workers \emph{won’t} build the road according to the chosen plan — chosen by others — perhaps because they think they know better than voters and bureaucrats how to build a road, as they probably do? Execution is \emph{not} administration, it is work, real work, and sometimes hard work, as in the case of road-building, judging from “the sound of the men\Slash{}working on the chain ga-a-ang” (Sam Cooke).
The Director Emeritus has a naïve and simple-minded conception of administration:
\begin{quote}
The technical execution or administration of these policies would be carried out by the appropriate specialists. The most important functions of the confederal councils would be administrative. In fact, these city and confederal councils would have to ultimately refer all policy-making decisions to the assemblies and only with their approval undertake their administration. These policy decisions would be made by a \emph{majority} of the people themselves in their face-to-face assemblies. The city and confederal councils would merely execute these decisions, or at most adjust differences between them.
\end{quote}
There shall be no “melding of policy formation with administration,” which was the “regressive” practice of the Paris Commune.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 313–314 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society,} 215–216 (quoted).} In other words, “administration lies outside the proper sphere of \emph{politics}. Administrative questions are not political questions.” This was, indeed the best political thinking of the 19\textsuperscript{th} century — Woodrow Wilson wrote this in 1887. By now it has been confuted by the experience of every bureaucracy: “no structure can approach the old-fashioned textbook ideal in which bureaucrats merely carry out or execute policy directives chosen for them by legislative authorities.” On the contrary, “implementation should not be divorced from policy.”\footnote{Woodrow Wilson, “The Study of Administration,” \emph{Political Science Quarterly} 2(2) (June 1887), 210 (quoted); James M. Buchanan, \emph{The Limits of Liberty: Between Anarchy and Leviathan} (Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1975)\emph{,} 161 (quoted); Pressman \& Wildavsky, \emph{Implementation}, 143 (quoted).} Bookchin’s is the regressive view.
“Administration” is, as Benjamin Tucker pointed out, a euphemism for coercion: “Some champions of the State evidently consider aggression its principle, although they disguise it alike from themselves and from the people under the term ‘administration,’ which they wish to extend in every possible direction.”\footnote{\emph{Individual Liberty: Selections from the Writings of Benjamin R. Tucker}, ed. C.L.S. (New York: Revisionist Press, 1972), 21.} Anarchists reject the Marxist distinction between the government of men and the administration of things. The Director Emeritus not only affirms it, he criticizes Marx for once ignoring it and taking a realistic view of the Paris Commune.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 215–216; Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 338; Marx, “The Civil War in France,” in Marx \& Engels, \emph{Selected Works}, 291.}
All you have to do is walk around any city with your eyes open to see important governmental activity which it would be inefficient if not impossible to carry out at the level of a neighborhood of one thousand people inhabiting, says Bookchin, one to twelve blocks.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 246.} Sanitation and garbage collection must be organized citywide because germs and smells disrespect neighborhood sovereignty. Land use planning by tiny territorial units is an invitation to self-interested parochialism. Chodorkoff Commune will want to site a factory as far as possible from its population concentration — at the border with Biehl Commune, which derives no benefit from the factory but may get some of its noise and pollution. The organization, as opposed to the recruitment, of the militia — without which no Commune is complete — must be on a larger than neighborhood scale, or we will have 100 or 1000 little armies which, if they are ever to “federate” for war or to suppress Lifestyle Anarchist insurrections, will have to be standardized in everything from training to ammunition. Effective militias are critical, since Communes will co-exist with nation-states, or try to, for a protracted period. The medieval and Renaissance city-states succumbed to the overwhelming superior force of the nation-states.\footnote{Dahl, \emph{On Democracy}, 16; Tilly, \emph{Coercion, Capital, and European States}, 190.} The ex-Director’s Communes will have to do better with people mostly without any military experience, unlike the citizen-soldiers of Athens.
These are more than problems of coordination. They derive from imperatives of technology and geography which cannot be avoided, at least in the short run. Delegates truly responsive to the base will shuttle back and forth as the implementation of their instructions creates new situations which necessitate more instructions which will never anticipate every contingency.\footnote{Wolff, \emph{In Defense of Anarchism}, 28–29.} The more the assemblies try to provide for contingencies, the more numerous and heterogeneous will be the mandates their delegates take back to the council, and the more difficult their aggregation into a decision will be. Arguing in the First Federal Congress against instruction, one Representative aptly stated: “Perhaps a majority of the whole might not be instructed to agree to any one point.” Usually nothing will be decided, or nothing will be decided until it is too late.
Sometimes something will be decided, not because it was what the majority wanted, but because it was what the majority failed to forbid, as when, as we saw (Chapter 13), delegates to the Junta of the Comuneros voted taxes without seeking new instructions from their cities. They might even enact what the constituencies did forbid. For example, the delegates to the Second Continental Congress were instructed, and their instructions were, whatever else they did, not to declare American independence. But as every schoolboy used to know, that is what they did.\footnote{Heliczer, \emph{Comuneros of Castile}, 162; Gary Wills, \emph{Inventing America: Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence} (Garden City, New York: Doubleday \& Company, 1978), 331–332.} The delegates, supposedly coordinators, will be powerless to coordinate themselves.
In the 1780s, Noah Webster criticized the practice of “instructing” the representatives to state legislatures: instructions “imply a decision of a question, before it is heard — they reduce a Representative to a mere machine, by restraining the exercise of his reason.” In theory, delegates are nothing but errand boys: “The delegates’ functions would be to convey the wishes of the municipality to the confederal level” (Biehl).\footnote{\emph{A Second Federalist: Congress Creates a Government}, ed. Charles S. Heinman \& George W. Carey (New York: Appleton-Croft, 1967), 227 (quoted); Webster quoted in Wood, \emph{Creation of the American Republic,} 380; Biehl, \emph{Politics of Social Ecology}, 102 (quoted). The First Congress rejected the proposed constitutional amendment, strongly opposed by Madison, authorizing the instruction of Congressmen. Irving Brant, \emph{James Madison: Father of the Constitution} (Indianapolis, IN \& New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1950), 273–274; \emph{A Second Federalist}, 238–239.} No genuine discussion can take place in an assembly unless the members are prepared to listen to each other and perhaps change their minds.\footnote{Richard Wollheim, “On the Theory of Democracy,” in \emph{British Analytical Philosophy}, ed. Bernard Williams \& Alan Montefiore (London: Routledge \& Kegan Paul and New York: Humanities Press, 1966), 263.} Confined to a menial role, distrusted by their assemblies, the delegates will become resentful and reluctant to serve. (The ones who are never reluctant to serve are the ones to watch out for.)
Sooner or later, assemblies and delegates will get tired of wasting so much time and trouble on even seemingly simple decisions which don’t turn out right anyway. Undersupervised delegates will rediscover what John Dickinson, an instructed delegate to the Second Continental Congress, thought to do: he wrote his own instructions for the Pennsylvania Assembly to “impose” on him.\footnote{Jensen, \emph{Articles of Confederation,} 86.} Tired of their robotic role, delegates will \emph{interpret} their mandates to authorize various implementing decisions. They may look to the purpose of the mandate, or derive a decision by analogy from what the assembly did in a similar situation, or do what they think the assembly \emph{would} have wanted had it foreseen the current situation, or even persuade themselves that the words of the mandate announce a decision after all. In other words, they will reinvent the creative methods that \emph{judges} use when they apply the law.\footnote{William Blackstone, \emph{Commentaries on the Laws of England} (4 vols.; repr. ed.; Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 1: 58–61; Gray, \emph{Nature and Sources of the Law}, 170–181; Francis Lieber, \emph{Legal and Political Hermeneutics} (3d ed.; St. Louis, MO: F.H. Thomas \& Co., 1980); Terrance Sandalow, “Constitutional Interpretation,” \emph{Michigan Law Review} 79(5) (April 1981): 1033–1072.}
Which is not so surprising, because they will recapitulate judicial history. Originally the judicial function is not differentiated from the executive or administrative function. American courts still have important administrative functions, such as corporate reorganization and the administration of decedents’ estates.\footnote{Murray L. Schwartz, “The Other Things That Courts Do,” \emph{UCLA Law Review} 28(3) (Feb. 1981), 438–439, 450.} In England, not only is the king originally the maker of law, as we saw in the case of the Anglo-Saxon codes (Chapter 10), he also applies it. King John, for instance, often sat with his judges, who itinerated as he did.\footnote{Doris M. Stenton, “Introduction,” \emph{Pleas Before the King or His Justices, 1198–1202}, ed. Doris M. Stenton (London: Selden Society, 1944), 1: 86; Robert C. Black, “Amercements in the Reign of King John” (unpublished MS., 1998), 8–11.} We also see the combination of administrative and judicial functions in 17\textsuperscript{th} century Massachusetts and 18\textsuperscript{th} century Virginia (Chapters 14 \& 16). It is the old story of differentiation of functions leading to specialization of office. The delegates will not forever accept the duties of a legislature without the powers, \emph{even if} they act in good faith. It is only one aspect of their inevitable development of common interests unshared by their constituents. Quoth Robert de Jouvenel: “There is less difference between two deputies of whom one is a revolutionary and the other is not, than between two revolutionaries of whom one is a deputy and the other is not.”\footnote{Quoted in Arnold Gomme, “The Democracy in Operation,” in \emph{Democracy and the Athenians: Aspects of Ancient Politics}, ed. Frank J. Frost (New York: John Wiley \& Sons, 1969), 121 n. 2.}
The assemblies will likely abet the delegates in their tacit usurpation of legislative power. Even the more politically inclined Communards will weary of petty and repetitious importunities from their mandated and revocable delegates. Mandates will be framed more broadly, and discretion will be explicitly or implicitly conferred. Searching questions will not normally be asked of those assuming the thankless role of delegate. It may be that some assemblies will stop electing delegates at all, either because no one acceptable wants the job or because the council’s performance is not unsatisfactory. In 18\textsuperscript{th} century Massachusetts up to the Revolution, many towns failed to send representatives, or as many representatives as they were entitled to, to the colonial legislature. Even in 1765–1769, a period of high political excitement during the Stamp Act crisis, only 53\% of towns sent representatives.\footnote{Zuckerman, \emph{Peaceable Kingdoms}, 27–29.} In Bookchin’s world, some neighborhoods may never have federated in the first place, perhaps because they are rife with individualists, or perhaps because they are rife with statists, or just because most people are not political animals, just animals.
\chapter{Chapter 17. Anarchist Communism versus Libertarian Municipalism}
Previous chapters demonstrate that libertarian municipalism, at the ground level, will be oligarchic and probably oppressive toward local minorities. At the level of the wider society, its federations and multiples of federations will be slow, cumbersome, internally unworkable, cumulatively elitist, and either too powerful or not powerful enough. Inevitably the system will evolve the features of the system it was supposed to supplant. It is objectionable, first, as being a blueprint for the future, and second, as a blueprint with too many pages missing. It has to be the most mundane utopia ever conceived\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 102.} — at once an affront to sense and sensibility.
But is it anarchist?
Of course not, but here is a direct demonstration. Aside from the federalist frills, the ideology calls for a sovereign, self-governing local assembly, the Commune. Eminent anarchists, as we saw in Chapter 16, consider it a state. If it is a state, then it is not anarchy, and libertarian municipalism is not anarchist. Apologies to any reader who thinks I’m belaboring the obvious. I know I am. This whole book belabors the obvious. There are still some credulous anarchists about, even after my last book, and it is safer not to take too much for granted. The anarchists who think that Noam Chomsky is the foremost anarchist thinker,\footnote{As rated in one unscientific opinion poll. “Where is the Anarchist Movement Today? Results of the \emph{Anarchy} Reader Survey,” \emph{Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed}, No.53 (20)(1) (Spring-Summer 2002), 9. However, I tied Chomsky for best-of-the-best ratings. For an accurate anarchist evaluation, see Zerzan, “Who Is Chomsky?” \emph{Running on Emptiness}, 140–143.} for instance, are fully capable of accepting Bookchin as an anarchist too.
There are many definitions of the state, and I shall run the Commune past a few of them, but generally they approximate one of the three definitions identified by Malatesta. As we saw in Chapter 15, two that he rejects are (1) the state as society, or a special form of society, and (2) the state as a centralized administration as opposed to decentralized power, \emph{i.e.}, the Commune — in his sense as in Bookchin’s. Rather, (3) the state means government, period — the sum total of political, legislative, judiciary, military and fiscal institutions.\footnote{Malatesta, \emph{Anarchy}, 13–14.} Athens had such institutions, and the Commune would too.
A crucial element — \emph{the} crucial element, at least for anarchists, implicit in Malatesta’s definition, is \emph{coercion}. Anarchists Michael Taylor and Howard Ehrlich identify concentrated power as a necessary condition for the state. If those in whose hands the power is concentrated try to monopolise it by determining when others can use force, for Taylor the sufficient conditions of the state are present.\footnote{Howard Ehrlich, “Anarchism and Formal Organizations,” in Ehrlich \& Ehrlich, eds., \emph{Reinventing Anarchy, Again}, 59; Taylor, \emph{Community, Anarchy and Liberty}, 5–6.} It is clear that in the Commune power is concentrated, not diffuse. Indeed, it is more concentrated than in an American city today, or in the United States generally, where power is dispersed among discrete local, state and national authorities. The assembly has far more power than the individual citizens, even the citizens in attendance, at any given time and at \emph{every} given time; in other words, all the time. The changing composition of the assembly no more renders its possession of power anarchic than the (more slowly) changing composition of the United States Congress renders \emph{its} possession of power anarchic.
For Max Weber, a “state is a human community that (successfully) claims the \emph{monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force} within a given territory.” Definitions in the Weberian tradition define the state as an organization claiming and to some significant extent enforcing a monopoly of violence over a territory.\footnote{“Politics as a Vocation,” in \emph{From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology}, ed. H.H. Gerth \& C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958), 78 (quoted); \emph{e.g.,}, Tilly, \emph{Coercion, Capital, and European States}, 1.} Although he never uses words like coercion and violence, the ex-Director’s affirmation of majority rule implies coercion, otherwise the majority is just one group of people deciding to do something that others, like Bartleby, would prefer not to. The Commune is to have a militia, “a free, and armed, citizenry.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 49.} One suspects that, like ancient Athens and revolutionary Paris, it will have police. Thus the Commune is coercive. It is also clear that the Communes occupy delimited territories, since they consist of villages, neighborhoods, city blocks, etc. Thus the Commune is territorial. The definition is satisfied.
Consider two modern definitions of the state by scholars in the Weberian tradition who study its earliest forms. Ronald Cohen: “The criterion most often used as a rough and ready feature to distinguish state from nonstate is that of the centralized governmental structure, operating usually at a level above local authorities. This central authority has a monopoly over legitimate coercive power, and it serves as a central point for tribute and revenue collection and redistribution.”\footnote{Cohen, “Evolution, Fission, and the Early State,” 92.} The Commune has a centralized governmental structure because it has the only governmental structure, and it \emph{is} the local authority. The fiscal policy of the Commune is something the Director Emeritus does not discuss, not even to indicate if the use of money will continue. But we are told that the Commune controls the distribution of consumer goods, which it must get from somewhere. Thus we have the collection and redistribution of wealth, whether or not it assumes a monetary form. Then there is the definition of Mogens Herman Hansen (the expert on the Athenian assembly): the state is “a \emph{central government} in possession of the necessary \emph{means of coercion} by which the \emph{legal order} can be enforced in a \emph{territory} over a \emph{population}.”\footnote{Mogens Herman Hansen, “Introduction: The Concepts of City-State and City-State Culture,” in \emph{A Comparative Study of Thirty City-State Cultures: An Investigation Conducted by the Copenhagen Polis Centre} (Copenhagen, Denmark: The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, 2000), 13.} We have already found a “central government” and the “means of coercion” in the Commune. And we may infer the presence of a legal order from Bookchin’s otherwise irrelevant endorsement of written law (Chapter 10). Finally, the Commune of course has a bounded territory and its own population of citizen-units.
The only way for Bookchin to exonerate the Commune of the charge of statism is to tamper with the definition of the state. He’s had plenty of practice at that sort of thing. The Director Emeritus needs to add a requirement met by conventional states such as nation-states but not by the Commune. He adds two closely related, possibly identical features: professionalism and bureaucracy. In the most succinct formulation, “the state is a professional system of social coercion.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 66.} Elsewhere, in an obvious reference to the state, the Director Emeritus states that “the professional institutionalization of power and the monopolization of violence by distinct administrative, judicial, military, and police agencies occurred fairly early in history.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 135.} Furthermore, “statecraft consists of operations that engage the state: the exercise of the entire regulative apparatus of the society in the form of legal and ordinance-making bodies, its governance of society by means of professional legislators, armies, police forces, bureaucracies, and the ancillary professionals who service its operations such as lawyers, educators, technicians, and the like.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 243.} This definition fails because states can and do fulfill functions which are not distinctly governmental, “proprietary functions” in the language of constitutional law. Mail delivery, trash collection and, in the Tennessee Valley, the production and sale of hydroelectric power “engage the state” as surely as keeping up the Army does, but they fall outside the final definition. The question is what are the distinctive state operations.
Max Weber provides more detailed criteria for a bureaucratic administrative staff: (1) a clearly defined sphere of competence subject to impersonal rules; (2) a rationally established hierarchy; (3) a regular system of appointment on the basis of free contract; (4) technical training as a regular requirement; (5) (frequently) fixed salaries, typically paid in money. These, though, are not the criteria for the state, but rather for the administrative aspect of the modern bureaucratic state; it is that type of state which has an administrative and legal order. In fact Weber listed these criteria to show what was absent from even the \emph{patrimonial} state.\footnote{Max Weber, \emph{Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology}, ed. Guenther Roth \& Claus Wittich (3 vols.; New York: Bedminster Press, 1968), 1: 229; \emph{Max Weber: The Theory of Social and Economic Organization}, tr. A.M. Henderson \& Talcott Parsons (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1947), 156.}
As Weber would agree, Bookchin’s requirements are far too exclusive. As Michael Taylor maintains, political specialisation is not definitive, although it tends to develop together with the monopolisation of violence.\footnote{Taylor, \emph{Community, Anarchy and Liberty}, 8–9.} The chieftain, especially in a rank society, occupies a specialised political role, but in the absence of a monopoly of violence, the society is anarchic.\footnote{Barclay, \emph{People without Government}, 85–86; Clastres, \emph{Society Against the State}, ch. 2; Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 125.} The thoroughgoing professionalization of government is a relatively recent (and, some would say, incomplete) development in Western polities. In premodern America, public and private authority were conjoined to perform “undifferentiated leadership roles.” Leaders were selected for their social position in their communities, not for specialized expertise.\footnote{William E. Nelson, \emph{The Roots of American Bureaucracy, 1830–1860} (Cambridge \& London: Harvard University Press, 1982), 2.} Surely the absence of professional judges and legislators does not make a system anarchic. There were none of either in colonial America, where these positions were filled entirely by part-time amateurs. The U.S. Supreme Court was the first court in America on which all the judges were lawyers. Theirs were part-time jobs (as were those of Congressmen for many decades); in its first twelve years, the Supreme Court heard no more than 87 cases. The British House of Commons was composed mainly of amateurs at least until the 19\textsuperscript{th}, and I suspect until the 20\textsuperscript{th} century. The first professional police forces in England and America were not created until the 19\textsuperscript{th} century.\footnote{Julius Goebel, \emph{The Oliver Wendell Holmes Devise — History of the Supreme Court of the United States} (11 vols.; New York: Macmillan Company \& London: Collier-Macmillan, 1971–1984), 1: 798; Wilbur Miller, \emph{Cops and Bobbies: Police Authority in New York and London, 1830–1870} (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1970); James F. Richardson, \emph{Urban Police in the United States} (Port Washington, NY \& London: Kennikat Press, 1974), chs. 1–2.}
The requirement of professionalism may also not be exclusive \emph{enough}. There is no reason why the Commune could not spawn a cadre of professional politicians, such as the Athenian \emph{rhetores} and the leading Parisian \emph{sectionnaires}. Brian Martin suggests that the delegates to federations are likely to turn pro:
\begin{quote}
Delegates are normally elected, and this leads to the familiar problems of representation. Certain individuals dominate. Participation in decision-making is unequal, with the delegates being heavily involved and others not. To the degree that decisions are actually made at higher levels, there is great potential for development of factions, vote trading and manipulation of the electorate.
This is where the delegate system is supposed to be different: if the delegates start to serve themselves rather than those they represent, they can be recalled. But in practice this is hard to achieve. Delegates tend to “harden” into formal representatives. Those chosen as delegates are likely to have much more experience and knowledge than the ordinary person. Once chosen, the delegates gain even more experience and knowledge, which can be presented as of high value to the voters. In other words, recalling the delegate will be at the cost of losing an experienced and influential person.\footnote{Brian Martin, “Demarchy,”in Ehrlich \& Ehrlich, eds., \emph{Reinventing Anarchy, Again}, 129–130.}
\end{quote}
Other sources of oligarchy were discussed above (Chapter 16).
It may well be that for the Director Emeritus, professionalization and bureaucracy refer to the same thing — they form another of his redundant dyads, like “rule and domination.” If by professionalization he means government by a hierarchy of paid career functionaries, then it is just another name for bureaucracy. Assigned its distinct meaning, professionalization refers to the salience of professionals in large-scale organizations. A profession is signified by (1) a theoretical body of knowledge, (2) a set of professional norms, (3) careers supported by an association of colleagues, and (4) community recognition. Bureaucratic and professional cultures tend to clash.\footnote{Peter M. Blau \& W. Richard Scott, \emph{Formal Organizations: A Comparative Approach} (San Francisco, CA: Chandler Publishing Company, 1962), 63–71; Joseph A. Raelin, \emph{The Clash of Cultures: Managers and Professionals} (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1986), 2–3 \& passim; James E. Sorenson \& Thomas L. Sorenson, “The Conflict of Professionals in Bureaucratic Organizations,” \emph{ASQ} (1974), 99.} I doubt Bookchin has ever given a thought to any of this.
In a definition of the state, the involvement of professionals is an even more extraneous element than bureaucracy. State formation can proceed quite far without professionalization. The profession closest to the state is of course the legal profession, although the work of most lawyers is not, and never has been “ancillary” to the state as Bookchin assumes. In 17\textsuperscript{th} century America, lawyers played almost no role in government because they played almost no role anywhere, not even in the courtroom.\footnote{Friedman, \emph{History of American Law}, 94–98; Kermit L. Hall, \emph{The Magic Mirror: Law in American History}, (New York \& Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 22–23.} Then their numbers and activities increased, but still almost entirely outside of government. What’s more, they were not professionals by modern standards because they often lacked technical training, there was no recognized body of professional norms (“legal ethics”), and there were no bar associations. In early national America, the Attorney General was the only Federal Government lawyer, and his was a part-time job, and he had no staff, no clerk, and no office.\footnote{Leonard D. White, \emph{The Federalists: A Study in Administrative History} (New York: Macmillan Company, 1956), 164, 166; Henry Adams, \emph{History of the United States of America during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson} (New York: Library of America, 1986), 148.} Lawyers were conspicuous in early legislatures, but only as part-time amateurs like everybody else. The role of lawyers \emph{qua} lawyers in government was so negligible that it would be ridiculous to predicate a professionalized government upon their presence. Unless we are to characterize 19\textsuperscript{th} century America as anarchist, the professionalization requirement for a state must be dismissed.
It finally comes down to what counts as a state \emph{for anarchist purposes}. Since the modern bureaucratic nation-state is the only kind of state now existing, that is the state which anarchists are accustomed to oppose. There is normally no reason to muse on the state’s essential versus incidental attributes, because contemporary states have them all. Anarchists like none of its attributes, at least when they belong to a state. But professionalization is only an annoyance compared to coercion, and the state would lose its power to annoy if not backed by coercion. It is difficult to imagine bureaucracy without coercion, but it is easy to imagine coercion without bureaucracy.
What anarchists fundamentally reject is concentrated coercive power.\footnote{“Address of Albert R. Parsons,” \emph{The Famous Speeches of the Chicago Anarchists in Court} (Chicago, IL: Lucy E. Parsons, Publisher, n.d.), 103 (“no concentrated or centralized power”).} They accept, at most, only minimal coercive power, maximally dispersed. When the feudal levies of William the Conqueror undertook the scorched-earth “harrying of the north” of England, or an Athenian jury condemned Socrates, they were doing the sorts of things states do which make anarchists want to deprive them of the power to do anything. From the anarchist point of view, it makes no difference that William the Bastard had no professional army, or that Socrates’ judges and jurors were part-time amateurs chosen by lot. The soldiers and jurors nonetheless acted as agents of the state. They are the enemy.
It is really astounding that Bookchin does not bother to justify rule, much less majority rule, at all. Even Hobbes did that much! Except for theocrats, modern statists — even Hobbes — find justification in the consent of the governed. Even in the 17\textsuperscript{th} century, Sir Matthew Hale felt constrained to argue, implausibly, that the English Crown, though it originated in conquest, had gradually secured the “implied Consent” of the people to a “Pact or Convention” with it. Mainstream statist philosophers contend that there is at least a presumptive case for liberty, and therefore that coercion requires justification.\footnote{Matthew Hale, \emph{The History of the Common Law of England}, ed. Charles M. Gray (Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1971), 51 (quoted); Joel Feinberg, \emph{Social Philosophy} (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973), 20–21; H.L.A. Hart, \emph{Law, Liberty, and Morality} (New York: Vintage Books, 1963), 20–21.} Some of them admit that, since consent presupposes choice, hardly any modern citizens really consent, or ever had the opportunity to consent, to be governed. One of these philosophers, A. John Simmons, admits that this is the historic anarchist position.\footnote{Simmons, \emph{Moral Principles and Political Obligations}, 192; A. John Simmons, \emph{On the Edge of Anarchy: Locke, Consent, and the Limits of Society}, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 250, 260; Russell Hardin, “Coercion,” in Clarke \& Foweraker, eds., \emph{Encyclopedia of Democratic Thought}, 81–82.} For the Director Emeritus, in contrast, the state is a given. For Oscar Wilde, a much more acute political philosopher, “democracy means simply the bludgeoning of the people by the people for the people. It has been found out.”\footnote{“The Soul of Man Under Socialism,” 8: 294.}
Having taken \emph{rule} for granted, Bookchin reacts to rejections of \emph{majority} rule with hurt feelings:
\begin{quote}
What is striking about these assertions is their highly pejorative language. Majorities, it would seem, neither decide nor debate: rather, they “rule” and “dictate,” and perhaps [?] command and coerce. But a free society would be one that not only permitted but fostered the fullest degree of dissent; its podiums at assemblies and its media would be open to the fullest expression of all views, and its institutions would be true forums of discussion. When such a society had to arrive at a decision that concerned the public welfare, it could hardly “dictate” to anyone. The minority who opposed a majority decision would have every opportunity to dissent, to work to reverse that decision through unimpaired discussion and advocacy.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 147.}
\end{quote}
The irrelevance is breathtaking. The Director Emeritus just changes the subject to one where he might have an argument — from majority rule to freedom of speech, as if the only majority coercion that anyone might possibly object to is the infringement of speech. Since words are the highest value for him, he assumes they are the highest value for everybody. But some people might have nothing to say to the assembly but “don’t tread on me!” I just might want to ignore the state, not dissent from it. Like most people, I might sometimes rather talk about something else than politics. Whether the assembly can or cannot “dictate” to anyone has nothing to do with the yammer leading up to its decisions. If “rule” is pejorative, there might be a reason for that.
The only thing Bookchin says that’s to the point is that “those who decide to enter the assembly doors, sit down, listen to discussions, and participate in them are, ethically as well as politically, qualified to to participate in the decision-making process\dots{} Those who choose not to enter the doors (allowing for difficulties produced by adverse circumstances) certainly have a right to abjure the exercise of their citizenship, but by their own volition they have also disqualified themselves from decision-making. Nor do they have the ethical right to refuse to abide by the assembly’s decisions, since they could have influenced those decisions merely by attending the assembly.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 342.}
Damned if you do, damned if you don’t! You are bound by assembly decisions if you participate and you are bound by them if you do not. Herbert Spencer remarked upon this “rather awkward doctrine” (as I have):
\begin{quote}
Suppose that the citizen is understood to have assented to everything his representative may do when he voted for him. But suppose he did not vote for him, and on the contrary did all in his power to get elected someone holding opposite views — what then? The reply will probably be that, by taking part in such an election, he tacitly agreed to abide by the decision of the majority. And how if he did not vote at all? Why, then he cannot justly complain of any tax [or whatever], seeing that he made no protest against its imposition. So, curiously enough, it seems that he gave his consent in whatever way he acted — whether he said yes, whether he said no, or whether he remained neuter!\footnote{Black, \emph{Abolition of Work,} 83–84; Herbert Spencer, \emph{Social Statics} (New York: Robert Schalkenbach Foundation, 1954), 190. This is from chapter 19, “The Right to Ignore the State,” which was omitted from later editions.}
\end{quote}
What’s the basis of these supposed obligations? Those who choose not to participate have not consented to be governed, in fact, they have clearly communicated by conduct their refusal to be governed.
Even those who participate have not necessarily consented to abide by the decisions. One who votes against a measure obviously does not consent to it, or he would have voted the other way.\footnote{Plamenatz, \emph{Consent, Freedom and Political Obligation}, 19–20.} Voting does not signify consent, in fact, expressing consent to be governed is rarely if ever why people vote. One might participate, for instance, precisely because these people are going to rule you whether you like it or not, so you might as well try to influence their rule — under duress. Duress does not signify consent, it negates it. So argued Lysander Spooner:
\begin{quote}
In truth, in the case of individuals, their actual voting is not to be taken as proof of consent, \emph{even for the time being}. On the contrary, it is to be considered that, without his consent having even been asked a man finds himself environed by a government that he cannot resist; \dots{} He sees, too, that other men practice this tyranny over him by the use of the ballot. He sees further, that, if he will but use the ballot himself, he has some chance of relieving himself of this tyranny of others, by subjecting them to his own. In short, he finds himself, without his consent, so situated that, if he use the ballot, he may become a master; if he does not use it, he must become a slave. And he has no other alternative than these two. In self-defense, he attempts the former. His case is analogous to that of a man who has been forced into battle, where he must either kill others, or be killed himself. Because, to save his own life in battle, a man attempts to take the lives of his opponents, it is not to be inferred that the battle is one of his own choosing.\footnote{Lysander Spooner, “No Treason. No.6. The Constitution of No Authority,” in \emph{No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority} and \emph{and A Letter to Thomas Bayard} (Novato, CA: Libertarian Publishers, n.d.), 5.}
\end{quote}
Nor is there any reason why even truly voluntary participation is binding. I might have no more influence on who wins by entering the assembly doors and attending the meeting than I have entering a baseball stadium and attending the game. When I cast a losing vote, by definition my participation and my vote had no influence on the decision. In fact, it is the same if I cast a winning vote, unless mine was the deciding vote, which it rarely is. Thus, the normal situation under direct democracy is that nobody has consented to any governmental measure, not even if he voted, and not even if he voted with the majority.
Is consent to be ruled to be inferred from residence in the Commune? Not as to those residents who have made clear that \emph{they} do not intend for their residence to confer consent. After all, you have to live somewhere, and if Bookchin has his way, Communes will occupy the whole world.\footnote{“Everything that is done has to be done somewhere. No one is free to perform an action unless there is somewhere he is free to perform it.” Jeremy Waldron, “Homelessless and the Issue of Freedom,” \emph{UCLA Law Review} 39(2) (Dec. 1991), 296.} Quite possibly my residence will have antedated the formation of the Commune. If my new neighbors later form an association, why am I suddenly subject to its rule? What if my anarchist neighbors and I post signs announcing a “Politics-Free Zone” or “Permanent Autonomous Zone” — does that mean that newcomers consent to our anarchy? I am not under any obligation just because a few other people have printed up some stationery. The residence argument proves too much. If residence confers my consent to be ruled by the Commune — even if I insist that it does not — then residence confers consent to be ruled by any government.\footnote{Simmons, \emph{Moral Principles and Political Obligations}, 73–74 \& ch. 4; Simmons, \emph{On the Edge of Anarchy}, 225–232; Plamenatz, \emph{Consent, Freedom and Political Obligation}, 7–8.} The argument implies that the libertarian municipalists must obey our existing governments today, since they reside in their territories, although at some point their revolution will have to include illegal action including an unpredictable degree of violence, as the ex-Director admits.\footnote{“Interview with Bookchin,” 163.} Therefore, if the residence argument is valid, Bookchin is legally and morally obligated to renounce libertarian municipalism.
As Bookchin admits, “scores of libertarians” — actually, all of them — “have made this objection to democracy time and again.” Exactly: anarchism is avowedly anti-democratic. This is Malatesta’s version of the objection:
\begin{quote}
We do not recognise the right of the majority to impose the law on the minority, even if the will of the majority in somewhat complicated issues could really be ascertained. The fact of having the majority on one’s side does not in any way prove that one must be right. Indeed, humanity has always advanced through the initiative and efforts of individuals and minorities, whereas the majority, by its very nature, is slow, conservative, submissive to superior force and to established privileges.\footnote{Ibid.; Richards, ed., \emph{Malatesta: Life and Ideas}, 72.}
\end{quote}
David Miller summarizes the position in an encyclopedia article on anarchism: “No anarchist would allow the minority to be forced to comply with the majority decision. To force compliance would be to reintroduce coercive authority, the hallmark of the state.”\footnote{David Miller, \emph{Encyclopedia of Democracy}, q\Slash{}v “Anarchism.”} Albert Parsons put it more colorfully: “Whether government consists of one over the million, or the million over the one, an anarchist is opposed to the rule of majorities as well as minorities.”\footnote{Quoted in Berman, ed., \emph{Quotations from the Anarchists}, 42.} Majority rule comes down to might-makes-right.\footnote{John Badcock, Jr., \emph{Slaves to Duty} (Colorado Springs, CO: Ralph Myles Publisher, 1972), 10.}
Coercion is the question. The majority can do whatever it pleases — with itself. In a further irrelevance, Bookchin demands to know how to make decisions if not by majority — the standard statist query, as noted by Robert Paul Wolff.\footnote{Wolff, \emph{In Defense of Anarchism}, 42.} Not tarrying for an answer, the Director Emeritus launches into a long Thersitical tirade against consensus decision-making, as illustrated by what must be a personalistic, self-serving account of the Clamshell Alliance.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 147–150.} Consensus must have been frustrating for someone with Bookchin’s will to power, but an argument against consensus is not an argument for majority rule. He hates it so much that he calls it “degrading, not ‘democratic’” (!) because it elevates quantity over quality.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 337.} Plato or Nietzsche — I was about to write, “couldn’t have said it any better,” but, of course, they did.
There are other possibilities, including temporary inaction\footnote{Caroline Estes, “Consensus,” in Ehrlich \& Ehrlich, eds., \emph{Reinventing Anarchy, Again}, 372.} and temporary separation. Brian Martin advocates demarchy, the random selection from volunteers of the members of functional decision-making groups. Barbara Goodwin proposes selection by lottery for a wide range of positions besides juror.\footnote{Martin, “Demarchy,” 131–135; Barbara Goodwin, \emph{Justice by Lottery} (Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1992); John Burnheim, \emph{Is Democracy Possible? The Alternative to Electoral Politics} (Cambridge, England: Polity Press, 1985), ch. 5.} The decision-rule might not be that important in structures like those proposed by Vaclav Havel, which are “open, dynamic, and small” — and temporary.\footnote{Vaclav Havel, “Politics and Conscience,” in \emph{Living in Truth} (Boston, MA: Faber \& Faber, 1986), 118.} The best method is, “whenever possible a solution is to be found whereby majority and minority can each follow their own policy and combine only to avoid clashes and mutual interference” (Giovanni Baldelli).\footnote{Baldelli, \emph{Social Anarchism}, 96. Baldelli goes on to point out that in order to make political equality real, those outvoted should be compensated with extra power in making some other decision. If in practice this means that “no government is possible,” then, well, no government is possible (no ethical government, that is). Id.}
Malatesta points out the obvious: “In our opinion, therefore, it is necessary that majority and minority should succeed in living together peaceably and profitably by mutual agreement and compromise, by the intelligent recognition of the practical necessities of communal life and of the usefulness of concessions which circumstances make necessary.” He also suggested arbitration, but expected it to be as occasional as formal voting. If separate options are impossible; if differences in opinion aren’t worth splitting up over; if “the duty of solidarity” argues for unity; \emph{then} the minority should recede, but even then, only voluntarily.\footnote{Richards, ed., \emph{Malatesta: Life and Ideas}, 72 (quoted); Errico Malatesta, \emph{Fra Contadini: A Dialogue on Anarchy,} tr. Jean Weir (London: Bratach Dubh Editions, 1980), 36–37; Malatesta quoted in Andrea Crociani, “What I Know About Errico Malatesta,” \emph{Flash Art} 50(666) (2002), 19.} Still another possibility is taking turns. In contrast, “democracy, as usually understood, does not include such a notion.”\footnote{Steven Lee, “A Paradox of Democracy,” \emph{Public Affairs Quarterly} 15(3) (July 2001), 264.}
Ironically, majority rule was not really even the Athenian ideal, only the practice. The ideal was consensus; it is not clear if even a majority of issues was put to a vote. And as a matter of fact, according to the Director Emeritus, until the late 1960s, Vermont “town-meeting discussions favored a decent measure of public consensus”!\footnote{Held, \emph{Models of Democracy}, 21; Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 272. How does the ex-Director know this? He didn’t move to Vermont until 1970. The Golden Age is always in the past.}
Anarchists recognize consensus decision-making to be consistent with — not necessarily ordained by — their principles whereas majority rule is not. Some may be surprised to learn that it is also the only decision rule which is Pareto-optimal.\footnote{David Graeber, “For a New Anarchism,” \emph{New Left Review}, 2\textsuperscript{nd} ser., 13 (Jan.-Feb. 2002), 71–72; Howard J. Ehrlich, Carol Ehrlich, David DeLeon, and Glenda Morris, “Questions and Answers About Anarchism,” in Ehrlich \& Ehrlich, eds., \emph{Reinventing Anarchy, Again}, 5–6; Estes, “Consensus,” 368–374; Buchanan \& Tullock, \emph{Calculus of Consent}, 188. Pareto-optimality, restated by John Rawls as the “principle of efficiency” to apply to institutions, means that “a configuration is efficient whenever it is impossible to change it so as to make some persons (at least one) better off without at the same time making other persons (at least one) worse off.” Rawls, \emph{Theory of Justice}, 57.} The ex-Director’s ego aside, the utility of consensus depends on the social setting. If the Commune is as organic as promised, the citizens, in making decisions, will decide not merely on the merits of a proposal but give due consideration to the effects of a decision on their continuing relationships with one another.\footnote{C. George Benello, “Group Organization and Socio-Political Structure,” in \emph{The Case for Participatory Democracy: Some Prospects for a Radical Society}, ed. C. George Benello \& Dimitrios Roussopoulos (New York: Grossman Publishers, 1971), 44–45.} In small communities without much socioeconomic differentiation, relationships are commonly, using Max Gluckman’s term, “multiplex,” multipurpose — the guy next door is not just a neighbor, he is a fellow parishioner, an occasional hired hand, a creditor, perhaps a second cousin, etc.\footnote{Max Gluckman, \emph{The Judicial Process Among the Barotse of Northern Rhodesia} (2\textsuperscript{nd} ed.; Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1967), 18–20.} Thus the New England town meetings were not, in practice, direct democracies: in their “disdain for direct democracy,” they aspired to, and in large measure achieved, consensus. Debate and division were rare.\footnote{Zuckerman, \emph{Peaceable Kingdoms}, 93–106, 98 (quoted); Zuckerman, “The Social Context of Democracy in Massachusetts,” 527, 539. In the 1778 balloting for the state constitution, over half the towns voted unanimously. Zuckerman, \emph{Peaceable Kingdoms}, 106.}
In a genuinely organic society, consensus need not be difficult to arrive at. Among the Basseri tribesmen of southern Iran, who are pastoral nomads, camps of 10–40 tents are for most of the year the primary communities. Every day, the all-important decision how far to move, and where, is made unanimously by the household heads. Annual assemblies of thousands of Montenegrin tribesmen made generally realistic political decisions by consensus.\footnote{Frederik Barth, \emph{Nomads of South Persia: The Basseri Tribe of the Khamseh Confederacy} (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1961), 25–26, 127; Boehm, \emph{Montenegrin Social Organization and Values,} ch. 12.} Undoubtedly the Clamshell Alliance professed a communal \emph{ideology}, but in reality it was a single-purpose interest group whose members associated instrumentally for a relatively narrow political purpose. Consensus in such an organization is likely to become a formality.
Although the Director Emeritus has no argument for majority rule, he quotes the most famous argument for direct democracy, from Rousseau, “the true founder of modern reaction,” as Bakunin called him:
\begin{quote}
Sovereignty, for the same reason as makes it inalienable, cannot be represented; it lies essentially in the general will, and will does not admit of representation: it is either the same, or other; there is no intermediate possibility. The deputies of the people, therefore, are not and cannot be its representatives: they are merely its stewards, and can carry through no definitive acts. Every law the people has not ratified in person is null and void — is, in fact, not a law. The people of England regards itself as free: but it is grossly mistaken: it is free only during the election of members of parliament. As soon as they are elected, slavery overtakes it, and it is nothing.\footnote{Bakunin quoted in Robert A. Nisbet, \emph{Community and Power} (New York: Oxford University Press, 1962), 181; Rousseau, “Social Contract,” 94 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 174.}
\end{quote}
Rousseau’s famous argument is no argument at all. It begs the question. Sovereignty cannot be represented for the same reason that it cannot be alienated. Why not? Because “it consists essentially of the general will, and will cannot be represented.” Why not? Never mind about “sovereignty,” whether will \emph{can} be represented is precisely the question. To say that laws passed by representatives are void is a deduction from a conclusion, not an argument in its support. “General” means “universal,” unanimous, so, as Jeremy Bentham says, by this reasoning, all laws have always been void.\footnote{Bentham, “Anarchical Fallacies,” 509. Bentham is parsing the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, a thoroughly Rousseauian instrument.} If it means something else, as it seems to, “general will” must be “metaphorical language,” something Bookchin detests, because will is an attribute of individuals. J.P. Plamenatz points out that Rousseau treats as the general will the common good, which is not really will at all. Even the Director Emeritus hints that the concept is dubious.\footnote{Plamenatz, \emph{Consent, Freedom and Political Obligation}, 29–32, 32 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 174. As a matter of fact, the very concept of will (as an occult mental faculty) is dubious. Ryle, \emph{Concept of Mind}, ch. 3.}
Now you can make a case, in my opinion a very good one, that will \emph{will not} be represented, for all the reasons discussed in my critique of delegation by direct democracies, arguing for the tendency of delegates to evolve into representatives. Even if they did not, though, Rousseau’s argument, such as it is, applies in both situations. If English subjects are only free when they vote for a representative, Communal citizens are only free when they vote for a delegate, or for a policy: “Once the election has been completed, they revert to a condition of slavery: they are nothing.” Delegates may have less opportunity to substitute their own wills than representatives, but the difference is only in degree, and there is no other difference. Both face a possible future reckoning if they betray their trust, but between now and the future, they are sovereign and the voters are slaves. Bookchin, who is absurdly lacking in a sense of the absurd, does not appreciate that Rousseau is presenting an argument ad absurdem \emph{against} direct democracy, as is quite obvious from his endorsement of elective aristocracy elsewhere in the same essay. Democracy, for him, is simply impossible:
\begin{quote}
If we take the term in the strict sense, there never has been a real democracy, and there never will be. It is against the natural order for the many to govern and the few to be governed. It is unimaginable that the people should remain continually assembled to devote their time to public affairs, and it is clear that they cannot set up commissions for that purpose without the form of administration being changed.\footnote{Read, \emph{Anarchy \& Order}, 130–131; Michels, \emph{Political Parties}, 73–74; Rousseau, “Social Contract,” 67–68, 65 (quoted).}
\end{quote}
Not only does Rousseau’s argument against representation also refute delegation, it refutes direct democracy too (if it refutes anything). Just as laws which “the People” have not ratified in person are null and void, laws which \emph{people} have not ratified in person are null and void. The latter is, in fact, the better argument, because identifiable people exist in the same straightforward way that tables and chairs exist; but if \emph{the} People means something else than the individual people, it is some sort of metaphysical if not mystical intellectual construct requiring independent demonstration. Only the individual can consent to be governed because, as anarchists contend, no amount of expatiation upon man’s social nature alters the reality that the individual is real in a way that an abstraction like society is not.\footnote{“Anarchism: What It Really Stands For,” \emph{Red Emma Speaks}, 88.} William Godwin saw the implications of Rousseau’s position:
\begin{quote}
If government be founded in the consent of the people, then it can have no power over any individual by whom that consent is refused. If a tacit consent be not sufficient, still less can I be deemed to have consented to a measure upon which I put an express negative. This immediately follows from the observations of Rousseau. If the people, or the individuals of which the people is constituted, cannot delegate their authority to a representative, neither can any individual delegate his authority to a majority, in an assembly of which he himself is a member.\footnote{Godwin, \emph{Political Justice}, 216. For a similar argument that a man can delegate “no legislative power whatever — over himself or anybody else, to any man, or body of men,” see Lysander Spooner, “A Letter to Thomas F. Bayard,” \emph{No Treason}, 51–52.}
\end{quote}
If Rousseau is right, no one can rightfully submit to majority rule \emph{even if he wants to}. Because he never understood Rousseau’s argument in the first place, recourse to Rousseau has left Bookchin worse off than before.
Consider the arguments against democracy.
\begin{enumerate}[1.]
\item\relax
The majority isn’t always right. As Thoreau, Bakunin, Tucker, Malatesta and Goldman said, democracy does not assure correct decisions. There’s no evidence for the claim, heard since Aristotle, that a multiplicity of decision-makers makes better decisions. Clearly corporations, unions, parties, families, and many other voluntary associations don’t think so: in the private sector, oligarchy is the norm. It is even mathematically demonstrable (but not by me) that majority decision-making generates inefficient, socially wasteful, more or less self-defeating decisions.\footnote{McConnell, \emph{Private Power and American Democracy,} 120–127; Buchanan \& Tullock, \emph{Calculus of Consent}, 169; Elaine Spitz, \emph{Majority Rule} (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House Publishers, 1984), 153; Taylor, \emph{Community, Anarchy and Liberty}, 54–55.} Besides, why should anyone accept a decision he knows his wrong?
\item\relax
Democracy does not, as is sometimes promised, give everyone the right to influence the decisions affecting him, because a person who voted on the losing side had no influence on that decision. As Thoreau says, “a minority is powerless while it conforms to the majority; it is not even a minority then.”\footnote{Thoreau, “Civil Disobedience,” 231.} Hobbes anticipated him: “And if the Representative consist of many men, the voyce of the greater number, must be considered the voyce of them all. For if the lesser number pronounce (for example) in the Negative, there will be Negatives more than enough to destroy the Affirmatives; and thereby the excesse of Negatives, standing uncontradicted, are the onely voyce the Representative hath.”\footnote{Hobbes, \emph{Leviathan}, 221.} “The numerical majority,” wrote John C. Calhoun, “is as truly a \emph{single power} — and excludes the negative as completely as the absolute government of one or a few.”\footnote{John C. Calhoun, \emph{Disquisitions on Government and Selections from the Discourses} (Indianapolis, IN \& New York: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1953), 29.}
\item\relax
Democracy, especially in small constituencies, lends itself to the disempowerment of permanent minorities, who occupy the same position in the democracy as they would in a despotism. Shifting majorities only make it less likely, not unlikely, for some group to be always opposed to the winning gang.\footnote{Spitz, \emph{Majority Rule}, 183; Juerg Steiner, “Decision-Making,” in Clarke \& Foweraker, eds., \emph{Encyclopedia of Democratic Thought}, 130–131.} In the American democracy, it has long been well-known, even to the Supreme Court in 1938, that “discrete and insular minorities” are at a political disadvantage beyond the mere fact (which is disadvantage enough) that they are minorities. And the smaller the constituency, the more likely that many interests may be represented “by numbers so small as to be less than the minimum necessary for defense of those interests in any setting.”\footnote{United States v. Carolene Products Co., 304 U.S. 144, 152–153 n. 4 (1938) (quoted); MacConnell, \emph{Private Power and American Democracy}, 105 (quoted), 109.}
\item\relax
Majority rule ignores the urgency of preferences. Preference varies in intensity, but it is not at all clear that consent varies in intensity. The vote of a person who has only a slight preference for a man or measure counts the same as the vote of someone passionately opposed: “A majority with slight preferences one way may outvote almost as many strong preferences the other way.” There could even be, as noted, a permanently frustrated minority, which is a source of instability. To put it another way, the opportunity to influence a decision is not proportionate to one’s legitimate interest in the outcome.\footnote{Jeremy Waldron, \emph{The Dignity of Legislation} (Cambridge \& New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 132, 142–143; Buchanan \& Tullock, \emph{Calculus of Consent}, 125–127, 132–133; Robert A. Dahl, \emph{A Preface to Democratic Theory} (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1956), 91–99; Dahl, \emph{Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy}, 88–89; Burnheim, \emph{Is Democracy Possible?}, 5, 83 (quoted).} Democratic theorists usually ignore the issue or, like John Rawls, wave it away by dogmatizing that “this criticism rests upon the mistaken view that the intensity of desire is a relevant consideration in enacting legislation.” His Holiness notwithstanding, “the intensity question is absolutely vital to the stability of democratic systems.” — and a question to which pure majoritarian democracy has no answer.\footnote{Rawls, \emph{Theory of Justice}, 230 (quoted); Benjamin Barber, \emph{The Conquest of Politics: Liberal Philosophy in Democratic Times} (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), 79 (quoted); Willmoore Kendall \& George W. Carey, “The ‘Intensity’ Problem and Democratic Theory,” \emph{American Political Science Review} 62(1) (March 1968): 5–24.}
Rousseau at least addressed a related issue: he thought that “the more grave and important the questions discussed, the nearer should the opinion that is to prevail approach unanimity.”\footnote{Rousseau, “Social Contract,” 107.} But there is no way in which a priori to decide the importance of future questions. The question how important the question is has to be decided first, and the majority may well rule a question to be unimportant to make sure it will be answered as the majority wishes: “If the participants disagree on the voting rules, they may first have to vote on these rules. But they may disagree on how to vote on the voting rules, which may make voting impossible as the decision on how to vote is pushed further and further back.” Elsewhere in the same essay, Rousseau inconsistently asserts that “it is consequently against the nature of the body politic for a Sovereign to impose on itself a law which it cannot infringe.” By definition the sovereign power is absolute.\footnote{Rousseau, “Social Contract,” 16 (quoted), 28; Steiner, “Decision-Making,” 130 (quoted).}
\item\relax
Collective all-or-nothing balloting is irrational. A decision made on a momentous matter by a single vote is as valid as a unanimous vote on a trifle. That extreme rarity, the \emph{one time} one’s vote makes a difference, is the very same situation — monarchy, autocracy, one-man rule — that democracy is supposed to be an improvement on!
\item\relax
Majority rule is not usually even what it purports to be; it rarely means literally the majority of the citizens.\footnote{Spitz, \emph{Majority Rule}, 3.} Usually the majority of a majority means plurality rule,\footnote{John Stuart Mill, “Representative Government,” in \emph{Utilitarianism, Liberty, and Representative Government} (New York: E.P. Dutton and Company \& London: J.M. Dent and Sons, 1951), 346–347; Barclay, \emph{People Without Government}, 118.} in other words, the rule of the momentarily largest minority, which might be rather small. As Rousseau, champion of direct democracy, stated, “however small any State may be, civil societies are always too populous to be under the immediate government of all their members.”\footnote{Rousseau, “Discourse on Political Economy,” 313.}
\item\relax
Where voting is by electoral districts, outcomes are arbitrary because the boundaries of the districts determine the composition of their electorates. Redraw the boundaries and today’s majority may become tomorrow’s minority and vice versa, although no one has changed his mind about any policy. In a democracy, “the definition of the constituency within which the count is taken is a matter of primary importance,” but democratic theory is unable to say who should be included in an electorate.\footnote{Peter J. Taylor, Graham Gudgin, \& R.J. Johnston, “The Geography of Representation: A Review of Recent Findings,” in \emph{Electoral Laws and Their Political Consequences,} ed. Bernard Grofman \& Aren Lijphart (New York: Agathon Press, 1986), 183–184; McConnell, \emph{Private Power and American Democracy,} 92 (quoted); Dahl, \emph{Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy}, 97–99; Bruce E. Cain, \emph{The Reapportionment Puzzle} (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984), 36–37.} The smaller and more numerous the districts are, the greater the arbitrariness of majority rule. Thus Bookchin’s Communes are extremely arbitrary. They may even fall prey to the absurdity of neighborhood irredentism.
\item\relax
Then there is the Voter’s Paradox, a technical but very real contradiction in democracy discovered by Condorcet before the French Revolution. In every situation where two or more voters choose from three or more alternatives, if the voters choose consistently, the majority preference may be determined solely by the order in which the alternatives are voted on. It can happen that A is preferred to B, B is preferred to C, yet C is preferred to A!\footnote{Arrow, \emph{Social Choice and Individual Values}, 2–3, 94–95; “An Essay on the Application of Probability Theory to Plurality Decision-Making (1785),” in \emph{Condorcet: Foundations of Social Choice and Political Theory}, tr. \& ed. Iain McLean \& Fiona Hewitt (Aldershot, Hants., England \& Brookfield, VT: Edward Elgar Publishing, 1994), 120–130. It is interesting that leading early American democrats such as Thomas Jefferson and James Madison owned this work. Paul Merrill Spurlin, \emph{The French Enlightenment in America: Essays on the Times of the Founding Fathers} (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1984), 122–123. Dodgson invented the notion of “None of the Above” as a ballot option. “A Method of Taking Votes on More Than Two Issues,” in \emph{The Political Pamphlets and Letters of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson and Related Pieces: A Mathematical Approach,} ed. Francine F. Abeles (New York: Lewis Carroll Society of North America, 2001), 95. Since Arrow’s impossibility theorem, “the theoretical case that elections can assure desirable outcomes was dealt a blow from which it is unlikely ever to recover fully.” William R. Keech, “Thinking About the Length and Renewability of Electoral Terms,” in Grofman \& Lijphart, eds., \emph{Electoral Laws and Their Political Consequences,} 104.} This is no mere theoretical possibility: it has happened in real votes. There are, in fact, a number of these voting paradoxes. Under ideal conditions, majority rule almost always produces these cyclical preference orders. In fact, “the various equilibrium conditions for majority rule are incompatible with even a very modest degree of heterogeneity of tastes, and for most purposes are not significantly less restrictive than the extreme condition of complete unanimity of individual preferences.”\footnote{William H. Riker \& Barry R. Weingast, “Constitutional Regulation of Legislative Choice: The Political Consequences of Judicial Deference to Legislatures,” \emph{Working Papers in Political Science} No. P-86-11 (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution, 1986), 13–18 (real-life examples of perpetual cyclical majorities); Hanno Nurmi, \emph{Voting Paradoxes and How to Deal With Them} (Berlin, Germany: Springer, 1999); Peter C. Fishburn, “Paradoxes of Voting,” \emph{American Political Science Review} 68(2) (June 1974): 537–546 (five more paradoxes); Gerald H. Kramer, “On a Class of Equilibrium Conditions for Majority Rule,” \emph{Econometrica} 41(2) (March 1973), 285 (quoted). The only reason cyclical preference orders are not more common in real life is the influence of other undemocratic practices such as log-rolling (see below).} What that means is that whoever controls the agenda controls the vote, or, at least, “that making agendas seems just about as significant as actually passing legislation.”\footnote{Ian Shapiro, “Three Fallacies Concerning Majorities, Minorities, and Democratic Politics,” in \emph{NOMOS XXIII: Majorities and Minorities}, ed. John W. Chapman \& Alan Wertheimer (New York \& London: New York University Press, 1990), 97; William H. Riker, “Introduction,” \emph{Agenda Formation}, ed. William H. Riker (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1993), 1 (quoted).} Bookchin never talks about this. It is fitting that a 19\textsuperscript{th} century mathematician who wrote on the phenomenon he called cyclical majorities also wrote under the name Lewis Carroll.\footnote{“Method of Taking Votes on More Than Two Issues,” 46–58; Wolff, \emph{In Defense of Anarchism}, 59–63; Arrow, \emph{Social Choice and Individual Values}, 94.} He came by his sense of the absurd honestly.
\item\relax
Another well-known method for thwarting majority rule with voting is logrolling. It represents an exchange of votes between factions. Each group votes for the other group’s measure, a measure which would otherwise be defeated because each group is in the minority. (Note that this is \emph{not} a compromise because the measures are unrelated.)\footnote{Buchanan \& Tullock, \emph{Calculus of Consent}, 132–133; Burnheim, \emph{Is Democracy Possible?}, 6; McConnell, \emph{Private Power and American Democracy}, 111–112.} In a sense, logrolling facilitates some accomodation of the urgency of preferences, since a faction only trades its votes for votes it values more highly, but it does so through bribery and to the detriment of deliberative democracy. And those whose votes are unnecessary may be excluded from the logrolling process.\footnote{John T. Noonan, Jr., \emph{Bribery} (New York: Macmillan \& London: Collier Macmillan Publishers, 1984), 580; Clayton P. Gillette, “Equality and Variety in the Delivery of Municipal Services,” \emph{Harvard Law Review} 100(1) (Nov. 1986), 959. In 12\textsuperscript{th} century Italy, Genoa and Pistoia prohibited logrolling in consular elections. Martines, \emph{Power and Imagination}, 29. The two-thirds majority for the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery was obtained by logrolling. Noonan, \emph{Bribery}, 456–458.} The interstate highway system in Bookchin’s hallowed Switerland was built by explicit logrolling among cantons,\footnote{Gordon Tullock, \emph{The Vote Motive} (London: Institute of Economic Affairs, 1976), 45–46. Referenda, another expression of direct democracy, provide “the clearest example” of logrolling, putting to a single vote unrelated works projects grouped together to appeal to a majority. Ibid., 48–49.} so the practice occurs in direct as well as representative democracies.
\item\relax
In the unlikely event a legislative body eschews logrolling, it will probably succumb to gridlock. Take the ex-Director’s favorite example, the building of a road. If three groups want a road but not in their back yards, they will gang up to scotch the project.\footnote{Nicholas Rescher, “Risking D: Problems of Political Decision,” \emph{Public Affairs Quarterly} 13(4) (Oct. 1999), 298.} That is an even worse outcome than with logrolling, where at least the road gets built somewhere.
\item\relax
Democracy, especially direct democracy, promotes disharmonious, antisocial attitudes. The psychology of the \emph{ekklesia} (assembly) is the psychology of the \emph{agora} (marketplace): “Voters and customers are essentially the same people. Mr. Smith buys and votes; he is the same man in the supermarket and the voting booth.”\footnote{Ibid., 5. Moral considerations aside (where they belong), majority rule with logrolling may lead to inefficient outcomes — peak efficiency requires, surprisingly, supermajorities: “Majority rule is thus generally not optimal.” Ibid., 51–55, 55 (quoted).} Capitalism and democracy rose together as the goals of the same class, the bourgeoisie, which made a common world of selfish individualism — an arena of competition, not a field of cooperation. Furthermore, democracy, like litigation, is an adversarial decision method: “Majority rule belongs to a combat theory of politics. It is a contest between opposing forces, and the outcome is victory for one side and defeat for the other.” Indeed, in one aspect, as Georg Simmel noticed, majority rule is really the substituted equivalent of force. Literally having to face an opponent publicly may provoke aggression, anger and competitive feelings.\footnote{Spitz, \emph{Majority Rule}, 192 (quoted); Arend Lijphart, “Consensus Democracy,” in Clarke \& Foweraker, eds., \emph{Encyclopedia of Democratic Thought}, 90 (majoritarian democracy is “exclusive, competitive and adversarial”); “The Phenomenon of Outvoting,” in \emph{The Sociology of Georg Simmel}, 241–242; Mansbridge, \emph{Beyond Adversary Democracy}, 273. Manfield adds that because it is distressing to face a hostile majority, the meeting exerts pressure for conformity. Not the least of the many serious inequalities which inhere in the assembly is the inequality between extraverts and introverts. Assembly government discourages attendance by the kind of person who does not like to be in the same room with Murray Bookchin.} In a winner-take-all system there is no incentive to compensate or conciliate defeated minorities, who have been told, in effect, that not only do they not get their way, they are \emph{wrong}. The unaccountable majority is arrogant; the defeated minority is resentful.\footnote{“To see the proposal of a man whom we despise preferred to our own; to see our wisdom ignored before our eyes; to incur certain enmity in an uncertain struggle for empty glory; to hate and be hated because of differences of opinion (which cannot be avoided, whether we win or lose); to reveal our plans and wishes when there is no need to and to get nothing by it; to neglect our private affairs. These, I say, are disadvantages.” Hobbes, \emph{On the Citizen}, 120.} Coercive voting promotes polarization and hardens positions; deliberation “can bring differences to the surface, widening rather than narrowing them.”\footnote{Ian Shapiro, “Optimal Participation?” \emph{Journal of Political Philosophy} 10(2) (June 2002), 198–199.} These consequences, muted in systems of large-scale, secret voting in not-too-frequent elections, are accentuated by the Communal combination of very small electorates, extremely frequent elections, and public voting. Citizens will take their animosities and ulcers home with them and out into everyday life. Elections are undesirable everywhere, but nowhere would they be more destructive of community than in the ex-Director’s little face-to-face Communes.
\item\relax
Even where voting is voluntary, elections either coerce nonvoters or deny them equality. The validity of this apparent paradox is illustrated by an anecdote about elections in Prussia. Bismarck toyed with the idea of counting all nonvoters as voting for the government candidates.\footnote{Stein Rokkan, \emph{Citizens, Elections, Parties: Approaches to the Comparative Study of of the Process of Development} (New York: David McKay Company \& Oslo, Norway: Universitetsforlaget, 1970), 31.} Outrageous? Is it all that different from the elections we have now? In effect, the majority votes the proxies of the nonvoters. The nonvoter cannot oppose the system without becoming a part of what he is opposed to. There can be no equality for anarchists, for instance, in a democracy.
\item\relax
Another source of majority irresponsibility is the felt frivolity of voting, its element of chance and arbitrariness. As Thoreau (quoted by Emma Goldman) put it, “All voting is a sort of gaming, like checquers or backgammon, with a slight moral tinge to it, a playing with right and wrong, with moral questions; and betting naturally accompanies it.”\footnote{Thoreau, “Civil Disobedience,” 226, quoted in Goldman, “Anarchism: What It Really Stands For,” 60; Waldron, \emph{Dignity of Legislation}, 126–127.} The popularity of student government and Model UN confirms that there is a ludic element to deliberative decision-making which is independent of consequences. Here is another interest the delegates share with each other, but not with their constituents. Voting is a contest umpired by the majority with sometimes high stakes. To the extent that the assembled citizens are playing games with each other, that winning for its own sake (or for how you play the game, for that matter) is any part of their motivation, the quality of decision-making is reduced still further and the humiliation of submission to majority rule is that much deepened.
\item\relax
To these objections, generic to democracy, direct democracy adds its special defects. One which is not peculiar to direct democracy but is carried to extremes there is malapportionment or, when it is intentional, gerrymandering. Because Bookchin imagines the building blocks of society to be “organic” neighborhoods and so forth, these face-to-face units will not be of equal population. That Bookchin emphatically prioritizes the integrity of these units over one-man, one-vote is apparent from his discussion of the lower house of the Vermont legislature. Until the 1960s, legislators were elected from townships (effectively, he claims, from municipalities), not from electoral districts based on population. This meant that legislators represented unequal numbers of constituents and, in particular, that rural populations were overrepresented, but that’s okay, “politics was conducted in a more organic fashion than it is today.” The U.S. Supreme Court decision in \emph{Baker v. Carr} (1962) eliminated the system, mandating equality. Bookchin prefers the old system.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 272–273; Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186 (1962).}
\item\relax
If the face-to-face units were autarchic, it would be nobody’s business but theirs how many people they included. But their delegates to the level of the municipal council and beyond will speak for more or less citizens than others but cast equal votes. In a federal system of units of unequal population, voting equality for the units means voting inequality for individuals. Bookchin doesn’t care, but as Mencken wrote, “it must be plain that a community whose votes, man for man, count for only half as much as the votes of another community is one in which half of the citizens are, to every practical intent, unable to vote at all.”\footnote{Dahl, \emph{Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy}, 83–84; H.L. Mencken, \emph{Notes on Democracy} (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1926), 89 (quoted).} The single-member, simple-plurality system evidently contemplated by the Director Emeritus is the least proportionate of all voting systems.\footnote{Sally Burch, “Electoral Systems,” in Clarke \& Foweraker, eds., \emph{Encyclopedia of Democratic Thought}, 264.} The inequality will be compounded at every higher level. In claiming that the entire confederal system produces majority decisions, the Director Emeritus affirms the impossible as an article of faith.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 314.}
\item\relax
Direct democracy, to an even greater degree than representative democracy, encourages emotional, irrational decision-making. The face-to-face context engenders strong interpersonal psychological influences which are, at best, extraneous to decision-making on the merits. The crowd is susceptible to orators and stars, and intolerant of contradiction.\footnote{Michels, \emph{Political Parties}, 64, 98–102.} The speakers, in the limited time allotted to them, sacrifice reasoning to persuasion whenever they have to choose. As Hobbes wrote, the speakers begin not from true principles but from “commonly accepted opinions, which are for the most part usually false, and they do not try to make their discourse correspond to the nature of things but to the passions of men’s hearts. The result is that votes are cast not on the basis of correct reasoning but on emotional impulse.”\footnote{Hobbes, \emph{On the Citizen}, 123.} Dissenters feel intimidated, as they were, for instance, when the Athenian assembly voted for the Sicilian expedition: “The result of this excessive enthusiasm of the majority was that the few who were actually opposed to the expedition were afraid of being thought unpatriotic if they voted against it, and therefore kept quiet” (Thucydides).\footnote{Thucycides, \emph{History of the Peloponnesian War}, 425.} Democracy is the same today, as I am reminded when I notice I am writing this passage in the early hours of September 11, 2002.
\item\relax
A specific, experimentally validated emotional influence vitiating democracy is group pressure to conform. It was strikingly demonstrated in a famous experiment by Solomon Asch. Each of seven to nine subjects was asked to compare a series of lines and in each case identify the two that were equal in length. For each comparison it was obvious, even extremely obvious, which lines matched — but time after time every member of the group gave the same wrong answer except the only subject who was unaware of the real purpose of the experiment. In these circumstances, \emph{fifty-eight percent} of the test subjects changed their answer to agree with the unamimous majority. Even when subjects were each given one ally, \emph{thirteen percent} of the subjects agreed with the group instead of the evidence of their senses.\footnote{Solomon E. Asch, \emph{Social Psychology} (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1952), 458, 477.} Some of the conformists actually changed their perceptions, but most simply decided that the group must be right, no matter how strong was the evidence that it was wrong. You might say the conformists emphatically prioritized the social over the individual.
\item\relax
Another inherent flaw in direct democracy, remarked upon by Hegel and in part a consequence of the previous one, is the inconstancy of policy. This covers really two arguments against democracy. What the assembly does at one meeting it may undo at the next, whether because citizens have changed their minds or because a different mix of people shows up. This often happened at Athens. For example, the assembly voted to give the Mytilenians, whose revolt had been crushed, the Melian treatment: death for the men, slavery for the women and children. The judgment was reversed the next day, and so only the Mytilenians held mainly responsible — over 1,000 of them — were executed.\footnote{Finley, \emph{Democracy Ancient and Modern}, 52; Hegel, “On the English Reform Bill,” 235; Thucydides, \emph{History of the Peloponnesian War}, 212–223.}
\end{enumerate}
It is bad enough if the composition of the assembly fluctuates randomly or because of politically extraneous factors, as the weather, for instance, influences American election outcomes by influencing voter turnout\footnote{Hardin, “Participation,” 487.} (higher proportions of Democrats turn out in good weather). But it might well turn on deliberate mobilization by a dissatisfied faction. This, too, happened in Athens. The general Nicias, addressing the assembly in opposition to the proposed Sicilian expedition, stated: “It is with real alarm that I see this young man’s [Alcibiades’] party sitting at his side in this assembly all called in to support him, and I, on my side, call for the support of the older men among you.” A line in Aristophanes also attests to bloc voting in the assembly.\footnote{Thucydides, \emph{History of the Peloponnesian War}, 417 (quoted); Aristophanes, “Ecclesiazusai,” 256.} Hobbes observed that “when the votes are sufficiently close for the defeated to have hopes of winning a majority at a subsequent meeting if a few men swing round to their way of thinking, their leaders get them all together, and they hold a private discussion on how to revoke the measure that has just been passed. They resolve among themselves to attend the next meeting in large numbers and to be there first; they arrange what each should say and in what order, so that the question may be brought up again, and the decision that was made when their opponents there in strength may be reversed when they fail to show.”\footnote{Hobbes, \emph{On the Citizen}, 124.}
Hobbes exactly describes how Samuel Adams manipulated another assembly, the Boston town meeting, at prior private meetings of his faction at the Caucus Club: “Caucusing involved the widest prevision of problems that might arise and the narrowest choice of response to each possibility; who would speak to any issue, and what he would say; with the clubmen’s general consent guaranteed, ahead of time, to both choice of speaker and what the speaker’s message would be.” Cousin John Adams was astonished, after many years of attending town meetings, to learn of this: “There they drink flip, I suppose, and there they choose a moderator who puts questions to the vote regularly, and selectmen, assessors, wardens, fire wards, and representatives are regularly chosen before they are chosen by the town.”\footnote{Wills, \emph{Inventing America}, 20 (quoted), 23 (quoting John Adams). The Bostonians recreated the smoke-filled room at the Continental Congress, where Jefferson participated: “[Samuel Adams] was constantly holding caucuses of distinguished men, among whom was Richard Henry Lee, at which the generality of the measures pursued were previously determined on, and at which the parts were assigned to the different actors who afterwards appeared in them.” Ibid., 25.} Exactly the same methods of manipulation were practiced in the Athenian assembly.\footnote{Sinclair, \emph{Democracy and Partipation in Ancient Athens}, 144–145.} Characterizing the Adams caucus as a political machine is not original to me. Direct democracy is well suited to machine politics: “The powerful town meeting named the many municipal officials, determined taxes and assessments, and adopted public service projects that were a rich source of jobs and economic largesse. For years the original Caucus and its allies in the Merchants Club had acted as the unofficial directing body of the town meeting in which Caucus stalwart Sam Adams played a key role.”\footnote{Richard Maxwell Brown, “Violence and the American Revolution,” in \emph{Essays on the American Revolution,} ed. Stephen G. Kurtz \& James H. Hutson (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press \& New York: W.W. Norton \& Co., 1973), 102.} This is democracy in action.
What Hobbes is talking about, as he proceeds to say, is faction, which he defines as “a sort of effort and hard work, which they use to \emph{fashion} people.”\footnote{Sinclair, \emph{Democracy and Participation in Ancient Athens,} 144–145.} His account complements James Madison’s statement, previously quoted, that direct democracy promotes factionalism. Bookchin professes to loathe political parties, and he takes for granted their absence from the Commune. Why? An organization of organizers of votes serves a purpose (its own) in any legislature. Parties could play central roles in a direct democracy, maybe greater roles than in representative democracy.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 243; Ian Budge, “Direct Democracy,” in Clarke \& Foweraker, eds., \emph{Encyclopedia of Democratic Thought}, 226.} Almost every Commune will commence operations with at least one faction: the Organization. Further factions may form by splits within the Organization or may arise outside of and opposed to it. Bookchin himself says so at one point.\footnote{“Interview with Murray Bookchin,” 159.} But the Organization will enjoy a tremendous home court advantage. Only the naïve will simply walk into the assembly with a proposal. The more sophisticated will first approach Organization \emph{rhetores} to secure their support and, if possible, their sponsorship, just as in the 20\textsuperscript{th} century people took their problems first to the urban political machines like Tammany Hall or the Daley machine in Chicago.\footnote{William L. Riordan, \emph{Plunkitt of Tammany Hall} (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1963), 90–98; Thomas M. Guterbock, \emph{Machine Politics in Transition: Party and Community in Chicago} (Chicago, IL \& London: University of Chicago Press, 1990), ch. 4; Angela Karikas, “Solving Problems in Philadelphia: An Ethnography of a Congressional District Office,” in \emph{No Access to Law: Alternatives to the American Judicial System}, ed. Laura Nadar (New York: Academic Press, 1980): 345–377; Merton, \emph{Social Theory and Social Structure}, 70–76.} The assembly will be the vanguard party’s toga party.
Only regular high turnouts would minimize these arbitrary or manipulated reversals, since if most citizens attend every meeting, most of them who attend one meeting will attend another. But the Director Emeritus has repeatedly assured us of normally low turnouts. The polar possibilities are that all the same people, or all different people, attend the next meeting. If it is all the same people, it is de facto oligarchy. If it is all different people, it is chaos, the only kind of “anarchy” consistent with direct democracy. As previously explained, the outcome will probably be closer — much closer — to oligarchy.
In conclusion, majority rule is as arbitrary as random decision, but not nearly as fair.\footnote{Wolff, \emph{In Defense of Anarchism}, 44–45.} For a voter, the only diference between the lottery and an election is that he might win the lottery. Better pure chance than “\emph{pure democracy}, or the immediate autocracy of the people,” as Joel Barlow described it.\footnote{Barlow, “To His Fellow Citizens of the United States,” 1106.} A champion of Swiss direct democracy admits: “Corruption, factionalization, arbitrariness, violence, disregard for law, and an obdurate conservatism that opposed all social and economic progress were pathologies to some extent endemic to the pure democratic life form.”\footnote{Barber, \emph{Death of Communal Liberty}, 197.}
Democracy produces a particular human type, Democratic Man (and he usually \emph{is} a man). He is easy to spot among American politicians and among the organizers of anarchist federations. He is a gregarious bully and an elitist demagogue. He talks too much. He hasn’t got a real life and doesn’t know what he’s missing. He politicizes everything except those finer things whose existence he cannot imagine. He has wheels in his head. His very psychic processes, such as perception and memory, are the distorted and distorting instruments of his will to power. Thus he might remember his childhood as peopled by obsessives like himself — halcyon days when, as Bookchin fantasizes, “everyone lived on a rich diet of public lectures and meetings.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 17.} The principle difference between Democratic Man and a schizophrenic is that the former’s fantasies exhibit less beauty and ingenuity. He’s often a geek and always a freak. He may be a likeable fellow (there are conspicuous exceptions) if you like used-car salesmen, but he gets cross when crossed. Another kind of person may admit that his adversary, too, is honest, even that he might sometimes be right, but — writes Mencken — “such an attitude is palpably impossible to a democrat. His distinguishing mark is the fact that he always attacks his opponents, not only with all arms, but also with snorts and objurgations — that he is always filled with moral indignation — that he is incapable of imagining honor in an antagonist, and hence incapable of honor himself. “\footnote{\emph{The Vintage Mencken}, gathered by Alistair Cooke (New York: Vintage Books, 1955), 77.}
And yet one finds statements that anarchism is democracy, and not only from the likes of Bookchin. For this we have mainly to thank, as for too much else, the conservative anarchist publishers. Ignorant anarchists may even believe, because it’s been droned into them, that Noam Chomsky and Howard Zinn are anarchists — not only that, they are said to be influential anarchists. But to his larger (if not very much larger) progressive public, Chomsky keeps his anarchism a secret — an easy secret to keep, since one would never suspect it from hearing his speeches or reading his books of the last 45 years. As an anarchist, Chomsky is a great linguist. But as George Woodcock wrote, “No conception of anarchism is further from the truth than that which regards it as an extreme form of democracy.” With all due respect to Benjamin Tucker, an anarchist is \emph{not} “an unterrified Jeffersonian democrat.”\footnote{Woodcock, \emph{Anarchism}, 33 (quoted); Benjamin R. Tucker, \emph{Instead of a Book, by a Man too Busy to Write One} (New York: Benjamin R. Tucker, 1893), 14 (quoted).} Careless flourishes like these make aberrations like Bookchin and Chomsky possible.
Nearly all anarchists live under democratic regimes. They need not leave for the Third World to find a state to smash — and when they find one there, chances are that Noam Chomsky supports it. Are you anti-imperialist? The \emph{Imperium} is under your feet, from sea to shining sea. The world’s only superpower is a democracy. Its democracy is one source of its strength. Democracy is no threat to the status quo anywhere as it is the ideology of the status quo everywhere. As John Held says, “nearly everyone today professes to be a democrat.”\footnote{Held, \emph{Models of Democracy}, 1 (quoted); Roberts, “Creation of a Legacy,” 82.} And of all these professors, anarchists are the least likely to be believed. Why should a small misunderstood movement try to lose itself in the crowd? Especially if the crowd’s echoes of the hegemonic democratic ideology tend to be faint: “Has there ever been so much incessant yammer about democracy, and less real interest in it?” (John Zerzan). I still believe that devotion to democracy is a mile wide and an inch deep, “that after all these years a stifled and suffering populace is weary of the democratic lie.”\footnote{Zerzan, \emph{Running on Emptiness}, 204 (quoted); Black, “Left Rites,” \emph{Abolition of Work}, 80 (quoted).}
And don’t tell me that the United States, the defining democracy of modern times, is not a “real” democracy. You scoff when the free-market anarchists say that what we have isn’t “real” capitalism since a few economic regulations remain in place. How much more real does capitalism have to be? How much more real does democracy have to be? If direct democracy is different, as often as not the difference is for the worse. Besides, examination of the finest specimens of direct democracy in Murray Bookchin’s bestiary confirms, as I have said before, that “there is no reason to believe that there has ever \emph{been} an urban, purely direct democracy or even a reasonable approximation of one. Every known instance has involved a considerable admixture of representative democracy which sooner or later usually subordinated direct democracy where it didn’t eliminate it altogether.”\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 71. I said “urban” advisedly. I acknowledge the existence of village consensus democracies at some times and places. But never and nowhere a permanent urban majority-vote democracy.} The critic was certainly right\footnote{John Barry, \emph{Rethinking Green Politics} (London: SAGE Publications, 1999), 81 (quoted), 91–93.} who noticed before the Director Emeritus did that “a close analysis of the social ecology position is compatible with the democratization and decentralization of the state.”
Bookchin identifies his ideology as a form of Anarcho-Communism. The \emph{Anarcho-} part we have seen to be bogus. The \emph{-Communism} claim is also untenable.
The basis of Bookchin’s economics is municipal ownership of the means of production:
\begin{quote}
What we would try to achieve instead [of private or state ownership] is a \emph{municipalized} economy; one in which the citizens’ assembly in each community would control economic life and, through city councils and confederations, decide on economic policy for an entire region. Confederal councils would help work out how best to coordinate the production and distribution of economic life that extends beyond the confines of a given community and, with the consent of the overall majority of the population in a confederal network, see to it that goods and are produced and distributed according to the needs of the citizens in the confederation.\forcelinebreak
Production and distribution would be administered merely as practical matters, based on an ethics of “from each according to ability, and to each according to need,” the ethic integral to communism. The community would formulate the distribution of goods according to what is available and what individuals and families require.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 314, 315.}
\end{quote}
Before wading into this morass, notice what it is not. It is not political economy, “which deals with human working activity, not from the standpoint of its technical methods and instruments of labor, but from the standpoint of its social form. It deals with \emph{production relations} which are established among people in the process of production.”\footnote{Isaac Illich Rubin, \emph{Essays on Marx’s Theory of Value}, tr. Milos Samardzija \& Fredy Perlman (Detroit, MI: Black \& Red, 1972), 31.} There is something said here about ownership and distribution, but nothing about social relations, production relations. To put it another way, there is nothing about work. As John Zerzan earned the ex-Director’s ire by saying, “Nowhere does he find fault with the most fundamental dimension of modern living, that of wage-labor and the commodity.”\footnote{Zerzan, “Murray Bookchin’s Libertarian Municipalism,” \emph{Future Primitive and Other Essays}, 166.} Municipal ownership — the Victorians called it “gaslight socialism” — does no more to transform social roles in the production process than state ownership does. In his essay “Communism,” William Morris spoke of the results of gaslight socialism — among them that “industries may be worked by municipalities for the benefit of both producers and consumers” — as desirable reforms, “but without having made any progress on the \emph{direct} road to Communism.”\footnote{“Communism,” \emph{Political Writings of William Morris}, ed. A.L. Morton (New York: International Publishers, 1973), 228, 230.}
For the worker, municipal ownership is consistent with wage-labor, authoritarian management, long hours, time-discipline, and arduous toil. For the employee of the Commune, it will still be true “that the object that labour produces, its product, stands opposed to it as \emph{something alien}, as a \emph{power} \emph{independent} of the producer.”\footnote{Marx, “Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts,” in \emph{Early Writings}, 324.} It will still be true “that labour is \emph{external} to the worker, i.e. does not belong to his essential being; that he therefore does not confirm himself in his work, but denies himself, feels miserable and not happy, does not develop free physical and mental energy, but mortifies his flesh and ruins his mind. Hence the worker feels himself when he is not working; when he is working he does not feel himself.”\footnote{Ibid., 326.} The worker is still alienated in the process and from the product of his labor. Making alienation more concrete, Bookchin finally reveals what that business of negative vs. positive freedom is really about: “Hence, ‘freedom’ is still conceived as freedom \emph{from} labor, not freedom \emph{for} work.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 263.}
Even if the promise of free distribution is kept, only consumption is communized. Communism involves the transformation of work into free, creative activity, “the transformation of consciousness and reality on every level, historical and everyday, conscious and unconscious.”\footnote{Felix Guattari \& Toni Negri, \emph{Communists Like Us: New Spaces of Liberty, New Lines of Alliance}, tr. Michael Ryan (New York: Semiotext(e), 1990), 9–11, 13 (quoted); Jean Barrot \& Francois Martin, \emph{Eclipse and Re-Emergence of the Communist Movement} (Detroit, MI: Black \& Red, 1974), 44–45.} Far from realizing themselves through unalienated labor, municipal employees are merely “hands”: “Popular assemblies are the minds of a free society; the administrators of their policies are the hands.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 175.} Bookchin wrote that! But, as noted in discussing his favorite example, the building of a road (Chapter — ), after all the policymaking, coordination, administration, etc., it still remains for somebody \emph{else} to do the actual work.
But even the promise of free distribution according to the famous formula is foresworn immediately. “The community” would distribute goods according to what various people are deemed by others to “require,” not what they want. If the individual is not free to determine his own requirements, the arrangement is rationing, not free communism. In fact, he is worse off than under capitalism, since now he cannot by any effort of his own increase his share of the social product. If he wants more, he will have to beg for it like a Dickens urchin — “Please, sir, can I have some more?” “The distributing \emph{board of equity},” says Stirner, “lets me have only what the sense of equity, its \emph{loving} care for all prescribes”: collective wealth is as much a check to the individual as the private wealth of others. Communism (so conceived), “loudly as it always attacks the ‘state,’ what it intends is itself again a state, a \emph{status}, a condition hindering my free movement, a sovereign power over me.”\footnote{Stirner, \emph{Ego and Its Own}, 228.} Remarkably, Marx too rejected this crude communism as not the negation but the generalization and completion of private property, a community of labor and an equality of wages paid by “the \emph{community} as universal capitalist.”\footnote{Marx, “Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts,” 346–347, 347 (quoted).}
Actually, in addition to the community as universal capitalist, the Director Emeritus contemplates coexistence with private capitalists: “Nor does libertarian municipalism intend to eliminate private association as such [sic] — without the familial and economic aspects of life, human existence would be impossible in any society.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 153.} To say that the economic aspects of life will remain in the hands of private associations (\emph{i.e.,} corporations) of course completely contradicts municipal control of economic decision-making. It’s easy to see that private business would control more and more of the economy. The Commune by free distribution of necessities would be paying part of the wage bill of business, which could then outbid the Commune for employees. The upshot would be what we have now: a mixed economy of private and state capital. Municipalization would have to take place gradually “in such a way as not to infringe on the proprietary rights of small retail outlets, service establishments, artisan shops, small farms, local manufacturing enterprises, and the like”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 275.} — in other words, no municipalization of the only enterprises operating on a small enough scale for municipalization to be feasible.
I don’t deny that anarchist explications of communism also tend to be brief, infrequent and vague. I am not faulting Bookchin for not improving on them. I am faulting him for explications which, in addition to being brief and infrequent, are not vague but rather all too distinct in repudiating such principles of communism as are clear. Luigi Galleani, an anarcho-communist of unimpeachable orthodoxy, agreed that communism was about the unmediated satisfaction of needs. But he pointed out that needs were not only variable among individuals, with the satisfaction of each level of needs starting with “the urgency of purely animal, purely physiological needs,” new levels of newly possible experiences engender more complicated and extensive needs, and bring more capacities into play, in a continuing series. From these not terribly controversial psychological assumptions Galleani infers that only the individual can judge his own needs: “Since these needs vary, not only according to time and place, but also according to the temperament, disposition and development of each individual, it is clear that only he or she who experiences and feels them is in a position to appreciate them and to measure adequately the satisfaction they may give.”\footnote{Galleani, \emph{End of Anarchism?} 22–23, 22 (quoted), 23 (quoted).}
Thus communism is the final fulfillment of \emph{individualism}\footnote{“Anarchist-Communism,” 35; Jacques Camatte, \emph{Community and Communism in Russia} (London: David Brown, 1978), 18.} and the final confounding of Bookchin’s mystified straw-man ideology of abstract individualism. It turns out that after all the hand-waving about the abstract, sovereign, bourgeois, selfish, blah blah blah individual, after the fog lifts, the concrete, real individual still stands. He — each one of her — is the measure of all value, for all value is relative to him and so unique to her. The apparent contradiction between individualism and communism rests on a misunderstanding of both.\footnote{Camatte, \emph{Community and Communism in Russia}, 36.} Subjectivity is also objective: the individual \emph{really is} subjective. It is nonsense to speak of “emphatically prioritizing the social over the individual,” as Bookchin does.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 5, where this position is falsely attributed to Bakunin, although it is easily refuted by a cursory review of his writings. Guerin, \emph{Anarchism}, 31–32.} You may as well speak of prioritizing the chicken over the egg. Anarchy is a “method of individualization.”\footnote{Leonard I. Krimerman \& Lewis Perry, “Anarchism: The Method of Individualization,” in Krimerman \& Perry, eds., \emph{Patterns of Anarchy}, 554–564.} It aims to combine the greatest individual development with the greatest communal unity.\footnote{Alan Ritter, \emph{Anarchism: A Theoretical Analysis} (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 3 (quoted) \& ch. 2.}
The Director Emeritus has been downplaying and disparaging the working class since 1947. The class is bourgeoisified.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 145; Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 128, Bookchin, \emph{Spanish Anarchists}, 309.} “The classical industrial proletariat” has waned in numbers, class consciousness and political consciousness.\footnote{Bookchin, “Ecology and Revolutionary Thought,” 32; Bookchin, “Radical Politics in an Era of Advanced Capitalism,” 3; Heider, \emph{Anarchism}, 58–59, 63.} Workers \emph{qua} workers are not driven to attack hierarchic society.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 145.} For revolutionary purposes, the proletariat is passe. Transclass political movements are where the action is: “This amounts to saying that workers must see themselves as human beings, not as class beings.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{To Remember Spain}, 31.} So sure is Bookchin of this that he denied any class content to the French events of 1968, although their major feature by far was the general strike and the factory occupations (see Appendix).\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 186–187; Heider, \emph{Anarchism}, 64.}
Now I am well-known as a critic of productivism and workerism. I reject class-based social systems like syndicalism and council communism because they caricature class society without abolishing the social division of labor on which it rests. They don’t abolish the commodity form, they only veil it. I reject attempts to reduce the critique of civilization to obsolete, narrow class analyses in an epoch when the sources and manifestations of alienation and its rejoinder, resistance, pervade all institutions of society, not just economic institutions which are increasingly difficult to distinguish from political and ideological institutions anyway. But so long as ours is (among other things) a class society, class struggle has to be part, though not a privileged part, of revolutionary struggle. Workers who want to be free have no choice but to resist — to employ the ex-Director’s pig Latin — \emph{qua} workers. Everyone, whatever his current relation to the mode of production (or lack thereof), has a stake in that struggle.
It is easy enough, looking down from the lectern, to tell workers “to see themselves as human beings, not as class beings; as creative personalities, not as ‘proletarians’; as self-affirming individuals, not as ‘masses.’” It is easy enough, looking down from the Acropolis, to tell workers to check their class interests at the door of the assembly and enter “without being burdened by their occupational status.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{To Remember Spain,} 31 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 315 (quoted).} As if they could unburden themselves of their class status without abolishing it! “The primacy given to economics, an emphasis uniquely characteristic of a market-economy mentality — and most evident, ironically, in socialist and syndicalist ideologies” is not a perverse mistake. It reflects a reality, the primacy of the market economy. That may not be clear to someone who’s been saying for years that only now, perhaps, do we have a fully capitalist economy.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 136 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 19, 21–22, 277.}
To explain away the historic failure of even the highest forms of Communalism, Bookchin blames exogenous factors:
\begin{quote}
We cannot interpret the decline of the Athenian \emph{Ecclesia}, the ultimate failure of the Parisian sections, and the waning of the New England town meetings as denying the popular assembly’s feasibility for a future society. These forms of direct democracy were riddled by class conflicts and opposing social interests; they were not institutions free of hierarchy, domination, and egotism.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 338.}
\end{quote}
In other words, democratic forms are compatible with hierarchy, domination and egotism. Thus they are not the means for overcoming hierarchy, domination and egotism. Rather, hierarchy domination and egotism are the means for overcoming direct democracy. Revolution is not about persuading people to ignore their interests, it is about the transformation and satisfaction of their interests. In a society otherwise organized on the basis of self-interest, politics will be based on self-interest, regardless of the form of government. Capitalism has flourished under classical liberalism, corporate liberalism, fascism and Marxism, under ruling ideologies of egotism and under ruling ideologies of sacrifice. It certainly flourished under what Bookchin considers direct democracy, such as the the Hanseatic League (whose whole purpose was trade) and the commerciallized New England towns in the 18\textsuperscript{th} century.
The Director Emeritus has made clear that the Commune accepts the fundamental institutions of capitalism, such as wage-labor and the market, rejecting little more than the ethos of egotism. It was an historic if limited achievement when proletarian interests, when proletarian “egotism” was accorded a measure of legitimacy. Now the public philosophy will condemn proletarian selfishness. The only legitimate interest is the public interest, which — since “public” is an abstraction — refers to the state. Freedom is now “positive” — freedom to serve the state (and freedom to work). And the state, according to Bookchin, is an end in itself.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society,} 180.}
\chapter{Chapter 18. The Organization of Power}
After ignoring the topic since 1971, the Director Emeritus abruptly places the organization question on the agenda:
\begin{quote}
Those who wish to overthrow this vast system will require the most careful strategic judgment, the most profound theoretical understanding, and the most dedicated and persistent organized revolutionary groups to even shake the deeply entrenched bourgeois social order. They will need nothing less than a revolutionary socialist \emph{movement}, a well-organized and institutionalized endeavor led by knowledgeable and resolute people who will foment mass resistance and revolution, advance a coherent program, and unite their groups into a visible and identifiable confederation.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 24.}
\end{quote}
As recently as \emph{Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism} (1995), Bookchin wrote nothing about revolutionary organization, not even as a virtue of “The Left That Was.” In Janet Biehl’s \emph{Politics of Social Ecology} (1997) the revolutionary agent is “the movement,” and the only organizations for revolutionaries to work in are municipal shadow institutions. Now the Director Emeritus calls for a vanguard Organization (or Organizations) which “would consist of interlinked affinity groups that would play a leading role in democratic popular assemblies in towns, neighborhoods, and cities.”\footnote{Biehl, \emph{Politics of Social Ecology}, ch. 13, 129 (quoted) \& \emph{passim}; Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 296.} The throwaway, “affinity groups,” is just a sop to the anarchists. Bookchin “perpetuates all the incompatibilities of a mythic ‘libertarian socialism’ that sprinkles anarchist concepts of decentralized organization with Social Democratic concepts of mass political parties” — Bookchin is talking about Andre Gorz but the words suit the ex-Director exactly.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 17.} The confederal structure is a façade: “Into all parties,” writes Michels, “there insinuates itself that indirect electoral system which in public life the democratic parties fight with all possible vigor”\footnote{Michels, \emph{Political Parties,} 71.} (except that Bookchin’s party is consistently undemocratic in promoting indirect elections in government as well).
Bookchin’s proposed means of overthrowing hierarchy are patently hierarchical. Anarchists, he declaims, require “an organization ready and able to play a significant role in moving great masses of workers.” “A vanguard is necessary” to lead, and the masses are to follow, as always. Inevitably the more advanced and knowledgeable comrades lead the others, therefore these relations should be institutionalized, with the advanced militants forming an “organized leadership.” This eminently conservative (and neo-Platformist) idea was espoused by John Adams, who thought the “natural aristocracy” should be localized in the second chamber of the legislature. His friend Thomas Jefferson knew better: “I think that to give them power in order to prevent them from doing mischief, is arming them for it, and increasing instead of remedying the evil.”\footnote{Jefferson to Adams, Oct. 28, 1813, in \emph{The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams}, ed. Lester J. Cappon (Chapel Hill, NC \& London: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 388.}
The Director Emeritus also believes that the Organization should be centralized as much as necessary.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 296 (quoted), 296–294.} Bookchin might protest that he envisions something more reciprocal and dialectical than an organized minority dominating a disorganized majority, but on his own account, dialectics is not mere reciprocity, “some things are in fact very significantly more determining than others.” The Organization is very significantly more determining than the masses — otherwise, what is the Organization for? Obviously an organized caucus of the best and the brightest makes a mockery of Bookchin’s ascription of democracy to the face-to-face urban assembly. As Michels observed with respect to popular assemblies, “while this system limits the extension of the principle of delegation, it fails to provide any guarantee against the formation of an oligarchical camerilla.”\footnote{Michels, \emph{Political Parties}, 64.}
Bookchin has forgotten the evolutionary logic of Leninism. First an organized minority forms to lead the masses based on its advanced theory and superior knowledge. But within the Organization, a leadership for the leaders forms, again based on its even more advanced theory and even greater knowledge: “Even in those groups which want to escape the social givens,” according to Jacques Camatte, “because of unequal command of theory, the gang is even more hierarchic than the general society.”\footnote{Jacques Camatte \& Giani Collu, “On Organization,” in Jacques Camatte, \emph{This World We Must Leave and Other Essays}, ed. Alex Trotter (Brooklyn, NY: Autonomedia, 1995), 28 (quoted), 27 (quoted).} The process may unfold until the most advanced and knowledgeable leader (or so it is prudent for the lesser leaders to regard him) rests atop the hierarchy as the only unled leader. He might be called the Chairman, or the General Secretary, the Prime Mover, the Pope, the Director Emeritus, or just the Leader. He is the only member of the Organization and — after the Revolution — the only member of society who acts without being acted on. Such a person is said to exercise power.
It used to be that when his critics associated the Director Emeritus with such Leninist notions as the vanguard, the masses, the minimal and maximal programs, dual power, the transitional program, and democratic centralism,\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 331, 340.} he exploded in righteous indignation. Now it appears that his critics knew where he was headed before he did. You can mark the reversal by noting the words he uses now that he formerly placed in contemptuous quotation marks: “leaders,” “masses,” “vanguards,” “transitional programs,” “left,” “liberate,” “mass organization,” “man,” “public sphere,” “precondition,” “radical,” even “revolutionary.”\footnote{Bookchin, “Marxism as Bourgeois Sociology,” in \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 57, 58, 195, 207, 236, 251, 254, 256, 264, 272 \& \emph{passim}.} Formerly he thought it “sinister” to speak of “the masses,” now he overuses the phrase with not a word of explanation. What Jean Baudrillard (one of the ex-Director’s least favorite people) said on this point is apposite: “The term ‘mass’ is not a concept. It is a leitmotif of political demagogy, a soft, sticky, lumpenanalytical notion.”\footnote{Jean Baudrillard, \emph{In the Shadow of the Silent Majorities Or, The End of the Social} (New York: Semiotext(e), 1983), 4.}
And now Bookchin, after years of equivocation, openly calls for involvement in elections, as his critics have always accused him of.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 155; Black, \emph{AAL}, 86–87; Zerzan, \emph{Future Primitive}, 164–166.} Only local elections, of course, but his halfhearted attribution of a lesser \emph{degree} of statism to local governments is derisory. If you are arrested, over 99\% of the time it will be by the local (municipal or county) police, and you will be held in the local jail. If you are prosecuted, over 99\% of the time it will be by the local district attorney. If you are convicted of a misdemeanor, you will be incarcerated, if you are, in the local jail. On the civil side, you will be evicted by the local sheriff and divorced by the local court. If statism is a variable, local governments are the \emph{most} statist of American governments. Which is probably why the Director Emeritus covets their power.
Existing forms of municipal government, which are representative and bureaucratic, preclude libertarian municipalism. The goal of the Organization must be to take them over and do away with them. Facilitating this, Bookchin wrote 25 years ago, is a new “multitude of various local associations, ‘alliances,’ and block committees that stress local control as well as economic justice”: “Community and action groups have invaded local politics, a terrain that was once the exclusive preserve of political parties, on a scale that has significantly altered the entire landscape of municipal policy making.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 255, 256.} That last bit is, of course, not true. The landscape of municipal policy making is as it was 25 years ago, and 25 years before that. The goal of community activists in those days was community councils, which are something like what Bookchin called for in Burlington.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 270–271.} But by 1978, this was the situation: “they have been extremely sporadic, and even at their best they seldom attain active participation from more than a small minority of the citizenry.”\footnote{Warren, \emph{Community in America}, 17.} Grass-roots organizations come and go. With the ongoing development of political and economic centralization, local groups are always losing any modest influence they had.
Meanwhile, the gradual decline of the New England town meeting continues. No one ever sets up new ones: they are historical survivals. Montana presents an instructive example of the popular demand for town meetings. In 1972, a new constitution in one state authorized small towns to adopt town meeting government. None did.\footnote{Joseph F. Zimmerman, \emph{Participatory Democracy: Populism Revived} (New York: Praeger, 1986), 31–32.} In New Hampshire, to promote participation — which it is supposed to fear — the legislature in 1995 provided for “referendum town meetings” by local option. There are two sessions. The first or “deliberative” session is for discussion and amendment of the warrant articles. At the second, the articles are voted on and town officials are elected. Average attendance at the first session is 2\% of eligibles. 75\% of attendees are from government bodies.\footnote{Joseph F. Zimmerman, “The New Hampshire Referendum Town Meeting,” \emph{Current Municipal Problems} 28(4) (2002): 425–437.} It is self-government — by government. I can see this happening in the Commune.
If city politics was ever the exclusive preserve of political parties (which I doubt), that time was ending by the 1870s. From the 1870s through the 1930s, middle-class and business associations were established which sought to reform boss-ridden urban governments and police forces.\footnote{A.M. Hyman, \emph{A More Perfect Union: The Impact of the Civil War and Reconstruction on the Constitution} (New York: Knopf, 1973), 526–546; Robert M. Fogelson, \emph{Big City Police} (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977), chs. 2–3; Arthur A.Ekirch, Jr., \emph{Progressivism in America} (New York: New Viewpoints, 1974), 103–104; Robert H. Wiebe, \emph{The Search for Order, 1877–1920} (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967).} If thwarted locally, they might apply to sympathetic state legislatures for legislation. This they could do for a reason the Director Emeritus dislikes but does not understand, although it is highly relevant to his political ambitions. The states, like the national government, are recognised by the Constitution and built in to the political structure it creates.\footnote{\emph{The Federalist}, 253–257 (No.39) (Madison); “\emph{The Federalist} on Federalism: ‘Neither a National nor a Federal Constitution, But a Composition of Both,’” \emph{As Far as Republican Principles Will Admit: Selected Essays of Martin Diamond}, ed. William A. Schrambra (Washington DC: The AEI Press, 1992), 93–107.} Municipal corporations are not mentioned, and they have no Federal constitutional status.
“The current legalistic image of the city as a ‘creature’ of the state,” Bookchin assures us, “is an expression of fear, of careful deliberation in a purposive effort to subdue popular democracy.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 13.} The ex-Director calls the image “current” to imply, falsely, that it is something new; in fact, it was just as current in the 1870s, or 1770s, and in fact goes back to medieval England. This is wishful thinking raised to a faith, a version of idealism often signalled by the ex-Director by appending \emph{-istic} to an otherwise meaningful adjective. There is no evidence of either the fear or the conspiracy. What thwarts the Organization is not a “legalistic image” but a \emph{legal reality}. Municipalities derive their legal status from the states, and they exercise only enumerated powers, narrowly interpreted (the “Dillon Rule”).\footnote{Edward C. Banfield \& James Q. Wilson, \emph{City Politics} (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), 63–64; Friedman, \emph{History of American Law}, 530–531; Thomas M. Cooley, \emph{A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest upon the Legislative Power of the States of the Federal Union} (Boston, MA: Little, Brown \& Co., 1868), 191–193, 198–199 (this is called Dillon’s Rule after a later commentator). Cooley himself vainly argued, both as a commentator and as a judge, from the analogy of the Federal-state relationship to constitutionalize the state-locality relationship. Ibid., 189–190; People v. Hurlbut, 24 Mich. 44, 96–103, 107 (1871) (opinion of Cooley, J.); Robert C. Black, “Functional Federalism in the Jurisprudence of Thomas M. Cooley,” 14–21 (unpublished MS., 1982). It is noteworthy that although Cooley was the most influential constitutional commentator of the Gilded Age, his idea of constitutionalized local government went nowhere.}
Thus, in the unlikely event that the Organization elected its activists to every possible local office, they would not be allowed to subvert the local power structure. For one thing, much of what a city does is on behalf of the state, such as enforcing its criminal law.\footnote{Banfield \& Wilson, \emph{City Politics}, 64.} If, for example, its council members radically altered the police department — civil service laws would only be the first obstacle, followed by the unions — their enemies would entangle them in litigation and, failing that (not that I think it would fail), they might appeal to the state legislature for a state takeover of the force. It’s more than an abstract possibility. In 1857, the state of New York took control of the New York City police force from the Tammany Hall machine and replaced nearly all the police; local control was not restored until after the Civil War. In 1885, the same thing happened in Boston. The mayors of major New York cities were likewise state appointees in the early 19\textsuperscript{th} century.\footnote{Jerome Mushkat, \emph{Tammany: The Evolution of a Political Machine, 1789–1865} (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1971), 305; Roger Lane, \emph{Policing the City: Boston, 1822–1885} (New York: Atheneum, 1971), 217–219; Alvin Kass, \emph{Politics in New York State, 1800–1830} (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1965), 56.} Bookchin’s strategy contemplates a period of “dual power” — which, 25 years ago, was already emerging! — which seems to mean a situation of formal or informal Organization dominance over the city which will “countervail” the state and national governments.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanism}, 256–257.} That leaves the latter, especially the state governments, plenty of opportunity, from a position of as yet undiminished strength, to hold the Commune to existing law or to restrictive new law. What is the rise of urbanism and the decline of citizenship that he’s bellyaching about if not the state’s superior power position? Besides, dual power is a Leninist, not an anarchist concept, since anarchists aim to abolish power, not duplicate it.\footnote{Lawrence Jarach, “Anarcho-Communism, Platformism, and Dual Power: Innovation or Travesty?” \emph{Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed} No.54 (Fall\Slash{}Winter 2002–2003), 41–45.}
If the Director Ameritus really believes modern cities are a power vacuum (or, as he might say, an “airless vacuum”) for the Organization to swoosh into, he’s been spending too much time at town meetings and not enough time observing even Burlington city government or just reading the newspaper. When the long-gone grassroots organisations of the 60s and 70s went to city hall, they had to wait in line. Many other private organisations were, and are, already there: the League of Women Voters, the PTA, professional associations, chambers of commerce, churches, unions, taxpayers’ leagues, the media, service organizations, good-government groups, and many business organizations: there’s an organization equipped to lobby for every business interest in the city.\footnote{Charles R. Adrian \& Charles Pross, \emph{Governing Urban America} (4\textsuperscript{th} ed.; New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1972), 120–136.} A neighborhood political association is just another interest group.\footnote{Howard W. Hallman, \emph{Neighborhoods: Their Place in Urban Life} (Beverley Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1984), 63–64.} The Organization’s militants, especially if they exhibit the ex-Director’s vicarious arrogance and sense of destiny, are likely to alienate not only the officeholders but the other organisations too, some of which are potential coalition partners. There is every reason to believe that the Organization will start out weak and decline from there.
Bookchin does not explain why forms of organization which have never been necessary for revolutions before are necessary now. After all, as he has told us himself, sounding just like Robert Michels, all organizations, even revolutionary organizations, tend to render themselves autonomous, to be alienated from their original aims, and to become ends in themselves. It is no doubt true that ignoring the problem does not solve it, but institutionalizing the problem doesn’t solve it either. The case study for Michels’ conclusion that “who says organization, says oligarchy” was a nominally revolutionary socialist party with instructed delegates and all the rest of the democratic rigmarole. Combine large-scale organization with the pursuit of power, and “the revolutionary party is a state within a state” (Michels), “the party is nothing but a state in the state” (Stirner), the party is “nothing more than a state which is waiting for the opportunity to acquire power” (Bookchin).\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 47, quoting Josef Weber, “The Great Utopia,” \emph{Contemporary Issues} 2(5) (1950), 12; Michels, \emph{Political Parties}, 335 (quoted); Stirner, \emph{Ego and Its Own}, 209 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 292 (quoted).}
The author of a history of Spanish anarchists who also considers organization the only road to revolution might be expected to have discussed in some detail the organization of the Spanish anarchists, but he devoted only a few pages to the structure of the CNT, and claimed that the confederation was more democratic than its rules would suggest.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Spanish Anarchists}, 161–162.} We are expected to take his word for it. In 1974 he again approved of the rather different structures of the CNT and the FAI, and he introduced the idea of institutionalizing the “influential militant.” Yet despite these duly confederal structures, the Director Emeritus reported developments such as Michels predicts. In the CNT, “charismatic individuals [‘influential militants?’] at all levels of the organization came very close to acting in a bureaucratic manner.” And “the FAI increasingly became an end in itself and loyalty to the organization, particularly when it was under attack or confronted with severe difficulties, tended to mute criticism.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{To Remember Spain}, 20 (quoted), 32–35, 23–24 (quoted)} In no published work has the Director Emeritus considered if there was a relationship between the organization of the CNT and FAI and their leaders accepting government ministries. The National Committee of the CNT let only selected leaders and “influential militants” in on its political ambitions before joining the Catalan government on September 27, claiming it was joining, not a government, but a “Regional Defense Council.”\footnote{Jose Peirats, \emph{Anarchists in the Spanish Revolution} (Detroit, MI: Black \& Red, n.d.), ch. 13, esp. 184–188 which however, does not, as Vernon Richards says, answer the question “Who took this decision?” Richards, \emph{Lessons of the Spanish Revolution}, 63.} The CNT, in ideology and in organization, was specifically designed on federal principles with all possible safeguards against usurpation of power by the leadership. Clearly Michels, not Bookchin, is the better prognosticator of the inherently undemocratic fate of a large-scale political Organization, even one that is anarchist.
To illustrate the frightful consequences of failure to unite in a well-led Organization, Bookchin cites an episode in the short-lived German Revolution of 1918–1919. The story as he tells it is this: to protest the dismissal of the leftist chief of police (!) in Berlin, “the city’s leftist organizations — the Independents Social [sic] Democrats, the \emph{pre}-Leninist [sic] Communists around Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, and the Revolutionary Shop Stewards — distributed leaflets denouncing the move and calling for a protest rally.”
\begin{quote}
They are correctly described as potentially the greatest proletarian army the world had ever seen, and they were in a belligerent, indeed revolutionary mood. They waited expectantly in the squares and streets for their leaders — who had called the mobilization — to give them the signal to move. None was forthcoming. Throughout the entire day, while this huge proletarian army waited for tactical guidance, the indecisive leaders debated among themselves. Finally evening approached, and the masses of armed proletarians drifted home, hungry and disappointed.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 242.}
The next day, a Monday, another appeal to take to the streets was distributed among the workers, and the same numerically huge mass of armed workers reappeared, once again ready for an uprising. Their demonstration was comparable in its potential revolutionary force to the one that had assembled on the previous day — but the leaders still behaved indecisively, still debating their course of action without coming to any definitive [sic] conclusion. By nightfall, after waiting throughout the day\footnote{The fog lifted before noon. Elmer Luehr, \emph{The New German Republic} (New York: Minton, Balch \& Company, 1929), 85. Bookchin’s fog never lifted.} in a cold fog and steady rain, the crowd dispersed again, never to return.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 243.}
\end{quote}
The moral? “Had the leaders been unified and decisive; had they given the signal to unseat the government, the workers might well have succeeded in taking over Berlin,” perhaps sparking uprisings throughout Germany. “Had today’s lifestyle anarchists been on the scene in 1919,” adds Bookchin, “I can only suppose that their position — or lack of one — would have helped to seal the doom of the German Revolution by excluding decisive organized action.”\footnote{Ibid.} Thank goodness they \emph{weren’t} there, otherwise the Revolution might have failed!
If I had to ransack the history books for an \emph{anti}-organizational cautionary tale, this just might be it. The Director Emeritus demands a political organization: the Berlin workers had three of them, working — for once — closely and harmoniously together, at least during this episode. The ex-Director demands leaders: 86 leaders met on Sunday night. The Berlin workers had so many leaders that they could spare some to lead the \emph{other} side too. For today’s enemies were almost literally yesterday’s leaders: the Government consisted of the leaders of the Social Democratic Party to which all the workers adhered in November and many still adhered in January.
Bookchin would not be the Director Emeritus if he told a story without leaving something important out. The workers were not as sheeplike as he makes them out to be. On that first day, not everybody waited for orders: “Just as on November 9 a few courageous people suddenly took the initiative, issued instructions and assembled in armed groups and columns.” They occupied the major newspaper publishers and the railway stations, with armed columns roaming the streets all night\footnote{Sebastian Haffner, \emph{Failure of a Revolution: Germany 1918–1919}, tr. Georg Rapp (Chicago, IL: Banner Press, 1986), 130.} — in other words, \emph{they started the revolution}. The revolution would fail because the other workers relied on organizational leadership instead of themselves.
What transpired Sunday night is also interesting. The leaders of the three organizations Bookchin mentions assembled at police headquarters (!) in a state of high excitement after the day’s unexpected events. The Director Emeritus blames the leadership as not “unified and decisive.” But they were both. The vote “to take up the fight against the Government and carry it on until its overthrow” carried by a vote of 80–6. That resolve was implicit at best in the flyer calling the Monday mass rally, saying: “Now bigger issues are at stake.” So Monday went much as Sunday had, with some additional occupations.\footnote{Ibid., 133; Eric Waldman, \emph{The Spartacist Uprising of 1919 and the Crisis of the German Socialist Movement: A Study of the Relation of Political Theory and Party Practice} (Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press, 1958), 173–176.}
Now it is not even obvious that the leadership erred. On Sunday it was caught by surprise; evidently none of the platform speakers, not even Karl Liebknecht, felt authorized to order a revolution on his own initiative. It is leaders too, not just followers, who become dependent on the Organization. And on Sunday night, the two soldiers’ delegates warned that the soldiers and even the military vanguard, the sailors, could not be counted on. They proved prophetic: on Monday the leaders appealed to the troops, and the 53-man Revolutionary Committee transferred to the sailors’ headquarters, but none of the armed forces would act: “What had happened? Above all it was this: the hoped-for support of the troops for this second wave of revolution had failed to materialize.”\footnote{Haffner, \emph{Failure of a Revolution}, 131–133.} It’s possible that there was no insurrection, not because the leaders were indecisive, but because they made a decision not to call one at that time without military support. But this much is certain: “Evidently nobody was ready to attempt a decisive assault on the Government buildings without being given the order — and no order came.”\footnote{Haffner, \emph{Failure of a Revolution}, 132, 133 (quoted).}
\emph{No order came}. For decades, the German working class had been organized, educated, and drilled by the pride of the Second International, the Social Democratic Party. In that time, this “numerically huge” party became hierarchic, bureaucratic, centralized and disciplined, the unwitting shadow of a hierarchic, bureaucratic, centralized and disciplined society. As early as 1895, Bertrand Russell identified these aspects of the organization. Robert Michels, whose party membership cost him what Bookchin would call an alluring academic career, wrote \emph{Political Parties}, a sociological classic, to explain why a party whose ideology was democracy was itself an oligarchy.\footnote{Bertrand Russell, \emph{German Social Democracy} (Nottingham, England: Spokesman Books, 2000); Michels, \emph{Political Parties}.} I’ll draw on some of its insights a little later. Its present interest is that it describes the school in which a generation of German workers learned politics. Their capacity for self-activity found no organizational channels of expression, in fact, rank and file initiative was strongly discouraged. These workers were used to looking to leaders for directions. Without them, at a critical yet fleeting moment, they waited, and then they waited again, and then it was all over.
The German Revolution failed because it was more German than revolutionary. In the words of Ernst Toller, a major figure in the Bavarian Revolution, “alas, the German workmen had been too long accustomed to blind obedience; they wanted only to obey. They confused brutality with strength, bluster with leadership, suppression of freedom with discipline. They missed their accustomed atmosphere; they found their freedom chaos,” they were, in Emma Goldman’s words, “the Bis-Marxian Socialists of Germany.”\footnote{Ernst Toller, \emph{I Was a German: The Autobiography of a Revolutionary}, tr. Edward Crankshaw (New York: Paragon House, 1991), 187 (quoted); “What I Believe,” \emph{Red Emma Speaks}, 42 (quoted).} Lenin praised them for their subservience to their leaders. They failed from too much organization and not enough spontaneity. Ernst Schneider, who participated in the contemporaneous Wilhelmshaven naval mutiny, concluded that “the political parties are no better informed than the masses. This has been proved in all actual revolutionary struggles. As long as parties operate as separate groups within the mass, the mass is not revolutionary, but neither are the parties.”\footnote{Lenin, \emph{What Is to Be Done?} 113–114; Icarus (Ernst Schneider), \emph{The Wilhelmshaven Revolt: A Chapter of the Revolutionary Movement in the German Navy, 1918–1919} (Honley, Yorkshire, England: Simian, 1975), 30.}
And by the way \dots{} Bookchin doesn’t \emph{really} believe the German Revolution failed for lack of a vanguard organization. That is — as he once wrote prior to acquiring an interest in saying the opposite — a “crude simplification.” He earlier included that revolution on the list of 20\textsuperscript{th}-century revolutions which could not have won because there was then no “material basis” for a revolution for the general interest: “It is not for want of organisation that the past revolutions of radical elements ultimately failed but rather because all prior societies were organized systems of want.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Toward an Ecological Society}, 254–256, 255 (quoted), 256 (quoted).} The Director Emeritus now says \emph{that which is not.}
\chapter{Chapter 19. Murray Bookchin, One-Dimensional Man}
My first time around, in \emph{Anarchy after Leftism}, I gave Bookchin’s history of recent anarchism the scant attention it deserves. This time I’ll screwtinize it in more detail. Basically it goes like this. At the economic base, there are periods of “apparent capitalist stabilization” or “capitalist stability,” of “social peace,” and then there are periods of “deep social unrest,” sometimes giving rise to “revolutionary situations.” When capitalism is crisis-ridden, Social Anarchism “has usually held center stage” as far as anarchism goes. When capitalism is, or seems to be, stabilized — the ambiguity is a big help to the argument — then the Lifestyle Anarchists come to the fore to flaunt their cultural and individual eccentricities. Unlike most of the ex-Director’s theses, this one is testable. But he did not test it in \emph{The Spanish Anarchists}. In fact, reading the book, it’s often impossible to ascertain the economic context of anarchist activities in various periods. When an academic historian supersedes this amateurish effort it will be none too soon.
The first thing to be said about this analysis is that it reads more like a justification than a critique of Lifestyle Anarchism. It looks like a rational division of labor between what the Director Emeritus calls the two “extremes.” When social revolution is a possibility, let those so disposed lead the way. When revolution is not on history’s agenda, it makes sense to uphold the black flag on the cultural and individual terrains. Better Lifestyle Anarchism than no anarchism at all (although Bookchin would surely disagree). Somebody has to keep alive what the Spanish anarchists called “the idea” in a climate of social reaction.
A time of capitalist stabilization can also be a time of social unrest. The 1900s and the 1960s were periods of prosperity \emph{and} protest (both liberal and radical). In the years before the First World War, years of capitalist triumph, anarcho-communists and anarcho-syndicalists were as conspicuous as they would ever be in the United States and several other countries. Since Bookchin’s thesis is empirically inconsistent, you can read this fact as either proving or disproving it, which is just to say that the thesis is unverifiable, unfalsifiable and meaningless. As for the 1960s, there is an unbridgeable chasm between Bookchin’s recent junk Marxism and his own earlier, accurate conclusion that 60s unrest was important precisely because it was \emph{not} the reflex of an economic crisis, but rather a qualitative crisis of everyday life. The May-June 1968 uprising in France “exploded the myth that the wealth and resources of modern industrial society can be used to absorb all revolutionary opposition.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 249 (quoted), 249–250 \& \emph{passim}.} Inexplicably, in the 1970s the same wealth and resources underwrote a period of popular quiescence and social reaction which persists to this day.
No matter which determinant of anarchist fortunes you get out of Bookchin — “capitalist stabilization” or “social unrest” — it fails as an explanation. If you go for capitalist stabilization, that explains why (as he concedes) Lifestyle Anarchism was more influential than Social Anarchism in the 60s, but fails to explain why Lifestyle Anarchism increased its lead over Social Anarchism through the 1970s and since, a period of recession and retrenchment briefly interrupted by the Reagan boom years. That was the decade in which emerged such Lifestyle Anarchist themes as primitivism, anti-organization, zerowork, and the critique of technology. Bookchin is even less of an economist than he is an ecologist, so it’s hard to tell what he means by capitalist stabilization. It’s quite a capacious concept if it encompasses the recession of the early 70s and the prosperity of the late 90s. The suspicion arises that “capitalist stabilization” is not an economic concept at all, but rather a synonym for social reaction and an antonym for social unrest. If so, the argument is a tautology.
The social unrest explanation is equally flawed. According to this theory, Social Anarchism should have dominated in the 1960s and Lifestyle Anarchism thereafter, with a resurgence of Social Anarchism in the 90s when, the Director assured us, the system is creating “mass discontent.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 1.} That’s not what happened; that’s not even what Bookchin says happened. Rather, for forty years, in times of protest as in times of privatism, the Lifestyle Anarchists have gained on the Social Anarchists. That is exactly what Bookchin is complaining about. The ex-Director’s thesis, in either version, does not meet the tests of reason \emph{or} experience.
Here is, hardly an analysis, but a more accurate description of the last 60 years of North American anarchist history.\footnote{As in \emph{AAL}, I prefer to confine the scope of my argument to American and Canadian anarchism, corresponding to Bookchin’s subject in \emph{SALA}. I know far more about recent anarchist history in these countries than in any others, and it would be reckless of me, not to mention chauvinistic, to project that history onto other parts of the world. But I know, as my foreign readers know, that nontraditional and post-leftist anarchisms have emerged in strength in many countries, among them France, Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain and Greece. They are present in Mexico and Quebec. They are even manifest, and in sophisticated forms, in Turkey and India. Apparently the American or Anglo-American individualist tradition which is so hateful to Bookchin is not necessary for Lifestyle Anarchism to spread.} In 1960, anarchism was dying and nearly dead. By then, according to George Woodcock — who once believed in it — anarchism was “a ghost that inspires neither fear among governments nor hope among peoples nor even interest among newspapermen.” Moreover, “nor is there any reasonable likelihood of a renaissance of anarchism as we have known it since the foundation of the First International in 1864; history suggests that movements which fail to take the chances it offers them are never born again.”\footnote{Woodcock, \emph{Anarchism}, 468.} (What chances?) In 1966, two academics who set out “to take anarchism seriously” — and did — nonetheless acknowledged that “few today entertain either hope or fear that government might be abolished as easily as it was called into being.”\footnote{Krimmerman \& Perry, “Foreword,” Krimerman \& Perry, eds., \emph{Patterns of Anarchy}, xvi, xv. This is the best anarchist anthology in English.} After 40 years of decline, anarchism was a historical curiosity not far from suffering the fate of the Shakers. In 1968, the \emph{International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences} gloated: “There may be concerns with the kinds of problems that constitute anarchist doctrine, but there is a shortage of actual anarchists.”\footnote{Andrew Hacker, “Anarchism,” in \emph{International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences} (19 vols.; n.p.: The Macmillan Company \& The Free Press, 1968–1991), 1: 285.}
In 1967, Woodcock reconsidered. There was still no “obvious” — he should have said “overt” or “avowed” — anarchist revival, but he was not the only one to detect an anarchist influence in America on the New Left and especially the counter-culture.\footnote{George Woodcock, “Anarchism Revisited,” \emph{Commentary} 46(2) (Aug. 1968), quoted and summarized in Michael Lerner, “Anarchism and the American Counter-Culture,” in \emph{Anarchism Today}, ed. David E. Apter and James Joll (Garden City, NY: Doubleday \& Co., 1971), 34–59 (Woodcock quoted, 34). This is the same Michael Lerner who served as a court intellectual to the Clintons, especially Hillary, who seems to do most of the couple’s deep thinking, such as it is.} Paul Goodman developed the point at the same time in “The Black Flag of Anarchism,”\footnote{\emph{Drawing the Line}, 203–214.} which must have been the most widely read American anarchist essay in decades. This anarchism, thought Woodcock, was not the revival of the classical ideology but something new. He was right. The new anarchism developed, not out of the old versions, but out of the youth culture and what Bookchin formerly referrred to as its “intuitive anarchism.”\footnote{Lerner, “Anarchism and the American Counter-Culture”; David E. Apter, “The Old Anarchism and the New — Some Comments,” in Apter \& Joll, eds., \emph{Anarchism Today}, 7–8; Bookchin, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 70 (quoted).} It could do so because, as Bookchin has written, the youth culture’s tendency was anarchistic. As early as 1961, poet Karl Shapiro sensed anarchist tendencies in “the rising generation.”\footnote{Karl Shapiro, “On the Revival of Anarchism,” Krimerman \& Perry, eds., \emph{The Anarchists}, 573.}
Anarchism was the best theoretical synthesis of the New Left and the counter-culture. Unfortunately, anarchism had sunk so far into obscurity that few radicals had the opportunity to make the connections to anarchism which are so obvious in retrospect. Also, Bookchin is not entirely wrong to identify an anti-theoretical tendency in the youth culture which delayed widespread awareness of its anarchist affinities. Although we speak of “the 60s,” implying a decade of dissidence and dissonance, the radical phase lasted only some five or six years. The rush of events was overwhelming, and a lot of people were, yes, going through changes. When militants felt the lack of theory, their first inclination was to turn to what was available, not what was appropriate — to Marxism, not anarchism.\footnote{According to Bookchin, “When the rebellious 1960s bubbled up after a decade of social quiescence and numbing mediocrity, lifestyle anarchism enjoyed great popularity among the countercultural elements, while social anarchism exercised a measure of influence with some New Leftists.” Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 162. Nostalgic nonsense. No kind of anarchism enjoyed “great popularity” with anybody in the 60s.} That turn was a turnoff; many lost their way. The movement wasted time, unaware how little it had left.
Although it is of no historical importance, the story of Murray Bookchin’s role in and after the disastrous SDS convention of 1969 is entertaining. Although Bookchin and his \emph{Anarchos} Group were neither students nor SDS members, by then that didn’t matter. The future Director wrote “Listen, Marxist!” for the occasion. His Group with sympathizers caucused as the Radical Decentralist Project, the “fourth faction,” allegedly 10\% of the participants, although it is mysteriously absent from all other accounts of the convention. He reports that after the split between Progressive Labor and the other factions, he delivered a speech to cheers of “Right on, right on!” However, the next speaker, who argued against Bookchin’s position, received the same hearty welcome.
The nonstudent Bookchin decided to leave and found an “alternative student movement.” A follow-up meeting three months later was, however, also futile. The discussion, “nonhierarchal” and unstructured, went nowhere, he complains. The gathering needed a written statement for the alternative press, but never approved one — which was unfathomable, since “a perfectly good statement was already available for use: the \emph{Anarchos} statement, the magazine’s policy statement,” of which he was the author. He has no idea that this is funny. “There is a certain anarchist type with an overbearing ego” — no comment — who believes group statements should be collectively composed.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 99–105.} Yes, but the group, not one overbearing egoist, decided not to adopt the future Director’s perfectly good statement.
Here was the direct democracy which Bookchin celebrates except when he’s involved in it. He is also highly critical of the conduct of the Clamshell Alliance, which is apparently his only other experience with face-to-face democracy.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 148–150.} Everywhere his aspiration to play Pericles has been thwarted, and he wonders why. In his final book, Edward Abbey memorably portrays Murray Bookchin (as “Bernie Mushkin”) denouncing an Earth First! gathering:
\begin{quote}
Bernie Mushkin, old-time Marxist, sectarian revolutionary, tenured professor, academic writer, pedagogue, demagogue, ideologue, was drawn to political controversy as a moth to the flame — or a blowfly to a rotting hog. Inept and passionate, fiery-tempered and humorless, graceless but relentless, he had acquired a reputation, over the decades, among the far-out fringes of the urban-American left wing, as an intellectual blowhard. Which meant, in that element, leadership.\footnote{Abbey, \emph{Heyduke Lives!}, 202.}
\end{quote}
Perhaps the explanation for Bookchin’s scorn for empiricism, aside from its intrinsic validity, is that he has trouble learning from experience. Failure is always someone else’s fault: “After the collapse of SDS, the \emph{Anarchos} Group tried to create at least a nationwide network, but these efforts were destroyed by what I would later call lifestyle anarchists, who were to identify their libidinal impulses with politics.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 109. “Destroyed”? What did they do, send out night riders? “Ignored” is more like it.} Someone else is always to blame for his failures.
For Bookchin’s enemies, their importance varies inversely with the square of the distance from him — that’s why John P. Clark is so important (to Bookchin). The ex-Director’s current summary of the movement(s) in 1968 comprises “SDS, the Marxists and Leninists, the anarchists, and the lifestylist Motherfuckers, as well as the decaying counterculture, the students, and the national mobilizations led by pacifists, liberals, and social democrats.” One item stands out, as out of place, like an anarchist at a town meeting: “the lifestylist Motherfuckers.” The reference is to Up Against the Wall Motherfucker, what the Director Emeritus calls “cultural radicals” who “believed that their main job was to ‘blow’ people’s minds.” And they were good at it, as Bookchin grudgingly admits — but if, “apart from transients, it numbered about five people at most,” it hardly qualifies for listing with SDS, New Mobe, the counterculture, etc. Like Bookchin, they were based on the Lower East Side, in fact, he says, “I knew them very well.” Ah! Something personalistic, perhaps? Decidedly! Bookchin was “the intellectual mentor of the Motherfuckers.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 83–85, 97 (quoted), 89 (quoted), 83, (quoted); Marty Jezer, \emph{Abbie Hoffman: American Rebel} (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992), 212.} Yet they were the first trickle of what became the Lifestyle flood. Although he grumbles now that “certain anarchist tendencies played a very bad role, specifically the Up Against the Wall Motherfucker Group,” judging from the incidents recounted, the group’s “impact was remarkable.” The Director Emeritus fails to mention that Motherfuckers practice was informed by theory, Situationist-influenced, some of which holds up considerably better than \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 83 (quoted); \emph{Black Mask \& Up Against the Wall Motherfucker: The Incomplete Works of Ben Morea and the Black Mask Group} (London: Unpopular Books \& Sabotage Editions, 1993).}
It is easy to dismiss Bookchin’s egocentric war stories, but not so easy to explain the left’s abrupt freefall starting in late 1970. I see now, as to some extent I suspected at the time, that the decline was exaggerated, and thereby accelerated, by the media. The 70s were not the times of flatline social reaction which Bookchin makes them out to be. I also appreciate now that most people cannot indefinitely sustain a revolutionary pitch of intensity in the indefinite absence of revolution itself. Even some who felt regret at the decline of activism felt some relief too. Whatever the explanation, the decade was critical for the development of contemporary North American anarchism.
Already in the 60s, the vestigial anarchist groups and projects were, relative to their size, inundated by the few young radicals who consciously identified themselves as anarchists. Intergenerational friction might ensue, as it did in the Industrial Workers of the World.\footnote{Fred Thompson \& Patrick Murfin, \emph{The I.W.W.: Its First Seventy Years, 1905–1975} (Chicago, IL: Industrial Workers of the World, 1976), 205–206.} In the 70s, 60s veterans and their younger counterparts of similar background and outlook increasingly identified themselves as anarchists, participating in existing projects — mostly publications — and starting new ones. Mostly they came from the campus and\Slash{}or the counter-culture. In a once-famous book published in 1970, Philip Slater wote that “there is great fascination with the concept of anarchy — with the attempt to eliminate coercion and commitment [sic] in any form from human life.”\footnote{Slater, \emph{Pursuit of Loneliness,} 148. Slater is as ignorant of anarchism as he is hostile to it (deploring its “individualism”: have we heard this tune played by someone else?). Ibid., 148–49.}
Thanks to a flurry of academic interest in anarchism which continued out of the 60s, anarchist histories, biographies, anthologies and classics appeared almost in abundance, starting in 1970, often from mainstream commercial publishers like Dover, Doubleday, Schocken, Norton, Dell, Random House, Beacon Press, even Praeger, and from university presses. Ramparts Press published Bookchin’s \emph{Post- Scarcity Anarchism} in 1971. Important anarchist presses commenced which still publish: Black \& Red in Detroit, Black Rose Books in Montreal, Left Bank Books in Seattle. One of the original underground newspapers, Detroit’s \emph{Fifth Estate}, went anarchist in 1975 and immediately became influential. Other noteworthy anarchist tabloids included \emph{No Limits} (Madison, Wisconsin) and \emph{Front Line} (Washington, DC). Not in 70 years had anarchist ideas been so accessible to North Americans. More and more people, myself included, appropriated some of these ideas, sometimes critically, sometimes not — and sometimes added their own.
The novelty of the 60s persisted: the youth culture connection to anarchism. Punk rock is the conspicuous example. Punks have been explicitly involved with anarchism, as ideology or affectation, for over over thirty years. Some of the earliest punk bands, such as CRASS, openly proselytized for “the idea,” and some still do. The nexus goes beyond punk music as such, or any style of music as such. Subcultures oriented to other marginal music genres (industrial, hip hop, etc.) are also connected, and music is not the only or the only important expression of youth culture. Deviations in diet, drugs, sex, religion, reading tastes, and defections from leftism or libertarianism — usually in combinations — any or all of these, with or without a sound track, are typical of those who nowadays become anarchists, mostly Lifestyle Anarchists.
Anarcho-leftism, I should add, has also gained support from the youth culture connection, mainly as represented on campus, “college boys in designer hardhats.”\footnote{Bob Black, \emph{Beneath the Underground} (Portland, OR: Feral House, 1994), 32.} The formulas of classical anarchism provide the belief structures so necessary to reduce to modest order the intellectual confusion of anarchists like Jon Bekken, Jeff Stein, Tom Wetzel and Chaz Bufe who could never quite cut the umbilical cord to the campus. The traditional leftists got a spillover share from the general resurgence of anarchism — but not a proportionate share. It is in that context, and in awareness of its ominous implications, that the ex-Director denounces the Lifestyle Anarchists while he still can. But it is already too late. The men who will carry him out are already at the door.
The youth\Slash{}counter-culture connection has its drawbacks. Most North American anarchists are younger than most San anarchists, but not nearly as well adapted to their environment. Even if they are in — or have been in — college, their general education is inferior to what was provided in the 60s and 70s. This is one of the few points on which Bookchin and I, who have both toiled to teach them, probably concur. Song lyrics are really not the most effective vehicle for conveying political ideas, except maybe Fascist or Fundamentalist ideas. Necessarily the message is drastically oversimplified even if the ideas are expressed with all the amplitude the form permits. Some punk anarchists are as stupid as they are ignorant. For many it’s just a phase they’re going through, although there always seem to be more — and more of them — to take their place.
Nonetheless the point is that, since the 60s, there have always been open channels of access and attraction, however imperfect, between anarchists and young people. The channels have not been as broad or deep for decades, not since the anarchists lost influence over the classical workers’ movement and then that movement withered away. Without such channels, a theory or ideology grows old and dies. I am as exasperated with much of what passes for anarchism as Bookchin is, and I said so a decade sooner,\footnote{Black, “Anarchism and Other Impediments to Anarchy,” in \emph{Abolition of Work}, 149–151 (originally written in 1985).} with better reasons.\footnote{Further elaborated in Black, \emph{Friendly Fire}, 181–193, 199–201, and Black, \emph{Beneath the Underground}, ch. 2.} But potential anarchists have to come from somewhere, and youth\Slash{}alternative culture is where they’ve mostly come from for some 50 years. Exceptional individuals also wander in from unexpected places, as they always have — as Bakunin and Kropotkin wandered in from the Czarist aristocracy — and these exceptionals often contribute ideas and energy out of all proportion to their numbers. But unless a lot of people who are not, or not as, extraordinary also wander in — as at certain times and in certain places they have, in large numbers — anarchism has no future except as an ancestor cult and a magnet for crackpots.
The Director Emeritus may be cycling, but anarchism isn’t. The leftist varieties are stagnant or in decay. In North America an ambitious effort at anarcho-leftist organizing, the Love \& Rage Federation, went through a three-way split. In Britain, Class War split in two: the final issue of their newspaper admitted their ineffectuality. NEFAC will be next. As organizationalists, these leftists stand self-condemned. Some anarcho-leftist projects may be surviving artificially on life-support. Rich anarchists, like rich people generally, tend to be conservatives. Noam Chomsky subsidizes select conservative left-wing anarchist projects. So does the triple-platinum English band Chumbawamba, the only anarchists who have ever performed on “The Tonight Show,” which was the best source of anti-Unabomber jokes. AK Press, Bookchin’s publisher, is one of their favorite charities, but the band offered nothing, not even sympathy, when the \emph{Green Anarchist} defendants were tried for conspiracy. No quantity of financial formaldehyde preserves against decay forever.
\chapter{Chapter 20. Conclusion: Whither Anarchism, Indeed?}
\begin{quote}
“Now you see, sir, how your fooling grows old, and people dislike it”\forcelinebreak
— Shakespeare, \emph{Twelfth Night}\footnote{William Shakespeare, \emph{Twelfth Night}, I.v. 110–111.}
\end{quote}
Whither anarchism? If that’s the question, it is one for which Bookchin has no answer. In “The Left That Was,” the appendix to \emph{SALA}, he reiterates that the classical left is forever defunct.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 66–86, esp. 86.} Long ago he announced that “the traditional workers’ movement will never reappear.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 28.} He does not discuss the social composition of the “millions of people today” who experience “the sense of powerlessness” which renders them “a potentially huge body of supporters” of anarchism.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 1.} Who are they? They cannot be bourgeois, for the bourgeois are by definition the enemy. They cannot be proletarians, for the proletariat, according to Bookchin, has been bought off and bourgeoisified. They cannot be the underclass, the idle poor, for these are the “lumpens” Bookchin says are actual or potential fascists.\footnote{“Mere opposition to the state may well unite fascistic lumpens with Stirnerite lumpens, a phenomenon that is not without its historical precedents.” Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 61. As the Director refers to “precedents,” in the plural, there must be at least two historical examples of this bizarre union. Regrettably, Bookchin identifies not even one, perhaps because not even one such example exists. I have searched the Marxist scriptures in vain for a definition of the lumpenproletariat. As far as I can tell, operationally, a proletarian is a lumpen who follows Marxist orders, and a lumpen is a proletarian who does not. According to Bookchin, “behavior that verges on a mystification of criminality” — how can behavior mystify anything? — “on asociality [sic], intellectual incoherence, anti-intellectualism, and disorder for its own sake, is simply lumpen.” Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 154. So “lumpen” does \emph{not} refer to a position in the class structure, or even to a social role. It consists of \emph{bad attitudes} and \emph{bad behavior}. With Bookchin, Marxism has made giant strides since Marx. The traditional anarchist position regarding lumpens, whatever they are, is to welcome them: “Marx speaks disdainfully, but quite unjustly, of this \emph{Lumpenproletariat}. For in them, and only in them, and not in the bourgeois strata of workers, are there crystallized the entire intelligence and power of the coming Social Revolution.” \emph{Bakunin on Anarchism}, ed. Sam Dolgoff (Montreal, Canada: Black Rose Books, 1980), 334.} (Whereas in 1970, he thought lumpens were the new revolutionary class: “If a ‘class-based’ analysis is needed by the Marxist pundits, it may be well to remind them that just as capitalism began with a lumpen class, from which it created the proletariat, so it may end with a lumpen class, from which it may create its executioners.”\footnote{Bookchin, “The Youth Culture,” 61.}) So who’s left for the left?
After repeatedly and tediously denouncing Lifestyle Anarchists for their personalism, individualism, narcissism, mysticism and psychologism, the Director Emeritus himself defines the yearning millions of potential anarchists in purely personalistic, psychological terms, in terms of their “sense of powerlessness.” \emph{Are} they powerless, or do they just think they are? Do they need revolution or just therapy? If all they need is therapy, the system is surely capable of supplying it (for a price). An awareness of powerlessness is surely as old as its reality. The slaves and peasants of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia — and Athens! — knew they were powerless, but such awareness more often results in resignation than revolution. Bookchin cannot explain why powerless people sometimes revolt but usually don’t. For that matter, Bookchin can’t explain anything else either.
According to the Director Emeritus, the enormities and the eccentricities of the Lifestyle Anarchists are “in no small measure” responsible for the anarchist failure to recruit and deploy “a potentially huge body of supporters” ripe for revolution.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{SALA}, 1. The ex-Director is much given to the double-negative grammatical gambit by which he is able to say something implausible or defamatory while reserving the right to back away from its literal meaning if he has to. Thus he will say that some supposed tenet of Lifestyle Anarchism is “not unlike” a tenet of fascism — technically, he hasn’t called anybody a fascist, but the emotive impact is almost as strong as if he had. George Orwell, with his keen sense for the politics of language, picked up on this one. He wrote, too optimistically it seems, that “it should also be possible to laugh the \emph{not un-} formulation out of existence.” “Politics and the English Language,” in \emph{Collected Essays}, 4: 138.} That’s an extraordinary measure of blame to heap upon an imperceptible fraction of the population with no access to the mainstream media. Absolutely no evidence supports the assertion that anything anarchists of any orientation have done or not done in recent years has repelled vast numbers of people. There is no evidence that vast numbers of Americans have yet encountered anarchism in any form. Bookchin brags of having lectured at every major university in the United States, which provided him forums on a scale no Lifestyle Anarchists have ever had access to. Here was his opportunity to convert strategically situated cadres of the youth intelligentsia to his advanced ideology. Here he could have gone far toward strangling Lifestyle Anarchism in the cradle. He must have failed. More likely he never tried. His personalistic careerism took priority. If these “are the worst times in the history of anarchism,”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 124.} how could this have happened on his watch? Is it accidental that it was only when his career was over that Bookchin assailed the Lifestyle Anarchists?
According to the Director Emeritus, thousands of decadent Lifestyle Anarchists have discouraged many millions of other Americans from embracing anarchism in the only version Bookchin approves of. What discouraged many millions of Americans from embracing anarchism in the many decades before Lifestyle Anarchism came along, he does not say. Did the defamations and machinations of Leninists like himself have anything to do with it? One suspects that anarchism’s unpopularity had more to do with anarchism itself than with any of its particular versions. As Malatesta stated, the problem is not the word but the thing, because it clashes with long-established prejudices.\footnote{Malatesta, \emph{Anarchy}, 13.} Bookchin’s fantastic exaggeration of the influence of Lifestyle Anarchists corresponds to his fantastic exaggeration of his own influence. The Lifestyle Anarchists must possess very powerful juju in order to outshout the voice of Reason as it booms forth so often and so eloquently from Murray Bookchin. The ex-Director’s acquaintance with anarchist history is so slight that he’s unaware that the unbridgeable chasm is nothing new. There were partly contradictory, partly complementary political and cultural currents in French anarchism in the 1890s, for instance.\footnote{Richard D. Sonn, \emph{Anarchism and Cultural Politics in Fin de Siecle France} (Lincoln, NE \& London: University of Nebraska Press, 1989); Alexander Varias, \emph{Paris and the Anarchists: Aesthetes and Subversives During the Fin de Siecle} (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996).} The same accusations of authoritarianism and decadence were exchanged then as now. Investigation might find this to have been the usual situation of classical anarchism. Whether or not the chasm is unbridgeable, Bookchin has fallen into it.
As in \emph{SALA}, the Director rebukes the Lifestyle Anarchists — belatedly including John P. Clark — for elitism. This dictum, again unexplained, makes no more sense than it ever did. It is not clear why collectivist elitism — vanguardism — is superior to individualist elitism. Bookchin decries “abstract individualism” but never entertains the possibility that what his enemies espouse is \emph{concrete} individualism, what Vaneigem calls radical subjectivity. Nor does he consider the possibility that what he espouses is abstract collectivism (totalitarianism), not concrete collectivism (community). Abstract collectivism is even worse than abstract individualism (classical liberalism). Elitism implies exclusivity, but Bookchin is the one who is reading thousands of anarchists out of the movement. Lifestyle Anarchism is intolerable, so Social Anarchism is intolerant. The movement “must become infected with intolerance against all who retard its growth by subservience to spontaneity,”\footnote{V.I. Lenin, \emph{What Is to Be Done?} (New York: International Publishers, 1943), 44.} as the lawyer Lenin put it.
There may be a sense in which some so-called Lifestyle Anarchists might be elitists, \emph{i.e.}, they aspire to excellence and they want to level up. But they want \emph{everybody} to level up — they want company — they want a world of what Vaneigem calls “masters without slaves” — not out of pity or paternalism but because they crave a community of fulfilled, enriched, masterful other individuals to relate to. John Simon, referring to the late American critic and anarchist Dwight Macdonald, admitted that Macdonald was an elitist of sorts, but “an elitist, then, who would eagerly help others join the club, who would gladly have abandoned his badge of superiority for the sake of a world full of coequal elitists.”\footnote{John Simon, “Introduction” to Dwight Macdonald, \emph{Against the American Grain: Essays on the Effects of Mass Culture} (New York: Da Capo Press, 1983), vi.} Only in that sense are post-left anarchists elitists.
Writing in 1989, the Director Emeritus stated: “It is tempting to return to the radicalism of the past where assured dogmas were socially inspirational and had the aura of romantic rebellion about them. Having been raised in that era of a half-century ago, I find it emotionally congenial but intellectually inadequate.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Remaking Society}, 13.} He has since succumbed to that temptation. Intellectually, orthodoxy is now more important than adequacy, although all his old criticisms of the left still hold. According to Bookchin, “these are the worst times in the history of anarchism, worse than any I have either read about or experienced.” More generally, these are times of counterrevolution.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 124.} If this is counterrevolution, when was the revolution?
We are witness to the decay and the imminent demise of Bookchin’s deeply flawed theories. Most are almost universally ignored by anarchists, and they are already ignored by everybody else. His recent brutality and buffoonery have almost overshadowed the substantial and mainly positive influence he exerted on the revival of North American anarchism which commenced in the early 1970s. Bookchin’s ecological orientation never had any popular influence as did Rachel Carson’s, but in its time it had considerable influence on anarchists. Bookchin’s notion of liberatory technology did catch on at first with some anarchists, but ironically, by raising technology as a political issue, he may have directed their attention to the repressive power of really existing technology, and so indirectly inspired the anti-tech tendency. Hardly any anarchists ever took seriously the ex-Director’s longtime enchantment with the slave-based, imperialist, authoritarian Athenian polis, or his quixotic quest to “democratize the republic,” “radicalize our democracy,” and Hellenize the Euro-American city.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization,} 287. All along, the philhellenism was really Marxism in marble, but nobody noticed. Marx’s vision of the culmination of history “would have coincided rather curiously with the Greek city-states.” Hannah Arendt, “Marx and Western Political Thought,” \emph{Social Research} 69(2) (Summer 2002), 283 (quoted); Philip J. Kain, \emph{Schiller, Hegel, and Marx: State, Society, and the Aesthetic deal of Ancient Greece} (Kingston \& Montreal, Canada: McGill-Queen’s Univesity Press, 1982), 152–155.} Where he sees a seamless theoretical unity, others see only an arbitrary aggregation of eccentric isolates.
It has been Bookchin’s longterm strategy to redefine key words like “politics,” “democracy” and “anarchism” so as to enclose the commons, expropriating public words for his personalistic political benefit. Thus he tried to make off with a term, “social anarchism,” which belongs to the anarchist community. Failing in that, he repudiated the anarchists, displaying all the maturity of a little kid who won’t play ball unless he gets to pitch — but the whole team knows that all he can throw is screwballs. No one begrudges him “libertarian municipalism,” but it lacks flash. In \emph{Anarchy after Leftism}, I expressed sympathy for the Director Emeritus and his followers: “They need a name that nobody else wants” — but he was perhaps right to spurn my suggestion: “How about ‘Marxist’?”\footnote{Black, \emph{AAL}, 139.}
Now it appears Bookchin prepared a fallback position as long ago as 1994. He sees advantages in the word \emph{communalism} (pilfered from Kenneth Rexroth): “What is remarkable about this (as yet) unsullied term is its extraordinary proximity to libertarian municipalism, the political dimension to social ecology that I have advanced at length [to say the least] elsewhere. In \emph{communalism}, libertarians have an available word that they can enrich as much by experience as by theory.”\footnote{Kenneth Rexroth, \emph{Communalism: Its Origins to the Twentieth Century} (London: Owen, 1975); Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 152 (quoted).} It is surely a rousing word (although it might be just the italics) — but it’s already taken. The right wing has eaten his lunch: “Conservatives defend a theory of the good, \emph{communalism}, which holds that individual human flourishing is best pursued through familial and communal shaping of individual character.” The “familial” part aside, so holds the Director Emeritus, who calls for citizenship training, “civic \emph{paideia}.”\footnote{Bruce Alan Shain, “American Community,” in \emph{Community and Tradition: Conservative Pespectives on the American Experience,} ed. George W. Carey \& Bruce Frohnen (Lanham, MD: Rowman \& Littlefield, 1988) (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Rise of Urbanization}, 276. Communalism is also part of the ideology of the Radical Right. Jeffrey Kaplan \& Leonard Weinberg, \emph{The Emergence of a Euro-American Radical Right} (New Brunswick, NJ \& London: Rutgers University Press, 1998), ch. 7, “The Communal Dream.”} As a radical Green writes, “it might well be wondered whether a decentralized, participatory democracy really does have anything to do with anarchism.” After wasting everybody’s time all these years, the Director Emeritus concurs: “I no longer believe that Communalism is a mere ‘dimension’ of anarchism, democratic or not.”\footnote{Alan Carter, \emph{A Radical Green Political Theory} (London \& New York: Rutledge, 1999), 299 n. 92; Bookchin, “Communalist Project,” n. 8, unpaginated.}
No matter how much he regrets it now, Bookchin did lend a lot of aid and comfort to what he now denounces as Lifestyle Anarchism: to the transvaluation of values, spontaneity, and the revolution of everyday life. If he hasn’t seeded our fields (of dreams), he has at least manured them. Our post-leftism was fertilized by his \emph{com}post-leftism. Bookchin is full of shit, and we turned that to practical advantage. But what to make of him in his final decay? In Plato’s \emph{Gorgias}, the sophist Callicles exclaims that philosophizing is for younger men, because old men no longer experience the life of the city — they’re out of it, like Bookchin: “But whenever I see an older man still philosophizing and not released from it, this man, Socrates, surely seems to me to need a beating.”\footnote{Plato, \emph{Gorgias}, tr. James H. Nichols, Jr. (Ithaca, NY \& London: Cornell University Press, 1998), 75–76, 76 (quoted).}
In \emph{The Ecology of Freedom}, the Director Emeritus anticipated his present situation — and mine: “The fear, pain, and commonly rapid death that a wolfpack brings to a sick or old caribou are evidence not of suffering or cruelty in nature but of a mode of dying that is integrally wedded to organic renewal and ecological stability.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 363.} First Nature always has the last word. In the words of “the incomparable Max” — Beerbohm, not Stirner — “All this sounds rather brutal. But it is a brutal thing to object to humbug, and only by brutal means can humbug be combated.”\footnote{“An Hypocrisy in Playgoing,” in \emph{Max Beerbohm: Selected Prose}, ed. David Cecil (Boston, MA \& Toronto, Canada: Little, Brown and Company, 1971), 362 (the expression “the divine Max” is Shaw’s).} The ex-Director’s example confirms that “the sole change of mind of which an ideologue is incapable is that of ceasing to be an ideologue.”\footnote{Forrest McDonald, \emph{Novus Ordo Seclorum: The Intellectual Origins of the Constitution} (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1985), 181.} In annihilating Murray Bookchin the ideologue, in \emph{appearance} my methods may seem cruel, but in \emph{essence}, I am only doing the work of Nature — First Nature: “For at any price we must keep those who have too clear a conscience from living and dying in peace” (E.M. Cioran).\footnote{E.M. Cioran, \emph{The Temptation to Exist}, tr. Richard Howard (Chicago, IL: Quadrangle Books, 1970), 37.}
\chapter{Appendix: An American in Paris}
\section{1}
When Murray Bookchin writes that there is an issue “that I find so offensive and so outrageously false that I feel obliged to examine it in some detail,”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism,} 238.} you can count on a good show. No one takes umbrage on quite the colossal scale that he does. “Don’t sweat the small stuff” is incomprehensible counsel for the Director Emeritus. The issue he finds so offensive and so outrageously false — John P. Clark’s ridicule of an item on Bookchin’s revolutionary resume — holds promise for running his vital signs right off the Richter scale. So I, too, propose to examine it in some detail.
As the Director Emeritus explains, “On other occasions I have noted that I witnessed street struggles in Paris between the French police (the CRS) and radical protestors in mid-July 1968.” A pity he does not reference these “other occasions” so we could see if his claims there are as carefully worded as they are here. “The facts are that I flew into the French capital on July 13 — the general strike during May and June had paralyzed Air France, making earlier travel to Paris impossible.”\footnote{Ibid.} For this pardonable tardiness, Clark makes mock:
\begin{quote}
If we read carefully, we discover that [Bookchin’s] first-hand experience of May ’68 came, unfortunately, in the month of July. He reveals that he made a “lengthy” visit to Paris “in mid-July [sic] 1968, when street-fighting occurred throughout the capital on the evening before Bastille Day” (p. 202). Bookchin is obviously trying to convey the impression that he was in the midst of things during the historic “events” of 1968. But as one history summarizes the events after the June 23 elections, “France closes down for the summer holidays” [“Bookchin Agonistes”], p. 23).\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 238, quoting Max Cafard [John P. Clark], “Bookchin Agonistes: How Murray Bookchin’s Attempts to ‘Re-Enchant Humanity’ Become a Pugilistic Bacchanal,” \emph{Fifth Estate} 32(1) (Summer 1997): 20–23.}
\end{quote}
It would be interesting to know exactly when the Air France strike ended. Since the Air France strike ended sometime in June, as the ex-Director’s statement implies, Bookchin’s delay of 2–6 weeks before flying to Paris looks as if he were waiting to see if the coast was clear.
As the Director Emeritus recounts, while he was resting in his \emph{pension} the afternoon of July 13, his family rushed in to report street fighting. He “quickly accompanied Bea [his wife] back to the Boulevard, but the fighting had essentially subsided.” Missed it by that much! But that night, after a block party that ended at midnight, the Director-to-be followed “a group of young men” carrying a red flag and singing the “Internationale” — perhaps it was a conditioned reflex. CRS men (riot police) ran up and down the Boulevard St.-Michel, “alternately attacking and withdrawing from the crowds that filled the Boulevard. Caught up among a group of Africans, who seemed to be special targets of the racist CRS men, Bea and I were attacked with special fury and had to scatter up toward the Pantheon, where we finally escaped our pursuers.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 239.}
PeeWee’s big adventure, then, consisted of watching the police attack crowds of people, then chase him away. The streets were thronged, not with militants, but with Bastille Day celebrants. It does not sound like most of these people were engaged in political protest. Bookchin observed a riot, but it was a police riot. Exactly what insight into the May-June insurrection he might have gleaned from this episode is hard to say, since by July 12, the insurrection was over. There’s a reason why it is referred to as the May-June days, not the May-July days. Bookchin’s riot has left on history only traces like this: “There were incidents at the Avignon Festival, and in Paris around Bastille Day, but the police were very much in control of the situation.”\footnote{Philip M. Williams with Daniel Goldey \& Martin Harrison, \emph{French Politicians and Elections, 1951–1969} (Cambridge: at the University Press, 1970), 281.}
The radical substance of the May-June “days” was the general strike, the workplace and campus occupations, the action committees, and popular control of the streets (excluding the police). By July 12, all these, except for some of the action committees,\footnote{Patrick Seale \& Maureen McConville, \emph{Red Flag\Slash{}Black Flag: French Revolution 1968} (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1968), 123. This “instant history” by journalists is even more superficial than a book written in a few weeks has to be. The May Revolution, they confess, “was the sort of event that sets your mind reeling for months afterward as you try to make sense of it.” Ibid., 11. It shows.} were gone. In fact, that was the very day the last of the strikes — by television newsmen employed by the government broadcasting network — was ended by a lockout.\footnote{John L. Hess, “De Gaulle Insists on Public Order,” \emph{New York Times}, July 14, 1968, p. 10, col. 2.} On May 25 the unions had negotiated the Grenelle agreements granting economic demands within the system. Many workers rejected the agreements at first, but soon they began returning to work.\footnote{Philip M. Williams \& Martin Harrison, \emph{Politics and Society in De Gaulle’s Republic} (London: Longmans, 1971), 330.} On June 12, the government, “confident of public approval,” prohibited demonstrations and banned a dozen extremist organizations.\footnote{Seale \& McConville, \emph{Red Flag\Slash{}Black Flag}, 225.} Students returned to school; even the Sorbonne was evacuated by the invading \emph{flics} on June 16. Elections on June 23 reaffirmed the existing order and even rejuvenated briefly the obsolescent Gaullist regime. And finally the police retook the streets. June 11 was the “last night of the barricades.”\footnote{Maurice Rajsfus, \emph{Mai 1968: Sous les paves, la repression (mai 1968-mars 1974)} (Paris: le cherche midi editeur, 1988), 34 (“cette derniere nuit des barricades”); Rene Vienet, \emph{Enrages and Situationists in the Occupation Movement, France, May ’68} (New York: Autonomedia \& London: Rebel Press, 1992), 111.} Most Parisians, as the quotation from Clark’s acquaintance indicates, had as usual left town for their summer holidays.
Of course there were sporadic “incidents” after June 11 such as the one Bookchin blundered into, just as there was campus protest after Kent State, but each of these events marked the end of a discrete period of struggle. No doubt Bookchin learned something about the May “days” during his visit to Paris, but he learned it as reminiscence by others, not as a living, experienced reality. Another American known only too well to Bookchin was in the thick of it. That would be Fredy Perlman.
“By no means does one have to look ‘carefully,’ as Clark puts it, at anything I wrote about my experiences on July 13; I dated them very explicitly.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 238.} Bookchin would rather his readers not look at what he writes carefully. That only leads to such miscarriages of justice as \emph{Beyond Bookchin} and \emph{Anarchy after Leftism}. However, it is not the dating of whatever Bookchin may have written about July 13 which is in question, it is the dating of what he wrote about May-June 1968, as his quotations from Clark indicate. The two short texts in \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism} (1971) which deal with the May days are dated “Paris July 1968,” and the second is described as “excerpts from a letter written shortly after the May-June events.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 258, 270, 261 (quoted). It purports to be a reply to a previous letter which, in turn, must have been a reply to a still earlier Bookchin letter, since Bookchin begins, “You ask how the May-June revolt could have developed into a successful social revolution.” This means that letters crossed the Atlantic three times in the last 17 days of July! Truth takes flight on swift wings.} Even if “July 1968” qualifies as \emph{very} explicit, when texts about events in Paris in May-June 1968 are said to have been written in Paris in July 1968, one of them “shortly after the May-June events,” the natural assumption is that the author is drawing on his own recent memories of his observations of those events as they took place.
Happily for Bookchin, he could count on this all but inevitable misunderstanding to validate his essays. “Had I been guided by less moral standards,” says he with high sanctimony, “I could have lied quite brazenly and dated my Parisian trip to, say, May 12 — and no one would have been aware of the falsehood.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 238.} No one except all the people in New York who knew he was in town in May and June. Bookchin by 1967 had been in contact in New York with the American Situationists and the Motherfuckers, and with French Situationists in Paris.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 86.} The groups were then in close communication, but the Americans had “broken” with Bookchin the previous year “over his spirited defence of sacrificial militants and mystics.”\footnote{“Epitaph to Bookchinism,” \emph{Situationist International: Review of the American Section of the S.I.} (1) (June 1969) (reprint edition, Portland, OR: Extreme Press, 1993, 42), also reprinted in Black, \emph{Withered Anarchism}, n.d. [1998]), 37–38 (Appendix B).} The Director Emeritus could not have gotten away with a lie which would have demolished his credibility with the left at a time when he was trying to influence it through his newspaper \emph{Anarchos}.
As a general proposition, the Director Emeritus would do well not to draw attention to his high moral standards, assuming that honesty is supposed to be one of them. For example, he now claims that, in the 1960s, he “developed a form of ecological anarchism”: “The name I gave it, though, was \emph{social ecology.}” He thus both invented and named social ecology. But in the same volume, polemicizing against Watson, he says that social ecology was “a label that had fallen into disuse by the early 1960s and that I spent many years providing with a substantive meaning.” In this version he still invented social ecology but got the name from somewhere else, making one wonder what the phrase meant before he appropriated it. Much the same thing, apparently — judging from Bookchin’s earlier quotation of E.A. Gutkind to characterize social ecology.\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Marxism, Anarchism}, 56 (quoted), 212 (quoted); Bookchin, \emph{Ecology of Freedom}, 22–23, quoting Gutkind, \emph{Community and Environment,} 9.}
Was Bookchin trading on a false image of firsthand knowledge to lend credence to his rather slight writings on May-June 1968? That is how some might construe a statement like this: “\emph{From everything I have seen}, it is clear that the grafitti (which now form the content of several books) have captured the imagination of many thousands in Paris.”\footnote{Murray Bookchin, “The May-June Events in France: 1,” in \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, 250 [emphasis added]. What seems not to have been “clear” to him is that the grafitti he quoted, such as “Never Work!” were Situationist. In claiming influence on May-June 1968, the Situationist International stated: “Those who doubt this [influence] need only \emph{read the walls} [or, the SI went on, one of those illustrated books such as Bookchin spoke of].” “The Beginning of an Era,” in \emph{Situationist International Anthology}, ed. Ken Knabb (rev. \& exp. ed.; Berkeley, CA: Bureau of Public Secrets, 2006), 308.} “Seen,” not “heard.” Bookchin might have seen grafitti in July, but he could not have seen how they captured the imagination of thousands in May and June.
“I have more than my own memory to verify these events,” avers the Director Emeritus. He has behind him the unimpeachable authority of the \emph{New York Times}! Yes, “not only was there street fighting in Paris on July 13, but it was featured on the front page of \emph{The New York Times} the next morning.” Yes, “the story was prominently featured on the front page under the disconcerting [?] headline ‘De Gaulle Insists on Public Order.’ The May-June revolt was not dead, even in mid-July.” The story, like so many of Bookchin’s, improves in the telling. Just one sentence later, the story — or was it the street fighting? — has gone from “featured” to “prominently featured.”\footnote{Hess, “De Gaulle Insists on Public Order,” \emph{Times}, p. 1, col. 1.} Bookchin quotes what the \emph{Times} correspondent “saw” (although there is no indication he was an eyewitness): “As if to underline the warning, riot policemen clashed tonight with several hundred youths carrying red and black flags and and snake-dancing through the Place de la Bastille during celebrations on the eve of Bastille Day. Several youths were slightly injured. Using teargas, the police cleared the square of thousands of intermingled celebrators and demonstrators, some of whom threw paving stones.”\footnote{Hess, “De Gaulle Insists on Public Order,” \emph{Times}, p. 1, col. 1, p. 10, col. 2.} Most of those in the streets, then, were celebrators, not demonstrators.
Bookchin finds the reference to De Gaulle “disconcerting” only because, in his narcissism, he assumes the newspaper story is about the part of the story that involved him. And a small part it was. The title of the story is not “French Youths Riot,” it is “De Gaulle Insists on Public Order.” Its topic is a speech De Gaulle delivered on July 13. The speech, not the disorder, is what put the story on the front page of the \emph{New York Times}, and even then perhaps only because Sunday is a slow news day. The street fighting is mentioned, not featured. Of the 19 paragraphs of the story, \emph{one} dealt with the demonstrators, and I have quoted it in full. But maybe I miss the point. The story is not \emph{really} about what it’s really about, it is really about what it \emph{essentially} is about. The story is only fortuitously, advantitiously, contingently, secondarily, serendipitously, and aleatorily about the De Gaulle speech to which its title refers and to which nearly all of its content is devoted. It is essentially about a historic \emph{moment}, in the Hegelian sense, in the revolutionary struggle — a moment to which Murray Bookchin bears proud witness.
One of those “other occasions” on which he discussed his Paris visit is a 1993 interview, “The 1960s,” in the same volume as “Whither Anarchism?” In the course of reviewing the 60s as he remembered them, Bookchin recites, almost word for word, the account of May 1968 in “Whither Anarchism?” But he also tells a new I-was-there story. At the Renault plant, he says, the workers, led by the younger workers, went on strike on their own, forcing the Communist Party and its union (the CGT) to go along: “Faced with a fait accompli, CGT officials essentially tagged along and tried to take over the workers’ grievances in union negotiations with the employers.” The usual story. But then this: “This was the general pattern, when I came to Paris in mid-July. I visited the Renault plant, and saw signs put up by the Communist hacks that read, ‘Beware of provocateurs’ — presumably meaning students — ‘who may try to mislead you,’ or words to that effect. In every possible way they tried to keep the workers who occupied the Renault plant from talking to students.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 94.} After four more paragraphs describing other aspects of the Paris situation as if they were contemporaneous with his visit to Renault, he concludes by saying that “eventually, \emph{after some two months}, the Communists managed to maneuver the workers back to their jobs.”\footnote{Bookchin, \emph{Anarchism, Marxism}, 94–95, 95 (quoted). The ex-Director erroneously assumes that the entire French working class was organized by the CGT. In fact the unionized sector of the workforce is relatively small. In 1968 the CGT was estimated to have 1,200,000 members, the CFDT 450,000, the CGT-FO 450,000, and the CGC (technicians, engineers, etc.), 200,000. Andree Hoyles, \emph{Imagination in Power: The Occupation of Factories in France in 1968} (Nottingham, England: Spokesman Books, 1973), 9. Compare these figures to estimates of at least ten million workers on strike in May. Less than 25\% of the Renault workers belonged to any union. Solidarity, “Paris: May 1968,” in \emph{Beneath the Paving Stones: Situationists and the Beach, May 1968} (Edinburgh, Scotland \& San Francisco, CA: AK Press\Slash{}Dark Star, 2001), 67.}
Without a doubt the Director Emeritus is saying that, \emph{in mid-July}, he saw the Renault plant on strike. But as we have seen, the last strike anywhere ended the day before Bookchin arrived. The Renault plants went on strike, the first on May 15 and the rest on May 16; the police seized Renault-Flins the night of June 5–6; the Renault strikers returned to work after June 17.\footnote{Vienet, \emph{Enrages and Situationists}, 108–109, 111.} Although the ex-Director says so twice, it is not true that the general strike lasted two months. Most strikes lasted from three to five weeks, which is why mid-June is the \emph{terminus ad quem} assigned to the May-June revolt by everyone except the Director Emeritus.\footnote{Hoyles, \emph{Imagination in Power}, 29.} The Situationist Rene Vienet mentions that by the second week of June, “the unions were able to bring about the resumption of work almost everywhere; they had already been thrown some crumbs.”\footnote{Vienet, \emph{Enrages and Situationists}, 111.}
\section{2}
Another American went to Paris that summer, and their disparate experiences say much about them. Fredy Perlman was in Italy when the May revolt began. He did not have the trouble taking a train that Bookchin had taking a plane. In Paris, he plunged into the activity of the Censier worker-student action committee. His first written report of events, dated May 18, recounts how in eleven days (May 2–13) the student strike catalyzed the general strike. On May 17, Sorbonne students undertook a six-mile march to the Renault auto plant, which had gone out two days before. Perlman describes how officials of the Communist-controlled UGT union were “guardedly hostile” to the demonstrators, who were allowed to exhort the workers only from outside the gates.\footnote{R. Gregoire \& F. Perlman, \emph{Worker-Student Action Committees: France May ’68} (Detroit, MI: Black \& Red, 1970), 4–6.}
In a second dispatch dated May 30, when a strike committee at the Citroen auto plant called for a strike of unlimited duration (May 28), “French and foreign workers and intellectuals” formed the Citroen Action Committee. It consisted of whatever workers and students were present at the daily meetings, with no quorum, presided over by whoever felt there were enough people present for a meeting. On May 28 the Action Committee “launched its first project: to contribute to the factory occupation by talking to workers and by giving out leaflets explaining the strike.” That morning they did so. The next morning, however, they found union functionaries reading speeches through loudspeakers who told them to go home. After previously opposing the strike, the union was now taking control over it and redefining its objectives as bread-and-butter issues within the system: “Thus the functionaries strenuously opposed the distribution of the Action Committee’s leaflets, on the ground that their distribution would ‘disrupt the unity of the workers’ and ‘create confusion.’” While this was going on, the plant’s foreign workers remained outside the factory gates, watching.\footnote{Ibid., 12–16, 15 (quoted).} The union had traditionally neglected the foreign workers, and now it was struggling to translate the speech into their languages. At this point, the officials decided there was a use for the visiting militants after all.\footnote{Ibid., 15–16.}
Some of the visiting militants spoke foreign languages; some were foreigners themselves. At the union’s urging, they talked to and leafletted the foreign workers in their own languages, inviting them to join the occupation. And “the functionaries even gave loudspeakers to some of the foreign members of the Action Committee. The result was that, after about two hours of direct communication between the foreign workers and the Action Committee members, most of the foreign workers were inside the factory, participating in its occupation.”\footnote{Ibid., 16.}
What Fredy does not mention is that \emph{he} was one of the foreign militants: “Since many of the assembled workers were non-French, the outside agitators insisted that the appeal should be presented in Spanish and Serbo-Croatian as well. The union officials grudgingly agreed, and gave the microphone to Fredy who was delighted to convey the actual appeal.”\footnote{Lorraine Perlman, \emph{Having Little, Being Much: A Chronicle of Fredy Perlman’s Fifty Years} (Detroit, MI: Black \& Red, 1989), 47. Fredy spoke both Spanish and Serbo-Croatian.} Fredy spoke both Spanish and Serbo-Croatian. Except for his honesty, nothing better distinguishes Fredy from Bookchin than his modesty. The only thing less conceivable than the Director Emeritus putting his ass on the line in a public confrontation would be his refusal to brag about it if he did. Fredy also does not mention that he was later arrested for trespassing at another factory along with other militants who scaled a factory fence in an effort to talk to workers. He talked his way out of it by telling the judge that he was an American professor researching French labor unions. The Director Emeritus thinks he caught a whiff of tear gas on the night of July 13. Fredy got so sick after one demonstration that he was bedridden for two days and unconscious most of the time.\footnote{Ibid., 48.} Fredy, with a congenital heart condition which would ultimately kill him, was 34.
Two Americans in Paris: one a revolutionary, the other a tourist. One was timely, the other untimely. Both went to Paris in 1968 and wrote about what happened there in May. There the similarity ends. Bookchin wrote up the May \emph{journees} in such a way that they seemed to validate his ideology. He made it out to be a trans-class revolt against hierarchy, consumerism and subjective alienation which exposed the reformist, bureaucratic, counter-revolutionary nature of the Marxist parties.\footnote{Bookchin, “The May-June Events in France: 1.”} By placing his essay — out of chronological order — at the end of \emph{Post-Scarcity Anarchism}, the bureaucrat-to-be made it look like a natural succession from the earlier essays, their climax — as if the French were acting out his theories. Except for possibly the ubiquity of the grafitti, there is nothing in the text which requires, or seems to reflect, direct experience. The ex-Director could have written it based on nothing more than daily reading of the \emph{New York Times}. Perhaps he did: that would explain how he finished it so fast.
For Fredy Perlman, May 1968 was a challenge to theory, not a vindication of his own. His account (with co-author Roger Gregoire) was written by, and for, revolutionaries, and it was written for use, “to make transparent, to ourselves and to those who are engaged in the same project, our shortcomings, our lack of foresight, our lack of action,” to contrast “the limited views we had of the events at the time we were engaged in them, with views we have gained from further action in different contexts.”\footnote{Gregoire \& Perlman, \emph{Worker-Student Action Committees}, 1.} The difference in perspective makes for important differences in interpretation. Their experiences with workers in the Action Committee and at the factories made it impossible for Perlman and Gregoire to do anything but place the class struggle at the center of the meaning of events, whereas Bookchin denies it explicitly: “The scope of the strike shows that nearly all strata of French society were profoundly disaffected and that the revolution was anchored \emph{not in a particular class} [which one might that be?] but in everyone who felt dispossessed, denied, and cheated of life.”\footnote{Bookchin, “The May-June Events in France: 1,” 255–256 [emphasis added]. That the scope of the general strike was wider (I am not sure about \emph{much} wider — how much wider can that be?) does not entail that different “strata” share all the same interests and objectives.} But all “strata” were not equally important. Although Barrot and Martin exaggerate, they are much closer to the truth than the Director Emeritus when they say that “students masked the real struggle, which took place elsewhere.”\footnote{Barrot \& Martin, \emph{E |
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\bibitem{Savage_etal2017} Savage, A. C., Arbic, B. K., Richman, J. G., Shriver, J. F., Alford, M. H., Buijsman, M. C., et al. (2017). Frequency content of sea surface height variability from internal gravity waves to mesoscale eddies. \textit{J. Geophys. Res. Oceans}, \textit{122}(3), 2519--2538.
\end{thebibliography}
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http://asme-orc2013.fyper.com/uploads/File/ORC2013_Extended_Abstract_Template_Latex.tex | fyper.com | CC-MAIN-2019-18 | application/x-tex | text/x-matlab | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578675477.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20190424234327-20190425020327-00112.warc.gz | 13,220,643 | 3,946 | %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
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{\fontsize{12}{20}\bf INSTRUCTIONS TO PREPARE THE EXTENDED ABSTRACT FOR THE 2ND ORC CONFERENCE
%
% The title goes here...
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\begin{center}
\textbf{First A. Author$^\ast$, Second B. Author, Third C. Author}\\
\smallskip
{Delft University of Technology}\\[-1.0mm]
Faculty EWI, Mekelweg 4, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands\\[-1.0mm]
e-mail: \underline{[email protected]}\\
web page: \underline{www.orc2013.nl}
\end{center}
\begin{center}
\textbf{EXTENDED ABSTRACT}\\[1mm]
\end{center}
{\bf INTRODUCTION}\\
\\
This paper contains some easy to follow instructions for authors of papers. The maximum size
of this abstract is 4 pages. It contains several chapters about general lay –out, the front page,
making chapters, paragraph’s literature lists and so on.\\
\\
{\bf GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS; BY USING THE FILE MENU}\\
\\
{\bf Software}\\
We assume everyone will use Microsoft Word. For those who ever once edited abstracts
or papers they know how complicated life can become when all authors are using all the
sophisticated facilities the Microsoft Word and other processors provide. Please keep your
document as ‘clean’ as possible.\\
\\
{\bf Saving your document}\\
Please do not use more than 8 characters in the file name. Express your name in the title of the
document.\\
\\
{\bf Paper settings}\\
Start with making page settings in the ‘File menu’ under ‘Page settings’ Just set the paper
format to A4 size. If you like set the left, right and upper and under margin on 2.5 cm. Besides
the title, the text must be fully justified on both left and right side.\\
{\bf Other general instructions}\\
Please write your paper using Times New Roman 12 points font.\\
Do not number your pages.\\
Do not number your chapters or paragraph’s.\\
Do not use any footnotes, endnotes etc.\\
Do not use headers and footers.\\
\\
{\bf INSTRUCTIONS CONCERNING THE FORMAT MENU}\\
\\
{\bf Not using predefined lay out facilities}\\
\\
Please do not use any styles or advanced lay out facilities. We will have to delete all these
settings before we assemble all contributions in the final document.\\
\\
So in the format menu go to ‘Style…’ and delete as much styles as possible. Choose normal
as your default style. Set your font in the bullet bar above to Times New Roman 12 points.\\
\\
Try to prevent the further use of the format menu after you have done this, especially for lay-
outing paragraph’s, figures and so on.\\
\\
Make your live easier by going to the ‘Format’ menu, select ‘Auto Format’ select ‘Options’
and set off all auto-format facilities.\\
\\
All instructions below can be executed by just using ‘Enter’ for hard returns and use the
font buttons in the Format Toolbar above your document. (If you haven’t this toolbar, go to
the ‘View’ menu, select ‘Toolbars’ and set Formatting to on).\\
\\
{\bf MAKING THE FRONT PAGE}\\
\\
We like to have all the front pages exactly similar in their lay-out. The front page contains the
following issues:
\begin{itemize}
{\item Title of the paper}
{\item The author(s)’s names}
{\item Where the author’s are coming from}
{\item Extended abstract}
\end{itemize}
{\em The title}\\
Starts at the first line. Maximum two lines, Font, 12 points, {\bf Bold}. All CAPITALS.\\
\\
{\em The author(s)’s names}\\
Use 12 points fonts, {\bf Bold}. Please give your full name. If you like you can add your titles.\\
\\
{\em Where the author is coming from.}\\
Please use for the institution, or firm’s name where you are coming from. Add your country
in a new sentence. Use the normal font (not bold or italics). Do not provide your full address
details, but limited it to what is specified above.\\
\\
{\em The First Chapter}\\
Start your first chapter following the instructions for making chapters and paragraphs below.\\
\\
{\bf MAKING CHAPTERS AND PARAGRAPHS}\\
\\
Please do not number your chapters and paragraph’s (and pages). Before starting a new
chapter begin with two empty lines. The title of a chapter is preferably not longer than one
line, typed in {\bf Bold} and CAPITALS. Start the text leaving a blank line between title and text.\\
\\
{\bf Paragraph’s}\\
If you use paragraph’s leave a blank line between the text and the title of the paragraph. Type
the paragraph title in a normal bold font as is illustrated above. Immediately start typing the
text at the below line.\\
\\
{\em Sub paragraph’s}\\
Please do not decompose your paper any further than chapters, paragraph’s and sub-
paragraph’s.\\
\\
Start a sub paragraph first with an empty line and begin with the title typed in {\em Italics}. Start
writing on the line immediately below the title.\\
\\
{\bf USING PICTURES, FIGURES, TABLES AND SO ON}\\
\\
Please be careful when adding pictures etc. to the document. Try to limit the size of imported
files preferably by using the graphical editor of Word, or importing file’s which are saved as
low resolution JePegs (.jpg format).\\
\\
Don’t make use of auto-link facilities to for instance Excel when using tables.\\
\\
Please be aware that the proceedings will be printed in Black and White! Keep your pictures
readable.\\
\\
Number your pictures and add a picture title below each picture: Type the full picture title in
italics. Start with Figure and number in {\bf Bold}.\\
\begin{figure}[h!]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{ORCR.jpg}
\caption{This is an example of a picture added to a paper.}
\end{figure}
{\bf USING REFERENCES}
\\
Please follow the regular conventions using references. Check that your references are indeed
specified in the Literature list. Do not use any footnotes etc.\\
\\
{\bf SENDING IN YOUR ABSTRACT}\\
\\
Please upload your abstract as PDF file to the website: www.asme-orc2013.nl
Please note that the submission deadline is set at 7 April 2013.\\
\\
{\bf ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS}\\
\\
A conference only can become a success if there are participants who contribute their
thoughts, knowledge, experiences, time and money.\\
\\
Abstracts of authors who do not register or who will not pay the conference fee will not be
published.\\
\\
We like to express our sincere thanks in advance for your collaboration and your participation
to our conference.\\
\\
{\bf LITERATURE}\\
Please use the regular Harvard format for your literature list. For example:\\
Gray, C. Hughes, W., {\em Building Design Management}, Butterworth – Heinemann, Oxford,
2001.\\
\end{document}
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http://refbase.cvc.uab.es/search.php?sqlQuery=SELECT%20author%2C%20title%2C%20type%2C%20year%2C%20publication%2C%20abbrev_journal%2C%20volume%2C%20issue%2C%20pages%2C%20keywords%2C%20abstract%2C%20thesis%2C%20editor%2C%20publisher%2C%20place%2C%20abbrev_series_title%2C%20series_title%2C%20series_editor%2C%20series_volume%2C%20series_issue%2C%20edition%2C%20language%2C%20author_count%2C%20online_publication%2C%20online_citation%2C%20doi%2C%20serial%20FROM%20refs%20WHERE%20serial%20%3D%202269%20ORDER%20BY%20first_author%2C%20author_count%2C%20author%2C%20year%2C%20title&client=&formType=sqlSearch&submit=Cite&viewType=&showQuery=0&showLinks=1&showRows=15&rowOffset=&wrapResults=1&citeOrder=&citeStyle=APA&exportFormat=RIS&exportType=html&exportStylesheet=&citeType=LaTeX&headerMsg= | uab.es | CC-MAIN-2023-06 | application/x-latex | application/x-latex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764499888.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20230131154832-20230131184832-00707.warc.gz | 38,635,121 | 1,327 | %&LaTeX
\documentclass{article}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage{textcomp}
\begin{document}
\begin{thebibliography}{1}
\bibitem{2269} Jose Manuel Alvarez, Theo Gevers, Ferran Diego, \& Antonio Lopez. (2013). Road Geometry Classification by Adaptative Shape Models. \textit{TITS - IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems}, \textit{14}(1), 459--468.
\end{thebibliography}
\end{document}
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http://porocila.imfm.si/2013/mat/seminarji/kombinatorika.tex | imfm.si | CC-MAIN-2023-14 | text/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296943695.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20230321095704-20230321125704-00515.warc.gz | 36,798,762 | 1,225 | \seminar {Seminar za teorijo grup in kombinatoriko}
Vodje seminarja so Aleksander Malnič, Dragan Marušič in Primož Šparl. V letu 2013 se je seminar redno
sestal 20 krat. Povprečno število udeležencev je bilo 6.
Predavali so:
\begin{seznam}
%\predavanje {AVTORJI} {NASLOV} {DEL} {DATUM} {TRAJANJE}
\predavanje {Primož Šparl} {The classification of symmetric Tabačjn graphs} {} {10.~1.} {}
\predavanje {Aleksander Malnič} {Karakterji in upodobitve grup} {1} {7.~3.} {}
\predavanje {Aleksander Malnič} {Karakterji in upodobitve grup} {2} {14.~3.} {}
\predavanje {Aleksander Malnič} {Karakterji in upodobitve grup} {3} {21.~3.} {}
\predavanje {Aleksander Malnič} {Karakterji in upodobitve grup} {4} {28.~3.} {}
\predavanje {Boštjan Kuzman} {Karakterji in upodobitve grup} {5} {4.~4.} {}
\predavanje {Boštjan Kuzman} {Karakterji in upodobitve grup} {6} {12.~4.} {}
\predavanje {Boštjan Kuzman} {Karakterji in upodobitve grup} {7} {18.~4.} {}
\predavanje {Boštjan Kuzman} {Karakterji in upodobitve grup} {8} {25.~4.} {}
\predavanje {Primož Šparl} {Karakterji in upodobitve grup} {9} {9.~5.} {}
\predavanje {Primož Šparl} {Karakterji in upodobitve grup} {10} {16.~5.} {}
\predavanje {Primož Šparl} {Karakterji in upodobitve grup} {11} {23.~5.} {}
\predavanje {Primož Šparl} {Karakterji in upodobitve grup} {12} {30.~5.} {}
\predavanje {Rok Požar} {Kompleksnost in algoritmični problemi v teoriji krovnih grafov} {} {10.~10.} {}
\predavanje {Iva Antončič} {O povezavni tranzitivnosti štirivalentnih šibkih metacirkulantov Razreda II} {} {17.~10.} {}
\predavanje {Aleksander Malnič} {G-dopustni krovi} {1} {24.~10.} {}
\predavanje {Aleksander Malnič} {G-dopustni krovi} {2} {14.~11.} {}
\predavanje {Aleksander Malnič} {G-dopustni krovi} {3} {28.~11.} {}
\predavanje {Marko Slapar} {Kompleksne točke podmnogoterosti kodimenzije 2} {} {5.~12.} {}
\predavanje {Boštjan Kuzman} {Življenje in delo Paula Erd\"{o}sa} {} {19.~12} {}
\end{seznam}
\vfill |
https://ctan.math.washington.edu/tex-archive/info/examples/Einfuehrung2/05-08-3.ltx | washington.edu | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | text/x-tex | text/x-matlab | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572215.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20220815235954-20220816025954-00364.warc.gz | 205,070,484 | 1,200 | %%
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Dies hier ist ein Blindtext\marginnote{Blindtext} zum Testen von Textausgaben.
Wer diesen Text liest, ist selbst schuld. Der Text gibt lediglich den Grauwert
der Schrift an. Ist das wirklich so?\marginnote{$\Leftarrow$}[-\baselineskip]
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\title{Smart Phone Feature Request: Guest Mode}
\date{September 1, 2017}
\author{CrimethInc.}
\subtitle{A Proposal to Make Smart Phones a Little Smarter and a Lot Safer}
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Your smart phone knows more about you than anything else you own. A person can learn more about you and do more damage to your life by gaining access to your phone than they could by breaking into your home. What if you are forced to unlock your phone and hand it over to someone? We’re proposing that there should be a way to hand it over unlocked but without access to any of your private information and without access to do damage to you.
“Cop Mode” in iOS 11 is a brilliant feature — tap your side button five times and your phone disables Touch ID and requires your passcode to unlock. But as John Gruber and Jason Snell\footnote{\dots{}and many others have before them.} pointed out on The Talk Show, even if you have Touch ID turned off and you can’t be legally coerced to enter your passcode,\footnote{For now, in the U.S.} you can be \emph{physically coerced.} With enough torture, anyone will say or do literally anything to make it stop—see CIA black sites, Abu Ghraib prison, and Guantánamo Bay for proof.
There are many situations in which a person cannot be reasonably expected \emph{not} to give up their passcode: a person entering a country who cannot risk getting turned away\footnote{Political asylums seekers. Refugees fleeing a war zone. Hell, anyone who can’t afford to buy another plane ticket.} and a person being physically coerced,\footnote{Tortured.} to name two.
In those situations, it would be useful if the owner of a phone could give an answer to the person demanding it of them without compromising their own privacy. Let’s call it \emph{Guest Mode}.
\section{How Would It Work?}
Let’s say your normal passcode is \emph{1234}.\footnote{Please don’t use \emph{1234} as a lock screen passcode. For that matter, don’t use a four digit passcode. \emph{0000–9999} is only ten thousand permutations. An attacker could \emph{manually} brute force that and unlock your phone. A six digit is only trivially more to remember, but increases the total permutations to one million! That still won’t protect you from an automated brute force attack, but it will dramatically improve your odds against a simple phone thief.} This feature would let you create a secondary passcode, say \emph{9876}. When that secondary passcode is entered on your lock screen, your phone would behave as though you had entered the correct passcode, but it would launch into \emph{Guest Mode}.
\emph{Guest Mode} would make your phone appear as if it were a brand new phone in the factory default settings—kind of like private browsing \Slash{} incognito mode, but for your entire phone. No third party apps. No web browsing history. No text messaging history. No cloud services signed into (iCloud, Google, etc). No photos or videos in your camera or photos apps. No saved notes. No payments in the App Store or for in-app purchases.
\emph{Guest Mode} could do even more to protect you and your privacy:
\begin{itemize}
\item\relax
Hide incoming network activity—your phone’s captor would not receive phone calls or text messages to your phone number.
\item\relax
Receive and log incoming network activity to your hidden primary mode—your text messages would be waiting for you when you could use your primary passcode again.
\end{itemize}
\section{Why, Though?}
\emph{“I don’t have anything to hide on my phone.”} Yes, you do. We all do. As Moxie said, \textbf{we should all have something to hide.}
Our phones are not only windows into \emph{our lives}, they’re windows into the lives of our friends, family, coworkers\dots{} into the lives of any of our contacts. You may think that you have nothing to hide, but you can’t say that for everyone that your phone can access. Protecting your phone’s data is also about protecting your loved ones.
\section{Guest Mode for \dots{}Guests}
On top of all of the reasons for privacy and security, there’s also the option of actually using Guest Mode for actual guests. You want to hand your phone to your kid. You want to let a lost tourist look up a map address or call a cab. Basically, anytime you want to hand your phone to someone else, but don’t want them to able to see all of your things. \emph{Guest Mode} is perfect for that too.
\hairline
Our smart phones are probably the most intimate object that’s ever been invented. They hold so much of our lives in them. They can do real damage to us if they fall into the wrong hands. A feature like \emph{Guest Mode} would help protect us and those we care about. If you work at a company that makes smart phones or smart phone operating systems, please make this happen. This is an opportunity to use your power and privilege to protect people.
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\begin{center}
The Anarchist Library
\smallskip
Anti-Copyright
\bigskip
\includegraphics[width=0.25\textwidth]{logo-en}
\bigskip
\end{center}
\strut
\vfill
\begin{center}
CrimethInc.
Smart Phone Feature Request: Guest Mode
A Proposal to Make Smart Phones a Little Smarter and a Lot Safer
September 1, 2017
\bigskip
Retrieved on 23\textsuperscript{rd} April 2021 from \href{https://crimethinc.com/2017/09/01/smart-phone-feature-request-guest-mode-a-proposal-for-data-privacy-while-phone-sharing}{crimethinc.com}
\bigskip
\textbf{theanarchistlibrary.org}
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https://dlmf.nist.gov/22.10.E5.tex | nist.gov | CC-MAIN-2018-09 | application/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-09/segments/1518891812306.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20180219012716-20180219032716-00288.warc.gz | 662,358,445 | 735 | \[\operatorname{cn}\left(z,k\right)=\cos z+\frac{k^{2}}{4}(z-\sin z\cos z)\sin z%
+O\left(k^{4}\right),\] |
http://kleine.mat.uniroma3.it/mp_arc/e/98-473.latex | uniroma3.it | CC-MAIN-2019-18 | application/x-latex | application/x-latex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578526807.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20190418201429-20190418223429-00546.warc.gz | 98,436,590 | 20,645 | \documentclass{article}
\usepackage{amssymb}
\title{Decay of correlations for non H\"{o}lderian dynamics. A
coupling approach%
\thanks{Work done within the
Projeto Tem\'atico ``Fen\^omenos Cr\'{\i}ticos em Processos Evolutivos e
Sistemas em Equil\'{\i}brio'', supported by FAPESP (grant 95/0790-1),
and is part of the activities of the N\'ucleo de Excel\^encia
``Fen\^omenos Cr\'{\i}ticos em Probabilidade e Processos
Estoc\'asticos'' (grant 41.96.0923.00)}
}
\author{Xavier Bressaud%
\thanks{Work partially supported by FAPESP (grant 96/04860-7).}
\and
Roberto Fern\'andez%
\thanks{Researcher of the National Research Council
%[Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cient\'{\i}ficas y T\'ecnicas
(CONICET), Argentina.}\ %
\thanks{Work partially supported by CNPq (grant
301625/95-6).}% and FAPESP (grant 95/8896-3).}
\and Antonio Galves%
\thanks{Work partially supported by CNPq (grant 301301/79).}
}
\date{{\large \bf Draft} \\[10pt]
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\begin{document}
\maketitle
\begin{abstract} We present an upper bound on the mixing rate
of the equilibrium state of a dynamical systems defined by the
one-sided shift and a non H\"{o}lder potential of summable
variations. The bound follows from an estimation of the relaxation
speed of chains with complete connections with summable decay, which
is obtained via a explicit coupling between pairs of chains with
different histories.
\end{abstract}
\section{Introduction}
Let $\mu_\phi$ be the equilibrium state associated to the continuous
function $\phi$. In this paper we obtain
upper bounds for the speed of convergence of the limit
\beq
\label{mixing}
\int_X f \circ T^n\, g \,d\mu_\phi \tiende{n\to \infty} \int_X f \,
d\mu_\phi \int_X g \, d\mu_\phi
\eeq
for $\phi$ with summable
variations and $T$ the one-sided shift. We show that this speed is
(at least) summable, polynomial or exponential according to the decay
rate of the variations of $\phi$. The bounds apply for $f \in
L^1(\mu_\phi)$ and $g$ with variations decreasing proportionally to
those of $\phi$.
%To obtain these results, we write the left-hand side of
% (\ref{mixing}) in terms of a chain with complete connections
% [Doeblin and Fortet (1937), Lalley (1986)] and bound the speed
% of relaxation of the chain by coupling trajectories with different
% histories.
%A dynamical system $(X,T,\mu)$ is strongly mixing if the convergence
%occurs for all functions $f$, $g$ in a dense subset of $L^2(\mu)$. The speed
% of this convergence ---called speed of decay of correlations, or
% mixing rate--- is an important element in the description of the
% dynamical system $(X,T,\mu)$. In general, it depends on the
% regularity of the observables $f$ and $g$.
\paragraph{}
%One-sided shifts yield simple models useful to understand a wide
%class of dynamical systems.
%To a continuous function --- called here interaction --- $\phi$,
%one can associate (at least) an
%equilibrium state $\mu_\phi$. The mixing properties of the one-sided shift
%with respect to this measure depend strongly on the regularity properties of
%$\phi$. It was proved by Bowen (1975) that such an equlibrium state is unique
%if $\phi$ has summable decay.
Previous approaches to the study of the mixing properties of the
one-sided shift rely on the use of
the transfer operator $L_\phi$, % associated to the interaction $\phi$
defined by the duality,
\beq
\label{duality}
\int_X f \circ T^n \,g\, d\mu_\phi = \int_X f \,L_\phi^n g\,
d\mu_\phi\;. \eeq
If $\phi$ is H\"{o}lder, this operator, acting on the subspace of
H\"older observables, has a spectral gap and the limit (\ref{mixing})
is attained at exponential speed (Bowen, 1975). When $\phi$ is not
H\"{o}lder, the spectral gap of the transfer operator may vanish and
the spectral study becomes rather complicated. To estimate the mixing
rate, Kondah, Maume and Schmitt (1996) proved first that the operator
is contracting in the Birkhoff projective metric, while Pollicott
(1997), following Liverani (1995), considered the transfer operator
composed with conditional expectations. In contrast, our approach is
based on a probabilistic interpretation of the duality~(\ref{duality})
in terms of expectations, conditioned with respect to the past, of a
chain with complete connections The convergence (\ref{mixing}) is
therefore related to the relaxation properties of this chain. In this
paper, such relaxation is studied via a coupling method.
\paragraph{}
Coupling ideas were first introduced by Doeblin in his 1938 work on
the convergence to equilibrium of Markov chains. He let two
independent trajectories evolve simultaneously, one
starting from the stationary measure and the other from an arbitrary
distribution. The convergence follows from the fact that both
realizations meet at a finite time. Instead of letting the
trajectories evolve independently, one can couple them from the
beginning, reducing the ``meeting time'' and, hence, obtaining a
better rate of convergence (leading to the so-called Dobrushin's
ergodic coefficient). Doeblin published his results in a hardly known
paper in the Revue Math\'ematique de l'Union Interbalkanique. (For a
description of Doeblin's contributions to probability theory we refer
the reader to Lindvall 1991). His ideas were taken up and exploited
only much later in papers by Athreya, Ney, Harris, Spitzer and
Toom among others.
The sharpness of the convergence rates provided by different types of
Markovian couplings has been recently discussed by Burdzy and Kendall
(1998).
\paragraph{}
In the context of dynamical systems, the recent papers by Coelho and
Collet (1995) and Young (1997) consider the time two independent
systems take to become close. This is reminiscent of the original
coupling by Doeblin. In Bressaud, Fern\'andez, Galves (1997), the
coupling approach was generalized to treat chains with complete
connections. These processes, introduced by Doeblin and Fortet (1937)
(see also Lalley, 1986) appear in a natural way in the context of
dynamical systems. They are characterized by having transition
probabilities that depend on the whole past, albeit in a continuous
manner. Due to this fact, the coupling can not ensure that two
different trajectories will remain equal after their first meeting
time. But the coupling used in the present paper, and in our
preceeding one, has the property that if the trajectories meet they
have a large probability of remaining equal, and this probability
increases with the number of consecutive agreements. In the summable
case, the coupling is such that with probability one the trajectories
disagree only a finite number of times. In fact, our approach can
also be applied under an assumption weaker than summability
[\reff{weak.1} below], leading to trajectories that differ infinitely
often but with a probability of disagreement that goes to zero. The
method leads, in particular, to a criterium of uniqueness for
$g$-measures proven by Berbee (1987). The mean time between succesive
disagreements provides a bound on the speed of relaxation of the chain
and hence, through our probabilistic interpretation of
(\ref{duality}), of the mixing rate.
%This coupling yields an estimate of the relaxation speed of the chains with
%complete connections involved in~(\ref{dualityproba}) and, hence, a
%bound on the speed of decay of correlations for the corresponding equlibrium
%state for different types of observables.
%We point out that Ferrari, Maas and Martinez (1998), in their studies
%of regenerative representations of chains with complete connections,
%introduced couplings that share many properties with ours. The
%relations between their coupling and ours deserves further
%investigation.
%We believe that the coupling approach has a promisory potential and
%that our method in particular could be useful in other
%settings as well. On the one hand, the multidimensional version of
%our coupling leads to a criterium of uniqueness of Gibbs states, which
%extends to long-range interactions the criterium based on disagreement
%percolation developed by van den Berg (1992) and van den Berg and Maes
%(1992). On the other hand, we expect our methods to be also
%applicable when the spectral gap of the transfer operator vanishes due
%to lack of hyperbolicity (eg.\ for the so-called intermitent maps).
%Previous studies of this problem have resorted to Birkhoff projective
%metric [Saussol, Vaienti, Liverani (1997)] and to properties of the
%associated zeta-function [Isola (1997)]. Coupling ideas have also
%been recently applied by Young (1997).
\paragraph{}
The paper is organized as follows. The main results and definitions
relevant to dynamical systems are stated in Section~\ref{definitions}.
The relation between chains with complete connections and the transfer
operator is spelled out in Section~\ref{transferoperator}. In
Section~\ref{relaxation}, we state and prove the central result on
relaxation speeds of chains with complete connections.
Theorem~\ref{normalizedth} on mixing rates for normalized functions
is proven in Section~\ref{normalized}, while Theorem~\ref{general} on
rates for the general case is proven in Section~\ref{proof}. The
upper bounds on the decay of correlations depend crucially on
estimations of the probability of return to the origin of an auxiliary
Markov chain, which are presented in Section~\ref{markovchain}.
%The mixing rates therein are determined by the return times of a very
%simple Markov chain [defined in (\ref{rr.1})--(\ref{rr.5}) below].
%Nevertheless, there seems to be no result on these times in the
%literature. We present some estimations in Section~\ref{markovchain}.
\section{Definitions and statement of the results}
\label{definitions}
\paragraph{}
Let $A$ be a finite set henceforth called \emph{alphabet}. Let us
denote
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:40}
\underline{A} \;=\; \bigl\{x = (x_j)_{j\leq-1}\;,\; x\in A\bigr\}
\end{equation}
the set of sequences of elements of the alphabet indexed by the
strictly negative integers. Each sequence $x\in\underline A$ will be
called a {\em history}. Given two histories $x$ and
$y$, the notation $x \stackrel{m}{=}y$ indicates that $x_j = y_j$ for
all $-m \leq j \leq -1$.
As usual, we endow the set $\underline A$
with the product topology and the $\sigma$-algebra generated by the
cylinder sets. We denote
by ${\cal C}^0(\underline{A}, \real)$ the space of real-valued
continuous functions on $\underline{A}$.
\paragraph{}
We consider the one-sided shift $T$ on $\underline{A}$,
$$ \begin{array}{llcl}
T:& \underline{A} & \longrightarrow & \underline{A} \\
& x& \longmapsto & T(x) = (x_{i-1})_{i\leq -1}.
\end{array}
$$
Given an element $a$ in $A$ and an element $x$ in $\underline{A}$,
we shall denote by $xa$ the
element $z$ in $\underline{A}$ such that $z_{-1} = a$ and
$T(z) = x$.
\subparagraph{}
Given a function $\phi$ on $\underline{A}$,
$ \phi: \underline{A} \to \real$,
we define its %{\em regularity rate} to be the
sequence of \emph{variations} $(\var_{m}(\phi))_{m \in \nat}$,
\beq
\label{defgamma}
\var_{m}(\phi) = \sup_{x \stackrel{m}{=}y}|\phi(x) - \phi(y)| \;.
\eeq
%
%Such a function $\phi$ can be interpreted as an energy density; we
%shall call it an {\em interaction}
We shall say that it has {\em summable variations} if,
\begin{equation}
\label{rr.10}
\sum_{m\geq 1} \var_m(\phi) < + \infty\;,
\end{equation}
and that it is {\em normalized} if it satisfies,
\begin{equation}
\label{rr.15}
\forall x \in \underline{A}\;, \;\;\; \sum_{a \in A} e^{\phi(xa)} =
1\;.
\end{equation}
We say that a shift-invariant measure $\mu$ on $\underline{A}$
is {\em compatible with the normalized function $\phi$} if
and only if, for $\mu_\phi$-almost-all $x$ in $\underline{A}$,
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:50}
\esp_{\mu_\phi}\bigl( 1_{\{x_{-1}=a\}}|{\cal F}_{\le -2}\bigr)(x)
\; =\; e^{\phi(T(x)a)}\;,
\end{equation}
where the left-hand side is the usual conditional expectation of the
the indicator function of the event $\{x_{-1}=a\}$ with respect to the
$\sigma$-algebra of the past up to time $-2$.
An equivalent way of expressing this is by saying that $\mu_\phi$ is a
$g$-measure for $g = e^\phi$. If $\phi$ has summable variations, and
even under a slightly weaker conditions, then such a measure is unique
and will be denoted $\mu_\phi$. The measure $\mu_\phi$ can also be
characterized via a variational principle, in which context it is
called \emph{equilibrium state} for $\phi$. For details see
Ledrappier (1974), Walters (1975), Quas (1996) and Berbee (1987).
\paragraph{}
For a non-constant $\phi$, we consider the seminorm
\begin{equation}
||g||_{\phi} \;=\; \sup_{k \geq 0}
\frac{ \var_k(g)}{\var_k(\phi)}
\end{equation}
and the subspace of ${\cal C}^0(\underline{A})$ defined by,
\begin{equation}
\label{rr.20}
V_{\phi} \;=\; \biggl\{ g \in {\cal C}^0(\underline{A}, \real)\,, \;
||g||_\phi < + \infty \biggr\} \;.
\end{equation}
\paragraph{}
Given a real-valued sequence $(\gamma_{n})_{n \in \nat}$, let
$(S^{(\gamma)}_{n})_{n \in \nat}$ be the Markov chain taking values
in the set $\nat$ of natural numbers starting from the origin
\begin{equation}
\pro(S^{(\gamma)}_0 =0)\;=\;1
\label{rr.5.-1}
\end{equation}
whose transition probabilities are defined by
\begin{equation}
\label{rr.5}
\begin{array}{rcl}
p_{i,i+1} &=& 1- \gamma_i \\
p_{i,0} &=& \gamma_i \;,
\end{array}
\end{equation}
for all $i\in\nat$.
For any $n\ge 1$ we define %the sequence $(\gamma^*_{n})_{n \in \nat}$ by
\begin{equation}
\gamma^*_n = \pro(S^{(\gamma)}_n = 0)\;.
\label{rr.1}
\end{equation}
\paragraph{}
We now state our first result.
\begin{theorem}
\label{normalizedth}
Let $\phi: \underline{A} \to \real$ be a normalized function with summable
variations and set
\begin{equation}
\label{rr.30}
\gamma_n \;=\; 1 - e^{-\var_n(\phi)} \;.
\end{equation}
Then,
\begin{eqnarray}
\label{rr.35}
\left| \int f \circ T^n \,g\, d\mu_\phi - \int f\,
d\mu_\phi \int g \, d\mu_\phi \right|
&\leq& \, ||f||_1\, ||g||_{\phi} \, \sum_{k=0}^n \var_k(\phi)\,
\gamma^*_{n-k} \label{eq:x}\\[5pt]
&\leq& C \, ||f||_1\, ||g||_{\phi} \, \gamma^*_{n}\;,
\label{eq:xx}
\end{eqnarray}
for all $f \in L^1(\mu_\phi)$ and $g \in V_{\phi}$, for a computable
constant $C$.
\end{theorem}
This theorem is proven in Section \ref{normalized}, using the results
obtained in Section \ref{relaxation} on the relaxation speed of chains
with complete connections.
\paragraph{}
For each non-normalized function $\phi$ with summable variations there
exists a unique positive function $\rho$ such that the function
\begin{equation}
\label{rr.25}
\psi = \phi + \log{\rho} - \log{\rho \circ T}
\end{equation}
is normalized (Walters, 1975). We call $\psi$ the {\em normalization}
of $\phi$. The construction of compatible measures given in
\reff{eq:50} looses its meaning for non-normalized $\phi$. It is
necessary to resort to an alternative characterization in terms of a
variational principle (see eg.\ Bowen 1975) leading to equilibrium
states. In Walters (1975) it is proven that:
\begin{itemize}
\item[(a)] $\phi$ with
summable variations admits a unique equilibrium state, that we denote
also $\mu_\phi$;
\item[(b)] the corresponding normalized $\psi$, given by
\reff{rr.25}, admits a unique compatible measure $\mu_\psi$ (even when
the variations of $\psi$ may not be summable), and
\item[(c)] $\mu_\phi=\mu_\psi$.
\end{itemize}
\paragraph{}
Our second theorem generalizes Theorem~\ref{normalizedth} to
non-normalized functions.
\begin{theorem}
\label{general}
Let $\phi: \underline{A} \to \real$ be a function with summable
variations and let $\psi$ be its normalization. Let $(n_m)_{m \in \nat}$
be an increasing subadditive sequence such that the subsequence of the
rests, $\bigl(\sum_{k \geq n_{m}} \var_k(\phi)\bigr)_{m \geq 0}$, is
summable, and
\begin{equation}
\label{rr.40}
\overline{\gamma}_m = 1 - e^{- 3 \sum_{k \geq n_{m}} \var_k(\phi)}\;;
\end{equation}
then,
\begin{eqnarray}
\label{rr.45}
\left| \int f \circ T^n \,g\, d\mu_\phi - \int f\,
d\mu_\phi \int g\, d\mu_\phi \right| &\le&
||f||_1\, ||g||_{\phi} \, \sum_{k=0}^n \var_{n_k} (\phi)\,
\overline\gamma^*_{n-k} \\[5pt]
&\leq & C \, ||f||_1\, ||g||_{\phi} \, \overline{\gamma}^*_{n} \;,
\end{eqnarray}
for all $f \in L^1(\mu_\phi)$ and $g \in V_{\phi}$, for a computable
constant $C$. Here
$\overline\gamma^*$ is defined as in \reff{rr.1} but using the
sequence $(\overline\gamma^*_{n})_{n \in \nat}$.
\end{theorem}
\paragraph{}
The estimation of the large-$n$ behavior of the
sequence $(\gamma^*_{n})_{n \in \nat}$ given the behavior of the
original $(\gamma_{n})_{n \in \nat}$ only requires elementary
computations. For the convenience of the reader we summarize some
results in Appendix~\ref{markovchain}.
%\paragraph{}
%It appears from Theorem~\ref{normalizedth} that
%\begin{cor}
%If $(\var_n(\phi))_{n \in \nat}$ has polynomial decay, then so does
%$(\gamma^*_{n})_{n \in \nat}$. More precisely, in this case, there is a
%constant $C^*$ such that $\gamma^*_{n} \leq C^* \sum_{k \geq n} \var_k(\phi)$.
%In particular, if there is a $r>1$ and a
%constant $C$ such that $\var_n(\phi) \leq C \frac{1}{n^r}$, then there is a
%constant $C^*$ such that $\gamma^*_{n} \leq C^* \frac{1}{n^{r-1}}$.
%If $(\var_n(\phi))_{n \in \nat}$ decay exponentially, then so does
%$(\gamma^*_{n})_{n \in \nat}$ althought at a possibly weaker rate of decay.
%\end{prop}
%\paragraph{Comparison with previous results.}
\section{Transfer operators and chains.}
\label{transferoperator}
\paragraph{}
Let $P$ be a family of transition probabilities on $A
\times \underline{A}$,
\begin{equation}
\begin{array}{llcl}
\trans:& A \times \underline{A} & \longrightarrow & [0;1] \\
& (a,z)& \longmapsto & \trans(a\,|\,z)\;.
\end{array}
\label{eq:-1}
\end{equation}
Given a history $x$, a \emph{chain with past $x$ and transitions
$\trans$}, is the process $(Z^{x}_{n})_{n \in{\bf Z}}$ whose conditional
probabilities satisfy
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:10}
\pro(Z^{x}_{n}= a \,|\,
Z^{x}_{n+j} = z_j, j\leq -1) \;=\; \trans(a \,|\,z)
\hbox{ for } n\geq 0 \;,
\end{equation}
for all $a \in A$ and all histories $z$ with $z_{j-n}
= x_j, j\leq -1$, and such that
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:mais}
Z^{x}_{n}=x_n \;,\; \hbox{ for } n\leq -1\;.
\end{equation}
This chain can be interpreted as a conditioned version of the process
defined by the transition probabilities \reff{eq:-1}, given a past $x$
(for more details, see Quas 1996).
\paragraph{}
Let $\phi: \underline{A} \to \real$ be a continuous normalized
function. The transfer operator associated to $\phi$ is the
operator $L_\phi$ acting on ${\cal C}^0(\underline{A}, \real)$ defined
by,
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:100}
L_\phi f (x) = \sum_{y\, :\, T(y) =
x} e^{\phi(y)} f(y)\;.
\end{equation}
This operator is related to the conditional probability \reff{eq:50}
in the form
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:105}
\esp_{\mu_\phi}\bigl( f \,|\,{\cal F}_{\le -2}\bigr) \;=\;
\bigl(L_\phi f\bigr) \circ T\;.
\end{equation}
This relation shows the equivalence of \reff{duality} and
\reff{eq:100} as definitions of the operator.
In addition, if $\phi$ is normalized we can construct, for each
history $x \in \underline{A}$, the chain
$Z^{x}_{\phi}=(Z^{x}_{n})_{n \in{\bf Z}}$ with past $x$ and transition
probabilities
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:20}
\trans(a\, |\, x ) = e^{\phi(xa)}\;.
\end{equation}
\paragraph{}
Iterates of the transfer operator, $L^n_\phi g (x)$, on functions
$g \in {\cal C}^0(\underline{A})$ can be interpreted
as expectations $\esp[g((Z^{x}_{n+j})_{j \leq -1})]$ of the chain.
Indeed,
\bqy
L^n_\phi g (x) &=& \sum_{a_1, \ldots, a_n \in A}e^{\sum_{k = 1}^n
\phi(x a_1 \cdots a_k )} g(x a_1 \cdots a_n)
\nonumber \\
&=& \sum_{a_1, \ldots, a_n \in A} \left( \prod_{k=1}^n
\trans(a_k\,|\,a_{k-1}
\cdots a_1 x) \right) g(x a_1 \cdots a_n) \nonumber \\
&=& \esp[ g((Z^{x}_{n+j})_{j \leq -1})]\;. \nonumber
\eqy
\paragraph{}
>From this expression and the classical duality~(\ref{duality}) between
the composition by the shift and the transfer operator $L_\phi$ in
$L^2(\mu_\phi)$, we obtain the following expression for the decay of
correlations,
\begin{eqnarray}
\lefteqn{ \int f \circ T^n \,g\, d\mu_\phi - \int f\, d\mu_\phi
\int g\, d\mu_\phi }\nonumber\\
&= & \int f(x)\, L_{\phi}^n g(x)\,
d\mu_\phi(x) - \int f(x) \left( \int L_{\phi}^n g(y) \,d\mu_\phi(y)
\right) d\mu_\phi(x) \nonumber \\
& =& \int f(x) \int \Bigl(
\esp[g((Z^{x}_{n+j})_{j \leq -1})] - \esp[g((Z^{y}_{n+j})_{j \leq
-1})]\Bigr)\, d\mu_\phi(y)\, d\mu_\phi(x) \;.
\label{interpretation}
\end{eqnarray}
This inequality shows how the speed of decay of correlations can be
bounded by the speed with which the chain loosses its memory. We deal
with the later problem in the next section.
\section{Relaxation speed for chains with complete connections}
\label{relaxation}
\subsection{Definitions and main result}
\paragraph{}
We consider chains whose transition probabilities satisfy
\beq
\label{p.3}
\inf_{ x , y : x \stackrel{m}{=}y }
{\trans(a \,|\, x) \over \trans(a \,|\, y)} \geq \; 1 - \gamma_m \;,
\eeq
%\paragraph{}
for some real-valued sequence $(\gamma_m)_{m \in \nat}$,
decreasing to $0$ as $m$ tends to $+ \infty$. Without loss of
generality, this decrease can be assumed to be monotonic. To avoid
trivialities we assume $\gamma_0<1$. In the literature, a
\emph{stationary} process satisfying \reff{p.3} is called a
\emph{chain with complete connections}.
\paragraph{}
\paragraph{}
For a set of transition probabilities satisfying \reff{p.3}, we
consider, for each $x\in\underline A$, the chain
$(Z^{x}_n)_{n\in\rel}$ with past $x$ and transitions $\trans$ [see
\reff{eq:10}--\reff{eq:mais}]. The following proposition
plays a central role in the proof of our results.
\begin{prop}
\label{existcoupling}
For all histories
$x,y \in \underline{A}$, there is a coupling
$\bigl((\widetilde{U}^{x,y}_n,\widetilde{V}^{x,y}_n)\bigr)_{n\in\rel}$
of $(Z^{x}_n)_{n\in\rel}$ and $(Z^{y}_n)_{n\in\rel}$ such that the
integer-valued process $(T^{x,y}_n)_{n\in {\bf Z}}$ defined by
\beq
\label{defcompteur}
T^{x,y}_n \;=\; \inf \{ m \geq 0 \, : \, \widetilde{U}^{x,y}_{n-m} \neq
\widetilde{V}^{x,y}_{n-m} \},
\eeq
satisfies
\beq
\label{compteur}
\pro(T^{x,y}_n = 0) \;\leq \; \gamma^*_n
\eeq
for $n\ge 0$, where $\gamma^*_n$ was defined in \reff{rr.1}.
\end{prop}
The proof of this proposition is given in Section \ref{sepro}.
\paragraph{}
An immediate consequence of this proposition is the following bound on
the relaxation rate of the processes $Z^{x}$.
\begin{cor}%[Relaxation speed]
\label{relaxccc}
For all histories $x$ and $y$, for all $a \in A$,
\begin{equation}
\label{le.10}
\Bigl| \pro(Z^{x}_{n}= a) - \pro(Z^{y}_{n} = a) \Bigr| \;\leq\;
\gamma^*_n\;,
\end{equation}
and, for $k\geq 1$,
\begin{eqnarray}
\lefteqn{\hspace{-3cm}\left| \pro\Bigl((Z^{x}_{n}, \ldots, Z^{x}_{n+k})= (a_0,
\ldots, a_k) \Bigr) - \pro\Bigl((Z^{y}_{n}, \ldots, Z^{y}_{n+k})= (a_0,
\ldots, a_k) \Bigr) \right|} \nonumber\\
&& \qquad\qquad \le \quad\sum_{j=0}^{k} \left(\prod_{m=1}^{j-1}(1- \gamma_{m})
\right) \gamma^*_{n-j}\;.
\label{le.7}
\end{eqnarray}
\end{cor}
This lemma is proved in Section~\ref{proofcor}.
\begin{rem}
\label{unicitelarge}
Whenever
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:pp}
\gamma^*_n\to 0 \;,
\end{equation}
inequality \reff{le.10} implies the
existence and uniqueness of the invariant
measure compatible with a system of conditional probabilities
satisfying \reff{p.3}. In fact, property \reff{eq:pp} holds under
the condition
\begin{equation}
\label{weak.1}
\sum_{m\geq 1} \prod_{k=0}^{m}(1 - \gamma_k) \;=\; + \infty \;. ,
\end{equation}
which is weaker than summability.
In this case, the Markov chain $(S^{(\gamma)}_n)_{n \in \nat}$ is no
longer transient but it is null recurrent and the property
$\pro(S^{(\gamma)}_n =0) \to 0$ remains true. %Our argument to
%estimate the speed, however, must be adapted.
\end{rem}
\begin{rem}
If $X = (X_n)_{n\in {\bf Z}}$ is a stationary process with
transition $\trans$ satisfying \reff{p.3}, then
Corollary~\ref{relaxccc} implies
\begin{equation}
\Bigl| \pro(Z^{x}_{n}= a) - \pro(X_{n} = a) \Bigr| \;\leq\;
\gamma^*_n\;,
\label{le.12}
\end{equation}
uniformly in the history $x$.
\end{rem}
\subsection{Maximal coupling}
Given two probability distributions $\mu = (\mu(a))_{a \in A}$ and
$\nu = (\nu(a))_{a \in A}$ we denote by $\mu \tilde{\times} \nu = (\mu
\tilde{\times} \nu (a,b))_{(a,b) \in A \times A}$ the so-called {\em
maximal coupling} of the distributions $\mu$ and $\nu$ defined
as follows:
\begin{equation}
\left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\mu \tilde{\times} \nu (a,a) = \mu(a) \wedge \nu(a) & \hbox{ if } a
= b \\[15pt]
\displaystyle \mu \tilde{\times} \nu (a,b) = \frac{(\mu(a) -\nu(a))^+
(\nu(b) -\mu(b))^+}{\sum_{e \in A}(\mu(e) -\nu(e))^+}
& \hbox{ if } a
\neq b \;.
\end{array}
\right.
\end{equation}
For more details on maximal couplings see Appendix A.1 in
Barbour, Holst and Janson (1992).
\paragraph{}
The coupling is maximal in the sense that the distribution $\mu
\tilde{\times} \nu $ on $A \times A$ maximizes the weight
$$\Delta(\zeta) = \sum_{a \in A} \zeta(a,a)$$
of the diagonal among the distributions $\zeta$ on $A
\times A$ satisfying simultaneously
$$\sum_{a \in A} \zeta (a,b) = \nu(b) \;\;\; \hbox{ and }\;\;\; \sum_{b \in A}
\zeta(a,b) = \mu(a)\;.$$
For this coupling, the weight $\Delta(\mu \tilde{\times} \nu)$ of the diagonal satisfies,
\beq
\label{coupling}
\Delta(\mu \tilde{\times} \nu) = \sum_{a \in A} \mu(a) \wedge
\nu(a) = 1 - \sum_{a \in A} (\mu(a) - \nu(a))^+ = 1 - \frac{1}{2} \sum_{a
\in A} |\mu(a) - \nu(a)|.
\eeq
Moreover,
\beq
\label{coupling2}
\Delta(\mu \tilde{\times} \nu) = 1 - \sum_{a \in A} \mu(a)\left(1 -
\frac{\nu(a)}{\mu(a)}\right)^+ \geq 1 - \sum_{a \in A} \mu(a)\left(1 -
\inf_{a' \in A}\frac{\nu(a')}{\mu(a')}\right) = \inf_{a \in
A}\frac{\nu(a)}{\mu(a)}. \eeq
%and
%\beq
%\label{coupling3}
%\Delta(\mu \tilde{\times} \nu) = \sum_{a \in A} \mu(a) \wedge
%\nu(a) \geq \inf_{a \in A} \min (\mu(a) ; \nu(a)).
%\eeq
\subsection{Coupling of chains with different pasts}
\paragraph{}
Given a double history $(x, y)$, we consider the transition
probabilities defined by the maximal coupling
\begin{equation}
\transt((a,b) \, | \, x,y) = \left[\trans(\cdot \,|\,
x) \tilde{\times} \trans(\cdot \,|\, y)\right] (a,b)\;.
\label{ant.1}
\end{equation}
%and let $m_0$ denote the first integer for which $\gamma_{n} \leq
%\gamma_{0}$.
By \reff{p.3} we have,
$$ \inf_{a \in A, u \stackrel{m}{=}
v } \frac{\trans(a\,|\,u)}{\trans(a\,|\,v)} \;\geq\;
1 - \gamma_m. $$
% \;\;\; \hbox{ and } \;\;\; \inf_{a \in A, x \in \underline{A}} \trans(a|x)
%\geq 1 - \gamma_0$$
By (\ref{coupling2}) this implies that
\begin{equation}
\label{diagonale}
\Delta\left(\transt(\,\cdot\,,\,\cdot \, | \, x,y) \right)\; \geq \; 1
- \gamma_m\;,
\end{equation}
whenever $ x \stackrel{m}{=} y$.
\paragraph{}
Now, we fix a double history $(x, y)$ and we define
$\bigl((\widetilde{U}^{x, y}_n, \widetilde{V}^{x,
y}_n)\bigr)_{n\in\rel}$ to be the chain taking values in $A^2$, with
past $(x, y)$ and transition probabilities given by \reff{ant.1}. If $
x \stackrel{m}{=} y$, (\ref{diagonale}) yields
\begin{equation}
\label{alpha}
\pro( \widetilde{U}^{x,y}_0 \neq \widetilde{V}^{x,y}_0) \;\leq\;
\gamma_{m} .
\end{equation}
\paragraph{}
We denote
\begin{equation}
\Delta_{m,n} \;:=\;
% \{ \widetilde{U}_j = \widetilde{V}_j \} \;=\;
\Bigl\{ \widetilde{U}_j = \widetilde{V}_j \, ,\, m \leq j \leq n
\Bigr\}\;.
\label{le.15}
\end{equation}
Notice that $\Delta_{-m,-1}$ is the reunion over all the sequences $x,
y$ with $ x \stackrel{m}{=} y$ of the events $\{ (\widetilde{U}_j
,\widetilde{V}_j) = (x_j,y_j) \,;\, j\leq -1 \}$. Using the
stationarity of the conditional probabilities, we obtain
\begin{equation}
\label{beta}
\pro( \widetilde{U}_n \neq \widetilde{V}_n \, |\, \Delta_{n-m,n-1})
\;\leq\; \gamma_{m} \;,
\end{equation}
for all $n\ge 0$.
\subsection{Proof of Proposition~\protect{\ref{existcoupling}}}
\label{sepro}
>From this subsection on, will be working with bounds which are uniform
in $x,y$, hence we will omit, with a few exceptions, the superscript
$x,y$ in the processes $T^{x,y}_n$ (defined below), $\widetilde
U^{x,y}_n$ and $\widetilde V^{x,y}_n$.
Let us consider the integer-valued
process $(T_n)_{n\in {\bf Z}}$ defined by:
\begin{equation}
T_n \;=\; \inf \{ m \geq 0 \, : \, \widetilde{U}_{n-m} \neq
\widetilde{V}_{n-m} \}\;.
\label{le.19}
\end{equation}
For each time $n$, the random variable $T_n$ counts the number of
steps backwards needed to find a difference in the coupling.
First, notice that (\ref{beta}) implies that,
\begin{equation}
\pro(T_{n+1}=k+1 \,|\, T_{n} = k) \;\geq\; 1-\gamma_{k}
\label{le.20}
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
\pro(T_{n+1}= 0 \,|\, T_{n} = k) \;\leq\; \gamma_{k}\;,
\label{le.25}
\end{equation}
all the other transition probabilities being zero.
This process $(T_n)_{n\in {\bf Z}}$ is not a Markov chain.
\paragraph{}
We now consider the integer-valued Markov chain $(S^{(\gamma)}_n)_{n
\geq 0}$ starting from state $0$ and with transition probabilities
given by \reff{rr.5}, that is $p_{i,i+1} = 1- \gamma_i$ and $p_{i,0} =
\gamma_i$. Proposition~\ref{existcoupling} follows from the following
lemma, setting $k=1$.
\begin{lem}
\label{dominlem}
For each $k \in {\bf N}$, the following inequality holds:
\beq
\label{domin}
\pro(S^{(\gamma)}_n \geq k) \;\leq\;
\pro(T_n \geq k)
\eeq
\end{lem}
\paragraph{Proof}
We shall proceed by induction on $n$. Since $\pro(S^{(\gamma)}_0
=0)=1$, inequalities \reff{domin} holds for $n=0$. Assume now that
\reff{domin} holds for some integer $n$. There is nothing to prove
for $k=0$.. For $k \geq 1$,
\bqy
\pro(T_{n+1} \geq k)& = &
\sum_{m=k}^{+\infty} \pro(T_{n+1} = m )\nonumber \\
%& = &
%\sum_{m=k}^{+\infty} \pro(T_{n+1} = m, T_{n} = m-1 )\nonumber \\
& = &
\sum_{m=k}^{+\infty} \pro(T_{n+1} = m \,|\, T_{n} = m-1 )
\,\pro(T_{n} = m-1 ) \nonumber \\
&\geq &
\sum_{m=k}^{+\infty} (1-\gamma_{m-1})\, \pro(T_{n} = m-1 ) \nonumber \\
&= &
\sum_{m=k}^{+\infty} (1-\gamma_{m-1}) \,\Bigl( \pro(T_{n} \geq m-1
)-\pro(T_{n} \geq m )\Bigr) \nonumber \\
&= & (1-\gamma_{k-1})\, \pro(T_{n} \geq k-1 ) +
\sum_{m=k}^{+\infty} (\gamma_{m-1} - \gamma_{m})
\,\pro(T_{n} \geq m ) \;.
\eqy
By the same computation, we see that
\beq
\label{recurmarkovchain}
\pro(S^{(\gamma)}_{n+1} \geq k) \;= \;
(1-\gamma_{k-1}) \,\pro(S^{(\gamma)}_{n} \geq k-1 ) +
\sum_{m=k}^{+\infty} (\gamma_{m-1} - \gamma_{m})
\,\pro(S^{(\gamma)}_{n} \geq m ) \;.
\eeq
Hence, using the recurrence assumption and the fact that
$(\gamma_{n})_{n\geq 0}$ is decreasing we conclude that
$$\pro(T_{n+1} \geq k) \;\geq\; \pro(S^{(\gamma)}_{n+1} \geq k)\;,
$$
for all $k \geq 1$.~$\square$
\subsection{Proof of Corollary~\protect{\ref{relaxccc}}}
\label{proofcor}
\paragraph{}
To prove \reff{le.10}, first notice that by construction
the process $(\widetilde U_n)_{n\in\rel}$ has the same law as
$(Z^{x}_n)_{n\in\rel}$ and $(\widetilde V_n)_{n\in\rel}$ has the
same law as $(Z^{y}_n)_{n\in\rel}$. Thus,
\begin{equation}
\Bigl| \pro(Z^{x}_{n}= a) - \pro(Z^{y}_{n}= a) \Bigr|
\;= \; \left| \pro(\widetilde{U}_n= a) - \pro(\widetilde{V}_n= a)
\right|
% \nonumber \\
%& = & \left| {\bf E}_{\pro}\left[1_{a}(\widetilde{U}_n) -
% 1_{a}(\widetilde{V}_n)\right] \right| \nonumber \\
%& \leq & {\bf E}_{\pro}\left[1_{ \{ \widetilde{U}_n \neq
%\widetilde{V}_n \}} \ \right] \nonumber \\
\; \leq \; \pro(\widetilde{U}_n \neq \widetilde{V}_n))
\label{premiere}
\end{equation}
Hence, by definition of the process $T_n$ and Lemma \ref{dominlem},
\begin{equation}
\Bigl| \pro(Z^{x}_{n}= a) - \pro(Z^{y}_{n}= a) \Bigr|
\;\leq\; % \pro(\widetilde{U}_n \neq \widetilde{V}_n)) =
\pro(T_{n} = 0) \leq \pro(S^{(\gamma)}_n = 0)\;.
\label{le.30}
\end{equation}
\paragraph{}
The proof of \reff{le.7} starts similarly:
\bqy \
\lefteqn{\hspace{-3cm}\Bigl|
\pro\Bigl((Z^{x}_{n}, \ldots, Z^{x}_{n+k})= (a_0, \ldots, a_k)\Bigr) -
\pro\Bigl((Z^{y}_{n}, \ldots, Z^{y}_{n+k})= (a_0,
\ldots, a_k) \Bigr) \Bigr| } \nonumber \\
%&= & \left| \pro\Bigl((\widetilde{U}_{n}, \ldots,
% \widetilde{U}_{n+k})= (a_0, \ldots, a_k) \Bigr) -
% \pro\Bigl((\widetilde{V}_{n}, \ldots, \widetilde{V}_{n+k})= (a_0,
% \ldots, a_k) \Bigr)\right| \nonumber \\
%& = & \left| {\bf E}_{\pro}\left[1_{(a_0,
% \ldots, a_k)}(\widetilde{U}_{n}, \ldots, \widetilde{U}_{n+k}) -1_{(a_0,
% \ldots, a_k)}(\widetilde{V}_{n}, \ldots, \widetilde{V}_{n+k})\right] \right|
%\nonumber \\
%& \leq & \pro(\Delta^{c}_{n,n+k}) \nonumber \\
%& \leq & \pro(T_{n+k} \leq k+1) \nonumber \\
& \leq & \pro(S^{(\gamma)}_{n+k} \leq k+1) . \nonumber
\eqy
%The last inequality is due to Lemma \ref{dominlem}.
To conclude, we notice that,
\begin{equation}
\pro(S^{(\gamma)}_{n} \leq k) \;=\; \sum_{j=0}^{k} \pro(S^{(\gamma)}_{n} = j)
\;=\; \sum_{j=0}^{k} \left(\prod_{m=1}^{j-1}(1- \gamma_m) \right)
\pro(S^{(\gamma)}_{n-j} = 0) \;. \; \square
\label{le.33}
\end{equation}
\section{Proof of Theorem~\ref{normalizedth}}% (normalized function)}
\label{normalized}
\paragraph{}
The proof of Theorem~\ref{normalizedth} is based on the inequality
\begin{equation}
\left| \int f \circ T^n g d\mu - \int f d\mu \int g d\mu \right|
%&= & \left| \int f(x) \int \left( \esp[g((Z^{x}_{n+j})_{j\leq-1})] -
%\esp[g((Z^{y}_{n+j})_{j\leq-1})]
% \right) d\mu(y) d\mu(x) \right| \nonumber \\
%&\leq & \sup_{x,y}{\left|\esp[g((Z^{x}_{n+j})_{j\leq-1})] -
%\esp[g((Z^{y}_{n+j})_{j\leq-1})]\right|}
%||f||_1 \nonumber \\
%&\leq & \sup_{x,y}{\left|\esp[g((\tilde{U}_{n+j})_{j\leq-1})] -
%\esp[g((\tilde{V}_{n+j})_{j\leq-1})]\right|}
%||f||_1 \nonumber \\
\;\leq \; ||f||_1
\,\sup_{x,y}{\esp\left[\left|g((\tilde{U}^{x,y}_{n+j})_{j\leq-1}) -
g((\tilde{V}^{x,y}_{n+j})_{j\leq-1})\right|\right]} \;,
\label{eq:105.1}
\end{equation}
which follows from \reff{interpretation} and the fact that
$\bigl((\widetilde{U}^{x, y}, \widetilde{V}^{x, y})\bigr)_{n\in\rel}$
is a coupling between the chains with pasts $x$ and $y$, respectively.
An upper bound to the right-hand side is provided by
Proposition~\ref{existcoupling}. We see that the transition
probabilities \reff{eq:20} satisfy condition \reff{p.3}, since
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:100.1}
\frac{\trans(a \,|\, x )}{\trans(a \,|\, y )}
\;=\; e^{\phi(ax) - \phi( ay)}
\;\geq\; e^{- \var_{m+1}(\phi)}
\end{equation}
whenever $x,y \in\underline{A}$ are such that
$x \stackrel{m}{=}y$ for some $m \in \nat$.
We can therefore apply Proposition~\ref{existcoupling} with
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:101}
\gamma_m \;=\; 1 - e^{-\var_{m+1}(\phi)}\;,
\end{equation}
which tends monotonically to zero if $\sum_{m\geq 1} \var_m(\phi) < +
\infty$.
\paragraph{}
To prove \reff{eq:x} we use the process $(T^{x,y}_n)_{n\in {\bf Z}}$ to
obtain the upper bound
\begin{eqnarray}
\esp\left[\left|g((\widetilde{U}^{x,y}_{n+j})_{j\leq-1}) -
g((\widetilde{V}^{x,y}_{n+j})_{j\leq-1})\right|\right]
& = & \esp\left[\sum_{k=0}^{+\infty}
1_{ \{ T^{x,y}_{n}= k \} } \left|g((\tilde{U}_{n+j})_{j\leq-1}) -
g((\tilde{V}_{n+j})_{j\leq-1})\right|\right] \nonumber \\
&\leq & \sum_{k=0}^{+\infty}\, %\sup_{\scriptstyle z
%\stackrel{\scriptstyle k}{=} t}{|g(z)-g(t)|}\,
\var_k(g)\,\pro(T^{x,y}_{n}= k) \nonumber \\
%&\leq & \sum_{k=0}^{+\infty}\, \var_k(g)\,
%\pro(T^{x,y}_{n}= k) \nonumber \\
&\leq & ||g||_{\phi}\,\sum_{k=0}^{+\infty}\, \var_k(\phi)\,
\pro(T^{x,y}_{n}= k)\;.
\label{eq:110}
\end{eqnarray}
Now, in order to use the bound \reff{compteur} of
Proposition~\reff{existcoupling} we resort to the monotonicity of the
variations of $\phi$:
\begin{eqnarray}
\sum_{k=0}^{+\infty}\, \var_k(\phi)\, \pro(T^{x,y}_{n}= k)
&\leq & \sum_{k=0}^{n-1} \var_{k}(\phi)\, \pro(T^{x,y}_{n}= k)
+ \var_{n}(\phi) \sum_{k=n}^{+ \infty} \pro(T^{x,y}_{n}= k)
\nonumber \\
&= & \sum_{k=0}^{n-1} \var_{k}(\phi) \pro(T^{x,y}_{n-k}= 0) +
\var_{n}(\phi) \sum_{k=n}^{+ \infty} \pro(T^{x,y}_{0}= k -n ) \nonumber\\
&\leq & \sum_{k=0}^{n} \var_{k}(\phi)\, \pro(S^{(\gamma)}_{n-k}= 0)\;,
\label{eq:115}
\end{eqnarray}
uniformly in $x,y$. The bound \reff{eq:x} follows from
\reff{eq:105.1}, \reff{eq:110}, \reff{eq:115} and the fact that
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:300}
\sum_{j=0}^{+ \infty} \pro(T^{x,y}_{0}= j ) \;=\; 1 \;=\;
\pro(S^{(\gamma)}_{0}= 0) \;.
\end{equation}
\paragraph{}
To prove \reff{eq:xx} we use the strong Markov poroperty of the
process $(S^{(\gamma)}_n)_{n\in\nat}$ to obtain
\beq
\label{relationbasique}
\pro(S^{(\gamma)}_{n} = 0) = \sum_{k=1}^{n} \pro( \tau = k ) \, \pro(
S^{(\gamma)}_{n-k} =0 )\;,
\eeq
where
\begin{equation}
\tau \;=\; \inf \{ n > 0 ; S^{(\gamma)}_n = 0 \} \;.
\label{eq:107}
\end{equation}
\paragraph{}
We now use (\ref{relationbasique}) to bound the last line in \reff{eq:115}
in the form
\bqy
\sum_{k=0}^{n} \var_{k}(\phi)\, \pro(S^{(\gamma)}_{n-k}= 0)&\leq &
\sum_{k=1}^{n}\bigl[\var_0(\phi) \, \pro( \tau = k ) +
\var_k(\phi)\bigr]\, \pro(S^{(\gamma)}_{n-k}= 0) \nonumber \\
&\leq & C \sum_{k=1}^{n} \pro(\tau = k)\,\pro(S^{(\gamma)}_{n-k}=
0) \nonumber \\
&= & C \; \pro(S^{(\gamma)}_{n}= 0) \;,
\label{eq:122}
\eqy
with
\begin{equation}
C \;=\; \var_0(\phi) + \sup_k \,{\var_k(\phi) \over \pro( \tau =
k )}\;.
\label{eq:122.1}
\end{equation}
To conclude, we must prove that the constant $C$ is finite. By direct
computation,
\begin{eqnarray}
\label{tau}
\pro(\tau = 1) &= & \gamma_{0},\nonumber \\[3pt]
\pro(\tau = n)& =& \gamma_{n-1}\,\prod_{m=0}^{n-2}(1- \gamma_{m})
\quad \hbox{ for } n\geq 2,\\[3pt]
\pro(\tau = +\infty) &= & \prod_{m=0}^{+ \infty}(1-
\gamma_{m})\;. \nonumber
\end{eqnarray}
>From this and \reff{rr.30} we obtain
\begin{equation}
\lim_{k\to\infty} {\var_k(\phi) \over \pro( \tau = k )} \;=\;
\lim_{k\to\infty} \,{\var_k(\phi) \over 1 - e^{-\var_k(\phi)}}\,
{1 \over \prod_{m=0}^{k-2}(1- \gamma_{m})} \;.
%\;=\; {1 \over \pro(\tau = +\infty)}\;,
\end{equation}
Since $\var_k(\phi)\to 0$, the first fraction converges to 1. We see
from \reff{tau} that the second fraction converges to
$1/\pro(\tau = +\infty)$. By elementary calculus, this is finite
since $\phi$ has summable variations.~\square
\begin{rem}
The previous computations lead to stronger results for more regular
functions $g$. For example, when $g$ satisfies
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:301}
\var_k(g) \;\le\; ||g||_{\theta} \,\theta^k
\end{equation}
for some $\theta <1$ and some $||g||_{\theta}<\infty$ (H\"older norm
of $g$), a chain of inequalities almost identical to those ending in
\reff{eq:110} leads to
\bqy \left| \int f \circ T^n g d\mu - \int f
d\mu \int g d\mu \right| &\leq& ||f||_1\,\sum_{k=0}^{+\infty}
||g||_{\theta}\, \theta^{k}
\,\gamma^*_{n-k} \nonumber \\
&\leq & ||f||_1 \,||g||_{\theta}\,\theta^n \sum_{k=0}^{n}
\theta^{-k}\,\gamma^*_{k} \;.
\label{eq:122.2}
\eqy
On the other hand, if $g$ is a function that depends only on the first
coordinate, we get,
\bqy
\left| \int f \circ T^n g d\mu - \int f d\mu \int g d\mu
\right| &\leq & ||f||_1 \,\sup_{x,y}{\Bigl|\esp[g(Z^{x}_n)] -
\esp[g(Z^{y}_n)]\Bigr|}\nonumber \\
&\leq & ||f||_1\, ||g||_{\infty} \pro( \tilde{U}_n \neq \tilde{V}_n)
\nonumber \\
&\leq & ||f||_1\, ||g||_{\infty} \, \gamma^*_n\;.
\label{eq:130}
\eqy
\end{rem}
\section{Proof of Theorem~\ref{general}}
\label{proof}
\paragraph{}
We now consider the general case where the function $\phi$ is not
necessarily normalized. In this case we resort to the normalization
$\psi$ define in \reff{rr.25} and we consider
chains with transition probabilities
\begin{equation}
\trans(a \,|\, x ) \;=\; e^{\phi(xa)}\,\frac{\rho(xa)}{\rho(x)}
\;=:\; e^{\psi(xa)} \;.
\label{gra.10}
\end{equation}
However, the summability of the variations of $\phi$ does not imply
the analogous condition for $\psi$, because there
are addition ``oscillations'' due to the cocycle $\log{\rho} -
\log{\rho \circ T}$. Instead,
\begin{equation}
\left.
\begin{array}{r}
\var_m\psi\\
\var_m(\log\rho)
\end{array}\right\} \;\leq\; \sum_{k \geq m} \var_k(\phi)\;,
\label{gra.0}
\end{equation}
for all $m\ge 0$ (see Walters 1978).
Hence, we can apply Theorem~\ref{normalizedth} only under the
condition
\begin{equation}
\sum_{k=1}^{+\infty} k\, \var_k(\phi) < + \infty\;.
\label{gra.1}
\end{equation}
If this is the case, the correlations for functions $f \in L^1(\mu)$
and $g \in V_\psi$ decay faster than $\gamma^*_{m}$, where $\gamma_{m}
= e^{\sum_{k \geq m} \var_k(\phi)} -1$.
%If $\var_m(\phi)$ decreases (at most) polynomially, then the speed
%of the decrease of correlations is of order $\sum_{k\geq m}\var_k(\phi)$.
\paragraph{}
To prove the general result without assuming \reff{gra.1} we must work
with \emph{block} transition probabilities, which are less sensitive
to the oscillations of the cocycle. More precisely,
given a family of transition probabilities $\trans$ on $A \times
\underline{A}$, let $\trans_n$ denote the corresponding transition
probabilities on $A^n \times \underline{A}$:
\begin{equation}
\trans_{n+1}(\atom{a}{0}{n} \,|\, x) %= \trans(a_n | a_{n-1} \cdots
%a_1 x) \trans_{n}(\atom{a}{0}{n-1}| x) =
\;=\; \trans(a_n \,|\, a_{n-1} \cdots\, a_1 x) \cdots
\trans(a_2 \,|\,a_1 x)\, \trans(a_1 \,|\, x)
\label{gra.3}
\end{equation}
where
\begin{equation}
\atom{a}{0}{n} \;:=\; (a_0, \ldots, a_n) \;\in A^{n+1}\;.
\label{gra.4}
\end{equation}
If the transition probabilities $\trans$ are defined by a normalized
function $\phi$ as in \reff{eq:20}, then we see from \reff{gra.3} that
the transition probabilities $\trans_n$ obey a similar relation
\begin{equation}
\label{gra.7}
\trans_n(\atom{a}{0}{n-1}\, |\, x ) = e^{\phi_n(x\atom{a}{0}{n-1})}\;,
\end{equation}
with
\begin{equation}
\phi_n(x\atom{a}{0}{n-1}) \;:=\; \sum_{k=0}^{n-1}\phi(x a_0 \cdots
a_k)\;.
\label{gra.8}
\end{equation}
In particular, for transitions \reff{gra.10} the formula \reff{gra.3}
yields
\begin{equation}
\psi_n \;=\; \phi_n + \log{\rho} - \log{\rho \circ T^n} \;.
\label{gra.12}
\end{equation}
\paragraph{}
A comparison of \reff{gra.12} with \reff{gra.0} shows that it is
largely advantageous to bound directly the oscillations of $\psi_n$.
This is what we do in this section by adapting the arguments of
Section~\ref{normalized}.
\subsection{Coupling of the transition probabilities for blocks}
\paragraph{}
For every integer $n$, we define a family of transition probability
$\transb_n$ on $(A^{n})^2 \times \underline{A}^2$ by
\begin{equation}
\transt_n(\atom{a}{0}{n-1}, \atom{b}{0}{n-1}\,|\, x, y) \;=\;
\bigl[ \trans_n(\cdot \,|\,x)\, \tilde{\times}\, \trans_n(. \,|\,
y)\bigr]
(\atom{a}{0}{n-1}; \atom{b}{0}{n-1})\;.
\label{gra.27}
\end{equation}
Let $(n_{m})_{m \in \nat}$ be an increasing sequence.
For each double history $x,y$, we consider the coupling
$\bigl((\overline{U}^{x, y}, \overline{V}^{x, y})\bigr)_{m\in\rel}$
of the chains for $n_m$-blocks with past $x$ and $y$, defined by,
\begin{eqnarray}
\lefteqn{
\pro(\atom{\overline{U}^{x,y}}{0}{n_m}= \atom{a}{0}{n_m}\,,\,
\atom{\overline{V}^{x,y}}{0}{n_m}= \atom{b}{0}{n_m})}
\nonumber\\
&&=\ \prod_{m=1}^{M}
\transb_{n_{m+1} - n_{m}}(\atom{a}{n_m}{n_{m+1}} \,,\, \atom{b}{n_m}{n_{m+1}}
\,|\, a_{n_m} \cdots a_0 x\,,\, b_{n_m} \cdots b_0 y)\;.
\label{gra.31}
\end{eqnarray}
\subsection{The process of last block-differences}
\paragraph{}
We set
\begin{equation}
\gamma^{(n)}_k \;=\; 1 - \inf\, \left \{
{\frac{\trans_n(\atom{a}{0}{n-1}\,|\, x) }{\trans_n(\atom{a}{0}{n-1}
\,|\, y)}}
\,:\, x \stackrel{k}{=}y\,,\; a_1, \ldots, a_{n-1} \in A\right\}\;.
\end{equation}
From~(\ref{coupling2}) we see that, for $x \stackrel{k}{=}y$, the
weight of the diagonal of each coupling $\transb_n$ satisfies
\beq
\label{diago}
\Delta\bigl(\transt_n(\cdot,\cdot \, |\, x, y)\bigr) \; \geq\;
\inf_{a_0, \ldots, a_{n-1} \in
A}{\frac{\trans(\atom{a}{0}{n-1}\,|\, x)
}{\trans(\atom{a}{0}{n-1} \,|\, y)}}\; \geq \; 1 - \gamma^{(n)}_k \;.
\eeq
If we denote %by $\overline{\Delta}^{x,y}_{m, m+q}$ the set
$$\overline{\Delta}^{x,y}_{m, m+q} \;:= \;
%\bigcap_{n_m \leq j \leq n_{m+q} } %\{ \widetilde{U}_j =
%\widetilde{V}_j \} =
\Bigl\{ \overline{U}^{x,y}_j = \overline{V}^{x,y}_j \, , \, n_m \leq
j \leq n_{m+q}\Bigr\} \;,$$
we deduce from \reff{diago} that
\beq
\label{onestep}
\pro(\overline{\Delta}_{m+k+1} \,|\, \overline{\Delta}_{m,m+k})
\;\geq\; 1 - \gamma^{(n_{m+k+1}-n_{m+k})}_{n_{m+k} - n_m} \;.
\eeq
\paragraph{}
We construct the process $(\overline{T}_n)_{n \in \nat}$ with
\begin{equation}
\overline{T}^{x,y}_m \;=\; \inf \,\Bigl\{ p \geq 0 \,:\,
U^{x,y}_i \neq V^{x,y}_i \hbox{ for some } i, n_{m-p} \leq i \leq
n_{m-p+1} \Bigr \} \;.
%&=& \inf \,\Bigl \{ p \geq 0 \,:\, \widetilde{Z}^{x,y} \not \in
%\overline{\Delta}_{m-p, m-p+1}\} $$
\end{equation}
By \reff{onestep}, the conditional laws of this process satisfy,
\begin{equation}
\pro(\overline{T}_{m+1}=k+1 \,|\, \overline{T}_{m} = k) \;\geq\;
1 - \gamma^{(n_{m+k+1}-n_{m+k})}_{n_{m+k} - n_m}
\label{gra.40}
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
\pro(\overline{T}_{m+1}= 0 \;|\; \overline{T}_{m} = k) \;\leq\;
\gamma^{(n_{m+k+1}-n_{m+k})}_{n_{m+k} - n_m}\;.
\label{gra.41}
\end{equation}
\subsection{The dominating Markov process}
\paragraph{}
Let us choose the length of the blocks in such a way that the sequence
$(n_{m})_{m \in \nat}$ is subadditive, i.e.
\begin{equation}
n_{m+k} - n_m \;\leq\; n_k
\label{gra.sub}
\end{equation}
for $m,k\ge 0$, and that
\begin{equation}
\sup_{n\ge 0} \gamma^{(n)}_{\ell} \;<\; 1
\label{gra.sup}
\end{equation}
for all $\ell\ge 0$.
%
These two properties together with \reff{gra.40}--\reff{gra.41} imply
that, for all histories $x$ and $y$,
\begin{equation}
\pro(\overline{T}^{x,y}_{m+1}=k+1 \,|\, \overline{T}^{x,y}_{m} = k) \;\geq\;
1 - \overline{\gamma}_{k}
\label{gra.50}
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
\pro(\overline{T}^{x,y}_{m+1}= 0 \,|\, \overline{T}^{x,y}_{m} = k) \;\leq\;
\overline{\gamma}_{k}.
\label{gra.51}
\end{equation}
with
\begin{equation}
\overline{\gamma}_{k} \;:=\; \sup_{n \geq 1} \gamma^{(n)}_{n_k}\;,
\label{gra.52}
\end{equation}
for $m \geq 1$.
\paragraph{}
We now define the ``dominating'' Markov chain $(S^{(\overline\gamma)}_n)_{n \in
\nat}$ as in \reff{rr.5.-1}--\reff{rr.5}. Lemma~\ref{dominlem} yields
\begin{equation}
\pro(\overline{T}^{x,y}_m = 0) \;\leq\; \pro(\overline{S}_m = 0)
\;\leq\; \overline{\gamma}^*_m\;.
\end{equation}
Hence, if $n_m \leq n \leq n_{m+1}$,
\begin{equation}
\pro(\overline{U}^{x,y}_n \neq \overline{V}^{x,y}_n) \;\leq\;
\pro(T^{x,y}_m = 0) \;\leq\; \overline{\gamma}^*_m\;.
\end{equation}
\subsection{Decay of correlations}
\paragraph{}
We can now mimick the proof of Theorem~\ref{normalized} in terms of
barred objects.
\paragraph{}
As $( \var_m(\phi))_{m \in \nat}$ is summable, there exists a
subadditive sequence $(n_{m})_{m \in \nat}$ such that the sequence
$\alpha_m$ of the tails
%$(\sum_{k \geq n_{m}} \var_k(\phi))_{m \in \nat}$
\begin{equation}
\alpha_m \;=\; \sum_{k \geq n_{m}} \var_k(\phi)
\end{equation}
is summable:
\begin{equation}
\sum_{m \geq 0} \alpha_m < + \infty\;.
\label{gra.51.1}
\end{equation}
\paragraph{}
The transitions for blocks of size $n$ satisfy
\begin{equation}
\frac{\trans_n(\atom{a}{0}{n-1} \,|\, x) }{\trans_n(\atom{a}{0}{n-1}
\,|\, y)} \;\ge\; e^{-\var_k(\psi_n)}
\label{gra.55}
\end{equation}
if $x\stackrel{k}{=} y$.
But from \reff{gra.12}, \reff{gra.8} and \reff{gra.0} we have
\begin{eqnarray}
\var_k(\psi_n) &\le& \left(\sum_{m=k}^{k+n} + \sum_{m\ge k+n} +
\sum_{m\ge k}\right) \var_m(\phi) \nonumber\\
&\le& 3\, \sum_{m\ge k}\var_m(\phi)\;.
\label{gra.56}
\end{eqnarray}
Hence we can choose in \reff{gra.52}
\begin{equation}
\overline{\gamma}_{k} \;\leq\; 1 - e^{- 3 \alpha_k}\;,
\label{gra.57}
\end{equation}
a choice for which
\begin{equation}
\sum_{k\geq 1} \overline{\gamma}_{k} < + \infty \;.
\label{gra.58}
\end{equation}
\paragraph{}
To prove the theorem, we now proceed as in \reff{eq:105.1} and
\reff{eq:110}--\reff{eq:122.1} but replacing tildes by bars and
putting bars over the processes $(T_n)$ and $(S_n^{(\gamma)})$. We just
point out that, due to the subadditivity of $n_m$,
$$\var_{(n_{m+k} - n_m)}(\phi) \; \leq\; \var_{n_k}(\phi)$$
uniformly in $m$.~\square
%\begin{rem}
%If $\overline{\gamma}^*_m = O(\alpha_m)$, noticing that $\alpha_m
%= \sum_{k \geq n_m
% } \var_k(\phi)$, we get
%\footnote{One possibility to get sure to be in this case is to choose the subsequence in
% such way that $\alpha$ has (at most) polynomial decreasingy. This should be possible because
% we are in the case when $\gamma_m$ decreases slowly (rest not summable). We
% must investigate this carefully.}
%$$\pro(\tilde{U}_n \neq \tilde{V}_n) = O\left(\sum_{k \geq n
% } \var_k(\phi)\right). $$
%\end{rem}
\appendix
\section{Returns to the origin of the dominating Markov chain}
\label{markovchain}
\paragraph{}
In this appendix we collect a few results concerning the
probability of return to the origin of the Markov chain
$(S^{(\gamma)}_{n})_{n \in \nat}$ defined via \reff{rr.5}.
(In the sequel we omit the superscript ``$(\gamma)$'' for simplicity.)
\begin{prop}
\label{asymptotic}
Let $(\gamma_{n})_{n \in \nat}$ be a real-valued sequence decreasing
to $0$ as $n \to + \infty$.
\bid
\item[(i)] If $ \displaystyle \sum_{m\geq 1} \prod_{k=0}^{m}(1 -
\gamma_k) = + \infty $, then $\pro(S_n = 0) \to 0$.
\item[(ii)] If $ \displaystyle \sum_{m\geq 1} \gamma_k < + \infty $,
then $\sum_{n \geq 0} \pro(S_n = 0) < + \infty$.
\item[(iii)] If $(\gamma_m)$ decreases exponentially, then so does
$\pro(S_n = 0)$.
\item[(iv)] If $(\gamma_m)$ decreases polynomially, then $\pro(S_n = 0)
= O(\gamma_n)$.
\eid
\end{prop}
\paragraph{Sketch of the proof}
\paragraph{}
Statement $(i)$ follows from the well known fact that the
Markov chain $(S_n)_{n\in\nat}$ is positive recurent if and only if,
$$\sum_{m\geq 1} \prod_{k=0}^{m}(1 - \gamma_k) < + \infty. $$
\paragraph{}
To prove parts (ii) and (iii) we introduce the series
\begin{equation}
F(s) = \sum_{n=1}^{+ \infty} \pro(\tau=n) \,s^{n}\;,
\label{gra.61}
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
G(s) \;=\; \sum_{n=0}^{+ \infty} \pro(S_n =0)\, s^{n}
\label{gra.60}
\end{equation}
where the random variable $\tau$ is the time of first return to zero,
defined in \reff{eq:107}. The probabilities $\pro(\tau=n)$ were
computed in \reff{tau} above.
The relation (\ref{relationbasique})
implies that these series are related in the form
%\beq
%\label{avecH}
%G(s) H(s) = \frac{1}{1 -s }
%\eeq
%for all $0 \leq s<1$, or, after a simple computation,
\beq
\label{avecF}
G(s) = \frac{1}{1 -F(s)}\;,
\eeq
for all $s \geq 0$ such that $F(s)<1$.
\paragraph{}
It is clear that the radius of convergence of $F$ is at least 1. In fact,
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:151}
F(1) \;=\; \pro(\tau < +\infty)\;.
\end{equation}
Moreover, if $ \sum_{m\geq 1} \gamma_k < + \infty $, the radius of
convergence of $F$ is
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:152}
\lim_{n\to\infty} \, [\gamma_n]^{-1/n}\;.
\end{equation}
This is a consequence of the fact that
$\pro(\tau=n)/\gamma_{n-1}\to \pro(\tau=+\infty) > 0$, as concluded
from \reff{tau}.
\paragraph{}
Statement $(ii)$ of the proposition is a consequence of the fact that
the radius of convergence of the series $G$ is at
least 1 if $ \sum_{m\geq 1} \gamma_k < + \infty $. This follows
from the relation \reff{avecF} and the fact that the right-hand side
of \reff{eq:151} is strictly less than one when the chain
$(S_n^{(\gamma)})$ is transient.
\paragraph{}
To prove statement (iii) let us assume that $\gamma_m \leq C \gamma^m$
for some constants $C < +\infty $ and $0<\gamma<1$. By \reff{eq:152},
the radius of convergence of $F$ is $\gamma^{-1} > 1$ while, by
\reff{eq:151}, $F(1)<1$. By continuity it follows that there exists
$s_0>1$ such that $F(s_0)=1$ and, hence, by \reff{avecF},
$G(s)<+\infty$ for all $s<s_0$. By definition of $G$, this implies
that $\pro(S_n = 0)$ decreases faster than $\zeta^n$ for any
$\zeta\in(1,s_0^{-1})$.
\paragraph{}
Statement (iv) is a consequence of the following lemma.
\begin{lem}
If
\beq
\label{condpoly}
\alpha \;:=\; \sup_i\, \overline{\lim}_{k\to\infty}
\left[ \frac{\pro(\tau = i)}{\pro(\tau =ki)}\right]^{1/k}
\;<\; {1\over \pro(\tau<+\infty)}\;,
\eeq
then
$$ \pro(S_n = 0) = O\left( \pro( \tau = n) \right).$$
\end{lem}
\paragraph{Proof}
We start with the following observation. If
$i_1 + \cdots + i_k = n$, then $\max_{1 \leq m \leq k} i_m . n/k$ and
thus, for $g$ is an increasing
$$
g(n) \;\leq\; g\left( k\, i_{\rm max}\right) \;,
$$
where $i_{\rm max} = \max_{1\le m\le k}\,i_m$.
If we apply this to $g(n) = 1/\pro(\tau=n)$, which is increasing by
\reff{tau}, we obtain
\begin{equation}
1 \;\le\; \frac{\pro( \tau = n)}{\pro(\tau = k\,i_{\rm max})}\;.
\label{fra.1}
\end{equation}
\paragraph{}
We now invoke the following a explicit relation between the
coefficients of $F$ and $G$.
\beq
\label{generalexpression}
\pro(S_n =0) = \sum_{k = 1}^{n} \sum_{ \scriptsize
\begin{array}{c}
i_1, \ldots, i_k \geq 1 \\
i_1 + \cdots + i_k = n
\end{array}
} \prod_{m=1}^{k} \pro(\tau = i_m) \;,
\eeq
for $n \geq 1$.
%This can be obtained directly
%from~(\ref{avecF}) or, alternatively, by
%decomposing each return time as a sum of times of \emph{first}
%returns.
Multiplying and dividing each factor in the rightmost
product by $\pro(\tau<+\infty)$, this formula can be rewritten as
\beq
\label{autreexpression}
\pro(S_n =0) = \sum_{k = 1}^{n} \pro(\tau < + \infty)^k \sum_{ \scriptsize
\begin{array}{c}
i_1, \ldots, i_k \geq 1 \\
i_1 + \cdots + i_k = n
\end{array}
} \prod_{m=1}^{k} \pro(\tau = i_m \,|\, \tau <
+\infty).
\eeq
Combining this with \reff{fra.1} we obtain
\begin{equation}
\label{fra.2}
\pro(S_n =0) \;\le\; \pro(\tau=n)\,\sum_{k = 1}^{n} \pro(\tau < +
\infty)^k \sum_{ \scriptsize
\begin{array}{c}
i_1, \ldots, i_k \geq 1 \\
i_1 + \cdots + i_k = n
\end{array}
} \prod_{m=1}^{k} {\pro(\tau = i_m \,|\, \tau < +\infty)\over
\pro(\tau = k\, i_{\rm max})}\;,
\end{equation}
If we single out the factor $\pro(\tau=i_{\rm max}\,|\, \tau <
+\infty)=\pro(\tau=i_{\rm max})/\pro(\tau<+\infty)$ from the rightmost product
of \reff{fra.2} and use the hypothesis \reff{condpoly} we get
\begin{equation}
\label{fra.3}
\pro(S_n =0) \;\le\; C\,\pro(\tau=n)\,\sum_{k = 1}^{n} \alpha^k\,\pro(\tau < +
\infty)^{k-1} \sum_{ \scriptsize
\begin{array}{c}
i_1, \ldots, i_k \geq 1 \\
i_1 + \cdots + i_k = n
\end{array}
} \prod_{\scriptsize 1\le m \le k\atop \scriptstyle i_m\neq i_{\rm max}}
\pro(\tau = i_m \,|\, \tau < +\infty)\;,
\end{equation}
for some constant $C>0$.
To bound the last sum on the right-hand side
we introduce a sequence of independent random variables
$(\tau^{(i)})_{i \in \nat}$ with common distribution
\begin{equation}
\pro(\tau^{(i)} = j) \;=\; \pro(\tau = j \,|\, \tau < +\infty)\;.
\label{fra.0}
\end{equation}
Then
\begin{equation}
\sum_{j= 1}^{n-k+1} \pro\Bigl( \sum_{i=1}^{k-1} \tau^{(i)} =
n-j\Bigr) \;\le\; 1\;.
\label{fra.5}
\end{equation}
Hence, \reff{fra.3} implies
\begin{equation}
\label{fra.4}
\pro(S_n = 0) \;\leq\; C\, \alpha\, \sum_{k=1}^{\infty}
\left[\alpha^{-1}\pro(\tau<+ \infty)\right]^{k-1}\,
\pro(\tau = n) \;\leq\; \hbox{const}\, \pro(\tau = n)\;. \; \square
\end{equation}
\paragraph{}
We notice that, according to~(\ref{tau}), $\gamma_n \sim
\pro(\tau = n)/\pro(\tau=+ \infty)$. Hence, a sufficient condition for
\reff{condpoly} is a similar condition for the sequence
$(\gamma_n)$. Such a condition holds, for instance, if the later
sequence decays polynomially. Statement $(iii)$ of the
proposition follows.~\square
\subsection*{Acknowledgements} It is a pleasure to thank Pablo Ferrari
and Luis Renato Fontes for useful discussions. We also thank Pablo
Ferrari for informing us about his work in progress with Alejandro
Maass and Servet Mar\'{\i}nez on a related regenerative representation
of chains with complete connections.
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A.~N. QUAS (1996).
\newblock Non-ergodicity for $c^1$ expanding maps and $g$-measures.
\newblock {\em Ergod.\ Th.\ Dynam.\ Sys.}, 16:531--543.
\bibitem{Rue4}
D.~RUELLE (1978).
\newblock {\em Thermodynamic formalism}.
\newblock \uppercase{E}ncyclopedia of Mathematics and its
applications, volume~5. % \newblock Rota (ed.).
\newblock Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts.
\bibitem{Wal1}
P.~WALTERS (1975).
\newblock Ruelle's operator theorem and $g$-measures.
\newblock {\em Trans. Amer. Math. Soc.}, 214:375--387.
\bibitem{Wal2}
P.~WALTERS (1978).
\newblock Invariant measures and equilibrium states for some mappings which
expand distances.
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\end{thebibliography}
\vskip30pt
Xavier Bressaud and Antoni Galves
Instituto de Matem\'atica e Estat\'{\i}stica
Universidade de S\~ao Paulo
Caixa Postal 66281
05315-970 S\~ao Paulo, Brasil
e-mail: {\tt bressaud, [email protected]}
\bigskip
Roberto Fern\'andez
Instituto de Estudos Avan\c{c}ados
Universidade de S\~ao Paulo
Av.\ Prof.\ Luciano Gualberto, Travessa J, 374 T\'erreo,
Cidade Universit\'aria
05508-900 S\~ao Paulo, Brasil
e-mail: {\tt [email protected]}
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The Project Gutenberg EBook of Philebus, by Plato
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
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Title: Philebus
Author: Plato
Posting Date: October 30, 2008 [EBook \#1744]
Release Date: May, 1999
Language: English
Character set encoding: ASCII
*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHILEBUS ***
Produced by Sue Asscher
PHILEBUS
By Plato
Translated by Benjamin Jowett
This text was converted to LaTeX by means of \textbf{GutenMark} software (version Jul 12 2014).
The text has been further processed by software
in the iTeX project, by Bill Cheswick.
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\gutchapter{INTRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS.}
The Philebus appears to be one of the later writings of Plato, in which the style has begun to alter, and the dramatic and poetical element has become subordinate to the speculative and philosophical. In the development of abstract thought great advances have been made on the Protagoras or the Phaedrus, and even on the Republic. But there is a corresponding diminution of artistic skill, a want of character in the persons, a laboured march in the dialogue, and a degree of confusion and incompleteness in the general design. As in the speeches of Thucydides, the multiplication of ideas seems to interfere with the power of expression. Instead of the equally diffused grace and ease of the earlier dialogues there occur two or three highly-wrought passages; instead of the ever-flowing play of humour, now appearing, now concealed, but always present, are inserted a good many bad jests, as we may venture to term them. We may observe an attempt at artificial ornament, and far-fetched modes of expression; also clamorous demands on the part of his companions, that Socrates shall answer his own questions, as well as other defects of style, which remind us of the Laws. The connection is often abrupt and inharmonious, and far from clear. Many points require further explanation; \textit{e.g}. the reference of pleasure to the indefinite class, compared with the assertion which almost immediately follows, that pleasure and pain naturally have their seat in the third or mixed class: these two statements are unreconciled. In like manner, the table of goods does not distinguish between the two heads of measure and symmetry; and though a hint is given that the divine mind has the first place, nothing is said of this in the final summing up. The relation of the goods to the sciences does not appear; though dialectic may be thought to correspond to the highest good, the sciences and arts and true opinions are enumerated in the fourth class. We seem to have an intimation of a further discussion, in which some topics lightly passed over were to receive a fuller consideration. The various uses of the word `mixed,' for the mixed life, the mixed class of elements, the mixture of pleasures, or of pleasure and pain, are a further source of perplexity. Our ignorance of the opinions which Plato is attacking is also an element of obscurity. Many things in a controversy might seem relevant, if we knew to what they were intended to refer. But no conjecture will enable us to supply what Plato has not told us; or to explain, from our fragmentary knowledge of them, the relation in which his doctrine stood to the Eleatic Being or the Megarian good, or to the theories of Aristippus or Antisthenes respecting pleasure. Nor are we able to say how far Plato in the Philebus conceives the finite and infinite (which occur both in the fragments of Philolaus and in the Pythagorean table of opposites) in the same manner as contemporary Pythagoreans.
There is little in the characters which is worthy of remark. The Socrates of the Philebus is devoid of any touch of Socratic irony, though here, as in the Phaedrus, he twice attributes the flow of his ideas to a sudden inspiration. The interlocutor Protarchus, the son of Callias, who has been a hearer of Gorgias, is supposed to begin as a disciple of the partisans of pleasure, but is drawn over to the opposite side by the arguments of Socrates. The instincts of ingenuous youth are easily induced to take the better part. Philebus, who has withdrawn from the argument, is several times brought back again, that he may support pleasure, of which he remains to the end the uncompromising advocate. On the other hand, the youthful group of listeners by whom he is surrounded, `Philebus' boys' as they are termed, whose presence is several times intimated, are described as all of them at last convinced by the arguments of Socrates. They bear a very faded resemblance to the interested audiences of the Charmides, Lysis, or Protagoras. Other signs of relation to external life in the dialogue, or references to contemporary things and persons, with the single exception of the allusions to the anonymous enemies of pleasure, and the teachers of the flux, there are none.
The omission of the doctrine of recollection, derived from a previous state of existence, is a note of progress in the philosophy of Plato. The transcendental theory of pre-existent ideas, which is chiefly discussed by him in the Meno, the Phaedo, and the Phaedrus, has given way to a psychological one. The omission is rendered more significant by his having occasion to speak of memory as the basis of desire. Of the ideas he treats in the same sceptical spirit which appears in his criticism of them in the Parmenides. He touches on the same difficulties and he gives no answer to them. His mode of speaking of the analytical and synthetical processes may be compared with his discussion of the same subject in the Phaedrus; here he dwells on the importance of dividing the genera into all the species, while in the Phaedrus he conveys the same truth in a figure, when he speaks of carving the whole, which is described under the image of a victim, into parts or members, 'according to their natural articulation, without breaking any of them.' There is also a difference, which may be noted, between the two dialogues. For whereas in the Phaedrus, and also in the Symposium, the dialectician is described as a sort of enthusiast or lover, in the Philebus, as in all the later writings of Plato, the element of love is wanting; the topic is only introduced, as in the Republic, by way of illustration. On other subjects of which they treat in common, such as the nature and kinds of pleasure, true and false opinion, the nature of the good, the order and relation of the sciences, the Republic is less advanced than the Philebus, which contains, perhaps, more metaphysical truth more obscurely expressed than any other Platonic dialogue. Here, as Plato expressly tells us, he is `forging weapons of another make,' \textit{i.e}. new categories and modes of conception, though 'some of the old ones might do again.'
But if superior in thought and dialectical power, the Philebus falls very far short of the Republic in fancy and feeling. The development of the reason undisturbed by the emotions seems to be the ideal at which Plato aims in his later dialogues. There is no mystic enthusiasm or rapturous contemplation of ideas. Whether we attribute this change to the greater feebleness of age, or to the development of the quarrel between philosophy and poetry in Plato's own mind, or perhaps, in some degree, to a carelessness about artistic effect, when he was absorbed in abstract ideas, we can hardly be wrong in assuming, amid such a variety of indications, derived from style as well as subject, that the Philebus belongs to the later period of his life and authorship. But in this, as in all the later writings of Plato, there are not wanting thoughts and expressions in which he rises to his highest level.
The plan is complicated, or rather, perhaps, the want of plan renders the progress of the dialogue difficult to follow. A few leading ideas seem to emerge: the relation of the one and many, the four original elements, the kinds of pleasure, the kinds of knowledge, the scale of goods. These are only partially connected with one another. The dialogue is not rightly entitled `Concerning pleasure' or `Concerning good,' but should rather be described as treating of the relations of pleasure and knowledge, after they have been duly analyzed, to the good. (1) The question is asked, whether pleasure or wisdom is the chief good, or some nature higher than either; and if the latter, how pleasure and wisdom are related to this higher good. (2) Before we can reply with exactness, we must know the kinds of pleasure and the kinds of knowledge. (3) But still we may affirm generally, that the combined life of pleasure and wisdom or knowledge has more of the character of the good than either of them when isolated. (4) to determine which of them partakes most of the higher nature, we must know under which of the four unities or elements they respectively fall. These are, first, the infinite; secondly, the finite; thirdly, the union of the two; fourthly, the cause of the union. Pleasure is of the first, wisdom or knowledge of the third class, while reason or mind is akin to the fourth or highest.
(5) Pleasures are of two kinds, the mixed and unmixed. Of mixed pleasures there are three classes---(a) those in which both the pleasures and pains are corporeal, as in eating and hunger; (b) those in which there is a pain of the body and pleasure of the mind, as when you are hungry and are looking forward to a feast; (c) those in which the pleasure and pain are both mental. Of unmixed pleasures there are four kinds: those of sight, hearing, smell, knowledge.
(6) The sciences are likewise divided into two classes, theoretical and productive: of the latter, one part is pure, the other impure. The pure part consists of arithmetic, mensuration, and weighing. Arts like carpentering, which have an exact measure, are to be regarded as higher than music, which for the most part is mere guess-work. But there is also a higher arithmetic, and a higher mensuration, which is exclusively theoretical; and a dialectical science, which is higher still and the truest and purest knowledge.
(7) We are now able to determine the composition of the perfect life. First, we admit the pure pleasures and the pure sciences; secondly, the impure sciences, but not the impure pleasures. We have next to discover what element of goodness is contained in this mixture. There are three criteria of goodness---beauty, symmetry, truth. These are clearly more akin to reason than to pleasure, and will enable us to fix the places of both of them in the scale of good. First in the scale is measure; the second place is assigned to symmetry; the third, to reason and wisdom; the fourth, to knowledge and true opinion; the fifth, to pure pleasures; and here the Muse says `Enough.'
`Bidding farewell to Philebus and Socrates,' we may now consider the metaphysical conceptions which are presented to us. These are (I) the paradox of unity and plurality; (II) the table of categories or elements; (III) the kinds of pleasure; (IV) the kinds of knowledge; (V) the conception of the good. We may then proceed to examine (VI) the relation of the Philebus to the Republic, and to other dialogues.
I. The paradox of the one and many originated in the restless dialectic of Zeno, who sought to prove the absolute existence of the one by showing the contradictions that are involved in admitting the existence of the many (compare Parm.). Zeno illustrated the contradiction by well-known examples taken from outward objects. But Socrates seems to intimate that the time had arrived for discarding these hackneyed illustrations; such difficulties had long been solved by common sense ('solvitur ambulando'); the fact of the co-existence of opposites was a sufficient answer to them. He will leave them to Cynics and Eristics; the youth of Athens may discourse of them to their parents. To no rational man could the circumstance that the body is one, but has many members, be any longer a stumbling-block.
Plato's difficulty seems to begin in the region of ideas. He cannot understand how an absolute unity, such as the Eleatic Being, can be broken up into a number of individuals, or be in and out of them at once. Philosophy had so deepened or intensified the nature of one or Being, by the thoughts of successive generations, that the mind could no longer imagine `Being' as in a state of change or division. To say that the verb of existence is the copula, or that unity is a mere unit, is to us easy; but to the Greek in a particular stage of thought such an analysis involved the same kind of difficulty as the conception of God existing both in and out of the world would to ourselves. Nor was he assisted by the analogy of sensible objects. The sphere of mind was dark and mysterious to him; but instead of being illustrated by sense, the greatest light appeared to be thrown on the nature of ideas when they were contrasted with sense.
Both here and in the Parmenides, where similar difficulties are raised, Plato seems prepared to desert his ancient ground. He cannot tell the relation in which abstract ideas stand to one another, and therefore he transfers the one and many out of his transcendental world, and proceeds to lay down practical rules for their application to different branches of knowledge. As in the Republic he supposes the philosopher to proceed by regular steps, until he arrives at the idea of good; as in the Sophist and Politicus he insists that in dividing the whole into its parts we should bisect in the middle in the hope of finding species; as in the Phaedrus (see above) he would have `no limb broken' of the organism of knowledge;---so in the Philebus he urges the necessity of filling up all the intermediate links which occur (compare Bacon's `media axiomata') in the passage from unity to infinity. With him the idea of science may be said to anticipate science; at a time when the sciences were not yet divided, he wants to impress upon us the importance of classification; neither neglecting the many individuals, nor attempting to count them all, but finding the genera and species under which they naturally fall. Here, then, and in the parallel passages of the Phaedrus and of the Sophist, is found the germ of the most fruitful notion of modern science.
Plato describes with ludicrous exaggeration the influence exerted by the one and many on the minds of young men in their first fervour of metaphysical enthusiasm (compare Republic). But they are none the less an everlasting quality of reason or reasoning which never grows old in us. At first we have but a confused conception of them, analogous to the eyes blinking at the light in the Republic. To this Plato opposes the revelation from Heaven of the real relations of them, which some Prometheus, who gave the true fire from heaven, is supposed to have imparted to us. Plato is speaking of two things---(1) the crude notion of the one and many, which powerfully affects the ordinary mind when first beginning to think; (2) the same notion when cleared up by the help of dialectic.
To us the problem of the one and many has lost its chief interest and perplexity. We readily acknowledge that a whole has many parts, that the continuous is also the divisible, that in all objects of sense there is a one and many, and that a like principle may be applied to analogy to purely intellectual conceptions. If we attend to the meaning of the words, we are compelled to admit that two contradictory statements are true. But the antinomy is so familiar as to be scarcely observed by us. Our sense of the contradiction, like Plato's, only begins in a higher sphere, when we speak of necessity and free-will, of mind and body, of Three Persons and One Substance, and the like. The world of knowledge is always dividing more and more; every truth is at first the enemy of every other truth. Yet without this division there can be no truth; nor any complete truth without the reunion of the parts into a whole. And hence the coexistence of opposites in the unity of the idea is regarded by Hegel as the supreme principle of philosophy; and the law of contradiction, which is affirmed by logicians to be an ultimate principle of the human mind, is displaced by another law, which asserts the coexistence of contradictories as imperfect and divided elements of the truth. Without entering further into the depths of Hegelianism, we may remark that this and all similar attempts to reconcile antinomies have their origin in the old Platonic problem of the `One and Many.'
II. 1. The first of Plato's categories or elements is the infinite. This is the negative of measure or limit; the unthinkable, the unknowable; of which nothing can be affirmed; the mixture or chaos which preceded distinct kinds in the creation of the world; the first vague impression of sense; the more or less which refuses to be reduced to rule, having certain affinities with evil, with pleasure, with ignorance, and which in the scale of being is farthest removed from the beautiful and good. To a Greek of the age of Plato, the idea of an infinite mind would have been an absurdity. He would have insisted that 'the good is of the nature of the finite,' and that the infinite is a mere negative, which is on the level of sensation, and not of thought. He was aware that there was a distinction between the infinitely great and the infinitely small, but he would have equally denied the claim of either to true existence. Of that positive infinity, or infinite reality, which we attribute to God, he had no conception.
The Greek conception of the infinite would be more truly described, in our way of speaking, as the indefinite. To us, the notion of infinity is subsequent rather than prior to the finite, expressing not absolute vacancy or negation, but only the removal of limit or restraint, which we suppose to exist not before but after we have already set bounds to thought and matter, and divided them after their kinds. From different points of view, either the finite or infinite may be looked upon respectively both as positive and negative (compare 'Omnis determinatio est negatio')' and the conception of the one determines that of the other. The Greeks and the moderns seem to be nearly at the opposite poles in their manner of regarding them. And both are surprised when they make the discovery, as Plato has done in the Sophist, how large an element negation forms in the framework of their thoughts.
2, 3. The finite element which mingles with and regulates the infinite is best expressed to us by the word `law.' It is that which measures all things and assigns to them their limit; which preserves them in their natural state, and brings them within the sphere of human cognition. This is described by the terms harmony, health, order, perfection, and the like. All things, in as far as they are good, even pleasures, which are for the most part indefinite, partake of this element. We should be wrong in attributing to Plato the conception of laws of nature derived from observation and experiment. And yet he has as intense a conviction as any modern philosopher that nature does not proceed by chance. But observing that the wonderful construction of number and figure, which he had within himself, and which seemed to be prior to himself, explained a part of the phenomena of the external world, he extended their principles to the whole, finding in them the true type both of human life and of the order of nature.
Two other points may be noticed respecting the third class. First, that Plato seems to be unconscious of any interval or chasm which separates the finite from the infinite. The one is in various ways and degrees working in the other. Hence he has implicitly answered the difficulty with which he started, of how the one could remain one and yet be divided among many individuals, or 'how ideas could be in and out of themselves,' and the like. Secondly, that in this mixed class we find the idea of beauty. Good, when exhibited under the aspect of measure or symmetry, becomes beauty. And if we translate his language into corresponding modern terms, we shall not be far wrong in saying that here, as well as in the Republic, Plato conceives beauty under the idea of proportion.
4. Last and highest in the list of principles or elements is the cause of the union of the finite and infinite, to which Plato ascribes the order of the world. Reasoning from man to the universe, he argues that as there is a mind in the one, there must be a mind in the other, which he identifies with the royal mind of Zeus. This is the first cause of which `our ancestors spoke,' as he says, appealing to tradition, in the Philebus as well as in the Timaeus. The `one and many' is also supposed to have been revealed by tradition. For the mythical element has not altogether disappeared.
Some characteristic differences may here be noted, which distinguish the ancient from the modern mode of conceiving God.
a. To Plato, the idea of God or mind is both personal and impersonal. Nor in ascribing, as appears to us, both these attributes to him, and in speaking of God both in the masculine and neuter gender, did he seem to himself inconsistent. For the difference between the personal and impersonal was not marked to him as to ourselves. We make a fundamental distinction between a thing and a person, while to Plato, by the help of various intermediate abstractions, such as end, good, cause, they appear almost to meet in one, or to be two aspects of the same. Hence, without any reconciliation or even remark, in the Republic he speaks at one time of God or Gods, and at another time of the Good. So in the Phaedrus he seems to pass unconsciously from the concrete to the abstract conception of the Ideas in the same dialogue. Nor in the Philebus is he careful to show in what relation the idea of the divine mind stands to the supreme principle of measure.
b. Again, to us there is a strongly-marked distinction between a first cause and a final cause. And we should commonly identify a first cause with God, and the final cause with the world, which is His work. But Plato, though not a Pantheist, and very far from confounding God with the world, tends to identify the first with the final cause. The cause of the union of the finite and infinite might be described as a higher law; the final measure which is the highest expression of the good may also be described as the supreme law. Both these conceptions are realized chiefly by the help of the material world; and therefore when we pass into the sphere of ideas can hardly be distinguished.
The four principles are required for the determination of the relative places of pleasure and wisdom. Plato has been saying that we should proceed by regular steps from the one to the many. Accordingly, before assigning the precedence either to good or pleasure, he must first find out and arrange in order the general principles of things. Mind is ascertained to be akin to the nature of the cause, while pleasure is found in the infinite or indefinite class. We may now proceed to divide pleasure and knowledge after their kinds.
III. 1. Plato speaks of pleasure as indefinite, as relative, as a generation, and in all these points of view as in a category distinct from good. For again we must repeat, that to the Greek 'the good is of the nature of the finite,' and, like virtue, either is, or is nearly allied to, knowledge. The modern philosopher would remark that the indefinite is equally real with the definite. Health and mental qualities are in the concrete undefined; they are nevertheless real goods, and Plato rightly regards them as falling under the finite class. Again, we are able to define objects or ideas, not in so far as they are in the mind, but in so far as they are manifested externally, and can therefore be reduced to rule and measure. And if we adopt the test of definiteness, the pleasures of the body are more capable of being defined than any other pleasures. As in art and knowledge generally, we proceed from without inwards, beginning with facts of sense, and passing to the more ideal conceptions of mental pleasure, happiness, and the like.
2. Pleasure is depreciated as relative, while good is exalted as absolute. But this distinction seems to arise from an unfair mode of regarding them; the abstract idea of the one is compared with the concrete experience of the other. For all pleasure and all knowledge may be viewed either abstracted from the mind, or in relation to the mind (compare Aristot. Nic. Ethics). The first is an idea only, which may be conceived as absolute and unchangeable, and then the abstract idea of pleasure will be equally unchangeable with that of knowledge. But when we come to view either as phenomena of consciousness, the same defects are for the most part incident to both of them. Our hold upon them is equally transient and uncertain; the mind cannot be always in a state of intellectual tension, any more than capable of feeling pleasure always. The knowledge which is at one time clear and distinct, at another seems to fade away, just as the pleasure of health after sickness, or of eating after hunger, soon passes into a neutral state of unconsciousness and indifference. Change and alternation are necessary for the mind as well as for the body; and in this is to be acknowledged, not an element of evil, but rather a law of nature. The chief difference between subjective pleasure and subjective knowledge in respect of permanence is that the latter, when our feeble faculties are able to grasp it, still conveys to us an idea of unchangeableness which cannot be got rid of.
3. In the language of ancient philosophy, the relative character of pleasure is described as becoming or generation. This is relative to Being or Essence, and from one point of view may be regarded as the Heraclitean flux in contrast with the Eleatic Being; from another, as the transient enjoyment of eating and drinking compared with the supposed permanence of intellectual pleasures. But to us the distinction is unmeaning, and belongs to a stage of philosophy which has passed away. Plato himself seems to have suspected that the continuance or life of things is quite as much to be attributed to a principle of rest as of motion (compare Charm. Cratyl.). A later view of pleasure is found in Aristotle, who agrees with Plato in many points, \textit{e.g}. in his view of pleasure as a restoration to nature, in his distinction between bodily and mental, between necessary and non-necessary pleasures. But he is also in advance of Plato; for he affirms that pleasure is not in the body at all; and hence not even the bodily pleasures are to be spoken of as generations, but only as accompanied by generation (Nic. Eth.).
4. Plato attempts to identify vicious pleasures with some form of error, and insists that the term false may be applied to them: in this he appears to be carrying out in a confused manner the Socratic doctrine, that virtue is knowledge, vice ignorance. He will allow of no distinction between the pleasures and the erroneous opinions on which they are founded, whether arising out of the illusion of distance or not. But to this we naturally reply with Protarchus, that the pleasure is what it is, although the calculation may be false, or the after-effects painful. It is difficult to acquit Plato, to use his own language, of being a `tyro in dialectics,' when he overlooks such a distinction. Yet, on the other hand, we are hardly fair judges of confusions of thought in those who view things differently from ourselves.
5. There appears also to be an incorrectness in the notion which occurs both here and in the Gorgias, of the simultaneousness of merely bodily pleasures and pains. We may, perhaps, admit, though even this is not free from doubt, that the feeling of pleasureable hope or recollection is, or rather may be, simultaneous with acute bodily suffering. But there is no such coexistence of the pain of thirst with the pleasures of drinking; they are not really simultaneous, for the one expels the other. Nor does Plato seem to have considered that the bodily pleasures, except in certain extreme cases, are unattended with pain. Few philosophers will deny that a degree of pleasure attends eating and drinking; and yet surely we might as well speak of the pains of digestion which follow, as of the pains of hunger and thirst which precede them. Plato's conception is derived partly from the extreme case of a man suffering pain from hunger or thirst, partly from the image of a full and empty vessel. But the truth is rather, that while the gratification of our bodily desires constantly affords some degree of pleasure, the antecedent pains are scarcely perceived by us, being almost done away with by use and regularity.
6. The desire to classify pleasures as accompanied or not accompanied by antecedent pains, has led Plato to place under one head the pleasures of smell and sight, as well as those derived from sounds of music and from knowledge. He would have done better to make a separate class of the pleasures of smell, having no association of mind, or perhaps to have divided them into natural and artificial. The pleasures of sight and sound might then have been regarded as being the expression of ideas. But this higher and truer point of view never appears to have occurred to Plato. Nor has he any distinction between the fine arts and the mechanical; and, neither here nor anywhere, an adequate conception of the beautiful in external things.
7. Plato agrees partially with certain `surly or fastidious' philosophers, as he terms them, who defined pleasure to be the absence of pain. They are also described as eminent in physics. There is unfortunately no school of Greek philosophy known to us which combined these two characteristics. Antisthenes, who was an enemy of pleasure, was not a physical philosopher; the atomists, who were physical philosophers, were not enemies of pleasure. Yet such a combination of opinions is far from being impossible. Plato's omission to mention them by name has created the same uncertainty respecting them which also occurs respecting the `friends of the ideas' and the `materialists' in the Sophist.
On the whole, this discussion is one of the least satisfactory in the dialogues of Plato. While the ethical nature of pleasure is scarcely considered, and the merely physical phenomenon imperfectly analysed, too much weight is given to ideas of measure and number, as the sole principle of good. The comparison of pleasure and knowledge is really a comparison of two elements, which have no common measure, and which cannot be excluded from each other. Feeling is not opposed to knowledge, and in all consciousness there is an element of both. The most abstract kinds of knowledge are inseparable from some pleasure or pain, which accompanies the acquisition or possession of them: the student is liable to grow weary of them, and soon discovers that continuous mental energy is not granted to men. The most sensual pleasure, on the other hand, is inseparable from the consciousness of pleasure; no man can be happy who, to borrow Plato's illustration, is leading the life of an oyster. Hence (by his own confession) the main thesis is not worth determining; the real interest lies in the incidental discussion. We can no more separate pleasure from knowledge in the Philebus than we can separate justice from happiness in the Republic.
IV. An interesting account is given in the Philebus of the rank and order of the sciences or arts, which agrees generally with the scheme of knowledge in the Sixth Book of the Republic. The chief difference is, that the position of the arts is more exactly defined. They are divided into an empirical part and a scientific part, of which the first is mere guess-work, the second is determined by rule and measure. Of the more empirical arts, music is given as an example; this, although affirmed to be necessary to human life, is depreciated. Music is regarded from a point of view entirely opposite to that of the Republic, not as a sublime science, coordinate with astronomy, but as full of doubt and conjecture. According to the standard of accuracy which is here adopted, it is rightly placed lower in the scale than carpentering, because the latter is more capable of being reduced to measure.
The theoretical element of the arts may also become a purely abstract science, when separated from matter, and is then said to be pure and unmixed. The distinction which Plato here makes seems to be the same as that between pure and applied mathematics, and may be expressed in the modern formula---science is art theoretical, art is science practical. In the reason which he gives for the superiority of the pure science of number over the mixed or applied, we can only agree with him in part. He says that the numbers which the philosopher employs are always the same, whereas the numbers which are used in practice represent different sizes or quantities. He does not see that this power of expressing different quantities by the same symbol is the characteristic and not the defect of numbers, and is due to their abstract nature;---although we admit of course what Plato seems to feel in his distinctions between pure and impure knowledge, that the imperfection of matter enters into the applications of them.
Above the other sciences, as in the Republic, towers dialectic, which is the science of eternal Being, apprehended by the purest mind and reason. The lower sciences, including the mathematical, are akin to opinion rather than to reason, and are placed together in the fourth class of goods. The relation in which they stand to dialectic is obscure in the Republic, and is not cleared up in the Philebus.
V. Thus far we have only attained to the vestibule or ante-chamber of the good; for there is a good exceeding knowledge, exceeding essence, which, like Glaucon in the Republic, we find a difficulty in apprehending. This good is now to be exhibited to us under various aspects and gradations. The relative dignity of pleasure and knowledge has been determined; but they have not yet received their exact position in the scale of goods. Some difficulties occur to us in the enumeration: First, how are we to distinguish the first from the second class of goods, or the second from the third? Secondly, why is there no mention of the supreme mind? Thirdly, the nature of the fourth class. Fourthly, the meaning of the allusion to a sixth class, which is not further investigated.
(I) Plato seems to proceed in his table of goods, from the more abstract to the less abstract; from the subjective to the objective; until at the lower end of the scale we fairly descend into the region of human action and feeling. To him, the greater the abstraction the greater the truth, and he is always tending to see abstractions within abstractions; which, like the ideas in the Parmenides, are always appearing one behind another. Hence we find a difficulty in following him into the sphere of thought which he is seeking to attain. First in his scale of goods he places measure, in which he finds the eternal nature: this would be more naturally expressed in modern language as eternal law, and seems to be akin both to the finite and to the mind or cause, which were two of the elements in the former table. Like the supreme nature in the Timaeus, like the ideal beauty in the Symposium or the Phaedrus, or like the ideal good in the Republic, this is the absolute and unapproachable being. But this being is manifested in symmetry and beauty everywhere, in the order of nature and of mind, in the relations of men to one another. For the word `measure' he now substitutes the word `symmetry,' as if intending to express measure conceived as relation. He then proceeds to regard the good no longer in an objective form, but as the human reason seeking to attain truth by the aid of dialectic; such at least we naturally infer to be his meaning, when we consider that both here and in the Republic the sphere of nous or mind is assigned to dialectic. (2) It is remarkable (see above) that this personal conception of mind is confined to the human mind, and not extended to the divine. (3) If we may be allowed to interpret one dialogue of Plato by another, the sciences of figure and number are probably classed with the arts and true opinions, because they proceed from hypotheses (compare Republic). (4) The sixth class, if a sixth class is to be added, is playfully set aside by a quotation from Orpheus: Plato means to say that a sixth class, if there be such a class, is not worth considering, because pleasure, having only gained the fifth place in the scale of goods, is already out of the running.
VI. We may now endeavour to ascertain the relation of the Philebus to the other dialogues. Here Plato shows the same indifference to his own doctrine of Ideas which he has already manifested in the Parmenides and the Sophist. The principle of the one and many of which he here speaks, is illustrated by examples in the Sophist and Statesman. Notwithstanding the differences of style, many resemblances may be noticed between the Philebus and Gorgias. The theory of the simultaneousness of pleasure and pain is common to both of them (Phil. Gorg.); there is also a common tendency in them to take up arms against pleasure, although the view of the Philebus, which is probably the later of the two dialogues, is the more moderate. There seems to be an allusion to the passage in the Gorgias, in which Socrates dilates on the pleasures of itching and scratching. Nor is there any real discrepancy in the manner in which Gorgias and his art are spoken of in the two dialogues. For Socrates is far from implying that the art of rhetoric has a real sphere of practical usefulness: he only means that the refutation of the claims of Gorgias is not necessary for his present purpose. He is saying in effect: 'Admit, if you please, that rhetoric is the greatest and usefullest of sciences:---this does not prove that dialectic is not the purest and most exact.' From the Sophist and Statesman we know that his hostility towards the sophists and rhetoricians was not mitigated in later life; although both in the Statesman and Laws he admits of a higher use of rhetoric.
Reasons have been already given for assigning a late date to the Philebus. That the date is probably later than that of the Republic, may be further argued on the following grounds:---1. The general resemblance to the later dialogues and to the Laws: 2. The more complete account of the nature of good and pleasure: 3. The distinction between perception, memory, recollection, and opinion which indicates a great progress in psychology; also between understanding and imagination, which is described under the figure of the scribe and the painter. A superficial notion may arise that Plato probably wrote shorter dialogues, such as the Philebus, the Sophist, and the Statesman, as studies or preparations for longer ones. This view may be natural; but on further reflection is seen to be fallacious, because these three dialogues are found to make an advance upon the metaphysical conceptions of the Republic. And we can more easily suppose that Plato composed shorter writings after longer ones, than suppose that he lost hold of further points of view which he had once attained.
It is more easy to find traces of the Pythagoreans, Eleatics, Megarians, Cynics, Cyrenaics and of the ideas of Anaxagoras, in the Philebus, than to say how much is due to each of them. Had we fuller records of those old philosophers, we should probably find Plato in the midst of the fray attempting to combine Eleatic and Pythagorean doctrines, and seeking to find a truth beyond either Being or number; setting up his own concrete conception of good against the abstract practical good of the Cynics, or the abstract intellectual good of the Megarians, and his own idea of classification against the denial of plurality in unity which is also attributed to them; warring against the Eristics as destructive of truth, as he had formerly fought against the Sophists; taking up a middle position between the Cynics and Cyrenaics in his doctrine of pleasure; asserting with more consistency than Anaxagoras the existence of an intelligent mind and cause. Of the Heracliteans, whom he is said by Aristotle to have cultivated in his youth, he speaks in the Philebus, as in the Theaetetus and Cratylus, with irony and contempt. But we have not the knowledge which would enable us to pursue further the line of reflection here indicated; nor can we expect to find perfect clearness or order in the first efforts of mankind to understand the working of their own minds. The ideas which they are attempting to analyse, they are also in process of creating; the abstract universals of which they are seeking to adjust the relations have been already excluded by them from the category of relation.
...
The Philebus, like the Cratylus, is supposed to be the continuation of a previous discussion. An argument respecting the comparative claims of pleasure and wisdom to rank as the chief good has been already carried on between Philebus and Socrates. The argument is now transferred to Protarchus, the son of Callias, a noble Athenian youth, sprung from a family which had spent `a world of money' on the Sophists (compare Apol.; Crat.; Protag.). Philebus, who appears to be the teacher, or elder friend, and perhaps the lover, of Protarchus, takes no further part in the discussion beyond asserting in the strongest manner his adherence, under all circumstances, to the cause of pleasure.
Socrates suggests that they shall have a first and second palm of victory. For there may be a good higher than either pleasure or wisdom, and then neither of them will gain the first prize, but whichever of the two is more akin to this higher good will have a right to the second. They agree, and Socrates opens the game by enlarging on the diversity and opposition which exists among pleasures. For there are pleasures of all kinds, good and bad, wise and foolish---pleasures of the temperate as well as of the intemperate. Protarchus replies that although pleasures may be opposed in so far as they spring from opposite sources, nevertheless as pleasures they are alike. Yes, retorts Socrates, pleasure is like pleasure, as figure is like figure and colour like colour; yet we all know that there is great variety among figures and colours. Protarchus does not see the drift of this remark; and Socrates proceeds to ask how he can have a right to attribute a new predicate (i.e. `good') to pleasures in general, when he cannot deny that they are different? What common property in all of them does he mean to indicate by the term `good'? If he continues to assert that there is some trivial sense in which pleasure is one, Socrates may retort by saying that knowledge is one, but the result will be that such merely verbal and trivial conceptions, whether of knowledge or pleasure, will spoil the discussion, and will prove the incapacity of the two disputants. In order to avoid this danger, he proposes that they shall beat a retreat, and, before they proceed, come to an understanding about the 'high argument' of the one and the many.
Protarchus agrees to the proposal, but he is under the impression that Socrates means to discuss the common question---how a sensible object can be one, and yet have opposite attributes, such as `great' and `small,' `light' and `heavy,' or how there can be many members in one body, and the like wonders. Socrates has long ceased to see any wonder in these phenomena; his difficulties begin with the application of number to abstract unities (e.g.'man,' `good') and with the attempt to divide them. For have these unities of idea any real existence? How, if imperishable, can they enter into the world of generation? How, as units, can they be divided and dispersed among different objects? Or do they exist in their entirety in each object? These difficulties are but imperfectly answered by Socrates in what follows.
We speak of a one and many, which is ever flowing in and out of all things, concerning which a young man often runs wild in his first metaphysical enthusiasm, talking about analysis and synthesis to his father and mother and the neighbours, hardly sparing even his dog. This `one in many' is a revelation of the order of the world, which some Prometheus first made known to our ancestors; and they, who were better men and nearer the gods than we are, have handed it down to us. To know how to proceed by regular steps from one to many, and from many to one, is just what makes the difference between eristic and dialectic. And the right way of proceeding is to look for one idea or class in all things, and when you have found one to look for more than one, and for all that there are, and when you have found them all and regularly divided a particular field of knowledge into classes, you may leave the further consideration of individuals. But you must not pass at once either from unity to infinity, or from infinity to unity. In music, for example, you may begin with the most general notion, but this alone will not make you a musician: you must know also the number and nature of the intervals, and the systems which are framed out of them, and the rhythms of the dance which correspond to them. And when you have a similar knowledge of any other subject, you may be said to know that subject. In speech again there are infinite varieties of sound, and some one who was a wise man, or more than man, comprehended them all in the classes of mutes, vowels, and semivowels, and gave to each of them a name, and assigned them to the art of grammar.
'But whither, Socrates, are you going? And what has this to do with the comparative eligibility of pleasure and wisdom:' Socrates replies, that before we can adjust their respective claims, we want to know the number and kinds of both of them. What are they? He is requested to answer the question himself. That he will, if he may be allowed to make one or two preliminary remarks. In the first place he has a dreamy recollection of hearing that neither pleasure nor knowledge is the highest good, for the good should be perfect and sufficient. But is the life of pleasure perfect and sufficient, when deprived of memory, consciousness, anticipation? Is not this the life of an oyster? Or is the life of mind sufficient, if devoid of any particle of pleasure? Must not the union of the two be higher and more eligible than either separately? And is not the element which makes this mixed life eligible more akin to mind than to pleasure? Thus pleasure is rejected and mind is rejected. And yet there may be a life of mind, not human but divine, which conquers still.
But, if we are to pursue this argument further, we shall require some new weapons; and by this, I mean a new classification of existence. (1) There is a finite element of existence, and (2) an infinite, and (3) the union of the two, and (4) the cause of the union. More may be added if they are wanted, but at present we can do without them. And first of the infinite or indefinite:---That is the class which is denoted by the terms more or less, and is always in a state of comparison. All words or ideas to which the words `gently,' `extremely,' and other comparative expressions are applied, fall under this class. The infinite would be no longer infinite, if limited or reduced to measure by number and quantity. The opposite class is the limited or finite, and includes all things which have number and quantity. And there is a third class of generation into essence by the union of the finite and infinite, in which the finite gives law to the infinite;---under this are comprehended health, strength, temperate seasons, harmony, beauty, and the like. The goddess of beauty saw the universal wantonness of all things, and gave law and order to be the salvation of the soul. But no effect can be generated without a cause, and therefore there must be a fourth class, which is the cause of generation; for the cause or agent is not the same as the patient or effect.
And now, having obtained our classes, we may determine in which our conqueror life is to be placed: Clearly in the third or mixed class, in which the finite gives law to the infinite. And in which is pleasure to find a place? As clearly in the infinite or indefinite, which alone, as Protarchus thinks (who seems to confuse the infinite with the superlative), gives to pleasure the character of the absolute good. Yes, retorts Socrates, and also to pain the character of absolute evil. And therefore the infinite cannot be that which imparts to pleasure the nature of the good. But where shall we place mind? That is a very serious and awful question, which may be prefaced by another. Is mind or chance the lord of the universe? All philosophers will say the first, and yet, perhaps, they may be only magnifying themselves. And for this reason I should like to consider the matter a little more deeply, even though some lovers of disorder in the world should ridicule my attempt.
Now the elements earth, air, fire, water, exist in us, and they exist in the cosmos; but they are purer and fairer in the cosmos than they are in us, and they come to us from thence. And as we have a soul as well as a body, in like manner the elements of the finite, the infinite, the union of the two, and the cause, are found to exist in us. And if they, like the elements, exist in us, and the three first exist in the world, must not the fourth or cause which is the noblest of them, exist in the world? And this cause is wisdom or mind, the royal mind of Zeus, who is the king of all, as there are other gods who have other noble attributes. Observe how well this agrees with the testimony of men of old, who affirmed mind to be the ruler of the universe. And remember that mind belongs to the class which we term the cause, and pleasure to the infinite or indefinite class. We will examine the place and origin of both.
What is the origin of pleasure? Her natural seat is the mixed class, in which health and harmony were placed. Pain is the violation, and pleasure the restoration of limit. There is a natural union of finite and infinite, which in hunger, thirst, heat, cold, is impaired---this is painful, but the return to nature, in which the elements are restored to their normal proportions, is pleasant. Here is our first class of pleasures. And another class of pleasures and pains are hopes and fears; these are in the mind only. And inasmuch as the pleasures are unalloyed by pains and the pains by pleasures, the examination of them may show us whether all pleasure is to be desired, or whether this entire desirableness is not rather the attribute of another class. But if pleasures and pains consist in the violation and restoration of limit, may there not be a neutral state, in which there is neither dissolution nor restoration? That is a further question, and admitting, as we must, the possibility of such a state, there seems to be no reason why the life of wisdom should not exist in this neutral state, which is, moreover, the state of the gods, who cannot, without indecency, be supposed to feel either joy or sorrow.
The second class of pleasures involves memory. There are affections which are extinguished before they reach the soul, and of these there is no consciousness, and therefore no memory. And there are affections which the body and soul feel together, and this feeling is termed consciousness. And memory is the preservation of consciousness, and reminiscence is the recovery of consciousness. Now the memory of pleasure, when a man is in pain, is the memory of the opposite of his actual bodily state, and is therefore not in the body, but in the mind. And there may be an intermediate state, in which a person is balanced between pleasure and pain; in his body there is want which is a cause of pain, but in his mind a sure hope of replenishment, which is pleasant. (But if the hope be converted into despair, he has two pains and not a balance of pain and pleasure.) Another question is raised: May not pleasures, like opinions, be true and false? In the sense of being real, both must be admitted to be true: nor can we deny that to both of them qualities may be attributed; for pleasures as well as opinions may be described as good or bad. And though we do not all of us allow that there are true and false pleasures, we all acknowledge that there are some pleasures associated with right opinion, and others with falsehood and ignorance. Let us endeavour to analyze the nature of this association.
Opinion is based on perception, which may be correct or mistaken. You may see a figure at a distance, and say first of all, `This is a man,' and then say, `No, this is an image made by the shepherds.' And you may affirm this in a proposition to your companion, or make the remark mentally to yourself. Whether the words are actually spoken or not, on such occasions there is a scribe within who registers them, and a painter who paints the images of the things which the scribe has written down in the soul,---at least that is my own notion of the process; and the words and images which are inscribed by them may be either true or false; and they may represent either past, present, or future. And, representing the future, they must also represent the pleasures and pains of anticipation---the visions of gold and other fancies which are never wanting in the mind of man. Now these hopes, as they are termed, are propositions, which are sometimes true, and sometimes false; for the good, who are the friends of the gods, see true pictures of the future, and the bad false ones. And as there may be opinion about things which are not, were not, and will not be, which is opinion still, so there may be pleasure about things which are not, were not, and will not be, which is pleasure still,---that is to say, false pleasure; and only when false, can pleasure, like opinion, be vicious. Against this conclusion Protarchus reclaims.
Leaving his denial for the present, Socrates proceeds to show that some pleasures are false from another point of view. In desire, as we admitted, the body is divided from the soul, and hence pleasures and pains are often simultaneous. And we further admitted that both of them belonged to the infinite class. How, then, can we compare them? Are we not liable, or rather certain, as in the case of sight, to be deceived by distance and relation? In this case the pleasures and pains are not false because based upon false opinion, but are themselves false. And there is another illusion: pain has often been said by us to arise out of the derangement---pleasure out of the restoration---of our nature. But in passing from one to the other, do we not experience neutral states, which although they appear pleasureable or painful are really neither? For even if we admit, with the wise man whom Protarchus loves (and only a wise man could have ever entertained such a notion), that all things are in a perpetual flux, still these changes are often unconscious, and devoid either of pleasure or pain. We assume, then, that there are three states---pleasureable, painful, neutral; we may embellish a little by calling them gold, silver, and that which is neither.
But there are certain natural philosophers who will not admit a third state. Their instinctive dislike to pleasure leads them to affirm that pleasure is only the absence of pain. They are noble fellows, and, although we do not agree with them, we may use them as diviners who will indicate to us the right track. They will say, that the nature of anything is best known from the examination of extreme cases, \textit{e.g}. the nature of hardness from the examination of the hardest things; and that the nature of pleasure will be best understood from an examination of the most intense pleasures. Now these are the pleasures of the body, not of the mind; the pleasures of disease and not of health, the pleasures of the intemperate and not of the temperate. I am speaking, not of the frequency or continuance, but only of the intensity of such pleasures, and this is given them by contrast with the pain or sickness of body which precedes them. Their morbid nature is illustrated by the lesser instances of itching and scratching, respecting which I swear that I cannot tell whether they are a pleasure or a pain. (1) Some of these arise out of a transition from one state of the body to another, as from cold to hot; (2) others are caused by the contrast of an internal pain and an external pleasure in the body: sometimes the feeling of pain predominates, as in itching and tingling, when they are relieved by scratching; sometimes the feeling of pleasure: or the pleasure which they give may be quite overpowering, and is then accompanied by all sorts of unutterable feelings which have a death of delights in them. But there are also mixed pleasures which are in the mind only. For are not love and sorrow as well as anger `sweeter than honey,' and also full of pain? Is there not a mixture of feelings in the spectator of tragedy? and of comedy also? `I do not understand that last.' Well, then, with the view of lighting up the obscurity of these mixed feelings, let me ask whether envy is painful. `Yes.' And yet the envious man finds something pleasing in the misfortunes of others? `True.' And ignorance is a misfortune? `Certainly.' And one form of ignorance is self-conceit---a man may fancy himself richer, fairer, better, wiser than he is? `Yes.' And he who thus deceives himself may be strong or weak? `He may.' And if he is strong we fear him, and if he is weak we laugh at him, which is a pleasure, and yet we envy him, which is a pain? These mixed feelings are the rationale of tragedy and comedy, and equally the rationale of the greater drama of human life. (There appears to be some confusion in this passage. There is no difficulty in seeing that in comedy, as in tragedy, the spectator may view the performance with mixed feelings of pain as well as of pleasure; nor is there any difficulty in understanding that envy is a mixed feeling, which rejoices not without pain at the misfortunes of others, and laughs at their ignorance of themselves. But Plato seems to think further that he has explained the feeling of the spectator in comedy sufficiently by a theory which only applies to comedy in so far as in comedy we laugh at the conceit or weakness of others. He has certainly given a very partial explanation of the ridiculous.) Having shown how sorrow, anger, envy are feelings of a mixed nature, I will reserve the consideration of the remainder for another occasion.
Next follow the unmixed pleasures; which, unlike the philosophers of whom I was speaking, I believe to be real. These unmixed pleasures are: (1) The pleasures derived from beauty of form, colour, sound, smell, which are absolutely pure; and in general those which are unalloyed with pain: (2) The pleasures derived from the acquisition of knowledge, which in themselves are pure, but may be attended by an accidental pain of forgetting; this, however, arises from a subsequent act of reflection, of which we need take no account. At the same time, we admit that the latter pleasures are the property of a very few. To these pure and unmixed pleasures we ascribe measure, whereas all others belong to the class of the infinite, and are liable to every species of excess. And here several questions arise for consideration:---What is the meaning of pure and impure, of moderate and immoderate? We may answer the question by an illustration: Purity of white paint consists in the clearness or quality of the white, and this is distinct from the quantity or amount of white paint; a little pure white is fairer than a great deal which is impure. But there is another question:---Pleasure is affirmed by ingenious philosophers to be a generation; they say that there are two natures---one self-existent, the other dependent; the one noble and majestic, the other failing in both these qualities. 'I do not understand.' There are lovers and there are loves. 'Yes, I know, but what is the application?' The argument is in play, and desires to intimate that there are relatives and there are absolutes, and that the relative is for the sake of the absolute; and generation is for the sake of essence. Under relatives I class all things done with a view to generation; and essence is of the class of good. But if essence is of the class of good, generation must be of some other class; and our friends, who affirm that pleasure is a generation, would laugh at the notion that pleasure is a good; and at that other notion, that pleasure is produced by generation, which is only the alternative of destruction. Who would prefer such an alternation to the equable life of pure thought? Here is one absurdity, and not the only one, to which the friends of pleasure are reduced. For is there not also an absurdity in affirming that good is of the soul only; or in declaring that the best of men, if he be in pain, is bad?
And now, from the consideration of pleasure, we pass to that of knowledge. Let us reflect that there are two kinds of knowledge---the one creative or productive, and the other educational and philosophical. Of the creative arts, there is one part purer or more akin to knowledge than the other. There is an element of guess-work and an element of number and measure in them. In music, for example, especially in flute-playing, the conjectural element prevails; while in carpentering there is more application of rule and measure. Of the creative arts, then, we may make two classes---the less exact and the more exact. And the exacter part of all of them is really arithmetic and mensuration. But arithmetic and mensuration again may be subdivided with reference either to their use in the concrete, or to their nature in the abstract---as they are regarded popularly in building and binding, or theoretically by philosophers. And, borrowing the analogy of pleasure, we may say that the philosophical use of them is purer than the other. Thus we have two arts of arithmetic, and two of mensuration. And truest of all in the estimation of every rational man is dialectic, or the science of being, which will forget and disown us, if we forget and disown her.
'But, Socrates, I have heard Gorgias say that rhetoric is the greatest and usefullest of arts; and I should not like to quarrel either with him or you.' Neither is there any inconsistency, Protarchus, with his statement in what I am now saying; for I am not maintaining that dialectic is the greatest or usefullest, but only that she is the truest of arts; my remark is not quantitative but qualitative, and refers not to the advantage or repetition of either, but to the degree of truth which they attain---here Gorgias will not care to compete; this is what we affirm to be possessed in the highest degree by dialectic. And do not let us appeal to Gorgias or Philebus or Socrates, but ask, on behalf of the argument, what are the highest truths which the soul has the power of attaining. And is not this the science which has a firmer grasp of them than any other? For the arts generally are only occupied with matters of opinion, and with the production and action and passion of this sensible world. But the highest truth is that which is eternal and unchangeable. And reason and wisdom are concerned with the eternal; and these are the very claimants, if not for the first, at least for the second place, whom I propose as rivals to pleasure.
And now, having the materials, we may proceed to mix them---first recapitulating the question at issue.
Philebus affirmed pleasure to be the good, and assumed them to be one nature; I affirmed that they were two natures, and declared that knowledge was more akin to the good than pleasure. I said that the two together were more eligible than either taken singly; and to this we adhere. Reason intimates, as at first, that we should seek the good not in the unmixed life, but in the mixed.
The cup is ready, waiting to be mingled, and here are two fountains, one of honey, the other of pure water, out of which to make the fairest possible mixture. There are pure and impure pleasures---pure and impure sciences. Let us consider the sections of each which have the most of purity and truth; to admit them all indiscriminately would be dangerous. First we will take the pure sciences; but shall we mingle the impure---the art which uses the false rule and the false measure? That we must, if we are any of us to find our way home; man cannot live upon pure mathematics alone. And must I include music, which is admitted to be guess-work? `Yes, you must, if human life is to have any humanity.' Well, then, I will open the door and let them all in; they shall mingle in an Homeric `meeting of the waters.' And now we turn to the pleasures; shall I admit them? 'Admit first of all the pure pleasures; secondly, the necessary.' And what shall we say about the rest? First, ask the pleasures---they will be too happy to dwell with wisdom. Secondly, ask the arts and sciences---they reply that the excesses of intemperance are the ruin of them; and that they would rather only have the pleasures of health and temperance, which are the handmaidens of virtue. But still we want truth? That is now added; and so the argument is complete, and may be compared to an incorporeal law, which is to hold fair rule over a living body. And now we are at the vestibule of the good, in which there are three chief elements---truth, symmetry, and beauty. These will be the criterion of the comparative claims of pleasure and wisdom.
Which has the greater share of truth? Surely wisdom; for pleasure is the veriest impostor in the world, and the perjuries of lovers have passed into a proverb.
Which of symmetry? Wisdom again; for nothing is more immoderate than pleasure.
Which of beauty? Once more, wisdom; for pleasure is often unseemly, and the greatest pleasures are put out of sight.
Not pleasure, then, ranks first in the scale of good, but measure, and eternal harmony.
Second comes the symmetrical and beautiful and perfect.
Third, mind and wisdom.
Fourth, sciences and arts and true opinions.
Fifth, painless pleasures.
Of a sixth class, I have no more to say. Thus, pleasure and mind may both renounce the claim to the first place. But mind is ten thousand times nearer to the chief good than pleasure. Pleasure ranks fifth and not first, even though all the animals in the world assert the contrary.
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From the days of Aristippus and Epicurus to our own times the nature of pleasure has occupied the attention of philosophers. 'Is pleasure an evil? a good? the only good?' are the simple forms which the enquiry assumed among the Socratic schools. But at an early stage of the controversy another question was asked: 'Do pleasures differ in kind? and are some bad, some good, and some neither bad nor good?' There are bodily and there are mental pleasures, which were at first confused but afterwards distinguished. A distinction was also made between necessary and unnecessary pleasures; and again between pleasures which had or had not corresponding pains. The ancient philosophers were fond of asking, in the language of their age, 'Is pleasure a ``becoming'' only, and therefore transient and relative, or do some pleasures partake of truth and Being?' To these ancient speculations the moderns have added a further question:---'Whose pleasure? The pleasure of yourself, or of your neighbour,---of the individual, or of the world?' This little addition has changed the whole aspect of the discussion: the same word is now supposed to include two principles as widely different as benevolence and self-love. Some modern writers have also distinguished between pleasure the test, and pleasure the motive of actions. For the universal test of right actions (how I know them) may not always be the highest or best motive of them (why I do them).
Socrates, as we learn from the Memorabilia of Xenophon, first drew attention to the consequences of actions. Mankind were said by him to act rightly when they knew what they were doing, or, in the language of the Gorgias, `did what they would.' He seems to have been the first who maintained that the good was the useful (Mem.). In his eagerness for generalization, seeking, as Aristotle says, for the universal in Ethics (Metaph.), he took the most obvious intellectual aspect of human action which occurred to him. He meant to emphasize, not pleasure, but the calculation of pleasure; neither is he arguing that pleasure is the chief good, but that we should have a principle of choice. He did not intend to oppose `the useful' to some higher conception, such as the Platonic ideal, but to chance and caprice. The Platonic Socrates pursues the same vein of thought in the Protagoras, where he argues against the so-called sophist that pleasure and pain are the final standards and motives of good and evil, and that the salvation of human life depends upon a right estimate of pleasures greater or less when seen near and at a distance. The testimony of Xenophon is thus confirmed by that of Plato, and we are therefore justified in calling Socrates the first utilitarian; as indeed there is no side or aspect of philosophy which may not with reason be ascribed to him---he is Cynic and Cyrenaic, Platonist and Aristotelian in one. But in the Phaedo the Socratic has already passed into a more ideal point of view; and he, or rather Plato speaking in his person, expressly repudiates the notion that the exchange of a less pleasure for a greater can be an exchange of virtue. Such virtue is the virtue of ordinary men who live in the world of appearance; they are temperate only that they may enjoy the pleasures of intemperance, and courageous from fear of danger. Whereas the philosopher is seeking after wisdom and not after pleasure, whether near or distant: he is the mystic, the initiated, who has learnt to despise the body and is yearning all his life long for a truth which will hereafter be revealed to him. In the Republic the pleasures of knowledge are affirmed to be superior to other pleasures, because the philosopher so estimates them; and he alone has had experience of both kinds. (Compare a similar argument urged by one of the latest defenders of Utilitarianism, Mill's Utilitarianism). In the Philebus, Plato, although he regards the enemies of pleasure with complacency, still further modifies the transcendentalism of the Phaedo. For he is compelled to confess, rather reluctantly, perhaps, that some pleasures, \textit{i.e}. those which have no antecedent pains, claim a place in the scale of goods.
There have been many reasons why not only Plato but mankind in general have been unwilling to acknowledge that `pleasure is the chief good.' Either they have heard a voice calling to them out of another world; or the life and example of some great teacher has cast their thoughts of right and wrong in another mould; or the word `pleasure' has been associated in their mind with merely animal enjoyment. They could not believe that what they were always striving to overcome, and the power or principle in them which overcame, were of the same nature. The pleasure of doing good to others and of bodily self-indulgence, the pleasures of intellect and the pleasures of sense, are so different:---Why then should they be called by a common name? Or, if the equivocal or metaphorical use of the word is justified by custom (like the use of other words which at first referred only to the body, and then by a figure have been transferred to the mind), still, why should we make an ambiguous word the corner-stone of moral philosophy? To the higher thinker the Utilitarian or hedonist mode of speaking has been at variance with religion and with any higher conception both of politics and of morals. It has not satisfied their imagination; it has offended their taste. To elevate pleasure, `the most fleeting of all things,' into a general idea seems to such men a contradiction. They do not desire to bring down their theory to the level of their practice. The simplicity of the `greatest happiness' principle has been acceptable to philosophers, but the better part of the world has been slow to receive it.
Before proceeding, we may make a few admissions which will narrow the field of dispute; and we may as well leave behind a few prejudices, which intelligent opponents of Utilitarianism have by this time 'agreed to discard'. We admit that Utility is coextensive with right, and that no action can be right which does not tend to the happiness of mankind; we acknowledge that a large class of actions are made right or wrong by their consequences only; we say further that mankind are not too mindful, but that they are far too regardless of consequences, and that they need to have the doctrine of utility habitually inculcated on them. We recognize the value of a principle which can supply a connecting link between Ethics and Politics, and under which all human actions are or may be included. The desire to promote happiness is no mean preference of expediency to right, but one of the highest and noblest motives by which human nature can be animated. Neither in referring actions to the test of utility have we to make a laborious calculation, any more than in trying them by other standards of morals. For long ago they have been classified sufficiently for all practical purposes by the thinker, by the legislator, by the opinion of the world. Whatever may be the hypothesis on which they are explained, or which in doubtful cases may be applied to the regulation of them, we are very rarely, if ever, called upon at the moment of performing them to determine their effect upon the happiness of mankind.
There is a theory which has been contrasted with Utility by Paley and others---the theory of a moral sense: Are our ideas of right and wrong innate or derived from experience? This, perhaps, is another of those speculations which intelligent men might `agree to discard.' For it has been worn threadbare; and either alternative is equally consistent with a transcendental or with an eudaemonistic system of ethics, with a greatest happiness principle or with Kant's law of duty. Yet to avoid misconception, what appears to be the truth about the origin of our moral ideas may be shortly summed up as follows:---To each of us individually our moral ideas come first of all in childhood through the medium of education, from parents and teachers, assisted by the unconscious influence of language; they are impressed upon a mind which at first is like a waxen tablet, adapted to receive them; but they soon become fixed or set, and in after life are strengthened, or perhaps weakened by the force of public opinion. They may be corrected and enlarged by experience, they may be reasoned about, they may be brought home to us by the circumstances of our lives, they may be intensified by imagination, by reflection, by a course of action likely to confirm them. Under the influence of religious feeling or by an effort of thought, any one beginning with the ordinary rules of morality may create out of them for himself ideals of holiness and virtue. They slumber in the minds of most men, yet in all of us there remains some tincture of affection, some desire of good, some sense of truth, some fear of the law. Of some such state or process each individual is conscious in himself, and if he compares his own experience with that of others he will find the witness of their consciences to coincide with that of his own. All of us have entered into an inheritance which we have the power of appropriating and making use of. No great effort of mind is required on our part; we learn morals, as we learn to talk, instinctively, from conversing with others, in an enlightened age, in a civilized country, in a good home. A well-educated child of ten years old already knows the essentials of morals: `Thou shalt not steal,' `thou shalt speak the truth,' `thou shalt love thy parents,' 'thou shalt fear God.' What more does he want?
But whence comes this common inheritance or stock of moral ideas? Their beginning, like all other beginnings of human things, is obscure, and is the least important part of them. Imagine, if you will, that Society originated in the herding of brutes, in their parental instincts, in their rude attempts at self-preservation:---Man is not man in that he resembles, but in that he differs from them. We must pass into another cycle of existence, before we can discover in him by any evidence accessible to us even the germs of our moral ideas. In the history of the world, which viewed from within is the history of the human mind, they have been slowly created by religion, by poetry, by law, having their foundation in the natural affections and in the necessity of some degree of truth and justice in a social state; they have been deepened and enlarged by the efforts of great thinkers who have idealized and connected them---by the lives of saints and prophets who have taught and exemplified them. The schools of ancient philosophy which seem so far from us---Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, the Epicureans, and a few modern teachers, such as Kant and Bentham, have each of them supplied `moments' of thought to the world. The life of Christ has embodied a divine love, wisdom, patience, reasonableness. For his image, however imperfectly handed down to us, the modern world has received a standard more perfect in idea than the societies of ancient times, but also further removed from practice. For there is certainly a greater interval between the theory and practice of Christians than between the theory and practice of the Greeks and Romans; the ideal is more above us, and the aspiration after good has often lent a strange power to evil. And sometimes, as at the Reformation, or French Revolution, when the upper classes of a so-called Christian country have become corrupted by priestcraft, by casuistry, by licentiousness, by despotism, the lower have risen up and re-asserted the natural sense of religion and right.
We may further remark that our moral ideas, as the world grows older, perhaps as we grow older ourselves, unless they have been undermined in us by false philosophy or the practice of mental analysis, or infected by the corruption of society or by some moral disorder in the individual, are constantly assuming a more natural and necessary character. The habit of the mind, the opinion of the world, familiarizes them to us; and they take more and more the form of immediate intuition. The moral sense comes last and not first in the order of their development, and is the instinct which we have inherited or acquired, not the nobler effort of reflection which created them and which keeps them alive. We do not stop to reason about common honesty. Whenever we are not blinded by self-deceit, as for example in judging the actions of others, we have no hesitation in determining what is right and wrong. The principles of morality, when not at variance with some desire or worldly interest of our own, or with the opinion of the public, are hardly perceived by us; but in the conflict of reason and passion they assert their authority and are not overcome without remorse.
Such is a brief outline of the history of our moral ideas. We have to distinguish, first of all, the manner in which they have grown up in the world from the manner in which they have been communicated to each of us. We may represent them to ourselves as flowing out of the boundless ocean of language and thought in little rills, which convey them to the heart and brain of each individual. But neither must we confound the theories or aspects of morality with the origin of our moral ideas. These are not the roots or `origines' of morals, but the latest efforts of reflection, the lights in which the whole moral world has been regarded by different thinkers and successive generations of men. If we ask: Which of these many theories is the true one? we may answer: All of them---moral sense, innate ideas, a priori, a posteriori notions, the philosophy of experience, the philosophy of intuition---all of them have added something to our conception of Ethics; no one of them is the whole truth. But to decide how far our ideas of morality are derived from one source or another; to determine what history, what philosophy has contributed to them; to distinguish the original, simple elements from the manifold and complex applications of them, would be a long enquiry too far removed from the question which we are now pursuing.
Bearing in mind the distinction which we have been seeking to establish between our earliest and our most mature ideas of morality, we may now proceed to state the theory of Utility, not exactly in the words, but in the spirit of one of its ablest and most moderate supporters (Mill's Utilitarianism):---'That which alone makes actions either right or desirable is their utility, or tendency to promote the happiness of mankind, or, in other words, to increase the sum of pleasure in the world. But all pleasures are not the same: they differ in quality as well as in quantity, and the pleasure which is superior in quality is incommensurable with the inferior. Neither is the pleasure or happiness, which we seek, our own pleasure, but that of others,---of our family, of our country, of mankind. The desire of this, and even the sacrifice of our own interest to that of other men, may become a passion to a rightly educated nature. The Utilitarian finds a place in his system for this virtue and for every other.'
Good or happiness or pleasure is thus regarded as the true and only end of human life. To this all our desires will be found to tend, and in accordance with this all the virtues, including justice, may be explained. Admitting that men rest for a time in inferior ends, and do not cast their eyes beyond them, these ends are really dependent on the greater end of happiness, and would not be pursued, unless in general they had been found to lead to it. The existence of such an end is proved, as in Aristotle's time, so in our own, by the universal fact that men desire it. The obligation to promote it is based upon the social nature of man; this sense of duty is shared by all of us in some degree, and is capable of being greatly fostered and strengthened. So far from being inconsistent with religion, the greatest happiness principle is in the highest degree agreeable to it. For what can be more reasonable than that God should will the happiness of all his creatures? and in working out their happiness we may be said to be 'working together with him.' Nor is it inconceivable that a new enthusiasm of the future, far stronger than any old religion, may be based upon such a conception.
But then for the familiar phrase of the `greatest happiness principle,' it seems as if we ought now to read `the noblest happiness principle,' 'the happiness of others principle'---the principle not of the greatest, but of the highest pleasure, pursued with no more regard to our own immediate interest than is required by the law of self-preservation. Transfer the thought of happiness to another life, dropping the external circumstances which form so large a part of our idea of happiness in this, and the meaning of the word becomes indistinguishable from holiness, harmony, wisdom, love. By the slight addition `of others,' all the associations of the word are altered; we seem to have passed over from one theory of morals to the opposite. For allowing that the happiness of others is reflected on ourselves, and also that every man must live before he can do good to others, still the last limitation is a very trifling exception, and the happiness of another is very far from compensating for the loss of our own. According to Mr. Mill, he would best carry out the principle of utility who sacrificed his own pleasure most to that of his fellow-men. But if so, Hobbes and Butler, Shaftesbury and Hume, are not so far apart as they and their followers imagine. The thought of self and the thought of others are alike superseded in the more general notion of the happiness of mankind at large. But in this composite good, until society becomes perfected, the friend of man himself has generally the least share, and may be a great sufferer.
And now what objection have we to urge against a system of moral philosophy so beneficent, so enlightened, so ideal, and at the same time so practical,---so Christian, as we may say without exaggeration,---and which has the further advantage of resting morality on a principle intelligible to all capacities? Have we not found that which Socrates and Plato `grew old in seeking'? Are we not desirous of happiness, at any rate for ourselves and our friends, if not for all mankind? If, as is natural, we begin by thinking of ourselves first, we are easily led on to think of others; for we cannot help acknowledging that what is right for us is the right and inheritance of others. We feel the advantage of an abstract principle wide enough and strong enough to override all the particularisms of mankind; which acknowledges a universal good, truth, right; which is capable of inspiring men like a passion, and is the symbol of a cause for which they are ready to contend to their life's end.
And if we test this principle by the lives of its professors, it would certainly appear inferior to none as a rule of action. From the days of Eudoxus (Arist. Ethics) and Epicurus to our own, the votaries of pleasure have gained belief for their principles by their practice. Two of the noblest and most disinterested men who have lived in this century, Bentham and J. S. Mill, whose lives were a long devotion to the service of their fellows, have been among the most enthusiastic supporters of utility; while among their contemporaries, some who were of a more mystical turn of mind, have ended rather in aspiration than in action, and have been found unequal to the duties of life. Looking back on them now that they are removed from the scene, we feel that mankind has been the better for them. The world was against them while they lived; but this is rather a reason for admiring than for depreciating them. Nor can any one doubt that the influence of their philosophy on politics---especially on foreign politics, on law, on social life, has been upon the whole beneficial. Nevertheless, they will never have justice done to them, for they do not agree either with the better feeling of the multitude or with the idealism of more refined thinkers. Without Bentham, a great word in the history of philosophy would have remained unspoken. Yet to this day it is rare to hear his name received with any mark of respect such as would be freely granted to the ambiguous memory of some father of the Church. The odium which attached to him when alive has not been removed by his death. For he shocked his contemporaries by egotism and want of taste; and this generation which has reaped the benefit of his labours has inherited the feeling of the last. He was before his own age, and is hardly remembered in this.
While acknowledging the benefits which the greatest happiness principle has conferred upon mankind, the time appears to have arrived, not for denying its claims, but for criticizing them and comparing them with other principles which equally claim to lie at the foundation of ethics. Any one who adds a general principle to knowledge has been a benefactor to the world. But there is a danger that, in his first enthusiasm, he may not recognize the proportions or limitations to which his truth is subjected; he does not see how far he has given birth to a truism, or how that which is a truth to him is a truism to the rest of the world; or may degenerate in the next generation. He believes that to be the whole which is only a part,---to be the necessary foundation which is really only a valuable aspect of the truth. The systems of all philosophers require the criticism of `the morrow,' when the heat of imagination which forged them has cooled, and they are seen in the temperate light of day. All of them have contributed to enrich the mind of the civilized world; none of them occupy that supreme or exclusive place which their authors would have assigned to them.
We may preface the criticism with a few preliminary remarks:---
Mr. Mill, Mr. Austin, and others, in their eagerness to maintain the doctrine of utility, are fond of repeating that we are in a lamentable state of uncertainty about morals. While other branches of knowledge have made extraordinary progress, in moral philosophy we are supposed by them to be no better than children, and with few exceptions---that is to say, Bentham and his followers---to be no further advanced than men were in the age of Socrates and Plato, who, in their turn, are deemed to be as backward in ethics as they necessarily were in physics. But this, though often asserted, is recanted almost in a breath by the same writers who speak thus depreciatingly of our modern ethical philosophy. For they are the first to acknowledge that we have not now to begin classifying actions under the head of utility; they would not deny that about the general conceptions of morals there is a practical agreement. There is no more doubt that falsehood is wrong than that a stone falls to the ground, although the first does not admit of the same ocular proof as the second. There is no greater uncertainty about the duty of obedience to parents and to the law of the land than about the properties of triangles. Unless we are looking for a new moral world which has no marrying and giving in marriage, there is no greater disagreement in theory about the right relations of the sexes than about the composition of water. These and a few other simple principles, as they have endless applications in practice, so also may be developed in theory into counsels of perfection.
To what then is to be attributed this opinion which has been often entertained about the uncertainty of morals? Chiefly to this,---that philosophers have not always distinguished the theoretical and the casuistical uncertainty of morals from the practical certainty. There is an uncertainty about details,---whether, for example, under given circumstances such and such a moral principle is to be enforced, or whether in some cases there may not be a conflict of duties: these are the exceptions to the ordinary rules of morality, important, indeed, but not extending to the one thousandth or one ten-thousandth part of human actions. This is the domain of casuistry. Secondly, the aspects under which the most general principles of morals may be presented to us are many and various. The mind of man has been more than usually active in thinking about man. The conceptions of harmony, happiness, right, freedom, benevolence, self-love, have all of them seemed to some philosopher or other the truest and most comprehensive expression of morality. There is no difference, or at any rate no great difference, of opinion about the right and wrong of actions, but only about the general notion which furnishes the best explanation or gives the most comprehensive view of them. This, in the language of Kant, is the sphere of the metaphysic of ethics. But these two uncertainties at either end, en tois malista katholou and en tois kath ekasta, leave space enough for an intermediate principle which is practically certain.
The rule of human life is not dependent on the theories of philosophers: we know what our duties are for the most part before we speculate about them. And the use of speculation is not to teach us what we already know, but to inspire in our minds an interest about morals in general, to strengthen our conception of the virtues by showing that they confirm one another, to prove to us, as Socrates would have said, that they are not many, but one. There is the same kind of pleasure and use in reducing morals, as in reducing physics, to a few very simple truths. And not unfrequently the more general principle may correct prejudices and misconceptions, and enable us to regard our fellow-men in a larger and more generous spirit.
The two qualities which seem to be most required in first principles of ethics are, (1) that they should afford a real explanation of the facts, (2) that they should inspire the mind,---should harmonize, strengthen, settle us. We can hardly estimate the influence which a simple principle such as `Act so as to promote the happiness of mankind,' or 'Act so that the rule on which thou actest may be adopted as a law by all rational beings,' may exercise on the mind of an individual. They will often seem to open a new world to him, like the religious conceptions of faith or the spirit of God. The difficulties of ethics disappear when we do not suffer ourselves to be distracted between different points of view. But to maintain their hold on us, the general principles must also be psychologically true---they must agree with our experience, they must accord with the habits of our minds.
When we are told that actions are right or wrong only in so far as they tend towards happiness, we naturally ask what is meant by `happiness.' For the term in the common use of language is only to a certain extent commensurate with moral good and evil. We should hardly say that a good man could be utterly miserable (Arist. Ethics), or place a bad man in the first rank of happiness. But yet, from various circumstances, the measure of a man's happiness may be out of all proportion to his desert. And if we insist on calling the good man alone happy, we shall be using the term in some new and transcendental sense, as synonymous with well-being. We have already seen that happiness includes the happiness of others as well as our own; we must now comprehend unconscious as well as conscious happiness under the same word. There is no harm in this extension of the meaning, but a word which admits of such an extension can hardly be made the basis of a philosophical system. The exactness which is required in philosophy will not allow us to comprehend under the same term two ideas so different as the subjective feeling of pleasure or happiness and the objective reality of a state which receives our moral approval.
Like Protarchus in the Philebus, we can give no answer to the question, 'What is that common quality which in all states of human life we call happiness? which includes the lower and the higher kind of happiness, and is the aim of the noblest, as well as of the meanest of mankind?' If we say 'Not pleasure, not virtue, not wisdom, nor yet any quality which we can abstract from these'---what then? After seeming to hover for a time on the verge of a great truth, we have gained only a truism.
Let us ask the question in another form. What is that which constitutes happiness, over and above the several ingredients of health, wealth, pleasure, virtue, knowledge, which are included under it? Perhaps we answer, `The subjective feeling of them.' But this is very far from being coextensive with right. Or we may reply that happiness is the whole of which the above-mentioned are the parts. Still the question recurs, `In what does the whole differ from all the parts?' And if we are unable to distinguish them, happiness will be the mere aggregate of the goods of life.
Again, while admitting that in all right action there is an element of happiness, we cannot help seeing that the utilitarian theory supplies a much easier explanation of some virtues than of others. Of many patriotic or benevolent actions we can give a straightforward account by their tendency to promote happiness. For the explanation of justice, on the other hand, we have to go a long way round. No man is indignant with a thief because he has not promoted the greatest happiness of the greatest number, but because he has done him a wrong. There is an immeasurable interval between a crime against property or life, and the omission of an act of charity or benevolence. Yet of this interval the utilitarian theory takes no cognizance. The greatest happiness principle strengthens our sense of positive duties towards others, but weakens our recognition of their rights. To promote in every way possible the happiness of others may be a counsel of perfection, but hardly seems to offer any ground for a theory of obligation. For admitting that our ideas of obligation are partly derived from religion and custom, yet they seem also to contain other essential elements which cannot be explained by the tendency of actions to promote happiness. Whence comes the necessity of them? Why are some actions rather than others which equally tend to the happiness of mankind imposed upon us with the authority of law? `You ought' and `you had better' are fundamental distinctions in human thought; and having such distinctions, why should we seek to efface and unsettle them?
Bentham and Mr. Mill are earnest in maintaining that happiness includes the happiness of others as well as of ourselves. But what two notions can be more opposed in many cases than these? Granting that in a perfect state of the world my own happiness and that of all other men would coincide, in the imperfect state they often diverge, and I cannot truly bridge over the difficulty by saying that men will always find pleasure in sacrificing themselves or in suffering for others. Upon the greatest happiness principle it is admitted that I am to have a share, and in consistency I should pursue my own happiness as impartially as that of my neighbour. But who can decide what proportion should be mine and what his, except on the principle that I am most likely to be deceived in my own favour, and had therefore better give the larger share, if not all, to him?
Further, it is admitted that utility and right coincide, not in particular instances, but in classes of actions. But is it not distracting to the conscience of a man to be told that in the particular case they are opposed? Happiness is said to be the ground of moral obligation, yet he must not do what clearly conduces to his own happiness if it is at variance with the good of the whole. Nay, further, he will be taught that when utility and right are in apparent conflict any amount of utility does not alter by a hair's-breadth the morality of actions, which cannot be allowed to deviate from established law or usage; and that the non-detection of an immoral act, say of telling a lie, which may often make the greatest difference in the consequences, not only to himself, but to all the world, makes none whatever in the act itself.
Again, if we are concerned not with particular actions but with classes of actions, is the tendency of actions to happiness a principle upon which we can classify them? There is a universal law which imperatively declares certain acts to be right or wrong:---can there be any universality in the law which measures actions by their tendencies towards happiness? For an act which is the cause of happiness to one person may be the cause of unhappiness to another; or an act which if performed by one person may increase the happiness of mankind may have the opposite effect if performed by another. Right can never be wrong, or wrong right, that there are no actions which tend to the happiness of mankind which may not under other circumstances tend to their unhappiness. Unless we say not only that all right actions tend to happiness, but that they tend to happiness in the same degree in which they are right (and in that case the word `right' is plainer), we weaken the absoluteness of our moral standard; we reduce differences in kind to differences in degree; we obliterate the stamp which the authority of ages has set upon vice and crime.
Once more: turning from theory to practice we feel the importance of retaining the received distinctions of morality. Words such as truth, justice, honesty, virtue, love, have a simple meaning; they have become sacred to us,---'the word of God' written on the human heart: to no other words can the same associations be attached. We cannot explain them adequately on principles of utility; in attempting to do so we rob them of their true character. We give them a meaning often paradoxical and distorted, and generally weaker than their signification in common language. And as words influence men's thoughts, we fear that the hold of morality may also be weakened, and the sense of duty impaired, if virtue and vice are explained only as the qualities which do or do not contribute to the pleasure of the world. In that very expression we seem to detect a false ring, for pleasure is individual not universal; we speak of eternal and immutable justice, but not of eternal and immutable pleasure; nor by any refinement can we avoid some taint of bodily sense adhering to the meaning of the word.
Again: the higher the view which men take of life, the more they lose sight of their own pleasure or interest. True religion is not working for a reward only, but is ready to work equally without a reward. It is not `doing the will of God for the sake of eternal happiness,' but doing the will of God because it is best, whether rewarded or unrewarded. And this applies to others as well as to ourselves. For he who sacrifices himself for the good of others, does not sacrifice himself that they may be saved from the persecution which he endures for their sakes, but rather that they in their turn may be able to undergo similar sufferings, and like him stand fast in the truth. To promote their happiness is not his first object, but to elevate their moral nature. Both in his own case and that of others there may be happiness in the distance, but if there were no happiness he would equally act as he does. We are speaking of the highest and noblest natures; and a passing thought naturally arises in our minds, 'Whether that can be the first principle of morals which is hardly regarded in their own case by the greatest benefactors of mankind?'
The admissions that pleasures differ in kind, and that actions are already classified; the acknowledgment that happiness includes the happiness of others, as well as of ourselves; the confusion (not made by Aristotle) between conscious and unconscious happiness, or between happiness the energy and happiness the result of the energy, introduce uncertainty and inconsistency into the whole enquiry. We reason readily and cheerfully from a greatest happiness principle. But we find that utilitarians do not agree among themselves about the meaning of the word. Still less can they impart to others a common conception or conviction of the nature of happiness. The meaning of the word is always insensibly slipping away from us, into pleasure, out of pleasure, now appearing as the motive, now as the test of actions, and sometimes varying in successive sentences. And as in a mathematical demonstration an error in the original number disturbs the whole calculation which follows, this fundamental uncertainty about the word vitiates all the applications of it. Must we not admit that a notion so uncertain in meaning, so void of content, so at variance with common language and opinion, does not comply adequately with either of our two requirements? It can neither strike the imaginative faculty, nor give an explanation of phenomena which is in accordance with our individual experience. It is indefinite; it supplies only a partial account of human actions: it is one among many theories of philosophers. It may be compared with other notions, such as the chief good of Plato, which may be best expressed to us under the form of a harmony, or with Kant's obedience to law, which may be summed up under the word `duty,' or with the Stoical `Follow nature,' and seems to have no advantage over them. All of these present a certain aspect of moral truth. None of them are, or indeed profess to be, the only principle of morals.
And this brings us to speak of the most serious objection to the utilitarian system---its exclusiveness. There is no place for Kant or Hegel, for Plato and Aristotle alongside of it. They do not reject the greatest happiness principle, but it rejects them. Now the phenomena of moral action differ, and some are best explained upon one principle and some upon another: the virtue of justice seems to be naturally connected with one theory of morals, the virtues of temperance and benevolence with another. The characters of men also differ; and some are more attracted by one aspect of the truth, some by another. The firm stoical nature will conceive virtue under the conception of law, the philanthropist under that of doing good, the quietist under that of resignation, the enthusiast under that of faith or love. The upright man of the world will desire above all things that morality should be plain and fixed, and should use language in its ordinary sense. Persons of an imaginative temperament will generally be dissatisfied with the words `utility' or `pleasure': their principle of right is of a far higher character---what or where to be found they cannot always distinctly tell;---deduced from the laws of human nature, says one; resting on the will of God, says another; based upon some transcendental idea which animates more worlds than one, says a third:
on nomoi prokeintai upsipodes, ouranian
di aithera teknothentes.
To satisfy an imaginative nature in any degree, the doctrine of utility must be so transfigured that it becomes altogether different and loses all simplicity.
But why, since there are different characters among men, should we not allow them to envisage morality accordingly, and be thankful to the great men who have provided for all of us modes and instruments of thought? Would the world have been better if there had been no Stoics or Kantists, no Platonists or Cartesians? No more than if the other pole of moral philosophy had been excluded. All men have principles which are above their practice; they admit premises which, if carried to their conclusions, are a sufficient basis of morals. In asserting liberty of speculation we are not encouraging individuals to make right or wrong for themselves, but only conceding that they may choose the form under which they prefer to contemplate them. Nor do we say that one of these aspects is as true and good as another; but that they all of them, if they are not mere sophisms and illusions, define and bring into relief some part of the truth which would have been obscure without their light. Why should we endeavour to bind all men within the limits of a single metaphysical conception? The necessary imperfection of language seems to require that we should view the same truth under more than one aspect.
We are living in the second age of utilitarianism, when the charm of novelty and the fervour of the first disciples has passed away. The doctrine is no longer stated in the forcible paradoxical manner of Bentham, but has to be adapted to meet objections; its corners are rubbed off, and the meaning of its most characteristic expressions is softened. The array of the enemy melts away when we approach him. The greatest happiness of the greatest number was a great original idea when enunciated by Bentham, which leavened a generation and has left its mark on thought and civilization in all succeeding times. His grasp of it had the intensity of genius. In the spirit of an ancient philosopher he would have denied that pleasures differed in kind, or that by happiness he meant anything but pleasure. He would perhaps have revolted us by his thoroughness. The `guardianship of his doctrine' has passed into other hands; and now we seem to see its weak points, its ambiguities, its want of exactness while assuming the highest exactness, its one-sidedness, its paradoxical explanation of several of the virtues. No philosophy has ever stood this criticism of the next generation, though the founders of all of them have imagined that they were built upon a rock. And the utilitarian system, like others, has yielded to the inevitable analysis. Even in the opinion of `her admirers she has been terribly damaged' (Phil.), and is no longer the only moral philosophy, but one among many which have contributed in various degrees to the intellectual progress of mankind.
But because the utilitarian philosophy can no longer claim `the prize,' we must not refuse to acknowledge the great benefits conferred by it on the world. All philosophies are refuted in their turn, says the sceptic, and he looks forward to all future systems sharing the fate of the past. All philosophies remain, says the thinker; they have done a great work in their own day, and they supply posterity with aspects of the truth and with instruments of thought. Though they may be shorn of their glory, they retain their place in the organism of knowledge.
And still there remain many rules of morals which are better explained and more forcibly inculcated on the principle of utility than on any other. The question Will such and such an action promote the happiness of myself, my family, my country, the world? may check the rising feeling of pride or honour which would cause a quarrel, an estrangement, a war. `How can I contribute to the greatest happiness of others?' is another form of the question which will be more attractive to the minds of many than a deduction of the duty of benevolence from a priori principles. In politics especially hardly any other argument can be allowed to have weight except the happiness of a people. All parties alike profess to aim at this, which though often used only as the disguise of self-interest has a great and real influence on the minds of statesmen. In religion, again, nothing can more tend to mitigate superstition than the belief that the good of man is also the will of God. This is an easy test to which the prejudices and superstitions of men may be brought:---whatever does not tend to the good of men is not of God. And the ideal of the greatest happiness of mankind, especially if believed to be the will of God, when compared with the actual fact, will be one of the strongest motives to do good to others.
On the other hand, when the temptation is to speak falsely, to be dishonest or unjust, or in any way to interfere with the rights of others, the argument that these actions regarded as a class will not conduce to the happiness of mankind, though true enough, seems to have less force than the feeling which is already implanted in the mind by conscience and authority. To resolve this feeling into the greatest happiness principle takes away from its sacred and authoritative character. The martyr will not go to the stake in order that he may promote the happiness of mankind, but for the sake of the truth: neither will the soldier advance to the cannon's mouth merely because he believes military discipline to be for the good of mankind. It is better for him to know that he will be shot, that he will be disgraced, if he runs away---he has no need to look beyond military honour, patriotism, `England expects every man to do his duty.' These are stronger motives than the greatest happiness of the greatest number, which is the thesis of a philosopher, not the watchword of an army. For in human actions men do not always require broad principles; duties often come home to us more when they are limited and defined, and sanctioned by custom and public opinion.
Lastly, if we turn to the history of ethics, we shall find that our moral ideas have originated not in utility but in religion, in law, in conceptions of nature, of an ideal good, and the like. And many may be inclined to think that this conclusively disproves the claim of utility to be the basis of morals. But the utilitarian will fairly reply (see above) that we must distinguish the origin of ethics from the principles of them---the historical germ from the later growth of reflection. And he may also truly add that for two thousand years and more, utility, if not the originating, has been the great corrective principle in law, in politics, in religion, leading men to ask how evil may be diminished and good increased---by what course of policy the public interest may be promoted, and to understand that God wills the happiness, not of some of his creatures and in this world only, but of all of them and in every stage of their existence.
'What is the place of happiness or utility in a system of moral philosophy?' is analogous to the question asked in the Philebus, 'What rank does pleasure hold in the scale of goods?' Admitting the greatest happiness principle to be true and valuable, and the necessary foundation of that part of morals which relates to the consequences of actions, we still have to consider whether this or some other general notion is the highest principle of human life. We may try them in this comparison by three tests---definiteness, comprehensiveness, and motive power.
There are three subjective principles of morals,---sympathy, benevolence, self-love. But sympathy seems to rest morality on feelings which differ widely even in good men; benevolence and self-love torture one half of our virtuous actions into the likeness of the other. The greatest happiness principle, which includes both, has the advantage over all these in comprehensiveness, but the advantage is purchased at the expense of definiteness.
Again, there are the legal and political principles of morals---freedom, equality, rights of persons; 'Every man to count for one and no man for more than one,' 'Every man equal in the eye of the law and of the legislator.' There is also the other sort of political morality, which if not beginning with `Might is right,' at any rate seeks to deduce our ideas of justice from the necessities of the state and of society. According to this view the greatest good of men is obedience to law: the best human government is a rational despotism, and the best idea which we can form of a divine being is that of a despot acting not wholly without regard to law and order. To such a view the present mixed state of the world, not wholly evil or wholly good, is supposed to be a witness. More we might desire to have, but are not permitted. Though a human tyrant would be intolerable, a divine tyrant is a very tolerable governor of the universe. This is the doctrine of Thrasymachus adapted to the public opinion of modern times.
There is yet a third view which combines the two:---freedom is obedience to the law, and the greatest order is also the greatest freedom; 'Act so that thy action may be the law of every intelligent being.' This view is noble and elevating; but it seems to err, like other transcendental principles of ethics, in being too abstract. For there is the same difficulty in connecting the idea of duty with particular duties as in bridging the gulf between phainomena and onta; and when, as in the system of Kant, this universal idea or law is held to be independent of space and time, such a mataion eidos becomes almost unmeaning.
Once more there are the religious principles of morals:---the will of God revealed in Scripture and in nature. No philosophy has supplied a sanction equal in authority to this, or a motive equal in strength to the belief in another life. Yet about these too we must ask What will of God? how revealed to us, and by what proofs? Religion, like happiness, is a word which has great influence apart from any consideration of its content: it may be for great good or for great evil. But true religion is the synthesis of religion and morality, beginning with divine perfection in which all human perfection is embodied. It moves among ideas of holiness, justice, love, wisdom, truth; these are to God, in whom they are personified, what the Platonic ideas are to the idea of good. It is the consciousness of the will of God that all men should be as he is. It lives in this world and is known to us only through the phenomena of this world, but it extends to worlds beyond. Ordinary religion which is alloyed with motives of this world may easily be in excess, may be fanatical, may be interested, may be the mask of ambition, may be perverted in a thousand ways. But of that religion which combines the will of God with our highest ideas of truth and right there can never be too much. This impossibility of excess is the note of divine moderation.
So then, having briefly passed in review the various principles of moral philosophy, we may now arrange our goods in order, though, like the reader of the Philebus, we have a difficulty in distinguishing the different aspects of them from one another, or defining the point at which the human passes into the divine.
First, the eternal will of God in this world and in another,---justice, holiness, wisdom, love, without succession of acts (ouch e genesis prosestin), which is known to us in part only, and reverenced by us as divine perfection.
Secondly, human perfection, or the fulfilment of the will of God in this world, and co-operation with his laws revealed to us by reason and experience, in nature, history, and in our own minds.
Thirdly, the elements of human perfection,---virtue, knowledge, and right opinion.
Fourthly, the external conditions of perfection,---health and the goods of life.
Fifthly, beauty and happiness,---the inward enjoyment of that which is best and fairest in this world and in the human soul.
...
The Philebus is probably the latest in time of the writings of Plato with the exception of the Laws. We have in it therefore the last development of his philosophy. The extreme and one-sided doctrines of the Cynics and Cyrenaics are included in a larger whole; the relations of pleasure and knowledge to each other and to the good are authoritatively determined; the Eleatic Being and the Heraclitean Flux no longer divide the empire of thought; the Mind of Anaxagoras has become the Mind of God and of the World. The great distinction between pure and applied science for the first time has a place in philosophy; the natural claim of dialectic to be the Queen of the Sciences is once more affirmed. This latter is the bond of union which pervades the whole or nearly the whole of the Platonic writings. And here as in several other dialogues (Phaedrus, Republic, \textit{etc}.) it is presented to us in a manner playful yet also serious, and sometimes as if the thought of it were too great for human utterance and came down from heaven direct. It is the organization of knowledge wonderful to think of at a time when knowledge itself could hardly be said to exist. It is this more than any other element which distinguishes Plato, not only from the presocratic philosophers, but from Socrates himself.
We have not yet reached the confines of Aristotle, but we make a somewhat nearer approach to him in the Philebus than in the earlier Platonic writings. The germs of logic are beginning to appear, but they are not collected into a whole, or made a separate science or system. Many thinkers of many different schools have to be interposed between the Parmenides or Philebus of Plato, and the Physics or Metaphysics of Aristotle. It is this interval upon which we have to fix our minds if we would rightly understand the character of the transition from one to the other. Plato and Aristotle do not dovetail into one another; nor does the one begin where the other ends; there is a gulf between them not to be measured by time, which in the fragmentary state of our knowledge it is impossible to bridge over. It follows that the one cannot be interpreted by the other. At any rate, it is not Plato who is to be interpreted by Aristotle, but Aristotle by Plato. Of all philosophy and of all art the true understanding is to be sought not in the afterthoughts of posterity, but in the elements out of which they have arisen. For the previous stage is a tendency towards the ideal at which they are aiming; the later is a declination or deviation from them, or even a perversion of them. No man's thoughts were ever so well expressed by his disciples as by himself.
But although Plato in the Philebus does not come into any close connexion with Aristotle, he is now a long way from himself and from the beginnings of his own philosophy. At the time of his death he left his system still incomplete; or he may be more truly said to have had no system, but to have lived in the successive stages or moments of metaphysical thought which presented themselves from time to time. The earlier discussions about universal ideas and definitions seem to have died away; the correlation of ideas has taken their place. The flowers of rhetoric and poetry have lost their freshness and charm; and a technical language has begun to supersede and overgrow them. But the power of thinking tends to increase with age, and the experience of life to widen and deepen. The good is summed up under categories which are not summa genera, but heads or gradations of thought. The question of pleasure and the relation of bodily pleasures to mental, which is hardly treated of elsewhere in Plato, is here analysed with great subtlety. The mean or measure is now made the first principle of good. Some of these questions reappear in Aristotle, as does also the distinction between metaphysics and mathematics. But there are many things in Plato which have been lost in Aristotle; and many things in Aristotle not to be found in Plato. The most remarkable deficiency in Aristotle is the disappearance of the Platonic dialectic, which in the Aristotelian school is only used in a comparatively unimportant and trivial sense. The most remarkable additions are the invention of the Syllogism, the conception of happiness as the foundation of morals, the reference of human actions to the standard of the better mind of the world, or of the one `sensible man' or `superior person.' His conception of ousia, or essence, is not an advance upon Plato, but a return to the poor and meagre abstractions of the Eleatic philosophy. The dry attempt to reduce the presocratic philosophy by his own rather arbitrary standard of the four causes, contrasts unfavourably with Plato's general discussion of the same subject (Sophist). To attempt further to sum up the differences between the two great philosophers would be out of place here. Any real discussion of their relation to one another must be preceded by an examination into the nature and character of the Aristotelian writings and the form in which they have come down to us. This enquiry is not really separable from an investigation of Theophrastus as well as Aristotle and of the remains of other schools of philosophy as well as of the Peripatetics. But, without entering on this wide field, even a superficial consideration of the logical and metaphysical works which pass under the name of Aristotle, whether we suppose them to have come directly from his hand or to be the tradition of his school, is sufficient to show how great was the mental activity which prevailed in the latter half of the fourth century B.C.; what eddies and whirlpools of controversies were surging in the chaos of thought, what transformations of the old philosophies were taking place everywhere, what eclecticisms and syncretisms and realisms and nominalisms were affecting the mind of Hellas. The decline of philosophy during this period is no less remarkable than the loss of freedom; and the two are not unconnected with each other. But of the multitudinous sea of opinions which were current in the age of Aristotle we have no exact account. We know of them from allusions only. And we cannot with advantage fill up the void of our knowledge by conjecture: we can only make allowance for our ignorance.
There are several passages in the Philebus which are very characteristic of Plato, and which we shall do well to consider not only in their connexion, but apart from their connexion as inspired sayings or oracles which receive their full interpretation only from the history of philosophy in later ages. The more serious attacks on traditional beliefs which are often veiled under an unusual simplicity or irony are of this kind. Such, for example, is the excessive and more than human awe which Socrates expresses about the names of the gods, which may be not unaptly compared with the importance attached by mankind to theological terms in other ages; for this also may be comprehended under the satire of Socrates. Let us observe the religious and intellectual enthusiasm which shines forth in the following, 'The power and faculty of loving the truth, and of doing all things for the sake of the truth': or, again, the singular acknowledgment which may be regarded as the anticipation of a new logic, that 'In going to war for mind I must have weapons of a different make from those which I used before, although some of the old ones may do again.' Let us pause awhile to reflect on a sentence which is full of meaning to reformers of religion or to the original thinker of all ages: 'Shall we then agree with them of old time, and merely reassert the notions of others without risk to ourselves; or shall we venture also to share in the risk and bear the reproach which will await us': \textit{i.e}. if we assert mind to be the author of nature. Let us note the remarkable words, 'That in the divine nature of Zeus there is the soul and mind of a King, because there is in him the power of the cause,' a saying in which theology and philosophy are blended and reconciled; not omitting to observe the deep insight into human nature which is shown by the repetition of the same thought 'All philosophers are agreed that mind is the king of heaven and earth' with the ironical addition, `in this way truly they magnify themselves.' Nor let us pass unheeded the indignation felt by the generous youth at the `blasphemy' of those who say that Chaos and Chance Medley created the world; or the significance of the words 'those who said of old time that mind rules the universe'; or the pregnant observation that 'we are not always conscious of what we are doing or of what happens to us,' a chance expression to which if philosophers had attended they would have escaped many errors in psychology. We may contrast the contempt which is poured upon the verbal difficulty of the one and many, and the seriousness with the unity of opposites is regarded from the higher point of view of abstract ideas: or compare the simple manner in which the question of cause and effect and their mutual dependence is regarded by Plato (to which modern science has returned in Mill and Bacon), and the cumbrous fourfold division of causes in the Physics and Metaphysics of Aristotle, for which it has puzzled the world to find a use in so many centuries. When we consider the backwardness of knowledge in the age of Plato, the boldness with which he looks forward into the distance, the many questions of modern philosophy which are anticipated in his writings, may we not truly describe him in his own words as a `spectator of all time and of all existence'?
\gutchapter{PHILEBUS}
Persons of the dialogue: Socrates, Protarchus, Philebus.
\textit{Socrates}: Observe, Protarchus, the nature of the position which you are now going to take from Philebus, and what the other position is which I maintain, and which, if you do not approve of it, is to be controverted by you. Shall you and I sum up the two sides?
\textit{Protarchus}: By all means.
\textit{Socrates}: Philebus was saying that enjoyment and pleasure and delight, and the class of feelings akin to them, are a good to every living being, whereas I contend, that not these, but wisdom and intelligence and memory, and their kindred, right opinion and true reasoning, are better and more desirable than pleasure for all who are able to partake of them, and that to all such who are or ever will be they are the most advantageous of all things. Have I not given, Philebus, a fair statement of the two sides of the argument?
\textit{Philebus}: Nothing could be fairer, Socrates.
\textit{Socrates}: And do you, Protarchus, accept the position which is assigned to you?
\textit{Protarchus}: I cannot do otherwise, since our excellent Philebus has left the field.
\textit{Socrates}: Surely the truth about these matters ought, by all means, to be ascertained.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Shall we further agree---
\textit{Protarchus}: To what?
\textit{Socrates}: That you and I must now try to indicate some state and disposition of the soul, which has the property of making all men happy.
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, by all means.
\textit{Socrates}: And you say that pleasure, and I say that wisdom, is such a state?
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And what if there be a third state, which is better than either? Then both of us are vanquished---are we not? But if this life, which really has the power of making men happy, turn out to be more akin to pleasure than to wisdom, the life of pleasure may still have the advantage over the life of wisdom.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: Or suppose that the better life is more nearly allied to wisdom, then wisdom conquers, and pleasure is defeated;---do you agree?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And what do you say, Philebus?
\textit{Philebus}: I say, and shall always say, that pleasure is easily the conqueror; but you must decide for yourself, Protarchus.
\textit{Protarchus}: You, Philebus, have handed over the argument to me, and have no longer a voice in the matter?
\textit{Philebus}: True enough. Nevertheless I would clear myself and deliver my soul of you; and I call the goddess herself to witness that I now do so.
\textit{Protarchus}: You may appeal to us; we too will be the witnesses of your words. And now, Socrates, whether Philebus is pleased or displeased, we will proceed with the argument.
\textit{Socrates}: Then let us begin with the goddess herself, of whom Philebus says that she is called Aphrodite, but that her real name is Pleasure.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very good.
\textit{Socrates}: The awe which I always feel, Protarchus, about the names of the gods is more than human---it exceeds all other fears. And now I would not sin against Aphrodite by naming her amiss; let her be called what she pleases. But Pleasure I know to be manifold, and with her, as I was just now saying, we must begin, and consider what her nature is. She has one name, and therefore you would imagine that she is one; and yet surely she takes the most varied and even unlike forms. For do we not say that the intemperate has pleasure, and that the temperate has pleasure in his very temperance,---that the fool is pleased when he is full of foolish fancies and hopes, and that the wise man has pleasure in his wisdom? and how foolish would any one be who affirmed that all these opposite pleasures are severally alike!
\textit{Protarchus}: Why, Socrates, they are opposed in so far as they spring from opposite sources, but they are not in themselves opposite. For must not pleasure be of all things most absolutely like pleasure,---that is, like itself?
\textit{Socrates}: Yes, my good friend, just as colour is like colour;---in so far as colours are colours, there is no difference between them; and yet we all know that black is not only unlike, but even absolutely opposed to white: or again, as figure is like figure, for all figures are comprehended under one class; and yet particular figures may be absolutely opposed to one another, and there is an infinite diversity of them. And we might find similar examples in many other things; therefore do not rely upon this argument, which would go to prove the unity of the most extreme opposites. And I suspect that we shall find a similar opposition among pleasures.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very likely; but how will this invalidate the argument?
\textit{Socrates}: Why, I shall reply, that dissimilar as they are, you apply to them a new predicate, for you say that all pleasant things are good; now although no one can argue that pleasure is not pleasure, he may argue, as we are doing, that pleasures are oftener bad than good; but you call them all good, and at the same time are compelled, if you are pressed, to acknowledge that they are unlike. And so you must tell us what is the identical quality existing alike in good and bad pleasures, which makes you designate all of them as good.
\textit{Protarchus}: What do you mean, Socrates? Do you think that any one who asserts pleasure to be the good, will tolerate the notion that some pleasures are good and others bad?
\textit{Socrates}: And yet you will acknowledge that they are different from one another, and sometimes opposed?
\textit{Protarchus}: Not in so far as they are pleasures.
\textit{Socrates}: That is a return to the old position, Protarchus, and so we are to say (are we?) that there is no difference in pleasures, but that they are all alike; and the examples which have just been cited do not pierce our dull minds, but we go on arguing all the same, like the weakest and most inexperienced reasoners? (Probably corrupt.)
\textit{Protarchus}: What do you mean?
\textit{Socrates}: Why, I mean to say, that in self-defence I may, if I like, follow your example, and assert boldly that the two things most unlike are most absolutely alike; and the result will be that you and I will prove ourselves to be very tyros in the art of disputing; and the argument will be blown away and lost. Suppose that we put back, and return to the old position; then perhaps we may come to an understanding with one another.
\textit{Protarchus}: How do you mean?
\textit{Socrates}: Shall I, Protarchus, have my own question asked of me by you?
\textit{Protarchus}: What question?
\textit{Socrates}: Ask me whether wisdom and science and mind, and those other qualities which I, when asked by you at first what is the nature of the good, affirmed to be good, are not in the same case with the pleasures of which you spoke.
\textit{Protarchus}: What do you mean?
\textit{Socrates}: The sciences are a numerous class, and will be found to present great differences. But even admitting that, like the pleasures, they are opposite as well as different, should I be worthy of the name of dialectician if, in order to avoid this difficulty, I were to say (as you are saying of pleasure) that there is no difference between one science and another;---would not the argument founder and disappear like an idle tale, although we might ourselves escape drowning by clinging to a fallacy?
\textit{Protarchus}: May none of this befal us, except the deliverance! Yet I like the even-handed justice which is applied to both our arguments. Let us assume, then, that there are many and diverse pleasures, and many and different sciences.
\textit{Socrates}: And let us have no concealment, Protarchus, of the differences between my good and yours; but let us bring them to the light in the hope that, in the process of testing them, they may show whether pleasure is to be called the good, or wisdom, or some third quality; for surely we are not now simply contending in order that my view or that yours may prevail, but I presume that we ought both of us to be fighting for the truth.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly we ought.
\textit{Socrates}: Then let us have a more definite understanding and establish the principle on which the argument rests.
\textit{Protarchus}: What principle?
\textit{Socrates}: A principle about which all men are always in a difficulty, and some men sometimes against their will.
\textit{Protarchus}: Speak plainer.
\textit{Socrates}: The principle which has just turned up, which is a marvel of nature; for that one should be many or many one, are wonderful propositions; and he who affirms either is very open to attack.
\textit{Protarchus}: Do you mean, when a person says that I, Protarchus, am by nature one and also many, dividing the single `me' into many `me's,' and even opposing them as great and small, light and heavy, and in ten thousand other ways?
\textit{Socrates}: Those, Protarchus, are the common and acknowledged paradoxes about the one and many, which I may say that everybody has by this time agreed to dismiss as childish and obvious and detrimental to the true course of thought; and no more favour is shown to that other puzzle, in which a person proves the members and parts of anything to be divided, and then confessing that they are all one, says laughingly in disproof of his own words: Why, here is a miracle, the one is many and infinite, and the many are only one.
\textit{Protarchus}: But what, Socrates, are those other marvels connected with this subject which, as you imply, have not yet become common and acknowledged?
\textit{Socrates}: When, my boy, the one does not belong to the class of things that are born and perish, as in the instances which we were giving, for in those cases, and when unity is of this concrete nature, there is, as I was saying, a universal consent that no refutation is needed; but when the assertion is made that man is one, or ox is one, or beauty one, or the good one, then the interest which attaches to these and similar unities and the attempt which is made to divide them gives birth to a controversy.
\textit{Protarchus}: Of what nature?
\textit{Socrates}: In the first place, as to whether these unities have a real existence; and then how each individual unity, being always the same, and incapable either of generation or of destruction, but retaining a permanent individuality, can be conceived either as dispersed and multiplied in the infinity of the world of generation, or as still entire and yet divided from itself, which latter would seem to be the greatest impossibility of all, for how can one and the same thing be at the same time in one and in many things? These, Protarchus, are the real difficulties, and this is the one and many to which they relate; they are the source of great perplexity if ill decided, and the right determination of them is very helpful.
\textit{Protarchus}: Then, Socrates, let us begin by clearing up these questions.
\textit{Socrates}: That is what I should wish.
\textit{Protarchus}: And I am sure that all my other friends will be glad to hear them discussed; Philebus, fortunately for us, is not disposed to move, and we had better not stir him up with questions.
\textit{Socrates}: Good; and where shall we begin this great and multifarious battle, in which such various points are at issue? Shall we begin thus?
\textit{Protarchus}: How?
\textit{Socrates}: We say that the one and many become identified by thought, and that now, as in time past, they run about together, in and out of every word which is uttered, and that this union of them will never cease, and is not now beginning, but is, as I believe, an everlasting quality of thought itself, which never grows old. Any young man, when he first tastes these subtleties, is delighted, and fancies that he has found a treasure of wisdom; in the first enthusiasm of his joy he leaves no stone, or rather no thought unturned, now rolling up the many into the one, and kneading them together, now unfolding and dividing them; he puzzles himself first and above all, and then he proceeds to puzzle his neighbours, whether they are older or younger, or of his own age---that makes no difference; neither father nor mother does he spare; no human being who has ears is safe from him, hardly even his dog, and a barbarian would have no chance of escaping him, if an interpreter could only be found.
\textit{Protarchus}: Considering, Socrates, how many we are, and that all of us are young men, is there not a danger that we and Philebus may all set upon you, if you abuse us? We understand what you mean; but is there no charm by which we may dispel all this confusion, no more excellent way of arriving at the truth? If there is, we hope that you will guide us into that way, and we will do our best to follow, for the enquiry in which we are engaged, Socrates, is not unimportant.
\textit{Socrates}: The reverse of unimportant, my boys, as Philebus calls you, and there neither is nor ever will be a better than my own favourite way, which has nevertheless already often deserted me and left me helpless in the hour of need.
\textit{Protarchus}: Tell us what that is.
\textit{Socrates}: One which may be easily pointed out, but is by no means easy of application; it is the parent of all the discoveries in the arts.
\textit{Protarchus}: Tell us what it is.
\textit{Socrates}: A gift of heaven, which, as I conceive, the gods tossed among men by the hands of a new Prometheus, and therewith a blaze of light; and the ancients, who were our betters and nearer the gods than we are, handed down the tradition, that whatever things are said to be are composed of one and many, and have the finite and infinite implanted in them: seeing, then, that such is the order of the world, we too ought in every enquiry to begin by laying down one idea of that which is the subject of enquiry; this unity we shall find in everything. Having found it, we may next proceed to look for two, if there be two, or, if not, then for three or some other number, subdividing each of these units, until at last the unity with which we began is seen not only to be one and many and infinite, but also a definite number; the infinite must not be suffered to approach the many until the entire number of the species intermediate between unity and infinity has been discovered,---then, and not till then, we may rest from division, and without further troubling ourselves about the endless individuals may allow them to drop into infinity. This, as I was saying, is the way of considering and learning and teaching one another, which the gods have handed down to us. But the wise men of our time are either too quick or too slow in conceiving plurality in unity. Having no method, they make their one and many anyhow, and from unity pass at once to infinity; the intermediate steps never occur to them. And this, I repeat, is what makes the difference between the mere art of disputation and true dialectic.
\textit{Protarchus}: I think that I partly understand you Socrates, but I should like to have a clearer notion of what you are saying.
\textit{Socrates}: I may illustrate my meaning by the letters of the alphabet, Protarchus, which you were made to learn as a child.
\textit{Protarchus}: How do they afford an illustration?
\textit{Socrates}: The sound which passes through the lips whether of an individual or of all men is one and yet infinite.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: And yet not by knowing either that sound is one or that sound is infinite are we perfect in the art of speech, but the knowledge of the number and nature of sounds is what makes a man a grammarian.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: And the knowledge which makes a man a musician is of the same kind.
\textit{Protarchus}: How so?
\textit{Socrates}: Sound is one in music as well as in grammar?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And there is a higher note and a lower note, and a note of equal pitch:---may we affirm so much?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: But you would not be a real musician if this was all that you knew; though if you did not know this you would know almost nothing of music.
\textit{Protarchus}: Nothing.
\textit{Socrates}: But when you have learned what sounds are high and what low, and the number and nature of the intervals and their limits or proportions, and the systems compounded out of them, which our fathers discovered, and have handed down to us who are their descendants under the name of harmonies; and the affections corresponding to them in the movements of the human body, which when measured by numbers ought, as they say, to be called rhythms and measures; and they tell us that the same principle should be applied to every one and many;---when, I say, you have learned all this, then, my dear friend, you are perfect; and you may be said to understand any other subject, when you have a similar grasp of it. But the infinity of kinds and the infinity of individuals which there is in each of them, when not classified, creates in every one of us a state of infinite ignorance; and he who never looks for number in anything, will not himself be looked for in the number of famous men.
\textit{Protarchus}: I think that what Socrates is now saying is excellent,
Philebus.
\textit{Philebus}: I think so too, but how do his words bear upon us and upon the argument?
\textit{Socrates}: Philebus is right in asking that question of us, Protarchus.
\textit{Protarchus}: Indeed he is, and you must answer him.
\textit{Socrates}: I will; but you must let me make one little remark first about these matters; I was saying, that he who begins with any individual unity, should proceed from that, not to infinity, but to a definite number, and now I say conversely, that he who has to begin with infinity should not jump to unity, but he should look about for some number representing a certain quantity, and thus out of all end in one. And now let us return for an illustration of our principle to the case of letters.
\textit{Protarchus}: What do you mean?
\textit{Socrates}: Some god or divine man, who in the Egyptian legend is said to have been Theuth, observing that the human voice was infinite, first distinguished in this infinity a certain number of vowels, and then other letters which had sound, but were not pure vowels (i.e., the semivowels); these too exist in a definite number; and lastly, he distinguished a third class of letters which we now call mutes, without voice and without sound, and divided these, and likewise the two other classes of vowels and semivowels, into the individual sounds, and told the number of them, and gave to each and all of them the name of letters; and observing that none of us could learn any one of them and not learn them all, and in consideration of this common bond which in a manner united them, he assigned to them all a single art, and this he called the art of grammar or letters.
\textit{Philebus}: The illustration, Protarchus, has assisted me in understanding the original statement, but I still feel the defect of which I just now complained.
\textit{Socrates}: Are you going to ask, Philebus, what this has to do with the argument?
\textit{Philebus}: Yes, that is a question which Protarchus and I have been long asking.
\textit{Socrates}: Assuredly you have already arrived at the answer to the question which, as you say, you have been so long asking?
\textit{Philebus}: How so?
\textit{Socrates}: Did we not begin by enquiring into the comparative eligibility of pleasure and wisdom?
\textit{Philebus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And we maintain that they are each of them one?
\textit{Philebus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And the precise question to which the previous discussion desires an answer is, how they are one and also many (i.e., how they have one genus and many species), and are not at once infinite, and what number of species is to be assigned to either of them before they pass into infinity (i.e. into the infinite number of individuals).
\textit{Protarchus}: That is a very serious question, Philebus, to which Socrates has ingeniously brought us round, and please to consider which of us shall answer him; there may be something ridiculous in my being unable to answer, and therefore imposing the task upon you, when I have undertaken the whole charge of the argument, but if neither of us were able to answer, the result methinks would be still more ridiculous. Let us consider, then, what we are to do:---Socrates, if I understood him rightly, is asking whether there are not kinds of pleasure, and what is the number and nature of them, and the same of wisdom.
\textit{Socrates}: Most true, O son of Callias; and the previous argument showed that if we are not able to tell the kinds of everything that has unity, likeness, sameness, or their opposites, none of us will be of the smallest use in any enquiry.
\textit{Protarchus}: That seems to be very near the truth, Socrates. Happy would the wise man be if he knew all things, and the next best thing for him is that he should know himself. Why do I say so at this moment? I will tell you. You, Socrates, have granted us this opportunity of conversing with you, and are ready to assist us in determining what is the best of human goods. For when Philebus said that pleasure and delight and enjoyment and the like were the chief good, you answered---No, not those, but another class of goods; and we are constantly reminding ourselves of what you said, and very properly, in order that we may not forget to examine and compare the two. And these goods, which in your opinion are to be designated as superior to pleasure, and are the true objects of pursuit, are mind and knowledge and understanding and art, and the like. There was a dispute about which were the best, and we playfully threatened that you should not be allowed to go home until the question was settled; and you agreed, and placed yourself at our disposal. And now, as children say, what has been fairly given cannot be taken back; cease then to fight against us in this way.
\textit{Socrates}: In what way?
\textit{Philebus}: Do not perplex us, and keep asking questions of us to which we have not as yet any sufficient answer to give; let us not imagine that a general puzzling of us all is to be the end of our discussion, but if we are unable to answer, do you answer, as you have promised. Consider, then, whether you will divide pleasure and knowledge according to their kinds; or you may let the matter drop, if you are able and willing to find some other mode of clearing up our controversy.
\textit{Socrates}: If you say that, I have nothing to apprehend, for the words `if you are willing' dispel all my fear; and, moreover, a god seems to have recalled something to my mind.
\textit{Philebus}: What is that?
\textit{Socrates}: I remember to have heard long ago certain discussions about pleasure and wisdom, whether awake or in a dream I cannot tell; they were to the effect that neither the one nor the other of them was the good, but some third thing, which was different from them, and better than either. If this be clearly established, then pleasure will lose the victory, for the good will cease to be identified with her:---Am I not right?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And there will cease to be any need of distinguishing the kinds of pleasures, as I am inclined to think, but this will appear more clearly as we proceed.
\textit{Protarchus}: Capital, Socrates; pray go on as you propose.
\textit{Socrates}: But, let us first agree on some little points.
\textit{Protarchus}: What are they?
\textit{Socrates}: Is the good perfect or imperfect?
\textit{Protarchus}: The most perfect, Socrates, of all things.
\textit{Socrates}: And is the good sufficient?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, certainly, and in a degree surpassing all other things.
\textit{Socrates}: And no one can deny that all percipient beings desire and hunt after good, and are eager to catch and have the good about them, and care not for the attainment of anything which is not accompanied by good.
\textit{Protarchus}: That is undeniable.
\textit{Socrates}: Now let us part off the life of pleasure from the life of wisdom, and pass them in review.
\textit{Protarchus}: How do you mean?
\textit{Socrates}: Let there be no wisdom in the life of pleasure, nor any pleasure in the life of wisdom, for if either of them is the chief good, it cannot be supposed to want anything, but if either is shown to want anything, then it cannot really be the chief good.
\textit{Protarchus}: Impossible.
\textit{Socrates}: And will you help us to test these two lives?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Then answer.
\textit{Protarchus}: Ask.
\textit{Socrates}: Would you choose, Protarchus, to live all your life long in the enjoyment of the greatest pleasures?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly I should.
\textit{Socrates}: Would you consider that there was still anything wanting to you if you had perfect pleasure?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly not.
\textit{Socrates}: Reflect; would you not want wisdom and intelligence and forethought, and similar qualities? would you not at any rate want sight?
\textit{Protarchus}: Why should I? Having pleasure I should have all things.
\textit{Socrates}: Living thus, you would always throughout your life enjoy the greatest pleasures?
\textit{Protarchus}: I should.
\textit{Socrates}: But if you had neither mind, nor memory, nor knowledge, nor true opinion, you would in the first place be utterly ignorant of whether you were pleased or not, because you would be entirely devoid of intelligence.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And similarly, if you had no memory you would not recollect that you had ever been pleased, nor would the slightest recollection of the pleasure which you feel at any moment remain with you; and if you had no true opinion you would not think that you were pleased when you were; and if you had no power of calculation you would not be able to calculate on future pleasure, and your life would be the life, not of a man, but of an oyster or `pulmo marinus.' Could this be otherwise?
\textit{Protarchus}: No.
\textit{Socrates}: But is such a life eligible?
\textit{Protarchus}: I cannot answer you, Socrates; the argument has taken away from me the power of speech.
\textit{Socrates}: We must keep up our spirits;---let us now take the life of mind and examine it in turn.
\textit{Protarchus}: And what is this life of mind?
\textit{Socrates}: I want to know whether any one of us would consent to live, having wisdom and mind and knowledge and memory of all things, but having no sense of pleasure or pain, and wholly unaffected by these and the like feelings?
\textit{Protarchus}: Neither life, Socrates, appears eligible to me, nor is likely, as I should imagine, to be chosen by any one else.
\textit{Socrates}: What would you say, Protarchus, to both of these in one, or to one that was made out of the union of the two?
\textit{Protarchus}: Out of the union, that is, of pleasure with mind and wisdom?
\textit{Socrates}: Yes, that is the life which I mean.
\textit{Protarchus}: There can be no difference of opinion; not some but all would surely choose this third rather than either of the other two, and in addition to them.
\textit{Socrates}: But do you see the consequence?
\textit{Protarchus}: To be sure I do. The consequence is, that two out of the three lives which have been proposed are neither sufficient nor eligible for man or for animal.
\textit{Socrates}: Then now there can be no doubt that neither of them has the good, for the one which had would certainly have been sufficient and perfect and eligible for every living creature or thing that was able to live such a life; and if any of us had chosen any other, he would have chosen contrary to the nature of the truly eligible, and not of his own free will, but either through ignorance or from some unhappy necessity.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly that seems to be true.
\textit{Socrates}: And now have I not sufficiently shown that Philebus' goddess is not to be regarded as identical with the good?
\textit{Philebus}: Neither is your `mind' the good, Socrates, for that will be open to the same objections.
\textit{Socrates}: Perhaps, Philebus, you may be right in saying so of my `mind'; but of the true, which is also the divine mind, far otherwise. However, I will not at present claim the first place for mind as against the mixed life; but we must come to some understanding about the second place. For you might affirm pleasure and I mind to be the cause of the mixed life; and in that case although neither of them would be the good, one of them might be imagined to be the cause of the good. And I might proceed further to argue in opposition to Philebus, that the element which makes this mixed life eligible and good, is more akin and more similar to mind than to pleasure. And if this is true, pleasure cannot be truly said to share either in the first or second place, and does not, if I may trust my own mind, attain even to the third.
\textit{Protarchus}: Truly, Socrates, pleasure appears to me to have had a fall; in fighting for the palm, she has been smitten by the argument, and is laid low. I must say that mind would have fallen too, and may therefore be thought to show discretion in not putting forward a similar claim. And if pleasure were deprived not only of the first but of the second place, she would be terribly damaged in the eyes of her admirers, for not even to them would she still appear as fair as before.
\textit{Socrates}: Well, but had we not better leave her now, and not pain her by applying the crucial test, and finally detecting her?
\textit{Protarchus}: Nonsense, Socrates.
\textit{Socrates}: Why? because I said that we had better not pain pleasure, which is an impossibility?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, and more than that, because you do not seem to be aware that none of us will let you go home until you have finished the argument.
\textit{Socrates}: Heavens! Protarchus, that will be a tedious business, and just at present not at all an easy one. For in going to war in the cause of mind, who is aspiring to the second prize, I ought to have weapons of another make from those which I used before; some, however, of the old ones may do again. And must I then finish the argument?
\textit{Protarchus}: Of course you must.
\textit{Socrates}: Let us be very careful in laying the foundation.
\textit{Protarchus}: What do you mean?
\textit{Socrates}: Let us divide all existing things into two, or rather, if you do not object, into three classes.
\textit{Protarchus}: Upon what principle would you make the division?
\textit{Socrates}: Let us take some of our newly-found notions.
\textit{Protarchus}: Which of them?
\textit{Socrates}: Were we not saying that God revealed a finite element of existence, and also an infinite?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Let us assume these two principles, and also a third, which is compounded out of them; but I fear that I am ridiculously clumsy at these processes of division and enumeration.
\textit{Protarchus}: What do you mean, my good friend?
\textit{Socrates}: I say that a fourth class is still wanted.
\textit{Protarchus}: What will that be?
\textit{Socrates}: Find the cause of the third or compound, and add this as a fourth class to the three others.
\textit{Protarchus}: And would you like to have a fifth class or cause of resolution as well as a cause of composition?
\textit{Socrates}: Not, I think, at present; but if I want a fifth at some future time you shall allow me to have it.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Let us begin with the first three; and as we find two out of the three greatly divided and dispersed, let us endeavour to reunite them, and see how in each of them there is a one and many.
\textit{Protarchus}: If you would explain to me a little more about them, perhaps I might be able to follow you.
\textit{Socrates}: Well, the two classes are the same which I mentioned before, one the finite, and the other the infinite; I will first show that the infinite is in a certain sense many, and the finite may be hereafter discussed.
\textit{Protarchus}: I agree.
\textit{Socrates}: And now consider well; for the question to which I invite your attention is difficult and controverted. When you speak of hotter and colder, can you conceive any limit in those qualities? Does not the more and less, which dwells in their very nature, prevent their having any end? for if they had an end, the more and less would themselves have an end.
\textit{Protarchus}: That is most true.
\textit{Socrates}: Ever, as we say, into the hotter and the colder there enters a more and a less.
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: Then, says the argument, there is never any end of them, and being endless they must also be infinite.
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, Socrates, that is exceedingly true.
\textit{Socrates}: Yes, my dear Protarchus, and your answer reminds me that such an expression as `exceedingly,' which you have just uttered, and also the term `gently,' have the same significance as more or less; for whenever they occur they do not allow of the existence of quantity---they are always introducing degrees into actions, instituting a comparison of a more or a less excessive or a more or a less gentle, and at each creation of more or less, quantity disappears. For, as I was just now saying, if quantity and measure did not disappear, but were allowed to intrude in the sphere of more and less and the other comparatives, these last would be driven out of their own domain. When definite quantity is once admitted, there can be no longer a `hotter' or a `colder' (for these are always progressing, and are never in one stay); but definite quantity is at rest, and has ceased to progress. Which proves that comparatives, such as the hotter and the colder, are to be ranked in the class of the infinite.
\textit{Protarchus}: Your remark certainly has the look of truth, Socrates; but these subjects, as you were saying, are difficult to follow at first. I think however, that if I could hear the argument repeated by you once or twice, there would be a substantial agreement between us.
\textit{Socrates}: Yes, and I will try to meet your wish; but, as I would rather not waste time in the enumeration of endless particulars, let me know whether I may not assume as a note of the infinite---
\textit{Protarchus}: What?
\textit{Socrates}: I want to know whether such things as appear to us to admit of more or less, or are denoted by the words `exceedingly,' `gently,' `extremely,' and the like, may not be referred to the class of the infinite, which is their unity, for, as was asserted in the previous argument, all things that were divided and dispersed should be brought together, and have the mark or seal of some one nature, if possible, set upon them---do you remember?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And all things which do not admit of more or less, but admit their opposites, that is to say, first of all, equality, and the equal, or again, the double, or any other ratio of number and measure---all these may, I think, be rightly reckoned by us in the class of the limited or finite; what do you say?
\textit{Protarchus}: Excellent, Socrates.
\textit{Socrates}: And now what nature shall we ascribe to the third or compound kind?
\textit{Protarchus}: You, I think, will have to tell me that.
\textit{Socrates}: Rather God will tell you, if there be any God who will listen to my prayers.
\textit{Protarchus}: Offer up a prayer, then, and think.
\textit{Socrates}: I am thinking, Protarchus, and I believe that some God has befriended us.
\textit{Protarchus}: What do you mean, and what proof have you to offer of what you are saying?
\textit{Socrates}: I will tell you, and do you listen to my words.
\textit{Protarchus}: Proceed.
\textit{Socrates}: Were we not speaking just now of hotter and colder?
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: Add to them drier, wetter, more, less, swifter, slower, greater, smaller, and all that in the preceding argument we placed under the unity of more and less.
\textit{Protarchus}: In the class of the infinite, you mean?
\textit{Socrates}: Yes; and now mingle this with the other.
\textit{Protarchus}: What is the other.
\textit{Socrates}: The class of the finite which we ought to have brought together as we did the infinite; but, perhaps, it will come to the same thing if we do so now;---when the two are combined, a third will appear.
\textit{Protarchus}: What do you mean by the class of the finite?
\textit{Socrates}: The class of the equal and the double, and any class which puts an end to difference and opposition, and by introducing number creates harmony and proportion among the different elements.
\textit{Protarchus}: I understand; you seem to me to mean that the various opposites, when you mingle with them the class of the finite, takes certain forms.
\textit{Socrates}: Yes, that is my meaning.
\textit{Protarchus}: Proceed.
\textit{Socrates}: Does not the right participation in the finite give health---in disease, for instance?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And whereas the high and low, the swift and the slow are infinite or unlimited, does not the addition of the principles aforesaid introduce a limit, and perfect the whole frame of music?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Or, again, when cold and heat prevail, does not the introduction of them take away excess and indefiniteness, and infuse moderation and harmony?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And from a like admixture of the finite and infinite come the seasons, and all the delights of life?
\textit{Protarchus}: Most true.
\textit{Socrates}: I omit ten thousand other things, such as beauty and health and strength, and the many beauties and high perfections of the soul: O my beautiful Philebus, the goddess, methinks, seeing the universal wantonness and wickedness of all things, and that there was in them no limit to pleasures and self-indulgence, devised the limit of law and order, whereby, as you say, Philebus, she torments, or as I maintain, delivers the soul.---What think you, Protarchus?
\textit{Protarchus}: Her ways are much to my mind, Socrates.
\textit{Socrates}: You will observe that I have spoken of three classes?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, I think that I understand you: you mean to say that the infinite is one class, and that the finite is a second class of existences; but what you would make the third I am not so certain.
\textit{Socrates}: That is because the amazing variety of the third class is too much for you, my dear friend; but there was not this difficulty with the infinite, which also comprehended many classes, for all of them were sealed with the note of more and less, and therefore appeared one.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And the finite or limit had not many divisions, and we readily acknowledged it to be by nature one?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: Yes, indeed; and when I speak of the third class, understand me to mean any offspring of these, being a birth into true being, effected by the measure which the limit introduces.
\textit{Protarchus}: I understand.
\textit{Socrates}: Still there was, as we said, a fourth class to be investigated, and you must assist in the investigation; for does not everything which comes into being, of necessity come into being through a cause?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, certainly; for how can there be anything which has no cause?
\textit{Socrates}: And is not the agent the same as the cause in all except name; the agent and the cause may be rightly called one?
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: And the same may be said of the patient, or effect; we shall find that they too differ, as I was saying, only in name---shall we not?
\textit{Protarchus}: We shall.
\textit{Socrates}: The agent or cause always naturally leads, and the patient or effect naturally follows it?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Then the cause and what is subordinate to it in generation are not the same, but different?
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: Did not the things which were generated, and the things out of which they were generated, furnish all the three classes?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And the creator or cause of them has been satisfactorily proven to be distinct from them,---and may therefore be called a fourth principle?
\textit{Protarchus}: So let us call it.
\textit{Socrates}: Quite right; but now, having distinguished the four, I think that we had better refresh our memories by recapitulating each of them in order.
\textit{Protarchus}: By all means.
\textit{Socrates}: Then the first I will call the infinite or unlimited, and the second the finite or limited; then follows the third, an essence compound and generated; and I do not think that I shall be far wrong in speaking of the cause of mixture and generation as the fourth.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly not.
\textit{Socrates}: And now what is the next question, and how came we hither? Were we not enquiring whether the second place belonged to pleasure or wisdom?
\textit{Protarchus}: We were.
\textit{Socrates}: And now, having determined these points, shall we not be better able to decide about the first and second place, which was the original subject of dispute?
\textit{Protarchus}: I dare say.
\textit{Socrates}: We said, if you remember, that the mixed life of pleasure and wisdom was the conqueror---did we not?
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And we see what is the place and nature of this life and to what class it is to be assigned?
\textit{Protarchus}: Beyond a doubt.
\textit{Socrates}: This is evidently comprehended in the third or mixed class; which is not composed of any two particular ingredients, but of all the elements of infinity, bound down by the finite, and may therefore be truly said to comprehend the conqueror life.
\textit{Protarchus}: Most true.
\textit{Socrates}: And what shall we say, Philebus, of your life which is all sweetness; and in which of the aforesaid classes is that to be placed? Perhaps you will allow me to ask you a question before you answer?
\textit{Philebus}: Let me hear.
\textit{Socrates}: Have pleasure and pain a limit, or do they belong to the class which admits of more and less?
\textit{Philebus}: They belong to the class which admits of more, Socrates; for pleasure would not be perfectly good if she were not infinite in quantity and degree.
\textit{Socrates}: Nor would pain, Philebus, be perfectly evil. And therefore the infinite cannot be that element which imparts to pleasure some degree of good. But now---admitting, if you like, that pleasure is of the nature of the infinite---in which of the aforesaid classes, O Protarchus and Philebus, can we without irreverence place wisdom and knowledge and mind? And let us be careful, for I think that the danger will be very serious if we err on this point.
\textit{Philebus}: You magnify, Socrates, the importance of your favourite god.
\textit{Socrates}: And you, my friend, are also magnifying your favourite goddess; but still I must beg you to answer the question.
\textit{Protarchus}: Socrates is quite right, Philebus, and we must submit to him.
\textit{Philebus}: And did not you, Protarchus, propose to answer in my place?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly I did; but I am now in a great strait, and I must entreat you, Socrates, to be our spokesman, and then we shall not say anything wrong or disrespectful of your favourite.
\textit{Socrates}: I must obey you, Protarchus; nor is the task which you impose a difficult one; but did I really, as Philebus implies, disconcert you with my playful solemnity, when I asked the question to what class mind and knowledge belong?
\textit{Protarchus}: You did, indeed, Socrates.
\textit{Socrates}: Yet the answer is easy, since all philosophers assert with one voice that mind is the king of heaven and earth---in reality they are magnifying themselves. And perhaps they are right. But still I should like to consider the class of mind, if you do not object, a little more fully.
\textit{Philebus}: Take your own course, Socrates, and never mind length; we shall not tire of you.
\textit{Socrates}: Very good; let us begin then, Protarchus, by asking a question.
\textit{Protarchus}: What question?
\textit{Socrates}: Whether all this which they call the universe is left to the guidance of unreason and chance medley, or, on the contrary, as our fathers have declared, ordered and governed by a marvellous intelligence and wisdom.
\textit{Protarchus}: Wide asunder are the two assertions, illustrious Socrates, for that which you were just now saying to me appears to be blasphemy; but the other assertion, that mind orders all things, is worthy of the aspect of the world, and of the sun, and of the moon, and of the stars and of the whole circle of the heavens; and never will I say or think otherwise.
\textit{Socrates}: Shall we then agree with them of old time in maintaining this doctrine,---not merely reasserting the notions of others, without risk to ourselves,---but shall we share in the danger, and take our part of the reproach which will await us, when an ingenious individual declares that all is disorder?
\textit{Protarchus}: That would certainly be my wish.
\textit{Socrates}: Then now please to consider the next stage of the argument.
\textit{Protarchus}: Let me hear.
\textit{Socrates}: We see that the elements which enter into the nature of the bodies of all animals, fire, water, air, and, as the storm-tossed sailor cries, `land' (i.e., earth), reappear in the constitution of the world.
\textit{Protarchus}: The proverb may be applied to us; for truly the storm gathers over us, and we are at our wit's end.
\textit{Socrates}: There is something to be remarked about each of these elements.
\textit{Protarchus}: What is it?
\textit{Socrates}: Only a small fraction of any one of them exists in us, and that of a mean sort, and not in any way pure, or having any power worthy of its nature. One instance will prove this of all of them; there is fire within us, and in the universe.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And is not our fire small and weak and mean? But the fire in the universe is wonderful in quantity and beauty, and in every power that fire has.
\textit{Protarchus}: Most true.
\textit{Socrates}: And is the fire in the universe nourished and generated and ruled by the fire in us, or is the fire in you and me, and in other animals, dependent on the universal fire?
\textit{Protarchus}: That is a question which does not deserve an answer.
\textit{Socrates}: Right; and you would say the same, if I am not mistaken, of the earth which is in animals and the earth which is in the universe, and you would give a similar reply about all the other elements?
\textit{Protarchus}: Why, how could any man who gave any other be deemed in his senses?
\textit{Socrates}: I do not think that he could---but now go on to the next step. When we saw those elements of which we have been speaking gathered up in one, did we not call them a body?
\textit{Protarchus}: We did.
\textit{Socrates}: And the same may be said of the cosmos, which for the same reason may be considered to be a body, because made up of the same elements.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: But is our body nourished wholly by this body, or is this body nourished by our body, thence deriving and having the qualities of which we were just now speaking?
\textit{Protarchus}: That again, Socrates, is a question which does not deserve to be asked.
\textit{Socrates}: Well, tell me, is this question worth asking?
\textit{Protarchus}: What question?
\textit{Socrates}: May our body be said to have a soul?
\textit{Protarchus}: Clearly.
\textit{Socrates}: And whence comes that soul, my dear Protarchus, unless the body of the universe, which contains elements like those in our bodies but in every way fairer, had also a soul? Can there be another source?
\textit{Protarchus}: Clearly, Socrates, that is the only source.
\textit{Socrates}: Why, yes, Protarchus; for surely we cannot imagine that of the four classes, the finite, the infinite, the composition of the two, and the cause, the fourth, which enters into all things, giving to our bodies souls, and the art of self-management, and of healing disease, and operating in other ways to heal and organize, having too all the attributes of wisdom;---we cannot, I say, imagine that whereas the self-same elements exist, both in the entire heaven and in great provinces of the heaven, only fairer and purer, this last should not also in that higher sphere have designed the noblest and fairest things?
\textit{Protarchus}: Such a supposition is quite unreasonable.
\textit{Socrates}: Then if this be denied, should we not be wise in adopting the other view and maintaining that there is in the universe a mighty infinite and an adequate limit, of which we have often spoken, as well as a presiding cause of no mean power, which orders and arranges years and seasons and months, and may be justly called wisdom and mind?
\textit{Protarchus}: Most justly.
\textit{Socrates}: And wisdom and mind cannot exist without soul?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly not.
\textit{Socrates}: And in the divine nature of Zeus would you not say that there is the soul and mind of a king, because there is in him the power of the cause? And other gods have other attributes, by which they are pleased to be called.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: Do not then suppose that these words are rashly spoken by us, O Protarchus, for they are in harmony with the testimony of those who said of old time that mind rules the universe.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And they furnish an answer to my enquiry; for they imply that mind is the parent of that class of the four which we called the cause of all; and I think that you now have my answer.
\textit{Protarchus}: I have indeed, and yet I did not observe that you had answered.
\textit{Socrates}: A jest is sometimes refreshing, Protarchus, when it interrupts earnest.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: I think, friend, that we have now pretty clearly set forth the class to which mind belongs and what is the power of mind.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And the class to which pleasure belongs has also been long ago discovered?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And let us remember, too, of both of them, (1) that mind was akin to the cause and of this family; and (2) that pleasure is infinite and belongs to the class which neither has, nor ever will have in itself, a beginning, middle, or end of its own.
\textit{Protarchus}: I shall be sure to remember.
\textit{Socrates}: We must next examine what is their place and under what conditions they are generated. And we will begin with pleasure, since her class was first examined; and yet pleasure cannot be rightly tested apart from pain.
\textit{Protarchus}: If this is the road, let us take it.
\textit{Socrates}: I wonder whether you would agree with me about the origin of pleasure and pain.
\textit{Protarchus}: What do you mean?
\textit{Socrates}: I mean to say that their natural seat is in the mixed class.
\textit{Protarchus}: And would you tell me again, sweet Socrates, which of the aforesaid classes is the mixed one?
\textit{Socrates}: I will, my fine fellow, to the best of my ability.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very good.
\textit{Socrates}: Let us then understand the mixed class to be that which we placed third in the list of four.
\textit{Protarchus}: That which followed the infinite and the finite; and in which you ranked health, and, if I am not mistaken, harmony.
\textit{Socrates}: Capital; and now will you please to give me your best attention?
\textit{Protarchus}: Proceed; I am attending.
\textit{Socrates}: I say that when the harmony in animals is dissolved, there is also a dissolution of nature and a generation of pain.
\textit{Protarchus}: That is very probable.
\textit{Socrates}: And the restoration of harmony and return to nature is the source of pleasure, if I may be allowed to speak in the fewest and shortest words about matters of the greatest moment.
\textit{Protarchus}: I believe that you are right, Socrates; but will you try to be a little plainer?
\textit{Socrates}: Do not obvious and every-day phenomena furnish the simplest illustration?
\textit{Protarchus}: What phenomena do you mean?
\textit{Socrates}: Hunger, for example, is a dissolution and a pain.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: Whereas eating is a replenishment and a pleasure?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: Thirst again is a destruction and a pain, but the effect of moisture replenishing the dry place is a pleasure: once more, the unnatural separation and dissolution caused by heat is painful, and the natural restoration and refrigeration is pleasant.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: And the unnatural freezing of the moisture in an animal is pain, and the natural process of resolution and return of the elements to their original state is pleasure. And would not the general proposition seem to you to hold, that the destroying of the natural union of the finite and infinite, which, as I was observing before, make up the class of living beings, is pain, and that the process of return of all things to their own nature is pleasure?
\textit{Protarchus}: Granted; what you say has a general truth.
\textit{Socrates}: Here then is one kind of pleasures and pains originating severally in the two processes which we have described?
\textit{Protarchus}: Good.
\textit{Socrates}: Let us next assume that in the soul herself there is an antecedent hope of pleasure which is sweet and refreshing, and an expectation of pain, fearful and anxious.
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes; this is another class of pleasures and pains, which is of the soul only, apart from the body, and is produced by expectation.
\textit{Socrates}: Right; for in the analysis of these, pure, as I suppose them to be, the pleasures being unalloyed with pain and the pains with pleasure, methinks that we shall see clearly whether the whole class of pleasure is to be desired, or whether this quality of entire desirableness is not rather to be attributed to another of the classes which have been mentioned; and whether pleasure and pain, like heat and cold, and other things of the same kind, are not sometimes to be desired and sometimes not to be desired, as being not in themselves good, but only sometimes and in some instances admitting of the nature of good.
\textit{Protarchus}: You say most truly that this is the track which the investigation should pursue.
\textit{Socrates}: Well, then, assuming that pain ensues on the dissolution, and pleasure on the restoration of the harmony, let us now ask what will be the condition of animated beings who are neither in process of restoration nor of dissolution. And mind what you say: I ask whether any animal who is in that condition can possibly have any feeling of pleasure or pain, great or small?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly not.
\textit{Socrates}: Then here we have a third state, over and above that of pleasure and of pain?
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: And do not forget that there is such a state; it will make a great difference in our judgment of pleasure, whether we remember this or not. And I should like to say a few words about it.
\textit{Protarchus}: What have you to say?
\textit{Socrates}: Why, you know that if a man chooses the life of wisdom, there is no reason why he should not live in this neutral state.
\textit{Protarchus}: You mean that he may live neither rejoicing nor sorrowing?
\textit{Socrates}: Yes; and if I remember rightly, when the lives were compared, no degree of pleasure, whether great or small, was thought to be necessary to him who chose the life of thought and wisdom.
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, certainly, we said so.
\textit{Socrates}: Then he will live without pleasure; and who knows whether this may not be the most divine of all lives?
\textit{Protarchus}: If so, the gods, at any rate, cannot be supposed to have either joy or sorrow.
\textit{Socrates}: Certainly not---there would be a great impropriety in the assumption of either alternative. But whether the gods are or are not indifferent to pleasure is a point which may be considered hereafter if in any way relevant to the argument, and whatever is the conclusion we will place it to the account of mind in her contest for the second place, should she have to resign the first.
\textit{Protarchus}: Just so.
\textit{Socrates}: The other class of pleasures, which as we were saying is purely mental, is entirely derived from memory.
\textit{Protarchus}: What do you mean?
\textit{Socrates}: I must first of all analyze memory, or rather perception which is prior to memory, if the subject of our discussion is ever to be properly cleared up.
\textit{Protarchus}: How will you proceed?
\textit{Socrates}: Let us imagine affections of the body which are extinguished before they reach the soul, and leave her unaffected; and again, other affections which vibrate through both soul and body, and impart a shock to both and to each of them.
\textit{Protarchus}: Granted.
\textit{Socrates}: And the soul may be truly said to be oblivious of the first but not of the second?
\textit{Protarchus}: Quite true.
\textit{Socrates}: When I say oblivious, do not suppose that I mean forgetfulness in a literal sense; for forgetfulness is the exit of memory, which in this case has not yet entered; and to speak of the loss of that which is not yet in existence, and never has been, is a contradiction; do you see?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: Then just be so good as to change the terms.
\textit{Protarchus}: How shall I change them?
\textit{Socrates}: Instead of the oblivion of the soul, when you are describing the state in which she is unaffected by the shocks of the body, say unconsciousness.
\textit{Protarchus}: I see.
\textit{Socrates}: And the union or communion of soul and body in one feeling and motion would be properly called consciousness?
\textit{Protarchus}: Most true.
\textit{Socrates}: Then now we know the meaning of the word?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And memory may, I think, be rightly described as the preservation of consciousness?
\textit{Protarchus}: Right.
\textit{Socrates}: But do we not distinguish memory from recollection?
\textit{Protarchus}: I think so.
\textit{Socrates}: And do we not mean by recollection the power which the soul has of recovering, when by herself, some feeling which she experienced when in company with the body?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And when she recovers of herself the lost recollection of some consciousness or knowledge, the recovery is termed recollection and reminiscence?
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: There is a reason why I say all this.
\textit{Protarchus}: What is it?
\textit{Socrates}: I want to attain the plainest possible notion of pleasure and desire, as they exist in the mind only, apart from the body; and the previous analysis helps to show the nature of both.
\textit{Protarchus}: Then now, Socrates, let us proceed to the next point.
\textit{Socrates}: There are certainly many things to be considered in discussing the generation and whole complexion of pleasure. At the outset we must determine the nature and seat of desire.
\textit{Protarchus}: Ay; let us enquire into that, for we shall lose nothing.
\textit{Socrates}: Nay, Protarchus, we shall surely lose the puzzle if we find the answer.
\textit{Protarchus}: A fair retort; but let us proceed.
\textit{Socrates}: Did we not place hunger, thirst, and the like, in the class of desires?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And yet they are very different; what common nature have we in view when we call them by a single name?
\textit{Protarchus}: By heavens, Socrates, that is a question which is not easily answered; but it must be answered.
\textit{Socrates}: Then let us go back to our examples.
\textit{Protarchus}: Where shall we begin?
\textit{Socrates}: Do we mean anything when we say `a man thirsts'?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: We mean to say that he `is empty'?
\textit{Protarchus}: Of course.
\textit{Socrates}: And is not thirst desire?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, of drink.
\textit{Socrates}: Would you say of drink, or of replenishment with drink?
\textit{Protarchus}: I should say, of replenishment with drink.
\textit{Socrates}: Then he who is empty desires, as would appear, the opposite of what he experiences; for he is empty and desires to be full?
\textit{Protarchus}: Clearly so.
\textit{Socrates}: But how can a man who is empty for the first time, attain either by perception or memory to any apprehension of replenishment, of which he has no present or past experience?
\textit{Protarchus}: Impossible.
\textit{Socrates}: And yet he who desires, surely desires something?
\textit{Protarchus}: Of course.
\textit{Socrates}: He does not desire that which he experiences, for he experiences thirst, and thirst is emptiness; but he desires replenishment?
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: Then there must be something in the thirsty man which in some way apprehends replenishment?
\textit{Protarchus}: There must.
\textit{Socrates}: And that cannot be the body, for the body is supposed to be emptied?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: The only remaining alternative is that the soul apprehends the replenishment by the help of memory; as is obvious, for what other way can there be?
\textit{Protarchus}: I cannot imagine any other.
\textit{Socrates}: But do you see the consequence?
\textit{Protarchus}: What is it?
\textit{Socrates}: That there is no such thing as desire of the body.
\textit{Protarchus}: Why so?
\textit{Socrates}: Why, because the argument shows that the endeavour of every animal is to the reverse of his bodily state.
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And the impulse which leads him to the opposite of what he is experiencing proves that he has a memory of the opposite state.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And the argument, having proved that memory attracts us towards the objects of desire, proves also that the impulses and the desires and the moving principle in every living being have their origin in the soul.
\textit{Protarchus}: Most true.
\textit{Socrates}: The argument will not allow that our body either hungers or thirsts or has any similar experience.
\textit{Protarchus}: Quite right.
\textit{Socrates}: Let me make a further observation; the argument appears to me to imply that there is a kind of life which consists in these affections.
\textit{Protarchus}: Of what affections, and of what kind of life, are you speaking?
\textit{Socrates}: I am speaking of being emptied and replenished, and of all that relates to the preservation and destruction of living beings, as well as of the pain which is felt in one of these states and of the pleasure which succeeds to it.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And what would you say of the intermediate state?
\textit{Protarchus}: What do you mean by `intermediate'?
\textit{Socrates}: I mean when a person is in actual suffering and yet remembers past pleasures which, if they would only return, would relieve him; but as yet he has them not. May we not say of him, that he is in an intermediate state?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Would you say that he was wholly pained or wholly pleased?
\textit{Protarchus}: Nay, I should say that he has two pains; in his body there is the actual experience of pain, and in his soul longing and expectation.
\textit{Socrates}: What do you mean, Protarchus, by the two pains? May not a man who is empty have at one time a sure hope of being filled, and at other times be quite in despair?
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: And has he not the pleasure of memory when he is hoping to be filled, and yet in that he is empty is he not at the same time in pain?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Then man and the other animals have at the same time both pleasure and pain?
\textit{Protarchus}: I suppose so.
\textit{Socrates}: But when a man is empty and has no hope of being filled, there will be the double experience of pain. You observed this and inferred that the double experience was the single case possible.
\textit{Protarchus}: Quite true, Socrates.
\textit{Socrates}: Shall the enquiry into these states of feeling be made the occasion of raising a question?
\textit{Protarchus}: What question?
\textit{Socrates}: Whether we ought to say that the pleasures and pains of which we are speaking are true or false? or some true and some false?
\textit{Protarchus}: But how, Socrates, can there be false pleasures and pains?
\textit{Socrates}: And how, Protarchus, can there be true and false fears, or true and false expectations, or true and false opinions?
\textit{Protarchus}: I grant that opinions may be true or false, but not pleasures.
\textit{Socrates}: What do you mean? I am afraid that we are raising a very serious enquiry.
\textit{Protarchus}: There I agree.
\textit{Socrates}: And yet, my boy, for you are one of Philebus' boys, the point to be considered, is, whether the enquiry is relevant to the argument.
\textit{Protarchus}: Surely.
\textit{Socrates}: No tedious and irrelevant discussion can be allowed; what is said should be pertinent.
\textit{Protarchus}: Right.
\textit{Socrates}: I am always wondering at the question which has now been raised.
\textit{Protarchus}: How so?
\textit{Socrates}: Do you deny that some pleasures are false, and others true?
\textit{Protarchus}: To be sure I do.
\textit{Socrates}: Would you say that no one ever seemed to rejoice and yet did not rejoice, or seemed to feel pain and yet did not feel pain, sleeping or waking, mad or lunatic?
\textit{Protarchus}: So we have always held, Socrates.
\textit{Socrates}: But were you right? Shall we enquire into the truth of your opinion?
\textit{Protarchus}: I think that we should.
\textit{Socrates}: Let us then put into more precise terms the question which has arisen about pleasure and opinion. Is there such a thing as opinion?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And such a thing as pleasure?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And an opinion must be of something?
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And a man must be pleased by something?
\textit{Protarchus}: Quite correct.
\textit{Socrates}: And whether the opinion be right or wrong, makes no difference; it will still be an opinion?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And he who is pleased, whether he is rightly pleased or not, will always have a real feeling of pleasure?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes; that is also quite true.
\textit{Socrates}: Then, how can opinion be both true and false, and pleasure true only, although pleasure and opinion are both equally real?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes; that is the question.
\textit{Socrates}: You mean that opinion admits of truth and falsehood, and hence becomes not merely opinion, but opinion of a certain quality; and this is what you think should be examined?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And further, even if we admit the existence of qualities in other objects, may not pleasure and pain be simple and devoid of quality?
\textit{Protarchus}: Clearly.
\textit{Socrates}: But there is no difficulty in seeing that pleasure and pain as well as opinion have qualities, for they are great or small, and have various degrees of intensity; as was indeed said long ago by us.
\textit{Protarchus}: Quite true.
\textit{Socrates}: And if badness attaches to any of them, Protarchus, then we should speak of a bad opinion or of a bad pleasure?
\textit{Protarchus}: Quite true, Socrates.
\textit{Socrates}: And if rightness attaches to any of them, should we not speak of a right opinion or right pleasure; and in like manner of the reverse of rightness?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And if the thing opined be erroneous, might we not say that the opinion, being erroneous, is not right or rightly opined?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And if we see a pleasure or pain which errs in respect of its object, shall we call that right or good, or by any honourable name?
\textit{Protarchus}: Not if the pleasure is mistaken; how could we?
\textit{Socrates}: And surely pleasure often appears to accompany an opinion which is not true, but false?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly it does; and in that case, Socrates, as we were saying, the opinion is false, but no one could call the actual pleasure false.
\textit{Socrates}: How eagerly, Protarchus, do you rush to the defence of pleasure!
\textit{Protarchus}: Nay, Socrates, I only repeat what I hear.
\textit{Socrates}: And is there no difference, my friend, between that pleasure which is associated with right opinion and knowledge, and that which is often found in all of us associated with falsehood and ignorance?
\textit{Protarchus}: There must be a very great difference, between them.
\textit{Socrates}: Then, now let us proceed to contemplate this difference.
\textit{Protarchus}: Lead, and I will follow.
\textit{Socrates}: Well, then, my view is---
\textit{Protarchus}: What is it?
\textit{Socrates}: We agree---do we not?---that there is such a thing as false, and also such a thing as true opinion?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And pleasure and pain, as I was just now saying, are often consequent upon these---upon true and false opinion, I mean.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: And do not opinion and the endeavour to form an opinion always spring from memory and perception?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Might we imagine the process to be something of this nature?
\textit{Protarchus}: Of what nature?
\textit{Socrates}: An object may be often seen at a distance not very clearly, and the seer may want to determine what it is which he sees.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very likely.
\textit{Socrates}: Soon he begins to interrogate himself.
\textit{Protarchus}: In what manner?
\textit{Socrates}: He asks himself---'What is that which appears to be standing by the rock under the tree?' This is the question which he may be supposed to put to himself when he sees such an appearance.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: To which he may guess the right answer, saying as if in a whisper to himself---'It is a man.'
\textit{Protarchus}: Very good.
\textit{Socrates}: Or again, he may be misled, and then he will say---'No, it is a figure made by the shepherds.'
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And if he has a companion, he repeats his thought to him in articulate sounds, and what was before an opinion, has now become a proposition.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: But if he be walking alone when these thoughts occur to him, he may not unfrequently keep them in his mind for a considerable time.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: Well, now, I wonder whether you would agree in my explanation of this phenomenon.
\textit{Protarchus}: What is your explanation?
\textit{Socrates}: I think that the soul at such times is like a book.
\textit{Protarchus}: How so?
\textit{Socrates}: Memory and perception meet, and they and their attendant feelings seem to almost to write down words in the soul, and when the inscribing feeling writes truly, then true opinion and true propositions which are the expressions of opinion come into our souls---but when the scribe within us writes falsely, the result is false.
\textit{Protarchus}: I quite assent and agree to your statement.
\textit{Socrates}: I must bespeak your favour also for another artist, who is busy at the same time in the chambers of the soul.
\textit{Protarchus}: Who is he?
\textit{Socrates}: The painter, who, after the scribe has done his work, draws images in the soul of the things which he has described.
\textit{Protarchus}: But when and how does he do this?
\textit{Socrates}: When a man, besides receiving from sight or some other sense certain opinions or statements, sees in his mind the images of the subjects of them;---is not this a very common mental phenomenon?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And the images answering to true opinions and words are true, and to false opinions and words false; are they not?
\textit{Protarchus}: They are.
\textit{Socrates}: If we are right so far, there arises a further question.
\textit{Protarchus}: What is it?
\textit{Socrates}: Whether we experience the feeling of which I am speaking only in relation to the present and the past, or in relation to the future also?
\textit{Protarchus}: I should say in relation to all times alike.
\textit{Socrates}: Have not purely mental pleasures and pains been described already as in some cases anticipations of the bodily ones; from which we may infer that anticipatory pleasures and pains have to do with the future?
\textit{Protarchus}: Most true.
\textit{Socrates}: And do all those writings and paintings which, as we were saying a little while ago, are produced in us, relate to the past and present only, and not to the future?
\textit{Protarchus}: To the future, very much.
\textit{Socrates}: When you say, `Very much,' you mean to imply that all these representations are hopes about the future, and that mankind are filled with hopes in every stage of existence?
\textit{Protarchus}: Exactly.
\textit{Socrates}: Answer me another question.
\textit{Protarchus}: What question?
\textit{Socrates}: A just and pious and good man is the friend of the gods; is he not?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly he is.
\textit{Socrates}: And the unjust and utterly bad man is the reverse?
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And all men, as we were saying just now, are always filled with hopes?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And these hopes, as they are termed, are propositions which exist in the minds of each of us?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And the fancies of hope are also pictured in us; a man may often have a vision of a heap of gold, and pleasures ensuing, and in the picture there may be a likeness of himself mightily rejoicing over his good fortune.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And may we not say that the good, being friends of the gods, have generally true pictures presented to them, and the bad false pictures?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: The bad, too, have pleasures painted in their fancy as well as the good; but I presume that they are false pleasures.
\textit{Protarchus}: They are.
\textit{Socrates}: The bad then commonly delight in false pleasures, and the good in true pleasures?
\textit{Protarchus}: Doubtless.
\textit{Socrates}: Then upon this view there are false pleasures in the souls of men which are a ludicrous imitation of the true, and there are pains of a similar character?
\textit{Protarchus}: There are.
\textit{Socrates}: And did we not allow that a man who had an opinion at all had a real opinion, but often about things which had no existence either in the past, present, or future?
\textit{Protarchus}: Quite true.
\textit{Socrates}: And this was the source of false opinion and opining; am I not right?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And must we not attribute to pleasure and pain a similar real but illusory character?
\textit{Protarchus}: How do you mean?
\textit{Socrates}: I mean to say that a man must be admitted to have real pleasure who is pleased with anything or anyhow; and he may be pleased about things which neither have nor have ever had any real existence, and, more often than not, are never likely to exist.
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, Socrates, that again is undeniable.
\textit{Socrates}: And may not the same be said about fear and anger and the like; are they not often false?
\textit{Protarchus}: Quite so.
\textit{Socrates}: And can opinions be good or bad except in as far as they are true or false?
\textit{Protarchus}: In no other way.
\textit{Socrates}: Nor can pleasures be conceived to be bad except in so far as they are false.
\textit{Protarchus}: Nay, Socrates, that is the very opposite of truth; for no one would call pleasures and pains bad because they are false, but by reason of some other great corruption to which they are liable.
\textit{Socrates}: Well, of pleasures which are corrupt and caused by corruption we will hereafter speak, if we care to continue the enquiry; for the present I would rather show by another argument that there are many false pleasures existing or coming into existence in us, because this may assist our final decision.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true; that is to say, if there are such pleasures.
\textit{Socrates}: I think that there are, Protarchus; but this is an opinion which should be well assured, and not rest upon a mere assertion.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very good.
\textit{Socrates}: Then now, like wrestlers, let us approach and grasp this new argument.
\textit{Protarchus}: Proceed.
\textit{Socrates}: We were maintaining a little while since, that when desires, as they are termed, exist in us, then the body has separate feelings apart from the soul---do you remember?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, I remember that you said so.
\textit{Socrates}: And the soul was supposed to desire the opposite of the bodily state, while the body was the source of any pleasure or pain which was experienced.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: Then now you may infer what happens in such cases.
\textit{Protarchus}: What am I to infer?
\textit{Socrates}: That in such cases pleasures and pains come simultaneously; and there is a juxtaposition of the opposite sensations which correspond to them, as has been already shown.
\textit{Protarchus}: Clearly.
\textit{Socrates}: And there is another point to which we have agreed.
\textit{Protarchus}: What is it?
\textit{Socrates}: That pleasure and pain both admit of more and less, and that they are of the class of infinites.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly, we said so.
\textit{Socrates}: But how can we rightly judge of them?
\textit{Protarchus}: How can we?
\textit{Socrates}: Is it our intention to judge of their comparative importance and intensity, measuring pleasure against pain, and pain against pain, and pleasure against pleasure?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, such is our intention, and we shall judge of them accordingly.
\textit{Socrates}: Well, take the case of sight. Does not the nearness or distance of magnitudes obscure their true proportions, and make us opine falsely; and do we not find the same illusion happening in the case of pleasures and pains?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, Socrates, and in a degree far greater.
\textit{Socrates}: Then what we are now saying is the opposite of what we were saying before.
\textit{Protarchus}: What was that?
\textit{Socrates}: Then the opinions were true and false, and infected the pleasures and pains with their own falsity.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: But now it is the pleasures which are said to be true and false because they are seen at various distances, and subjected to comparison; the pleasures appear to be greater and more vehement when placed side by side with the pains, and the pains when placed side by side with the pleasures.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly, and for the reason which you mention.
\textit{Socrates}: And suppose you part off from pleasures and pains the element which makes them appear to be greater or less than they really are: you will acknowledge that this element is illusory, and you will never say that the corresponding excess or defect of pleasure or pain is real or true.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly not.
\textit{Socrates}: Next let us see whether in another direction we may not find pleasures and pains existing and appearing in living beings, which are still more false than these.
\textit{Protarchus}: What are they, and how shall we find them?
\textit{Socrates}: If I am not mistaken, I have often repeated that pains and aches and suffering and uneasiness of all sorts arise out of a corruption of nature caused by concretions, and dissolutions, and repletions, and evacuations, and also by growth and decay?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, that has been often said.
\textit{Socrates}: And we have also agreed that the restoration of the natural state is pleasure?
\textit{Protarchus}: Right.
\textit{Socrates}: But now let us suppose an interval of time at which the body experiences none of these changes.
\textit{Protarchus}: When can that be, Socrates?
\textit{Socrates}: Your question, Protarchus, does not help the argument.
\textit{Protarchus}: Why not, Socrates?
\textit{Socrates}: Because it does not prevent me from repeating mine.
\textit{Protarchus}: And what was that?
\textit{Socrates}: Why, Protarchus, admitting that there is no such interval, I may ask what would be the necessary consequence if there were?
\textit{Protarchus}: You mean, what would happen if the body were not changed either for good or bad?
\textit{Socrates}: Yes.
\textit{Protarchus}: Why then, Socrates, I should suppose that there would be neither pleasure nor pain.
\textit{Socrates}: Very good; but still, if I am not mistaken, you do assert that we must always be experiencing one of them; that is what the wise tell us; for, say they, all things are ever flowing up and down.
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, and their words are of no mean authority.
\textit{Socrates}: Of course, for they are no mean authorities themselves; and I should like to avoid the brunt of their argument. Shall I tell you how I mean to escape from them? And you shall be the partner of my flight.
\textit{Protarchus}: How?
\textit{Socrates}: To them we will say: 'Good; but are we, or living things in general, always conscious of what happens to us---for example, of our growth, or the like? Are we not, on the contrary, almost wholly unconscious of this and similar phenomena?' You must answer for them.
\textit{Protarchus}: The latter alternative is the true one.
\textit{Socrates}: Then we were not right in saying, just now, that motions going up and down cause pleasures and pains?
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: A better and more unexceptionable way of speaking will be---
\textit{Protarchus}: What?
\textit{Socrates}: If we say that the great changes produce pleasures and pains, but that the moderate and lesser ones do neither.
\textit{Protarchus}: That, Socrates, is the more correct mode of speaking.
\textit{Socrates}: But if this be true, the life to which I was just now referring again appears.
\textit{Protarchus}: What life?
\textit{Socrates}: The life which we affirmed to be devoid either of pain or of joy.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: We may assume then that there are three lives, one pleasant, one painful, and the third which is neither; what say you?
\textit{Protarchus}: I should say as you do that there are three of them.
\textit{Socrates}: But if so, the negation of pain will not be the same with pleasure.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly not.
\textit{Socrates}: Then when you hear a person saying, that always to live without pain is the pleasantest of all things, what would you understand him to mean by that statement?
\textit{Protarchus}: I think that by pleasure he must mean the negative of pain.
\textit{Socrates}: Let us take any three things; or suppose that we embellish a little and call the first gold, the second silver, and there shall be a third which is neither.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very good.
\textit{Socrates}: Now, can that which is neither be either gold or silver?
\textit{Protarchus}: Impossible.
\textit{Socrates}: No more can that neutral or middle life be rightly or reasonably spoken or thought of as pleasant or painful.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly not.
\textit{Socrates}: And yet, my friend, there are, as we know, persons who say and think so.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And do they think that they have pleasure when they are free from pain?
\textit{Protarchus}: They say so.
\textit{Socrates}: And they must think or they would not say that they have pleasure.
\textit{Protarchus}: I suppose not.
\textit{Socrates}: And yet if pleasure and the negation of pain are of distinct natures, they are wrong.
\textit{Protarchus}: But they are undoubtedly of distinct natures.
\textit{Socrates}: Then shall we take the view that they are three, as we were just now saying, or that they are two only---the one being a state of pain, which is an evil, and the other a cessation of pain, which is of itself a good, and is called pleasant?
\textit{Protarchus}: But why, Socrates, do we ask the question at all? I do not see the reason.
\textit{Socrates}: You, Protarchus, have clearly never heard of certain enemies of our friend Philebus.
\textit{Protarchus}: And who may they be?
\textit{Socrates}: Certain persons who are reputed to be masters in natural philosophy, who deny the very existence of pleasure.
\textit{Protarchus}: Indeed!
\textit{Socrates}: They say that what the school of Philebus calls pleasures are all of them only avoidances of pain.
\textit{Protarchus}: And would you, Socrates, have us agree with them?
\textit{Socrates}: Why, no, I would rather use them as a sort of diviners, who divine the truth, not by rules of art, but by an instinctive repugnance and extreme detestation which a noble nature has of the power of pleasure, in which they think that there is nothing sound, and her seductive influence is declared by them to be witchcraft, and not pleasure. This is the use which you may make of them. And when you have considered the various grounds of their dislike, you shall hear from me what I deem to be true pleasures. Having thus examined the nature of pleasure from both points of view, we will bring her up for judgment.
\textit{Protarchus}: Well said.
\textit{Socrates}: Then let us enter into an alliance with these philosophers and follow in the track of their dislike. I imagine that they would say something of this sort; they would begin at the beginning, and ask whether, if we wanted to know the nature of any quality, such as hardness, we should be more likely to discover it by looking at the hardest things, rather than at the least hard? You, Protarchus, shall answer these severe gentlemen as you answer me.
\textit{Protarchus}: By all means, and I reply to them, that you should look at the greatest instances.
\textit{Socrates}: Then if we want to see the true nature of pleasures as a class, we should not look at the most diluted pleasures, but at the most extreme and most vehement?
\textit{Protarchus}: In that every one will agree.
\textit{Socrates}: And the obvious instances of the greatest pleasures, as we have often said, are the pleasures of the body?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And are they felt by us to be or become greater, when we are sick or when we are in health? And here we must be careful in our answer, or we shall come to grief.
\textit{Protarchus}: How will that be?
\textit{Socrates}: Why, because we might be tempted to answer, 'When we are in health.'
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, that is the natural answer.
\textit{Socrates}: Well, but are not those pleasures the greatest of which mankind have the greatest desires?
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And do not people who are in a fever, or any similar illness, feel cold or thirst or other bodily affections more intensely? Am I not right in saying that they have a deeper want and greater pleasure in the satisfaction of their want?
\textit{Protarchus}: That is obvious as soon as it is said.
\textit{Socrates}: Well, then, shall we not be right in saying, that if a person would wish to see the greatest pleasures he ought to go and look, not at health, but at disease? And here you must distinguish:---do not imagine that I mean to ask whether those who are very ill have more pleasures than those who are well, but understand that I am speaking of the magnitude of pleasure; I want to know where pleasures are found to be most intense. For, as I say, we have to discover what is pleasure, and what they mean by pleasure who deny her very existence.
\textit{Protarchus}: I think I follow you.
\textit{Socrates}: You will soon have a better opportunity of showing whether you do or not, Protarchus. Answer now, and tell me whether you see, I will not say more, but more intense and excessive pleasures in wantonness than in temperance? Reflect before you speak.
\textit{Protarchus}: I understand you, and see that there is a great difference between them; the temperate are restrained by the wise man's aphorism of `Never too much,' which is their rule, but excess of pleasure possessing the minds of fools and wantons becomes madness and makes them shout with delight.
\textit{Socrates}: Very good, and if this be true, then the greatest pleasures and pains will clearly be found in some vicious state of soul and body, and not in a virtuous state.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And ought we not to select some of these for examination, and see what makes them the greatest?
\textit{Protarchus}: To be sure we ought.
\textit{Socrates}: Take the case of the pleasures which arise out of certain disorders.
\textit{Protarchus}: What disorders?
\textit{Socrates}: The pleasures of unseemly disorders, which our severe friends utterly detest.
\textit{Protarchus}: What pleasures?
\textit{Socrates}: Such, for example, as the relief of itching and other ailments by scratching, which is the only remedy required. For what in Heaven's name is the feeling to be called which is thus produced in us?---Pleasure or pain?
\textit{Protarchus}: A villainous mixture of some kind, Socrates, I should say.
\textit{Socrates}: I did not introduce the argument, O Protarchus, with any personal reference to Philebus, but because, without the consideration of these and similar pleasures, we shall not be able to determine the point at issue.
\textit{Protarchus}: Then we had better proceed to analyze this family of pleasures.
\textit{Socrates}: You mean the pleasures which are mingled with pain?
\textit{Protarchus}: Exactly.
\textit{Socrates}: There are some mixtures which are of the body, and only in the body, and others which are of the soul, and only in the soul; while there are other mixtures of pleasures with pains, common both to soul and body, which in their composite state are called sometimes pleasures and sometimes pains.
\textit{Protarchus}: How is that?
\textit{Socrates}: Whenever, in the restoration or in the derangement of nature, a man experiences two opposite feelings; for example, when he is cold and is growing warm, or again, when he is hot and is becoming cool, and he wants to have the one and be rid of the other;---the sweet has a bitter, as the common saying is, and both together fasten upon him and create irritation and in time drive him to distraction.
\textit{Protarchus}: That description is very true to nature.
\textit{Socrates}: And in these sorts of mixtures the pleasures and pains are sometimes equal, and sometimes one or other of them predominates?
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: Of cases in which the pain exceeds the pleasure, an example is afforded by itching, of which we were just now speaking, and by the tingling which we feel when the boiling and fiery element is within, and the rubbing and motion only relieves the surface, and does not reach the parts affected; then if you put them to the fire, and as a last resort apply cold to them, you may often produce the most intense pleasure or pain in the inner parts, which contrasts and mingles with the pain or pleasure, as the case may be, of the outer parts; and this is due to the forcible separation of what is united, or to the union of what is separated, and to the juxtaposition of pleasure and pain.
\textit{Protarchus}: Quite so.
\textit{Socrates}: Sometimes the element of pleasure prevails in a man, and the slight undercurrent of pain makes him tingle, and causes a gentle irritation; or again, the excessive infusion of pleasure creates an excitement in him,---he even leaps for joy, he assumes all sorts of attitudes, he changes all manner of colours, he gasps for breath, and is quite amazed, and utters the most irrational exclamations.
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, indeed.
\textit{Socrates}: He will say of himself, and others will say of him, that he is dying with these delights; and the more dissipated and good-for-nothing he is, the more vehemently he pursues them in every way; of all pleasures he declares them to be the greatest; and he reckons him who lives in the most constant enjoyment of them to be the happiest of mankind.
\textit{Protarchus}: That, Socrates, is a very true description of the opinions of the majority about pleasures.
\textit{Socrates}: Yes, Protarchus, quite true of the mixed pleasures, which arise out of the communion of external and internal sensations in the body; there are also cases in which the mind contributes an opposite element to the body, whether of pleasure or pain, and the two unite and form one mixture. Concerning these I have already remarked, that when a man is empty he desires to be full, and has pleasure in hope and pain in vacuity. But now I must further add what I omitted before, that in all these and similar emotions in which body and mind are opposed (and they are innumerable), pleasure and pain coalesce in one.
\textit{Protarchus}: I believe that to be quite true.
\textit{Socrates}: There still remains one other sort of admixture of pleasures and pains.
\textit{Protarchus}: What is that?
\textit{Socrates}: The union which, as we were saying, the mind often experiences of purely mental feelings.
\textit{Protarchus}: What do you mean?
\textit{Socrates}: Why, do we not speak of anger, fear, desire, sorrow, love, emulation, envy, and the like, as pains which belong to the soul only?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And shall we not find them also full of the most wonderful pleasures? need I remind you of the anger
'Which stirs even a wise man to violence, And is sweeter than honey and the honeycomb?'
And you remember how pleasures mingle with pains in lamentation and bereavement?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, there is a natural connexion between them.
\textit{Socrates}: And you remember also how at the sight of tragedies the spectators smile through their tears?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly I do.
\textit{Socrates}: And are you aware that even at a comedy the soul experiences a mixed feeling of pain and pleasure?
\textit{Protarchus}: I do not quite understand you.
\textit{Socrates}: I admit, Protarchus, that there is some difficulty in recognizing this mixture of feelings at a comedy.
\textit{Protarchus}: There is, I think.
\textit{Socrates}: And the greater the obscurity of the case the more desirable is the examination of it, because the difficulty in detecting other cases of mixed pleasures and pains will be less.
\textit{Protarchus}: Proceed.
\textit{Socrates}: I have just mentioned envy; would you not call that a pain of the soul?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And yet the envious man finds something in the misfortunes of his neighbours at which he is pleased?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And ignorance, and what is termed clownishness, are surely an evil?
\textit{Protarchus}: To be sure.
\textit{Socrates}: From these considerations learn to know the nature of the ridiculous.
\textit{Protarchus}: Explain.
\textit{Socrates}: The ridiculous is in short the specific name which is used to describe the vicious form of a certain habit; and of vice in general it is that kind which is most at variance with the inscription at Delphi.
\textit{Protarchus}: You mean, Socrates, `Know thyself.'
\textit{Socrates}: I do; and the opposite would be, `Know not thyself.'
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And now, O Protarchus, try to divide this into three.
\textit{Protarchus}: Indeed I am afraid that I cannot.
\textit{Socrates}: Do you mean to say that I must make the division for you?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, and what is more, I beg that you will.
\textit{Socrates}: Are there not three ways in which ignorance of self may be shown?
\textit{Protarchus}: What are they?
\textit{Socrates}: In the first place, about money; the ignorant may fancy himself richer than he is.
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, that is a very common error.
\textit{Socrates}: And still more often he will fancy that he is taller or fairer than he is, or that he has some other advantage of person which he really has not.
\textit{Protarchus}: Of course.
\textit{Socrates}: And yet surely by far the greatest number err about the goods of the mind; they imagine themselves to be much better men than they are.
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, that is by far the commonest delusion.
\textit{Socrates}: And of all the virtues, is not wisdom the one which the mass of mankind are always claiming, and which most arouses in them a spirit of contention and lying conceit of wisdom?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And may not all this be truly called an evil condition?
\textit{Protarchus}: Very evil.
\textit{Socrates}: But we must pursue the division a step further, Protarchus, if we would see in envy of the childish sort a singular mixture of pleasure and pain.
\textit{Protarchus}: How can we make the further division which you suggest?
\textit{Socrates}: All who are silly enough to entertain this lying conceit of themselves may of course be divided, like the rest of mankind, into two classes---one having power and might; and the other the reverse.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Let this, then, be the principle of division; those of them who are weak and unable to revenge themselves, when they are laughed at, may be truly called ridiculous, but those who can defend themselves may be more truly described as strong and formidable; for ignorance in the powerful is hateful and horrible, because hurtful to others both in reality and in fiction, but powerless ignorance may be reckoned, and in truth is, ridiculous.
\textit{Protarchus}: That is very true, but I do not as yet see where is the admixture of pleasures and pains.
\textit{Socrates}: Well, then, let us examine the nature of envy.
\textit{Protarchus}: Proceed.
\textit{Socrates}: Is not envy an unrighteous pleasure, and also an unrighteous pain?
\textit{Protarchus}: Most true.
\textit{Socrates}: There is nothing envious or wrong in rejoicing at the misfortunes of enemies?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly not.
\textit{Socrates}: But to feel joy instead of sorrow at the sight of our friends' misfortunes---is not that wrong?
\textit{Protarchus}: Undoubtedly.
\textit{Socrates}: Did we not say that ignorance was always an evil?
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And the three kinds of vain conceit in our friends which we enumerated---the vain conceit of beauty, of wisdom, and of wealth, are ridiculous if they are weak, and detestable when they are powerful: May we not say, as I was saying before, that our friends who are in this state of mind, when harmless to others, are simply ridiculous?
\textit{Protarchus}: They are ridiculous.
\textit{Socrates}: And do we not acknowledge this ignorance of theirs to be a misfortune?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And do we feel pain or pleasure in laughing at it?
\textit{Protarchus}: Clearly we feel pleasure.
\textit{Socrates}: And was not envy the source of this pleasure which we feel at the misfortunes of friends?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Then the argument shows that when we laugh at the folly of our friends, pleasure, in mingling with envy, mingles with pain, for envy has been acknowledged by us to be mental pain, and laughter is pleasant; and so we envy and laugh at the same instant.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And the argument implies that there are combinations of pleasure and pain in lamentations, and in tragedy and comedy, not only on the stage, but on the greater stage of human life; and so in endless other cases.
\textit{Protarchus}: I do not see how any one can deny what you say, Socrates, however eager he may be to assert the opposite opinion.
\textit{Socrates}: I mentioned anger, desire, sorrow, fear, love, emulation, envy, and similar emotions, as examples in which we should find a mixture of the two elements so often named; did I not?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: We may observe that our conclusions hitherto have had reference only to sorrow and envy and anger.
\textit{Protarchus}: I see.
\textit{Socrates}: Then many other cases still remain?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And why do you suppose me to have pointed out to you the admixture which takes place in comedy? Why but to convince you that there was no difficulty in showing the mixed nature of fear and love and similar affections; and I thought that when I had given you the illustration, you would have let me off, and have acknowledged as a general truth that the body without the soul, and the soul without the body, as well as the two united, are susceptible of all sorts of admixtures of pleasures and pains; and so further discussion would have been unnecessary. And now I want to know whether I may depart; or will you keep me here until midnight? I fancy that I may obtain my release without many words;---if I promise that to-morrow I will give you an account of all these cases. But at present I would rather sail in another direction, and go to other matters which remain to be settled, before the judgment can be given which Philebus demands.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very good, Socrates; in what remains take your own course.
\textit{Socrates}: Then after the mixed pleasures the unmixed should have their turn; this is the natural and necessary order.
\textit{Protarchus}: Excellent.
\textit{Socrates}: These, in turn, then, I will now endeavour to indicate; for with the maintainers of the opinion that all pleasures are a cessation of pain, I do not agree, but, as I was saying, I use them as witnesses, that there are pleasures which seem only and are not, and there are others again which have great power and appear in many forms, yet are intermingled with pains, and are partly alleviations of agony and distress, both of body and mind.
\textit{Protarchus}: Then what pleasures, Socrates, should we be right in conceiving to be true?
\textit{Socrates}: True pleasures are those which are given by beauty of colour and form, and most of those which arise from smells; those of sound, again, and in general those of which the want is painless and unconscious, and of which the fruition is palpable to sense and pleasant and unalloyed with pain.
\textit{Protarchus}: Once more, Socrates, I must ask what you mean.
\textit{Socrates}: My meaning is certainly not obvious, and I will endeavour to be plainer. I do not mean by beauty of form such beauty as that of animals or pictures, which the many would suppose to be my meaning; but, says the argument, understand me to mean straight lines and circles, and the plane or solid figures which are formed out of them by turning-lathes and rulers and measurers of angles; for these I affirm to be not only relatively beautiful, like other things, but they are eternally and absolutely beautiful, and they have peculiar pleasures, quite unlike the pleasures of scratching. And there are colours which are of the same character, and have similar pleasures; now do you understand my meaning?
\textit{Protarchus}: I am trying to understand, Socrates, and I hope that you will try to make your meaning clearer.
\textit{Socrates}: When sounds are smooth and clear, and have a single pure tone, then I mean to say that they are not relatively but absolutely beautiful, and have natural pleasures associated with them.
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, there are such pleasures.
\textit{Socrates}: The pleasures of smell are of a less ethereal sort, but they have no necessary admixture of pain; and all pleasures, however and wherever experienced, which are unattended by pains, I assign to an analogous class. Here then are two kinds of pleasures.
\textit{Protarchus}: I understand.
\textit{Socrates}: To these may be added the pleasures of knowledge, if no hunger of knowledge and no pain caused by such hunger precede them.
\textit{Protarchus}: And this is the case.
\textit{Socrates}: Well, but if a man who is full of knowledge loses his knowledge, are there not pains of forgetting?
\textit{Protarchus}: Not necessarily, but there may be times of reflection, when he feels grief at the loss of his knowledge.
\textit{Socrates}: Yes, my friend, but at present we are enumerating only the natural perceptions, and have nothing to do with reflection.
\textit{Protarchus}: In that case you are right in saying that the loss of knowledge is not attended with pain.
\textit{Socrates}: These pleasures of knowledge, then, are unmixed with pain; and they are not the pleasures of the many but of a very few.
\textit{Protarchus}: Quite true.
\textit{Socrates}: And now, having fairly separated the pure pleasures and those which may be rightly termed impure, let us further add to our description of them, that the pleasures which are in excess have no measure, but that those which are not in excess have measure; the great, the excessive, whether more or less frequent, we shall be right in referring to the class of the infinite, and of the more and less, which pours through body and soul alike; and the others we shall refer to the class which has measure.
\textit{Protarchus}: Quite right, Socrates.
\textit{Socrates}: Still there is something more to be considered about pleasures.
\textit{Protarchus}: What is it?
\textit{Socrates}: When you speak of purity and clearness, or of excess, abundance, greatness and sufficiency, in what relation do these terms stand to truth?
\textit{Protarchus}: Why do you ask, Socrates?
\textit{Socrates}: Because, Protarchus, I should wish to test pleasure and knowledge in every possible way, in order that if there be a pure and impure element in either of them, I may present the pure element for judgment, and then they will be more easily judged of by you and by me and by all of us.
\textit{Protarchus}: Most true.
\textit{Socrates}: Let us investigate all the pure kinds; first selecting for consideration a single instance.
\textit{Protarchus}: What instance shall we select?
\textit{Socrates}: Suppose that we first of all take whiteness.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very good.
\textit{Socrates}: How can there be purity in whiteness, and what purity? Is that purest which is greatest or most in quantity, or that which is most unadulterated and freest from any admixture of other colours?
\textit{Protarchus}: Clearly that which is most unadulterated.
\textit{Socrates}: True, Protarchus; and so the purest white, and not the greatest or largest in quantity, is to be deemed truest and most beautiful?
\textit{Protarchus}: Right.
\textit{Socrates}: And we shall be quite right in saying that a little pure white is whiter and fairer and truer than a great deal that is mixed.
\textit{Protarchus}: Perfectly right.
\textit{Socrates}: There is no need of adducing many similar examples in illustration of the argument about pleasure; one such is sufficient to prove to us that a small pleasure or a small amount of pleasure, if pure or unalloyed with pain, is always pleasanter and truer and fairer than a great pleasure or a great amount of pleasure of another kind.
\textit{Protarchus}: Assuredly; and the instance you have given is quite sufficient.
\textit{Socrates}: But what do you say of another question:---have we not heard that pleasure is always a generation, and has no true being? Do not certain ingenious philosophers teach this doctrine, and ought not we to be grateful to them?
\textit{Protarchus}: What do they mean?
\textit{Socrates}: I will explain to you, my dear Protarchus, what they mean, by putting a question.
\textit{Protarchus}: Ask, and I will answer.
\textit{Socrates}: I assume that there are two natures, one self-existent, and the other ever in want of something.
\textit{Protarchus}: What manner of natures are they?
\textit{Socrates}: The one majestic ever, the other inferior.
\textit{Protarchus}: You speak riddles.
\textit{Socrates}: You have seen loves good and fair, and also brave lovers of them.
\textit{Protarchus}: I should think so.
\textit{Socrates}: Search the universe for two terms which are like these two and are present everywhere.
\textit{Protarchus}: Yet a third time I must say, Be a little plainer, Socrates.
\textit{Socrates}: There is no difficulty, Protarchus; the argument is only in play, and insinuates that some things are for the sake of something else (relatives), and that other things are the ends to which the former class subserve (absolutes).
\textit{Protarchus}: Your many repetitions make me slow to understand.
\textit{Socrates}: As the argument proceeds, my boy, I dare say that the meaning will become clearer.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very likely.
\textit{Socrates}: Here are two new principles.
\textit{Protarchus}: What are they?
\textit{Socrates}: One is the generation of all things, and the other is essence.
\textit{Protarchus}: I readily accept from you both generation and essence.
\textit{Socrates}: Very right; and would you say that generation is for the sake of essence, or essence for the sake of generation?
\textit{Protarchus}: You want to know whether that which is called essence is, properly speaking, for the sake of generation?
\textit{Socrates}: Yes.
\textit{Protarchus}: By the gods, I wish that you would repeat your question.
\textit{Socrates}: I mean, O my Protarchus, to ask whether you would tell me that ship-building is for the sake of ships, or ships for the sake of ship-building? and in all similar cases I should ask the same question.
\textit{Protarchus}: Why do you not answer yourself, Socrates?
\textit{Socrates}: I have no objection, but you must take your part.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: My answer is, that all things instrumental, remedial, material, are given to us with a view to generation, and that each generation is relative to, or for the sake of, some being or essence, and that the whole of generation is relative to the whole of essence.
\textit{Protarchus}: Assuredly.
\textit{Socrates}: Then pleasure, being a generation, must surely be for the sake of some essence?
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And that for the sake of which something else is done must be placed in the class of good, and that which is done for the sake of something else, in some other class, my good friend.
\textit{Protarchus}: Most certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Then pleasure, being a generation, will be rightly placed in some other class than that of good?
\textit{Protarchus}: Quite right.
\textit{Socrates}: Then, as I said at first, we ought to be very grateful to him who first pointed out that pleasure was a generation only, and had no true being at all; for he is clearly one who laughs at the notion of pleasure being a good.
\textit{Protarchus}: Assuredly.
\textit{Socrates}: And he would surely laugh also at those who make generation their highest end.
\textit{Protarchus}: Of whom are you speaking, and what do they mean?
\textit{Socrates}: I am speaking of those who when they are cured of hunger or thirst or any other defect by some process of generation are delighted at the process as if it were pleasure; and they say that they would not wish to live without these and other feelings of a like kind which might be mentioned.
\textit{Protarchus}: That is certainly what they appear to think.
\textit{Socrates}: And is not destruction universally admitted to be the opposite of generation?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Then he who chooses thus, would choose generation and destruction rather than that third sort of life, in which, as we were saying, was neither pleasure nor pain, but only the purest possible thought.
\textit{Protarchus}: He who would make us believe pleasure to be a good is involved in great absurdities, Socrates.
\textit{Socrates}: Great, indeed; and there is yet another of them.
\textit{Protarchus}: What is it?
\textit{Socrates}: Is there not an absurdity in arguing that there is nothing good or noble in the body, or in anything else, but that good is in the soul only, and that the only good of the soul is pleasure; and that courage or temperance or understanding, or any other good of the soul, is not really a good?---and is there not yet a further absurdity in our being compelled to say that he who has a feeling of pain and not of pleasure is bad at the time when he is suffering pain, even though he be the best of men; and again, that he who has a feeling of pleasure, in so far as he is pleased at the time when he is pleased, in that degree excels in virtue?
\textit{Protarchus}: Nothing, Socrates, can be more irrational than all this.
\textit{Socrates}: And now, having subjected pleasure to every sort of test, let us not appear to be too sparing of mind and knowledge: let us ring their metal bravely, and see if there be unsoundness in any part, until we have found out what in them is of the purest nature; and then the truest elements both of pleasure and knowledge may be brought up for judgment.
\textit{Protarchus}: Right.
\textit{Socrates}: Knowledge has two parts,---the one productive, and the other educational?
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And in the productive or handicraft arts, is not one part more akin to knowledge, and the other less; and may not the one part be regarded as the pure, and the other as the impure?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Let us separate the superior or dominant elements in each of them.
\textit{Protarchus}: What are they, and how do you separate them?
\textit{Socrates}: I mean to say, that if arithmetic, mensuration, and weighing be taken away from any art, that which remains will not be much.
\textit{Protarchus}: Not much, certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: The rest will be only conjecture, and the better use of the senses which is given by experience and practice, in addition to a certain power of guessing, which is commonly called art, and is perfected by attention and pains.
\textit{Protarchus}: Nothing more, assuredly.
\textit{Socrates}: Music, for instance, is full of this empiricism; for sounds are harmonized, not by measure, but by skilful conjecture; the music of the flute is always trying to guess the pitch of each vibrating note, and is therefore mixed up with much that is doubtful and has little which is certain.
\textit{Protarchus}: Most true.
\textit{Socrates}: And the same will be found to hold good of medicine and husbandry and piloting and generalship.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: The art of the builder, on the other hand, which uses a number of measures and instruments, attains by their help to a greater degree of accuracy than the other arts.
\textit{Protarchus}: How is that?
\textit{Socrates}: In ship-building and house-building, and in other branches of the art of carpentering, the builder has his rule, lathe, compass, line, and a most ingenious machine for straightening wood.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true, Socrates.
\textit{Socrates}: Then now let us divide the arts of which we were speaking into two kinds,---the arts which, like music, are less exact in their results, and those which, like carpentering, are more exact.
\textit{Protarchus}: Let us make that division.
\textit{Socrates}: Of the latter class, the most exact of all are those which we just now spoke of as primary.
\textit{Protarchus}: I see that you mean arithmetic, and the kindred arts of weighing and measuring.
\textit{Socrates}: Certainly, Protarchus; but are not these also distinguishable into two kinds?
\textit{Protarchus}: What are the two kinds?
\textit{Socrates}: In the first place, arithmetic is of two kinds, one of which is popular, and the other philosophical.
\textit{Protarchus}: How would you distinguish them?
\textit{Socrates}: There is a wide difference between them, Protarchus; some arithmeticians reckon unequal units; as for example, two armies, two oxen, two very large things or two very small things. The party who are opposed to them insist that every unit in ten thousand must be the same as every other unit.
\textit{Protarchus}: Undoubtedly there is, as you say, a great difference among the votaries of the science; and there may be reasonably supposed to be two sorts of arithmetic.
\textit{Socrates}: And when we compare the art of mensuration which is used in building with philosophical geometry, or the art of computation which is used in trading with exact calculation, shall we say of either of the pairs that it is one or two?
\textit{Protarchus}: On the analogy of what has preceded, I should be of opinion that they were severally two.
\textit{Socrates}: Right; but do you understand why I have discussed the subject?
\textit{Protarchus}: I think so, but I should like to be told by you.
\textit{Socrates}: The argument has all along been seeking a parallel to pleasure, and true to that original design, has gone on to ask whether one sort of knowledge is purer than another, as one pleasure is purer than another.
\textit{Protarchus}: Clearly; that was the intention.
\textit{Socrates}: And has not the argument in what has preceded, already shown that the arts have different provinces, and vary in their degrees of certainty?
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: And just now did not the argument first designate a particular art by a common term, thus making us believe in the unity of that art; and then again, as if speaking of two different things, proceed to enquire whether the art as pursed by philosophers, or as pursued by non-philosophers, has more of certainty and purity?
\textit{Protarchus}: That is the very question which the argument is asking.
\textit{Socrates}: And how, Protarchus, shall we answer the enquiry?
\textit{Protarchus}: O Socrates, we have reached a point at which the difference of clearness in different kinds of knowledge is enormous.
\textit{Socrates}: Then the answer will be the easier.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly; and let us say in reply, that those arts into which arithmetic and mensuration enter, far surpass all others; and that of these the arts or sciences which are animated by the pure philosophic impulse are infinitely superior in accuracy and truth.
\textit{Socrates}: Then this is your judgment; and this is the answer which, upon your authority, we will give to all masters of the art of misinterpretation?
\textit{Protarchus}: What answer?
\textit{Socrates}: That there are two arts of arithmetic, and two of mensuration; and also several other arts which in like manner have this double nature, and yet only one name.
\textit{Protarchus}: Let us boldly return this answer to the masters of whom you speak, Socrates, and hope for good luck.
\textit{Socrates}: We have explained what we term the most exact arts or sciences.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very good.
\textit{Socrates}: And yet, Protarchus, dialectic will refuse to acknowledge us, if we do not award to her the first place.
\textit{Protarchus}: And pray, what is dialectic?
\textit{Socrates}: Clearly the science which has to do with all that knowledge of which we are now speaking; for I am sure that all men who have a grain of intelligence will admit that the knowledge which has to do with being and reality, and sameness and unchangeableness, is by far the truest of all. But how would you decide this question, Protarchus?
\textit{Protarchus}: I have often heard Gorgias maintain, Socrates, that the art of persuasion far surpassed every other; this, as he says, is by far the best of them all, for to it all things submit, not by compulsion, but of their own free will. Now, I should not like to quarrel either with you or with him.
\textit{Socrates}: You mean to say that you would like to desert, if you were not ashamed?
\textit{Protarchus}: As you please.
\textit{Socrates}: May I not have led you into a misapprehension?
\textit{Protarchus}: How?
\textit{Socrates}: Dear Protarchus, I never asked which was the greatest or best or usefullest of arts or sciences, but which had clearness and accuracy, and the greatest amount of truth, however humble and little useful an art. And as for Gorgias, if you do not deny that his art has the advantage in usefulness to mankind, he will not quarrel with you for saying that the study of which I am speaking is superior in this particular of essential truth; as in the comparison of white colours, a little whiteness, if that little be only pure, was said to be superior in truth to a great mass which is impure. And now let us give our best attention and consider well, not the comparative use or reputation of the sciences, but the power or faculty, if there be such, which the soul has of loving the truth, and of doing all things for the sake of it; let us search into the pure element of mind and intelligence, and then we shall be able to say whether the science of which I have been speaking is most likely to possess the faculty, or whether there be some other which has higher claims.
\textit{Protarchus}: Well, I have been considering, and I can hardly think that any other science or art has a firmer grasp of the truth than this.
\textit{Socrates}: Do you say so because you observe that the arts in general and those engaged in them make use of opinion, and are resolutely engaged in the investigation of matters of opinion? Even he who supposes himself to be occupied with nature is really occupied with the things of this world, how created, how acting or acted upon. Is not this the sort of enquiry in which his life is spent?
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: He is labouring, not after eternal being, but about things which are becoming, or which will or have become.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: And can we say that any of these things which neither are nor have been nor will be unchangeable, when judged by the strict rule of truth ever become certain?
\textit{Protarchus}: Impossible.
\textit{Socrates}: How can anything fixed be concerned with that which has no fixedness?
\textit{Protarchus}: How indeed?
\textit{Socrates}: Then mind and science when employed about such changing things do not attain the highest truth?
\textit{Protarchus}: I should imagine not.
\textit{Socrates}: And now let us bid farewell, a long farewell, to you or me or
Philebus or Gorgias, and urge on behalf of the argument a single point.
\textit{Protarchus}: What point?
\textit{Socrates}: Let us say that the stable and pure and true and unalloyed has to do with the things which are eternal and unchangeable and unmixed, or if not, at any rate what is most akin to them has; and that all other things are to be placed in a second or inferior class.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: And of the names expressing cognition, ought not the fairest to be given to the fairest things?
\textit{Protarchus}: That is natural.
\textit{Socrates}: And are not mind and wisdom the names which are to be honoured most?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And these names may be said to have their truest and most exact application when the mind is engaged in the contemplation of true being?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And these were the names which I adduced of the rivals of pleasure?
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true, Socrates.
\textit{Socrates}: In the next place, as to the mixture, here are the ingredients, pleasure and wisdom, and we may be compared to artists who have their materials ready to their hands.
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes.
\textit{Socrates}: And now we must begin to mix them?
\textit{Protarchus}: By all means.
\textit{Socrates}: But had we not better have a preliminary word and refresh our memories?
\textit{Protarchus}: Of what?
\textit{Socrates}: Of that which I have already mentioned. Well says the proverb, that we ought to repeat twice and even thrice that which is good.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Well then, by Zeus, let us proceed, and I will make what I believe to be a fair summary of the argument.
\textit{Protarchus}: Let me hear.
\textit{Socrates}: Philebus says that pleasure is the true end of all living beings, at which all ought to aim, and moreover that it is the chief good of all, and that the two names `good' and `pleasant' are correctly given to one thing and one nature; Socrates, on the other hand, begins by denying this, and further says, that in nature as in name they are two, and that wisdom partakes more than pleasure of the good. Is not and was not this what we were saying, Protarchus?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And is there not and was there not a further point which was conceded between us?
\textit{Protarchus}: What was it?
\textit{Socrates}: That the good differs from all other things.
\textit{Protarchus}: In what respect?
\textit{Socrates}: In that the being who possesses good always everywhere and in all things has the most perfect sufficiency, and is never in need of anything else.
\textit{Protarchus}: Exactly.
\textit{Socrates}: And did we not endeavour to make an imaginary separation of wisdom and pleasure, assigning to each a distinct life, so that pleasure was wholly excluded from wisdom, and wisdom in like manner had no part whatever in pleasure?
\textit{Protarchus}: We did.
\textit{Socrates}: And did we think that either of them alone would be sufficient?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly not.
\textit{Socrates}: And if we erred in any point, then let any one who will, take up the enquiry again and set us right; and assuming memory and wisdom and knowledge and true opinion to belong to the same class, let him consider whether he would desire to possess or acquire,---I will not say pleasure, however abundant or intense, if he has no real perception that he is pleased, nor any consciousness of what he feels, nor any recollection, however momentary, of the feeling,---but would he desire to have anything at all, if these faculties were wanting to him? And about wisdom I ask the same question; can you conceive that any one would choose to have all wisdom absolutely devoid of pleasure, rather than with a certain degree of pleasure, or all pleasure devoid of wisdom, rather than with a certain degree of wisdom?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly not, Socrates; but why repeat such questions any more?
\textit{Socrates}: Then the perfect and universally eligible and entirely good cannot possibly be either of them?
\textit{Protarchus}: Impossible.
\textit{Socrates}: Then now we must ascertain the nature of the good more or less accurately, in order, as we were saying, that the second place may be duly assigned.
\textit{Protarchus}: Right.
\textit{Socrates}: Have we not found a road which leads towards the good?
\textit{Protarchus}: What road?
\textit{Socrates}: Supposing that a man had to be found, and you could discover in what house he lived, would not that be a great step towards the discovery of the man himself?
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And now reason intimates to us, as at our first beginning, that we should seek the good, not in the unmixed life but in the mixed.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: There is greater hope of finding that which we are seeking in the life which is well mixed than in that which is not?
\textit{Protarchus}: Far greater.
\textit{Socrates}: Then now let us mingle, Protarchus, at the same time offering up a prayer to Dionysus or Hephaestus, or whoever is the god who presides over the ceremony of mingling.
\textit{Protarchus}: By all means.
\textit{Socrates}: Are not we the cup-bearers? and here are two fountains which are flowing at our side: one, which is pleasure, may be likened to a fountain of honey; the other, wisdom, a sober draught in which no wine mingles, is of water unpleasant but healthful; out of these we must seek to make the fairest of all possible mixtures.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Tell me first;---should we be most likely to succeed if we mingled every sort of pleasure with every sort of wisdom?
\textit{Protarchus}: Perhaps we might.
\textit{Socrates}: But I should be afraid of the risk, and I think that I can show a safer plan.
\textit{Protarchus}: What is it?
\textit{Socrates}: One pleasure was supposed by us to be truer than another, and one art to be more exact than another.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: There was also supposed to be a difference in sciences; some of them regarding only the transient and perishing, and others the permanent and imperishable and everlasting and immutable; and when judged by the standard of truth, the latter, as we thought, were truer than the former.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very good and right.
\textit{Socrates}: If, then, we were to begin by mingling the sections of each class which have the most of truth, will not the union suffice to give us the loveliest of lives, or shall we still want some elements of another kind?
\textit{Protarchus}: I think that we ought to do what you suggest.
\textit{Socrates}: Let us suppose a man who understands justice, and has reason as well as understanding about the true nature of this and of all other things.
\textit{Protarchus}: We will suppose such a man.
\textit{Socrates}: Will he have enough of knowledge if he is acquainted only with the divine circle and sphere, and knows nothing of our human spheres and circles, but uses only divine circles and measures in the building of a house?
\textit{Protarchus}: The knowledge which is only superhuman, Socrates, is ridiculous in man.
\textit{Socrates}: What do you mean? Do you mean that you are to throw into the cup and mingle the impure and uncertain art which uses the false measure and the false circle?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, we must, if any of us is ever to find his way home.
\textit{Socrates}: And am I to include music, which, as I was saying just now, is full of guesswork and imitation, and is wanting in purity?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, I think that you must, if human life is to be a life at all.
\textit{Socrates}: Well, then, suppose that I give way, and, like a doorkeeper who is pushed and overborne by the mob, I open the door wide, and let knowledge of every sort stream in, and the pure mingle with the impure?
\textit{Protarchus}: I do not know, Socrates, that any great harm would come of having them all, if only you have the first sort.
\textit{Socrates}: Well, then, shall I let them all flow into what Homer poetically terms `a meeting of the waters'?
\textit{Protarchus}: By all means.
\textit{Socrates}: There---I have let them in, and now I must return to the fountain of pleasure. For we were not permitted to begin by mingling in a single stream the true portions of both according to our original intention; but the love of all knowledge constrained us to let all the sciences flow in together before the pleasures.
\textit{Protarchus}: Quite true.
\textit{Socrates}: And now the time has come for us to consider about the pleasures also, whether we shall in like manner let them go all at once, or at first only the true ones.
\textit{Protarchus}: It will be by far the safer course to let flow the true ones first.
\textit{Socrates}: Let them flow, then; and now, if there are any necessary pleasures, as there were arts and sciences necessary, must we not mingle them?
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes; the necessary pleasures should certainly be allowed to mingle.
\textit{Socrates}: The knowledge of the arts has been admitted to be innocent and useful always; and if we say of pleasures in like manner that all of them are good and innocent for all of us at all times, we must let them all mingle?
\textit{Protarchus}: What shall we say about them, and what course shall we take?
\textit{Socrates}: Do not ask me, Protarchus; but ask the daughters of pleasure and wisdom to answer for themselves.
\textit{Protarchus}: How?
\textit{Socrates}: Tell us, O beloved---shall we call you pleasures or by some other name?---would you rather live with or without wisdom? I am of opinion that they would certainly answer as follows:
\textit{Protarchus}: How?
\textit{Socrates}: They would answer, as we said before, that for any single class to be left by itself pure and isolated is not good, nor altogether possible; and that if we are to make comparisons of one class with another and choose, there is no better companion than knowledge of things in general, and likewise the perfect knowledge, if that may be, of ourselves in every respect.
\textit{Protarchus}: And our answer will be:---In that ye have spoken well.
\textit{Socrates}: Very true. And now let us go back and interrogate wisdom and mind: Would you like to have any pleasures in the mixture? And they will reply:---'What pleasures do you mean?'
\textit{Protarchus}: Likely enough.
\textit{Socrates}: And we shall take up our parable and say: Do you wish to have the greatest and most vehement pleasures for your companions in addition to the true ones? `Why, Socrates,' they will say, 'how can we? seeing that they are the source of ten thousand hindrances to us; they trouble the souls of men, which are our habitation, with their madness; they prevent us from coming to the birth, and are commonly the ruin of the children which are born to us, causing them to be forgotten and unheeded; but the true and pure pleasures, of which you spoke, know to be of our family, and also those pleasures which accompany health and temperance, and which every Virtue, like a goddess, has in her train to follow her about wherever she goes,---mingle these and not the others; there would be great want of sense in any one who desires to see a fair and perfect mixture, and to find in it what is the highest good in man and in the universe, and to divine what is the true form of good---there would be great want of sense in his allowing the pleasures, which are always in the company of folly and vice, to mingle with mind in the cup.'---Is not this a very rational and suitable reply, which mind has made, both on her own behalf, as well as on the behalf of memory and true opinion?
\textit{Protarchus}: Most certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And still there must be something more added, which is a necessary ingredient in every mixture.
\textit{Protarchus}: What is that?
\textit{Socrates}: Unless truth enter into the composition, nothing can truly be created or subsist.
\textit{Protarchus}: Impossible.
\textit{Socrates}: Quite impossible; and now you and Philebus must tell me whether anything is still wanting in the mixture, for to my way of thinking the argument is now completed, and may be compared to an incorporeal law, which is going to hold fair rule over a living body.
\textit{Protarchus}: I agree with you, Socrates.
\textit{Socrates}: And may we not say with reason that we are now at the vestibule of the habitation of the good?
\textit{Protarchus}: I think that we are.
\textit{Socrates}: What, then, is there in the mixture which is most precious, and which is the principal cause why such a state is universally beloved by all? When we have discovered it, we will proceed to ask whether this omnipresent nature is more akin to pleasure or to mind.
\textit{Protarchus}: Quite right; in that way we shall be better able to judge.
\textit{Socrates}: And there is no difficulty in seeing the cause which renders any mixture either of the highest value or of none at all.
\textit{Protarchus}: What do you mean?
\textit{Socrates}: Every man knows it.
\textit{Protarchus}: What?
\textit{Socrates}: He knows that any want of measure and symmetry in any mixture whatever must always of necessity be fatal, both to the elements and to the mixture, which is then not a mixture, but only a confused medley which brings confusion on the possessor of it.
\textit{Protarchus}: Most true.
\textit{Socrates}: And now the power of the good has retired into the region of the beautiful; for measure and symmetry are beauty and virtue all the world over.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: Also we said that truth was to form an element in the mixture.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: Then, if we are not able to hunt the good with one idea only, with three we may catch our prey; Beauty, Symmetry, Truth are the three, and these taken together we may regard as the single cause of the mixture, and the mixture as being good by reason of the infusion of them.
\textit{Protarchus}: Quite right.
\textit{Socrates}: And now, Protarchus, any man could decide well enough whether pleasure or wisdom is more akin to the highest good, and more honourable among gods and men.
\textit{Protarchus}: Clearly, and yet perhaps the argument had better be pursued to the end.
\textit{Socrates}: We must take each of them separately in their relation to pleasure and mind, and pronounce upon them; for we ought to see to which of the two they are severally most akin.
\textit{Protarchus}: You are speaking of beauty, truth, and measure?
\textit{Socrates}: Yes, Protarchus, take truth first, and, after passing in review mind, truth, pleasure, pause awhile and make answer to yourself---as to whether pleasure or mind is more akin to truth.
\textit{Protarchus}: There is no need to pause, for the difference between them is palpable; pleasure is the veriest impostor in the world; and it is said that in the pleasures of love, which appear to be the greatest, perjury is excused by the gods; for pleasures, like children, have not the least particle of reason in them; whereas mind is either the same as truth, or the most like truth, and the truest.
\textit{Socrates}: Shall we next consider measure, in like manner, and ask whether pleasure has more of this than wisdom, or wisdom than pleasure?
\textit{Protarchus}: Here is another question which may be easily answered; for I imagine that nothing can ever be more immoderate than the transports of pleasure, or more in conformity with measure than mind and knowledge.
\textit{Socrates}: Very good; but there still remains the third test: Has mind a greater share of beauty than pleasure, and is mind or pleasure the fairer of the two?
\textit{Protarchus}: No one, Socrates, either awake or dreaming, ever saw or imagined mind or wisdom to be in aught unseemly, at any time, past, present, or future.
\textit{Socrates}: Right.
\textit{Protarchus}: But when we see some one indulging in pleasures, perhaps in the greatest of pleasures, the ridiculous or disgraceful nature of the action makes us ashamed; and so we put them out of sight, and consign them to darkness, under the idea that they ought not to meet the eye of day.
\textit{Socrates}: Then, Protarchus, you will proclaim everywhere, by word of mouth to this company, and by messengers bearing the tidings far and wide, that pleasure is not the first of possessions, nor yet the second, but that in measure, and the mean, and the suitable, and the like, the eternal nature has been found.
\textit{Protarchus}: Yes, that seems to be the result of what has been now said.
\textit{Socrates}: In the second class is contained the symmetrical and beautiful and perfect or sufficient, and all which are of that family.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: And if you reckon in the third class mind and wisdom, you will not be far wrong, if I divine aright.
\textit{Protarchus}: I dare say.
\textit{Socrates}: And would you not put in the fourth class the goods which we were affirming to appertain specially to the soul---sciences and arts and true opinions as we called them? These come after the third class, and form the fourth, as they are certainly more akin to good than pleasure is.
\textit{Protarchus}: Surely.
\textit{Socrates}: The fifth class are the pleasures which were defined by us as painless, being the pure pleasures of the soul herself, as we termed them, which accompany, some the sciences, and some the senses.
\textit{Protarchus}: Perhaps.
\textit{Socrates}: And now, as Orpheus says,
`With the sixth generation cease the glory of my song.'
Here, at the sixth award, let us make an end; all that remains is to set the crown on our discourse.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: Then let us sum up and reassert what has been said, thus offering the third libation to the saviour Zeus.
\textit{Protarchus}: How?
\textit{Socrates}: Philebus affirmed that pleasure was always and absolutely the good.
\textit{Protarchus}: I understand; this third libation, Socrates, of which you spoke, meant a recapitulation.
\textit{Socrates}: Yes, but listen to the sequel; convinced of what I have just been saying, and feeling indignant at the doctrine, which is maintained, not by Philebus only, but by thousands of others, I affirmed that mind was far better and far more excellent, as an element of human life, than pleasure.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: But, suspecting that there were other things which were also better, I went on to say that if there was anything better than either, then I would claim the second place for mind over pleasure, and pleasure would lose the second place as well as the first.
\textit{Protarchus}: You did.
\textit{Socrates}: Nothing could be more satisfactorily shown than the unsatisfactory nature of both of them.
\textit{Protarchus}: Very true.
\textit{Socrates}: The claims both of pleasure and mind to be the absolute good have been entirely disproven in this argument, because they are both wanting in self-sufficiency and also in adequacy and perfection.
\textit{Protarchus}: Most true.
\textit{Socrates}: But, though they must both resign in favour of another, mind is ten thousand times nearer and more akin to the nature of the conqueror than pleasure.
\textit{Protarchus}: Certainly.
\textit{Socrates}: And, according to the judgment which has now been given, pleasure will rank fifth.
\textit{Protarchus}: True.
\textit{Socrates}: But not first; no, not even if all the oxen and horses and animals in the world by their pursuit of enjoyment proclaim her to be so;---although the many trusting in them, as diviners trust in birds, determine that pleasures make up the good of life, and deem the lusts of animals to be better witnesses than the inspirations of divine philosophy.
\textit{Protarchus}: And now, Socrates, we tell you that the truth of what you have been saying is approved by the judgment of all of us.
\textit{Socrates}: And will you let me go?
\textit{Protarchus}: There is a little which yet remains, and I will remind you of it, for I am sure that you will not be the first to go away from an argument.
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$\underset{s=p}{Res}\mbox{ -- }\underset{s=p}{\Res}$\\[5pt]
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We investigate the effect of vacancy defects on the electronic and magnetic properties of zigzag graphene nanoribbons (zGNRs) by making use of the Green's function formalism in combination with the tight-binding Hamiltonian. The evolution of the indirect exchange coupling, known as Ruderman-Kittel-Kasuya-Yosida (RKKY) interaction, including single, double, and multiple 5-8-5 divacancy defects is explained. Our numerical calculations show that the changes in the electronic structure and the exchange coupling of zGNRs depend significantly on the location of the divacancy defects with respect to the ribbon edges and on the number of the divacancy defects.
Introducing vacancies into zGNR changes the spatial variation of the RKKY interaction, particularly those magnetic moments located around the vacancies.
In the case both the impurities are located on the edge, the magnitude of the exchange coupling is several orders of magnitude strengthen that result when they are placed on the interior of the nanoribbon. We show that different values of the vacancy potential in the same zigzag nanoribbon give rise to different changes in the electronic and magnetic properties of defected zGNRs. Furthermore, a periodic divacancy causes a dramatic change in the magnetic ground state of the ribbon. A strong perturbation of the regular RKKY oscillations appears in the spatial profile of the RKKY coupling when the magnetic impurities approach a divacancy. In the limit of high vacancy potential, the strength of the RKKY interaction is approximately independent of the Fermi energy
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% QED weirdness
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% this would only make sense if overbracket and underbracket were exchanged but i can't remember it this way and cuntraction is a lot rarer
\newcommand{\cuntraction}[1]{\overbracket[0.2ex][0.5ex]{#1}}
\newcommand{\normalorder}[1]{\;:\!#1\!:}
\def\iff{\Leftrightarrow}
\makeatletter
\newcommand{\rmnum}[1]{\romannumeral #1}
\newcommand{\Rmnum}[1]{\expandafter\@slowromancap\romannumeral #1@}
\makeatother
\newcommand{\defined}{\coloneqq}
\newcommand{\denifed}{\eqqcolon}
\newcommand{\Defined}{\mathrel{:\Leftrightarrow}}
\newcommand{\Denifed}{\mathrel{\Leftrightarrow:}}
% if you use wasysym (or marvosym - not advised) it's textmode, if you use stmaryrd you need mathmode! wtf?
\newcommand{\contradiction}{\text{\large \lightning}}
%Probability notation
\newcommand{\prob}[1]{P\left(#1\right)} % sane?
\newcommand{\WR}{\ensuremath{(\Omega,\mathcal{F},P)}} % this should go into Stochastik and W-Theory !
% vector notation
\newcommand{\vect}[1]{\overline{#1}} %large notation
\newcommand{\bvec}[1]{\mathbf{#1}} %large notation
% bra - ket
\newcommand{\bra}[1]{\left\langle #1\right|}
\newcommand{\ket}[1]{\left| #1\right\rangle}
\newcommand{\braket}[2]{\left\langle #1\middle|#2 \right\rangle}
\newcommand{\scal}[2]{\left\langle #1,#2 \right\rangle}
\newcommand{\Scal}[2]{\ll #1,#2 \gg}
% \ll and \gg aren't delimiters so, you can't use left/right!
\newcommand{\SCal}[2]{\left\langle\!\!\!\phantom{#1#2}\right\langle #1,#2 %
\left\rangle\phantom{#1#2}\!\!\!\right\rangle}
\newcommand{\SCAl}[2]{\left\llangle #1 #2\right\rrangle}
\newcommand{\SCAL}[2]{\left<\!\!\!\phantom{#1#2}\right< #1,#2 %
\left>\phantom{#1#2}\!\!\!\right>}
% check against nath.sty!
%scalar product
\newcommand{\mskal}[3]{ %
\left\langle \begin{array} {c|c|c} %
\!\! #1 \!\!&\!\! #2 \!\!&\!\! #3 \!\! %
\end{array} \right\rangle %
}
%vector product
\newcommand{\vectprod}[2]{\left( #1 \times #2 \right)}
\newcommand{\vectprodv}[2]{\vectprod{\vec{#1}}{\vec{#2}}}
\newcommand{\vectprodV}[2]{\vectprod{\bvec{#1}}{\bvec{#2}}}
% Multidimensional Differentials
\newcommand{\Dgrad}[1]{\textsf{grad}#1\;}
\newcommand{\Ddiv}[1]{\textsf{div}#1\;}
\newcommand{\Drot}[1]{\textsf{rot}#1\;}
\newcommand{\fourier}{\ensuremath{\mathcal{F}:\mathcal{S}(\RR^d)\rightarrow \mathcal{S}(\RR^d)}}
% Placeholder
\renewcommand{\slash}{\hskip -3pt\not\hskip -2pt}
%\renewcommand{\slash}{\slashed}
% Norms
\newcommand{\abs}[1]{\left| #1 \right|}
\newcommand{\norm}[1]{\left\| #1 \right\|}
%Norm for Operator norm with three bars
%I could technically load mathabx but i don't want to risk redefintion of other symbols
\DeclareFontFamily{U}{matha}{\hyphenchar\font45}
\DeclareFontShape{U}{matha}{m}{n}{
<5> <6> <7> <8> <9> <10> gen * matha
<10.95> matha10 <12> <14.4> <17.28> <20.74> <24.88> matha12
}{}
\DeclareSymbolFont{matha}{U}{matha}{m}{n}
\DeclareFontFamily{U}{mathx}{\hyphenchar\font45}
\DeclareFontShape{U}{mathx}{m}{n}{
<5> <6> <7> <8> <9> <10>
<10.95> <12> <14.4> <17.28> <20.74> <24.88>
mathx10
}{}
\DeclareSymbolFont{mathx}{U}{mathx}{m}{n}
% und nun den neuen Delimiter deklarieren:
\DeclareMathDelimiter{\vvvert}{0}{matha}{"7E}{mathx}{"17}
\newcommand{\Norm}[1]{\left\vvvert#1\right\vvvert}
% macht Klammer mit Fällen möglich vgl cases
\newcommand{\case}[4]{\begin{cases} #1, & #2\\ #3, & #4 \end{cases}}
\newenvironment{sasec}{%
\left.
\def\arraystretch{1.2}%
\array{r}%
}{%
\endarray\right\}%
}
%straight from Voss, makes math in sections and items bold
\renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}
\let\itemOld\item
\makeatletter
\renewcommand\item[1][]{%
\def\@tempa{#1}
\ifx\@tempa\@empty\itemOld\else\boldmath\itemOld[#1]\unboldmath\fi%
}
\makeatletter
\newcommand*\if@single[3]{%
\setbox0\hbox{${\mathaccent"0362{#1}}^H$}%
\setbox2\hbox{${\mathaccent"0362{\kern0pt#1}}^H$}%
\ifdim\ht0=\ht2 #3\else #2\fi
}
%%%%%%%
% Complete section from
% http://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/16337/can-i-get-a-widebar-without-using-the-mathabx-package
% The bar will be moved to the right by a half of \macc@kerna, which is computed by amsmath:
\newcommand*\rel@kern[1]{\kern#1\dimexpr\macc@kerna}
%If there's a superscript following the bar, then no negative kern may follow the bar;
%an additional {} makes sure that the superscript is high enough in this case:
\newcommand*\widebar[1]{\@ifnextchar^{{\wide@bar{#1}{0}}}{\wide@bar{#1}{1}}}
%Use a separate algorithm for single symbols:
\newcommand*\wide@bar[2]{\if@single{#1}{\wide@bar@{#1}{#2}{1}}{\wide@bar@{#1}{#2}{2}}}
\newcommand*\wide@bar@[3]{%
\begingroup
\def\mathaccent##1##2{%
%If there's more than a single symbol, use the first character instead (see below):
\if#32 \let\macc@nucleus\first@char \fi
%Determine the italic correction:
\setbox\z@\hbox{$\macc@style{\macc@nucleus}_{}$}%
\setbox\tw@\hbox{$\macc@style{\macc@nucleus}{}_{}$}%
\dimen@\wd\tw@
\advance\dimen@-\wd\z@
%Now \dimen@ is the italic correction of the symbol.
\divide\dimen@ 3
\@tempdima\wd\tw@
\advance\@tempdima-\scriptspace
%Now \@tempdima is the width of the symbol.
\divide\@tempdima 10
\advance\dimen@-\@tempdima
%Now \dimen@ = (italic correction / 3) - (Breite / 10)
\ifdim\dimen@>\z@ \dimen@0pt\fi
%The bar will be shortened in the case \dimen@<0 !
\rel@kern{0.6}\kern-\dimen@
\if#31
\overline{\rel@kern{-0.6}\kern\dimen@\macc@nucleus\rel@kern{0.4}\kern\dimen@}%
\advance\[email protected]\dimexpr\macc@kerna
%Place the combined final kern (-\dimen@) if it is >0 or if a superscript follows:
\let\final@kern#2%
\ifdim\dimen@<\z@ \let\final@kern1\fi
\if\final@kern1 \kern-\dimen@\fi
\else
\overline{\rel@kern{-0.6}\kern\dimen@#1}%
\fi
}%
\macc@depth\@ne
\let\math@bgroup\@empty \let\math@egroup\macc@set@skewchar
\mathsurround\z@ \frozen@everymath{\mathgroup\macc@group\relax}%
\macc@set@skewchar\relax
\let\mathaccentV\macc@nested@a
%The following initialises \macc@kerna and calls \mathaccent:
\if#31
\macc@nested@a\relax111{#1}%
\else
%If the argument consists of more than one symbol, and if the first token is
%a letter, use that letter for the computations:
\def\gobble@till@marker##1\endmarker{}%
\futurelet\first@char\gobble@till@marker#1\endmarker
\ifcat\noexpand\first@char A\else
\def\first@char{}%
\fi
\macc@nested@a\relax111{\first@char}%
\fi
\endgroup
}
\makeatother
%\let\sectionOld\section
%\renewcommand\section[2][\empty]{%
% \boldmath\sectionOld[#1]{#2}\unboldmath%
%}
|
http://sucs.org/~kais58/doxygen/latex/TypeChooser_8java.tex | sucs.org | CC-MAIN-2017-47 | text/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-47/segments/1510934808742.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20171124180349-20171124200349-00361.warc.gz | 290,707,771 | 1,048 | \hypertarget{TypeChooser_8java}{\section{Type\-Chooser.\-java File Reference}
\label{TypeChooser_8java}\index{Type\-Chooser.\-java@{Type\-Chooser.\-java}}
}
Creates the popup interface containing the buttons for each chart type.
\subsection*{Classes}
\begin{DoxyCompactItemize}
\item
class \hyperlink{classTypeChooser}{Type\-Chooser}
\begin{DoxyCompactList}\small\item\em \hyperlink{classTypeChooser}{Type\-Chooser} class creates an interface containing buttons for the user to select which type of chart they would like to create. \end{DoxyCompactList}\end{DoxyCompactItemize}
\subsection{Detailed Description}
Creates the popup interface containing the buttons for each chart type. \begin{DoxyAuthor}{Author}
Tim Connolly
\end{DoxyAuthor}
\begin{DoxyDate}{Date}
14/04/13
\end{DoxyDate}
\begin{DoxySeeAlso}{See Also}
\hyperlink{classGUI}{G\-U\-I}, \hyperlink{classChart}{Chart}, \hyperlink{classChartData}{Chart\-Data}
\end{DoxySeeAlso}
Display\-Chart\-Type\-Chooser creates a Container, and populates it with J\-Buttons, assigning icons for each button, and putting code in the actionlisteners for these buttons to create a new graph with the data selected. |
http://picolisp.com/5000/!latex?-3-35 | picolisp.com | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | application/x-latex | null | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702777399/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516111257-00023-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 201,954,336 | 809 | % 23may13
% Alexander Burger
\documentclass[10pt,a4paper]{article}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\textwidth 1.4\textwidth
\textheight 1.125\textheight
\oddsidemargin 0em
\evensidemargin 0em
\headsep 0em
\parindent 0em
\parskip 6pt
\title{Announce: ErsatzLisp (Java PicoLisp)}
\author{Alexander Burger\\[email protected]}
\date{2010-11-13}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
\section*{Announce: ErsatzLisp (Java PicoLisp)}
Ersatz PicoLisp, a Java version of PicoLisp, is out!
More info in \underline{http://software-lab.de/ersatz/README}\footnote{http://software-lab.de/ersatz/README}
\end{document}
|
http://dlmf.nist.gov/19.20.E18a.tex | nist.gov | CC-MAIN-2017-17 | application/x-tex | null | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-17/segments/1492917122933.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20170423031202-00113-ip-10-145-167-34.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 102,310,765 | 618 | \[\mathop{R_{D}\/}\nolimits\!\left(x,x,x\right)=x^{-3/2},\] |
https://www.zentralblatt-math.org/matheduc/en/?id=18127&type=tex | zentralblatt-math.org | CC-MAIN-2019-39 | text/plain | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-39/segments/1568514573465.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20190919081032-20190919103032-00336.warc.gz | 1,106,845,423 | 1,156 | \input zb-basic
\input zb-matheduc
\iteman{ZMATH 2013b.00841}
\itemau{Winkel, Brian J.}
\itemti{A forward glimpse into inverse problems through a geology example.}
\itemso{PRIMUS, Probl. Resour. Issues Math. Undergrad. Stud. 22, No. 8, 600-608 (2012).}
\itemab
Summary: This paper describes a forward approach to an inverse problem related to detecting the nature of geological substrata which makes use of optimization techniques in a multivariable calculus setting. The true nature of the related inverse problem is highlighted.
\itemrv{~}
\itemcc{M55 I65 N65}
\itemut{inverse problems; geology; seismology; multivariable calculus; optimization; sound propagation}
\itemli{doi:10.1080/10511970.2012.676159}
\end |
http://parnaseo.uv.es/RefBase/search.php?sqlQuery=SELECT%20author%2C%20title%2C%20type%2C%20year%2C%20publication%2C%20abbrev_journal%2C%20volume%2C%20issue%2C%20pages%2C%20keywords%2C%20abstract%2C%20thesis%2C%20editor%2C%20publisher%2C%20place%2C%20abbrev_series_title%2C%20series_title%2C%20series_editor%2C%20series_volume%2C%20series_issue%2C%20edition%2C%20language%2C%20author_count%2C%20online_publication%2C%20online_citation%2C%20doi%2C%20serial%2C%20area%20FROM%20refs%20WHERE%20serial%20%3D%20114%20ORDER%20BY%20first_author%2C%20author_count%2C%20author%2C%20year%2C%20title&client=&formType=sqlSearch&submit=Cite&viewType=&showQuery=0&showLinks=1&showRows=25&rowOffset=&wrapResults=1&citeOrder=&citeStyle=PARNASEO&exportFormat=RIS&exportType=html&exportStylesheet=&citeType=LaTeX&headerMsg= | uv.es | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | application/x-latex | application/x-latex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964358118.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20211127043716-20211127073716-00391.warc.gz | 65,771,241 | 1,240 | %&LaTeX
\documentclass{article}
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage{textcomp}
\begin{document}
\begin{thebibliography}{1}
\bibitem{Green1965} Green, O. H. (1965). Did the {\textquotedblleft}World{\textquotedblright} create Pleberio? \textit{Romanische Forschungen}, 77 (1), 108--110.
\end{thebibliography}
\end{document}
|
http://www.umr-marbec.fr/r3fbas3/search.php?sqlQuery=SELECT%20author%2C%20title%2C%20type%2C%20year%2C%20publication%2C%20abbrev_journal%2C%20volume%2C%20issue%2C%20pages%2C%20keywords%2C%20abstract%2C%20thesis%2C%20editor%2C%20publisher%2C%20place%2C%20abbrev_series_title%2C%20series_title%2C%20series_editor%2C%20series_volume%2C%20series_issue%2C%20edition%2C%20language%2C%20author_count%2C%20online_publication%2C%20online_citation%2C%20doi%2C%20serial%2C%20area%20FROM%20refs%20WHERE%20serial%20%3D%201638%20ORDER%20BY%20year%20DESC%2C%20first_author%2C%20author_count%2C%20author%2C%20title&client=&formType=sqlSearch&submit=Cite&viewType=&showQuery=0&showLinks=1&showRows=5&rowOffset=&wrapResults=1&citeOrder=year&citeStyle=MLA&exportFormat=RIS&exportType=html&exportStylesheet=&citeType=LaTeX&headerMsg= | umr-marbec.fr | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | application/x-latex | application/x-latex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570987803441.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20191022053647-20191022081147-00289.warc.gz | 337,681,899 | 1,314 | %&LaTeX
\documentclass{article}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage{textcomp}
\begin{document}
\section*{2016}
Jacquet, C., et al. "No complexity-stability relationship in empirical ecosystems." \textit{Nat. Commun.}. 7 (2016): 12573.
\end{document}
|
http://dlmf.nist.gov/22.10.E3.tex | nist.gov | CC-MAIN-2017-17 | application/x-tex | null | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-17/segments/1492917121267.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20170423031201-00324-ip-10-145-167-34.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 106,174,569 | 680 | \[\mathop{\mathrm{dn}\/}\nolimits\left(z,k\right)=1-k^{2}\frac{z^{2}}{2!}+k^{2}%
\left(4+k^{2}\right)\frac{z^{4}}{4!}-k^{2}\left(16+44k^{2}+k^{4}\right)\frac{z%
^{6}}{6!}+\mathop{O\/}\nolimits\!\left(z^{8}\right).\] |
http://ctan.unsw.edu.au/macros/latex/contrib/unamthesis/UNAMThesis.sty | unsw.edu.au | CC-MAIN-2020-34 | text/x-tex | text/x-matlab | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-34/segments/1596439738609.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200810042140-20200810072140-00039.warc.gz | 24,142,641 | 4,087 | %% UNAMThesis.sty 14/feb/2017
%% Copyright (c) 2008-2017 Julio A. Freyre-Gonzalez
% Style for Universidad Nacional Aut\'{o}noma de M\'{e}xico theses (grad and undergrad)
% UNAMThesis {Thesis: Universidad Nacional Aut\'{o}noma de M\'{e}xico}{11pt}{report}
\typeout{Thesis: Universidad Nacional Aut\'{o}noma de M\'{e}xico `UNAMThesis' <14 feb 2017>.}
%
% This work may be distributed and/or modified under the
% conditions of the LaTeX Project Public License, either version 1.3
% of this license or (at your option) any later version.
% The latest version of this license is in
% http://www.latex-project.org/lppl.txt
% and version 1.3 or later is part of all distributions of LaTeX
% version 2005/12/01 or later.
%
% This work has the LPPL maintenance status `maintained'.
%
% The Current Maintainer of this work is Julio A. Freyre-Gonzalez.
%
% THIS WORK IS PROVIDED ON AN "AS IS" BASIS. THE AUTHOR PROVIDES NO
% WARRANTY WHATSOEVER, EITHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, REGARDING THE WORK,
% INCLUDING WARRANTIES WITH RESPECT TO ITS MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS
% FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
%
% If you make any improvement, found any bug or have a suggestion for a new feature, I'd like to hear about it:
%
% Julio A. Freyre-Gonzalez, PhD
% Professor in Regulatory Systems Biology
% Head of the Regulatory Systems Biology Group
% Center for Genomic Sciences, UNAM
% Av. Universidad S/N, Col. Chamilpa, 62210
% Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
% [email protected]
% [email protected]
% http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7061-7637
% http://unam.academia.edu/jfreyre
% https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Julio_Augusto_Freyre-Gonzalez/
%%
%%
% ChangeLog
% 14/feb/2017 jfreyre v2.1 add academictitle command and cosmetic updates
% 05/apr/2013 jfreyre v2.02 minor update
% 16/may/2011 jfreyre v2.01 fix minor typos
% 12/may/2011 jfreyre v2.0 proved in LaTeX standard enviroment (first public release)
% 11/may/2011 jfreyre v1.9 fix bugs under LaTeX standard enviroment
% 27/ago/2008 jfreyre v1.8 add foreword environment and its command version (internal release)
% 4/ago/2008 jfreyre v1.7 add quotenat environment (internal release)
% 17/jul/2008 jfreyre v1.6 minor cosmetic fixes (internal release)
% 17/jun/2008 jfreyre v1.5 add cover page with logos and customization options (internal release)
% 12/feb/2008 jfreyre v1.0 original version (internal release)
%%
% This style is designed to work with the report document style of LaTeX2e.
% Usage:
% \usepackage{UNAMThesis}
%
% "Preferably, the text should appear on only one side of the paper."
% Hence no doubleside option.
%
\ProvidesPackage{UNAMThesis}[2017/02/14 v2.1 (J.A. Freyre-Gonzalez)]
\RequirePackage{graphicx}
\RequirePackage{setspace}
\oddsidemargin 0.25in
\evensidemargin 0in
\topmargin 0in
\headheight 0in % no header
\headsep \headheight
\textwidth 6.25in
\textheight 8.5in
\footskip .4in
\doublespacing
%\def\baselinestretch{1.5}
% If using the report style, use - instead of . in the figure, table and equation numbers.
\@ifundefined{thechapter}{}{\def\thefigure{\thechapter-\arabic{figure}}}
\@ifundefined{thechapter}{}{\def\thetable{\thechapter-\arabic{table}}}
\@ifundefined{theequation}{}{\def\theequation{\thechapter-\arabic{equation}}}
%% End of formatting parameters %%
%% Define all the pieces that go on the title page and the abstract.
% \title and \author already exist
\def\logounam#1{\gdef\@logounam{#1}}
\def\@logounam{Escudo-UNAM}
\def\logoinstitute#1{\gdef\@logoinstitute{#1}}
\def\@logoinstitute{Escudo-IBT}
\def\Unam{Universidad Nacional Aut\'{o}noma de M\'{e}xico}
\def\UNAM{\uppercase\expandafter{\Unam}}
\def\university#1{\gdef\Unam{#1}\gdef\UNAM{\uppercase\expandafter{\Unam}}}
\def\institute#1{\institutem{#1}}
\def\rcenter#1{\institutem{#1}}
\def\faculty#1{\institutef{#1}}
\def\school#1{\institutef{#1}}
\def\institutem#1{\@instituteartm\gdef\@institute{#1}}
\def\institutef#1{\@instituteartf\gdef\@institute{#1}}
\def\@instituteartm{\gdef\@instituteart{el}}
\def\@instituteartf{\gdef\@instituteart{la}}
\def\@instituteart{la} % For side effect of excluding an institution
\def\department#1{\gdef\@department{#1}}
\def\@department{}
\def\academictitle{\gdef\@degreetitle{t\'{i}tulo}}
\def\@degreetitle{grado}
\def\supervisor#1{\gdef\@supervisor{#1}}
\def\prevdegrees#1{\gdef\@prevdegrees{#1}}
\def\@prevdegrees{}
% If you are getting two degrees, use \and between the names.
\def\degree#1{\setbox0\hbox{#1} %for side effect of setting \@degreeart
\gdef\@degree{#1}}
% \and is used inside the \degree argument to separate two degrees
\def\and{\xdef\@degreeart{los \@degreetitle s} \par y \par}
\edef\@degreeart{el \@degreetitle}
% Use \date as \thesisdate
\let\@thesisdate=\@date
\def\date#1{\gdef\@date{#1}\gdef\@thesisdate{#1}}
% typically just a month and year
\def\degreemonth#1{\gdef\@degreemonth{#1}}
\def\degreeyear#1{\gdef\@degreeyear{#1}}
\def\city#1{\gdef\@city{#1}}
\supervisor{supervisor undefined}
\degree{degree undefined}
\degreeyear{degreeyear undefined}
%% Define all the environments needed for the frontmatter
%% The make* are command versions of every environment,
%% useful to interface with Scientific Workplace
\newenvironment{dedication}
{\newpage\thispagestyle{empty}\setlength{\topskip}{0in}\begin{singlespace}\@normalsize
\begin{flushright}\vspace*{-1ex}\vspace*{\fill}\vspace*{\fill}\vspace*{\fill}\vspace*{\fill}\slshape}
{\vfill\vfill\vfill\vfill\vfill\end{flushright}\end{singlespace}\newpage}
\newcommand{\makededication}[1]{\begin{dedication}#1\end{dedication}}
\newenvironment{acknowledgements}
{\newpage\chapter*{Agradecimientos}\begin{singlespace}\@normalsize}
{\end{singlespace}\par\newpage}
\newcommand{\makeacknowledgements}[1]{\begin{acknowledgements}#1\end{acknowledgements}}
\newenvironment{foreword}
{\newpage\chapter*{Pr\'{o}logo}\begin{singlespace}\@normalsize}
{\end{singlespace}\par\newpage}
\newcommand{\makeforeword}[1]{\begin{foreword}#1\end{foreword}}
\newenvironment{resumen}
{\newpage
\begin{center}{\large{\bfseries\@title}\\
por\\
\@author\\[\baselineskip]}
\par
\end{center}
\par
\subsection*{Resumen}\small\begin{singlespace}\@normalsize}
{\end{singlespace}\newpage}
\newcommand{\makeresumen}[1]{\begin{resumen}#1\end{resumen}}
% The abstract enviroment doesn't need a makeabstract command because we
% redefine the original abstract environment
\renewenvironment{abstract}
{\newpage
\begin{center}{\large{\bfseries\@title}\\
by\\
\@author\\[\baselineskip]}
\par
\end{center}
\par
\subsection*{Abstract}\small\begin{singlespace}\@normalsize}
{\end{singlespace}\newpage}
\def\maketitle{
\begin{titlepage}
% Left layout - Logos
\begin{minipage}[c][9in][s]{1in}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=1in]{\@logounam}\\[10pt]
\hskip 2pt\vrule width 2pt height 6.7in
\hskip 1mm\vrule width 1pt height 6.7in\\[10pt]
\includegraphics[width=0.8in]{\@logoinstitute}
\end{minipage}\hskip 10pt
% Right layout - Titles
\begin{minipage}[c][\textheight][s]{5.125in}
\centering
% University, institute, department and title
{\Large\scshape\Unam}
\vspace{3mm}\hrule height2pt
\vspace{1mm}\hrule height1pt
\vspace{3mm}
\@ifundefined{@institute}{\relax}{{\large\scshape\@institute}\\[3pt]}
{\scshape\@department}\par
% Title
\vfill\vfill
{\begin{singlespace}\Large\scshape\@title\par\end{singlespace}}
\vfill\vfill
% Degree, author, supervisor and date
\makebox[8cm][s]{\Huge T E S I S}\\[8pt]
QUE PARA OBTENER \uppercase\expandafter{\@degreeart} DE:\\[3pt]
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\centering\large
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https://space.mit.edu/CXC/docs/memo_lsf_lh_1.0.tex | mit.edu | CC-MAIN-2019-04 | application/x-tex | text/x-matlab | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547583684033.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20190119221320-20190120003320-00066.warc.gz | 658,895,388 | 7,611 | %+
% Name:
% memo_lsf_lh_1.0.tex
%
% Usage:
% latex memo_lsf_lh_1.0.tex
%
% Description:
% This document describes the quality of LSFPARM file for
% TG-unrandomized event datasets.
%
% Input:
%
% Output:
%
% Notes:
%
% History:
% 02 May 04, created (v1.0)
%-
\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{cxo-memo-logo}
\usepackage[dvips]{graphics,graphicx}
\usepackage{gea}
\usepackage{psfig}
\newcommand{\lsf}{LSFPARM}
\newcommand{\tgres}{tg\_resolve\_events}
\newcommand{\hpe}{hrc\_process\_events}
\newcommand{\apeb}{acis\_process\_events}
\begin{document}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% 0. Header
\memobasic{Dale Graessle, CALDB lead}{
Bish K. Ishibashi, SDS }{
Evaluation on the quality of LETG/HRC-S LSFPARM file for unrandomized event datasets}{
1.0 }{http://space.mit.edu/CXC/docs/memo\_lsf\_lh\_1.0.ps}{
/nfs/cxc/h2/bish/CXC\ SDS/LSFDIR/HO\_LSF\_HA/memo\_lsf\_lh\_1.0.tex}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% 1. Theme
\section{Unrandomized LSFPARM files for LETG/HRC-S Configuration}
\noindent
In Repro {\em{III}}, decisions have been made to turn off data randomization
on TG R/D. This action necessitates rapid development of line spread function
parameter files (LSFPARM) without built-in data randomization. By applying the
similar LSF processing scheme\footnote{See an example in https://icxc.harvard.edu/calco/ard\_updates/ECR/Approved\_ECRs/ECR\_2002\_016.html},
new LSFPARM files for LETG+HRC-S configuration have been developed. This document
describes the quality of the new LSFPARM products.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% 2. Procedure to build LSFPARM
\section{ Building LSFPARM }
\noindent
Procedures for building a LSFPARM file is described at: \\
\hspace{10mm}{http://space.mit.edu/CXC/LSFX/LSF\_valid2.html} \\
\vspace{3mm}
\noindent
For rapid development, several parts of IDL parameterization routines
are S-Langified for better and faster convergence to optimum fitting
parameters through automated processes.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% 3. Products
\section{ Data products }
\noindent
Two LSFPARM products are developed: LEG $\pm$ 1$^{st}$ orders
configuration with LETG+HRC-S without data randomization in TG coordinate.
Evaluation of the four products are documented in the following section.
\subsection{ Header Keyword for Data Randomization }
Two new FITS header keywords -- RAND\_TG and CBD60001 -- are included
in each LSFPARM product in order to specify whether LSFPARM products is
for randomized or not. For unrandomized dataset, these header
keywords are set to the values as listed in Table 1. These keywords
would enable to form proper CALDB query expression and to search for
unrandomized LSFPARM products.
\begin{table}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{ccl}
\multicolumn{3}{c}{Table~1. New header keywords for LSFPARM} \\
\hline
\hline
Keyword & Value & Comment \\
\hline
RAND\_TG & 0.0 & No data randomization in TG values \\
CBD60001 & RAND\_TG(0.0) & CALDB query expression \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\subsection{ Caveats on Data Randomization in HRC data system }
Technically speaking, data randomization adds no effective data blur
when applied onto any dataset taken with HRC detectors\footnote{http://hea-www.harvard.edu/$\sim$jdrake/memo/random/}. Hence the existing LSFPARM for LETG+HRC-S may be
valid to both randomized and unrandomized LETG+HRC-S datasets.
\noindent
However, the old products contain LSFPARM with only one extraction width,
hence limiting the way any LETG+HRC-S dataset is calibrated for analysis.
The new products contains, however, contains ten different extraction widths,
hence making it more versatile for custom extraction by users.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% 4. Testing
\section{ Testing LSFPARM products}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% 4.1 Procedure for testing
\subsection{ Procedures }
\noindent
Testing of the LSFPARM products are performed with MARX simulated and
real Capella (ObsID 1248) datasets. Two key points of our interests
are (1) line profile and (2) encircled energy fractions (hereafter
EEFRAC).
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% 4.2 Testing with Simulated Datasets
\subsection{ Evaluation I. MARX-Simulated Dataset }
\noindent
Mono-energetic beam simulations are performed with MARX at various
energy values and concatenated together to make a L1 event file.
The L1 file has gone through nominal CIAO processing, except that
pixel randomization in TG space being turned off at {\em{\tgres}}.
Corresponding grating RMF files are generated via {\em{mkgrmf}} command
with the new LSFPARM files and used as a fitting kernel in {\em{ISIS}}
for evaluation. Cash statistics is applied throughout this work.
\subsubsection{ Line Profile Analysis }
\noindent
If the LSFPARM products are valid, simulated line profiles can be
described with a Kronecker delta function folded over grating RMFs.
Figures 1 and 2 show several line profiles fitted with a delta
function. For brevity, selected six of 14 line samples are shown in
each figure for inspection: lines at E = 80, 120, 275, 450, 800, and 1500 eV.
These are representative of the results of other line profile fittings,
resulting in the value of goodness of fit generally less than
1.5 for LEG (these are not meant to be necessarily the best fitting results).
\vspace{3mm}
\noindent
Despite unusually high S/N ratio in these line profile simulations,
the model fitting has resulted in the low ${\chi}^{2}$ values and
hence the results validate that the LSF parameterization works
here just as well as with the HETG configuration system.
\subsubsection{Encircled Energy Fraction}
\noindent
The second key component of LSFPARM products is the value of
encircled energy fraction as a function of energy.
The value EEFRAC is derived from cross-dispersion line
profile of a mono-energetic beam, integrated over arbitrary
extraction width centered around the line peak (or in Chandra's
term, at TG\_D = 0 degree). If derived correctly, EEFRAC will
allow users to correct measured count rates (or fluxes) for
the aperture of the extraction.
\vspace{3mm}
\noindent
The following tests are performed such that the simulated line spectra
(samples shown in Figures 1 and 2) are extracted at three different aperture
widths; then the delta-function model is fitted to 14 mono-energetic lines
in order to derive model line fluxes $F_m$ in counts~s$^{-1}$. ISIS is also
enabled to provide cumulative counts in each line, which is used to derive
a ``observed'' line flux $F_d$. In an ideal condition, both the model
and observed line fluxes should be identical, i.e.,
$$ {F_d \over{F_m}} \approx 1. $$
\vspace{3mm}
\noindent
Two LEG configurations (LEG $\pm$ 1st) are tested and verified
that the new LSFPARM products meet this criterion within a few percentage
(see Tables 2 and 3), presumably better than our knowledge in effective area
of Chandra's HRMA system.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% 4.3 Testing with Real Datasets
\subsection{ Evaluation II. Chandra Dataset }
\noindent
The same four LSFPARM products are tested against real Chandra
observation (Capella, ObsID = 1248) in the similar manner as
performed on the simulated datasets.
\subsubsection{ Line Profile Analysis }
\noindent
Instead of using a delta function, thermal X-ray APED model and simple
Gaussian function are fitted on the emission spectrum of Capella.
Eight to ten bright emission lines -- Mg~XII ($\lambda$ 8.421),
Fe~XVII ($\lambda\lambda$ 15.014 and 103.937), O~VIII ($\lambda$ 18.9),
N~VII ($\lambda$ 24.78), Fe~XIX ($\lambda\lambda$ 45.0328 and 108.37),
Fe~XVI ($\lambda$ 54.728), Fe~XVIII ($\lambda$ 93.923),
and Fe~IX ($\lambda$ 171.073) -- are selected for testing.
Upon fitting the parameter for line width $dv$ (converted to velocity
scale in km~s$^{-1}$) is allowed to vary. Ideally the parameter $dv$
should be $\approx$ 0 km~s$^{-1}$ for thermal APED modeling; however,
for Gaussian fitting, the value $dv$ is expected to be $\ge$ 0~km~s$^{-1}$
as most of these lines are either H-like doublet lines or blended with
other weak atomic lines. The results of fitting with the APED model
is tabulated in Tables 4 and 5; likewise, the results with the Gaussian
model in Tables 6 and 7. Corresponding figures for line profile fit
are shown in Figures 3 and 4 for the APED model and in Figures 5 and 6
for the Gaussian model . These are, once again, not meant to be the best
fitting parameters.
\vspace{3mm}
\noindent
Upon inspection of Tables 4 and 5, it is noted that the measured line
width is consistent with 0 km~s$^{-1}$ for the most of lines. Several
measured lines in the outer plate show non-zero widths, although the
width is below the resolution limit ($\sim$ 0.05\AA). One exception
is a a N~VII $\lambda$ 24.78 that show a broader width ($\sim$ 300km~s$^{-1}$,
including the range of error into consideration) in all of the line measurements.
It is possible that this particular line originates from the extended region
of stellar coronae.
\vspace{3mm}
\noindent
The same practice with the Gaussian model is repeated and their results
show all positive measured line widths, which is expected from blended
lines. However the measured widths are not considerably broad (i.e.,
not greater than ~100~km~s$^{-1}$), except for the N~VII line in LEG -1st order.
\vspace{3mm}
\noindent
Figures 3 -- 6 show the results of line profile fitting. While the
strongest line, Fe~XVII $\lambda$ 15.014, shows some significant
residuals in all the line models, other line profile models
have resulted in a reasonably good fit. It is not clear that my
model for the Fe~XVII is quite adequate; furthermore, the model
fit to the simulated line near 15\AA does not show any significant
residual. Hence this particular line model needs to be re-evaluated
first via a collaboration with LETG+HRC. If the model is determined
to be correct, then the MARX model may need to be improved to account
for the discrepancy.
\vspace{3mm}
\noindent
In any other cases, the LSFPARM products can provide decent description
of the observed line profiles.
\subsubsection{Encircled Energy Fraction}
\noindent
Lastly the model EEFRAC values need to be compared with the observed ones.
Here we first compute the theoretical EEFRAC values at three different aperture
widths based on the new LSFPARM products. Then at the same aperture widths
extract spectra from observed event datasets. The same Capella dataset (ObsID 1248)
is chosen for this exercise. Since absolute spectral energy
distributions of the target is not known, the ratio of two entities
are compared instead. Here in this exercise, the ratio of the observed
spectra ``Extraction B'' (at a width equivalent to EEFRAC = 80\% at E = 1.497keV)
to ``Extraction A'' (similarly at EEFRAC = 90.5\%, or nearly at CIAO default
extraction width) is compared with the theoretical counterpart. The same
exercise is repeated for ``Extraction C'' (at EEFRAC = 60\%) as well.
\vspace{3mm}
\noindent
Due to high detector background noise, the background events are measured and
subtracted out prior to the analysis. Furthermore, the total cumulative counts
in this dataset is fairly low and therefore the ratio value may blow up at
several bins as the numerator being divided by zero. For that reason, the
comparisons are made in a base-10 logarithmic space.
\vspace{3mm}
\noindent
If the EEFRAC values in the LSFPARM products are derived properly,
the ratio (as a function of wavelength) should be consistent to each other.
Figure 7 shows the ratio plots for every LETG configuration derived
with the Capella dataset. As shown in the figure, the model trend agrees fairly
well with the observed trend for all cases.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% 5.
\section{ Summary }
\noindent
All the testings show that the quality of these new LSFPARM products
for unrandomized datasets are equally as good as the other LSFPARM
products produced through the same LSF generation scheme. While some
anomalous differences are found in both line profile and EEFRAC analyses,
the difference may originate due to some unidentified calibration issues
not included in the current MARX distribution.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\clearpage
\begin{table}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{rccc}
\multicolumn{4}{c}{Table~2. LEG +1st: the Data-to-Model flux ratio} \\
\hline
\hline
\
Energy & & Widths & \\
(eV) & &(radian)& \\
& 2.79e-4 &1.60e-3 &1.84e-2 \\
\hline
80 & 1.01 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
90 & 1.01 & 1.05 & 1.00 \\
100 & 1.02 & 1.00 & 1.01 \\
120 & 1.01 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
200 & 1.01 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
275 & 1.01 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
350 & 1.01 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
450 & 1.00 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
600 & 1.01 & 1.01 & 1.01 \\
800 & 1.00 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
1000 & 1.00 & 1.05 & 1.00 \\
1200 & 1.00 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
1500 & 1.00 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
2000 & 1.00 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\begin{table}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{rccc}
\multicolumn{4}{c}{Table~3. LEG -1st: the Data-to-Model flux ratio} \\
\hline
\hline
\
Energy & & Widths & \\
(eV) & &(radian)& \\
& 2.79e-4 &1.60e-3 &1.84e-2 \\
\hline
80 & 1.01 & 1.01 & 1.01 \\
90 & 1.01 & 1.01 & 1.01 \\
100 & 1.01 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
120 & 1.01 & 1.01 & 1.01 \\
200 & 1.01 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
275 & 1.00 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
350 & 1.00 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
450 & 1.00 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
600 & 1.00 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
800 & 1.00 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
1000 & 1.04 & 1.02 & 1.02 \\
1200 & 1.00 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
1500 & 1.00 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
2000 & 1.00 & 1.00 & 1.00 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\clearpage
\begin{table}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{lccccl}
\multicolumn{6}{c}{Table~4. Capella LEG +1st: thermal APED model. } \\
\hline
\hline
\
Element& $\lambda_{lab}$ & $dv$ & $dv$ 3$\sigma$ range & ${\chi}^{2}$ & Comment \\
& (\AA) & (km/s) & & & \\
\hline
Mg~XII & 8.4192 & 0 & 0 -- 200 & 1.34 & H-like doublet lines \\
Fe~XVII& 15.014 & 0 & 0 -- 47.6 & 9.21 & Seems blended with an unidentified line \\
O~VIII & 18.90 & 0 & 0 -- 103 & 3.34 & H-like doublet lines \\
N~VII & 24.78 & 0 & 0 -- 281 & 2.06 & Extended line emission? \\
Fe~XIX & 45.0328 & 0 & 0 -- 135 & 0.994 & blended with Fe~XXIV? \\
Fe~XVI & 54.7280 & 0 & 0 -- 113 & 1.49 & \\
Fe~XVIII& 93.923 & 18.8 & 0 -- 55.4 & 1.54 & \\
Fe~XVII& 103.937 & 73.4 & 34.4 -- 106 & 1.31 & \\
Fe~XIX & 108.37 & 88.0 & 29.8 -- 101 & 1.02 & \\
Fe~IX & 171.073 & 76.6 & 29.5 -- 140 & 1.13 & \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\begin{table}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{lccccl}
\multicolumn{6}{c}{Table~5. Capella LEG -1st: thermal APED model. } \\
\hline
\hline
\
Element& $\lambda_{lab}$ & $dv$ & $dv$ 3$\sigma$ range & ${\chi}^{2}$ & Comment \\
& (\AA) & (km/s) & & & \\
\hline
Mg~XII & 8.4192 & 54.0 & 0 -- 651 & 0.99 & H-like doublet lines \\
Fe~XVII& 15.014 & 8.75 & 0 -- 166 & 5.47 & Seems blended with an unidentified line \\
O~VIII & 18.90 & 0 & 0 -- 106 & 3.46 & H-like doublet lines \\
N~VII & 24.78 & 294 & 150 -- 455 & 1.07 & Extended line emission? \\
Fe~XIX & 45.0328 & 0 & 0 -- 141 & 1.11 & blended with Fe~XXIV? \\
Fe~XVI & 54.7280 & -- & -- & -- & chip gap \\
Fe~XVIII& 93.923 & 25.0 & 0 -- 71.5 & 1.33 & \\
Fe~XVII& 103.937 & 66.0 & 0 -- 93.4 & 1.35 & \\
Fe~XIX & 108.37 & 45.4 & 0 -- 77.0 & 1.26 & \\
Fe~IX & 171.073 & -- & -- & -- & out of chip \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\clearpage
\begin{table}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{lccccl}
\multicolumn{6}{c}{Table~6. Capella LEG +1st: Simple Gaussian model. } \\
\hline
\hline
\
Element& $\lambda_{lab}$ & $dv$ & $dv$ 3$\sigma$ range & ${\chi}^{2}$ & Comment \\
& (\AA) & (km/s) & & & \\
\hline
Mg~XII & 8.4192 & 61.2 & 0 -- 441 & 1.29 & H-like doublet lines \\
Fe~XVII& 15.014 & 42.1 & 0.78 -- 86.4& 11.0 & Seems blended with an unidentified line \\
O~VIII & 18.90 & 9.48 & 0 -- 98.1 & 2.86 & H-like doublet lines \\
N~VII & 24.78 & 10.5 & 9 -- 126 & 1.09 & Extended line emission? \\
Fe~XIX & 45.0328 & 14.0 & 0.20 -- 122 & 0.906 & blended with Fe~XXIV? \\
Fe~XVI & 54.7280 & 0.414 & 0 -- 98.8 & 1.42 & \\
Fe~XVIII& 93.923 & 32.8 & 17.3 -- 51.0& 1.86 & \\
Fe~XVII& 103.937 & 55.1 & 28.5 -- 78.7& 1.35 & \\
Fe~XIX & 108.37 & 64.3 & 49.2 -- 79.7& 0.975 & \\
Fe~IX & 171.073 & 66.4 & 33.9 -- 95.4& 1.12 & \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\begin{table}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{lccccl}
\multicolumn{6}{c}{Table~7. Capella LEG -1st: Simple Gaussian model. } \\
\hline
\hline
\
Element& $\lambda_{lab}$ & $dv$ & $dv$ 3$\sigma$ range & ${\chi}^{2}$ & Comment \\
& (\AA) & (km/s) & & & \\
\hline
Mg~XII & 8.4192 & 103 & 0 -- 496 & 1.28 & H-like doublet lines \\
Fe~XVII& 15.014 & 3.73 & 0 -- 144 & 3.21 & Seems blended with an unidentified line \\
O~VIII & 18.90 & 112 & 0 -- 171 & 1.72 & H-like doublet lines \\
N~VII & 24.78 & 237 & 109 -- 361 & 1.18 & Extended line emission? \\
Fe~XIX & 45.0328 & 76.2 & 0.21 -- 143 & 0.758 & blended with Fe~XXIV? \\
Fe~XVI & 54.7280 & -- & -- & -- & chip gap \\
Fe~XVIII& 93.923 & 44.7 & 28.8 -- 58.6& 1.55 & \\
Fe~XVII& 103.937 & 47.6 & 21.7 -- 73.8& 1.44 & \\
Fe~XIX & 108.37 & 48.9 & 32.9 -- 65.2& 1.25 & \\
Fe~IX & 171.073 & -- & -- & -- & out of chip\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\clearpage
\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/SIML/leg_lp9800_lp1_155AA.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/SIML/leg_lp9800_lp1_103AA.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/SIML/leg_lp9800_lp1_45AA.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/SIML/leg_lp9800_lp1_27AA.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/SIML/leg_lp9800_lp1_15AA.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/SIML/leg_lp9800_lp1_8AA.ps}
\caption{LEG +1st-order line profiles, fitted with a Kronecker delta function (red) folded
over LEG +1st through +11st multi-order grating RMFs: (top right) line profile at E = 80~eV,
with a goodness of fit ${\chi}^2$ = 1.38; (top left) E = 120~eV, ${\chi}^2$ = 1.40;
(middle left) E = 275~eV, ${\chi}^2$ = 1.47; (middle right) E = 450~eV, ${\chi}^2$ = 1.40;
(bottom right) E = 800~eV,${\chi}^2$ =2.00; and (bottom left) E = 1500~eV, ${\chi}^2$ = 0.966.
The delta function model describes simulated line profiles fairly well.
\label{fig1}}
\hfil
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/SIML/leg_lp9800_lm1_155AA.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/SIML/leg_lp9800_lm1_103AA.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/SIML/leg_lp9800_lm1_45AA.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/SIML/leg_lp9800_lm1_27AA.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/SIML/leg_lp9800_lm1_15AA.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/SIML/leg_lp9800_lm1_8AA.ps}
\caption{LEG +1st-order line profiles: (top right) line profile at E = 80~eV,
with a goodness of fit ${\chi}^2$ = 1.21; (top left) E = 120~eV, ${\chi}^2$ = 1.68;
(middle left) E = 275~eV, ${\chi}^2$ = 1.27; (middle right) E = 450~eV, ${\chi}^2$ = 1.29;
(bottom right) E = 800~eV,${\chi}^2$ =1.12; and (bottom left) E = 1500~eV, ${\chi}^2$ = 1.53.
\label{fig2}}
\hfil
\end{figure}
\clearpage
\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/mgxii_aped_lp1.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/fexvii_aped_lp1.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/oviii_aped_lp1.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/nvii_aped_lp1.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/fexix2_aped_lp1.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/feix_aped_lp1.ps}
\caption{Selected LEG +1st-order Capella line profiles; (top left) Mg~XII line,
fitted with an APED thermal model (red) and its goodness of fit ${\chi}^2$ = 1.34; (top right)
Fe~XVII with ${\chi}^2$ = 9.21; (middle left) O~VIII with ${\chi}^2$ = 3.34;
(middle right) N~VII with ${\chi}^2$ = 2.06;
(bottom left) Fe~XIX with ${\chi}^2$ = 1.02; and (bottom right) Fe~IX with ${\chi}^2$ = 1.13.
This simplified APED model (not necessarily the best fit) adequately describes the Capella
line spectra, though the atomic model may be lacking in its accuracy, which lead to higher
${\chi}^2$ values.
\label{fig3}}
\hfil
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/mgxii_aped_lm1.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/fexvii1_aped_lm1.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/oviii_aped_lm1.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/nvii_aped_lm1.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/fexix_aped_lm1.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/fexvii2_aped_lm1.ps}
\caption{Selected LEG -1st-order Capella line profiles; (top left) Mg~XII
line, fitted with an APED thermal model (red) and its goodness of fit ${\chi}^2$ = 0.99; (top right)
Fe~XVII with ${\chi}^2$ = 5.47; (middle left) O~VIII with ${\chi}^2$ = 3.46;
(middle right) N~VII with ${\chi}^2$ = 1.07;
(bottom left) Fe~XIX with ${\chi}^2$ = 0.758; and (bottom right) Fe~XVII with ${\chi}^2$ = 1.35.
\label{fig4}}
\hfil
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/fevii_lp1_gau.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/oviii_lp1_gau.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/nvii_lp1_gau_custom.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/fexviii_lp1_gau.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/fexix2_lp1_gau.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/feix_lp1_gau.ps}
\caption{Selected LEG +1st-order Capella line profiles; (top left) Fe~XVII
line, fitted with a single Gaussian function (red; velocity width $dv \approx$ 42km~s$^{-1}$)
and its goodness of fit ${\chi}^2$ = 11.0;(top right) O~VIII ($dv \approx$ 9.5km~s$^{-1}$)
with ${\chi}^2$ = 2.86; (middle left) N~VII ($dv \approx$ 11km~s$^{-1}$) with ${\chi}^2$ = 1.09;
(middle right) Fe~XVIII ($dv \approx$ 33km~s$^{-1}$) with ${\chi}^2$ = 1.86;
(bottom left) Fe~XIX ($dv \approx$ 64km~s$^{-1}$) with ${\chi}^2$ = 0.975;
and (bottom right) Fe~IX ($dv \approx$ 66km~s$^{-1}$)with ${\chi}^2$ = 1.12.
\label{fig5}}
\hfil
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/fevii_lm1_gau.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/oviii_lm1_gau.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/nvii_lm1_gau.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/fexviii_lm1_gau.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/fexix2_lm1_gau.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=-90,width=8cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/fexvii2_lm1_gau.ps}
\caption{Selected LEG -1st-order Capella line profiles; (top left) Fe~XVII
line, fitted with a single Gaussian function (red; velocity width $dv \approx$ 3.7km~s$^{-1}$)
and its goodness of fit ${\chi}^2$ = 3.21;(top right) O~VIII ($dv \approx$ 112km~s$^{-1}$)
with ${\chi}^2$ = 1.72; (middle left) N~VII ($dv \approx$ 237km~s$^{-1}$) with ${\chi}^2$ = 1.18;
(middle right) Fe~XVIII ($dv \approx$ 45km~s$^{-1}$) with ${\chi}^2$ = 1.55;
(bottom left) Fe~XIX ($dv \approx$ 49km~s$^{-1}$) with ${\chi}^2$ = 1.25;
and (bottom right) Fe~XVII ($dv \approx$ 48km~s$^{-1}$)with ${\chi}^2$ = 1.44.
\label{fig6}}
\hfil
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=90,width=9cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/eef_val_lp1_80to90.ps}
\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,angle=90,width=9cm]{PS/REAL/CAPELLA/eef_val_lp1_60to90.ps}
\caption{Ratio plots of theoretical (gray) and Capella's observed (black) EEFRAC values:
(left) LEG $\pm$1st, the ratio of Extraction B to A; (right) LEG $\pm$1st, the ratio of
Extraction C to A.
\label{fig7}}
\hfil
\end{figure}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\end{document}
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https://courses.engr.illinois.edu/cs473/sp2018/hw/hw8.tex | illinois.edu | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | application/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964363445.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20211208053135-20211208083135-00280.warc.gz | 244,093,189 | 3,759 | \documentclass[11pt]{article}
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\begin{center}
\LARGE
\textbf{CS 473: Algorithms, Spring 2018}
\\[0.5ex]
\textbf{HW 8 (due Wednesday, April 4th at 8pm)}
\end{center}
\noindent
This homework contains three problems. {\bf Read the instructions for
submitting homework on the course webpage}.
\noindent {\bf Collaboration Policy:} For this home work, each student
can work in a group with up to three members. Only one solution for
each group needs to be submitted. Follow the submission instructions
carefully.
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\noindent
For problems that use maximum flows as a black box, a full-credit solution requires the following.
\begin{itemize}
\item
A complete description of the relevant flow network, specifying the set of vertices, the set of edges (being careful about direction), the source and target vertices $s$ and $t$, and the capacity of every edge. (If the flow network is part of the original input, just say that.)
\item
A description of the algorithm to construct this flow network from the stated input. This could be as simple as ``We can construct the flow network in $O(n^3)$ time by brute force.''
\item
A description of the algorithm to extract the answer to the stated problem from the maximum flow. This could be as simple as ``Return \textsc{True} if the maximum flow value is at least $42$ and \text{False} otherwise.''
\item
A proof that your reduction is correct. This proof will almost always have two components. For example, if your algorithm returns a Boolean, you should prove that its \textsc{True} answers are correct and that its \textsc{False} answers are correct. If your algorithm returns a number, you should prove that number is neither too large nor too small.
\item
The running time of the overall algorithm, expressed as a function of the original input parameters, not just the number of vertices and edges in your flow network.
\item
You may assume that maximum flows can be computed in $O(VE)$ time. Minimum-cost flows can be computed in $O(E^2\log^2{V})$ time. Do \emph{not} regurgitate the maximum flow algorithm itself.
\end{itemize}
Reductions to other flow-based algorithms described in class or in the notes (for example: edge-disjoint paths, maximum bipartite matching, minimum-cost circulation) or to other standard graph problems (for example: reachability, minimum spanning tree, shortest paths) have similar requirements.
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\newpage
\begin{enumerate}
%----------------------------------------------------------------------
\item The Computer Science Department at UIUC has $n$ professors. They
handle department duties by taking part in various committees. There
are $m$ committees and the $j$'th committee requires $k_j$
professors. The head of the department asked each professor to
volunteer for a set of committees. Let $S_i \subseteq \{1, 2,
\ldots, m\}$ be the set of committees that professor $i$ has
volunteered for. A committee assignment consists of sets $S'_1,
S'_2, \ldots, S'_n$ where $S'_i \subseteq \{1,2, \ldots, m\}$ is the
set of committees that professor $i$ will participate in. A {\em
valid} committee assignment has to satisfy two constraints: (i)
for each professor $i$, $S'_i \subseteq S_i$, that is each professor
is only given committees that he/she has volunteered for, and (ii)
each committee $j$ has $k_j$ professors assigned to it, or in other
words $j$ occurs in at least $k_j$ of the sets $S'_1, S'_2, \ldots,
S'_n$.
\begin{enumerate}
\item {\bf Not to submit:} Describe a polynomial time
algorithm that the head of the department can employ to
check if there is a valid committee assignment given $m$,
$k_1,k_2,\ldots,k_m$ the requirements for the committees,
and the lists $S_1, S_2, \ldots, S_n$. The algorithm should
output a valid assignment if there is one.
\item The head of the department notices that often there is no
valid committee assignment because professors naturally are
inclined to volunteer for as few committees as possible. To
overcome this, the definition of a valid assignment is relaxed
as follows. Let $\ell$ be some integer. An assignment $S'_1,
S'_2, \ldots, S'_n$ is now said to be valid if (i) $|S'_i -
S_i| \le \ell$ and (ii) each committee $j$ has $k_j$
professors assigned to it. The new condition (i) means that a
professor $i$ may be assigned up to $\ell$ committees not on
the list $S_i$ that he/she volunteered for. Describe an
algorithm to check if there is a valid committee assignment
with the relaxed definition.
\end{enumerate}
\item Let $G=(V,E)$ be a {\em directed} graph and let $\mathcal{C} = \{C_1,C_2,\ldots,C_h\}$ be a collection of cycles in $G$. We say that $\mathcal{C}$ is
a {\em cycle partition} of $G$ if each vertex of $V$ is in exactly one
of the cycles. In other words the cycles of $\mathcal{C}$ are vertex disjoint
and together contain all vertices. Describe an algorithm that given
$G$ decides whether $G$ contains a cycle partition. Follow the two steps below.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Argue that a set of edges $E' \subseteq E$ forms a cycle partition
if and only if each vertex $v$ has exactly one incoming edge and
one outgoing edge in $E'$.
\item Use bipartite matching to check if there is an $E' \subseteq E$
satisfying the property in the previous part.
\end{enumerate}
\item Suppose we are given an $n\times n$ grid, some of whose cells
are marked; the grid is represented by an array $M[1 .. n,1 .. n]$
of booleans, where $M[i, j] = \text{True}$ if and only if cell $(i, j)$ is
marked. A monotone path through the grid starts at the top-left
cell, moves only right or down at each step, and ends at the
bottom-right cell. Our goal is to cover the marked cells with as few
monotone paths as possible.
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=5in]{monotone-paths.pdf}
\end{figure}
\begin{itemize}
\item {\bf Not to submit:}
Describe an algorithm to find a monotone path that covers the
largest number of marked cells.
\item {\bf Not to submit:} There is a natural greedy heuristic to
find a small cover by monotone paths: If there are any marked
cells, find a monotone path $\Pi$ that covers the largest number of
marked cells, unmark any marked cells covered by $\Pi$,
and recurse. Show that this algorithm does {\em not} always compute an
optimal solution.
\item Describe and analyze an efficient algorithm to compute the
smallest set of monotone paths that covers every marked cell.
\end{itemize}
\end{enumerate}
\vspace{1in}
{\bf The remaining problems are for self study. Do \emph{NOT} submit for grading.}
\begin{itemize}
\item See Problem 3 in HW 6 and all problems in HW 7 from Jeff's home work
last spring. \url{https://courses.engr.illinois.edu/cs473/sp2016/hw/hw7.pdf}
\item Klenberg-Tardos Chapter 7 is an excellent source on network flow and
has many nice problems starting with basic ones to advanced ones. There are
several nice problems on reductions to network flow.
\item Jeff's notes on network flow applications also has a good collection
or problems.
\end{itemize}
\end{document}
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# ChangeLog for doc/theses/rob_schluntz_MMath/cfa-format.tex
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# Generated by Trac 1.2.1
# Jul 3, 2022, 1:26:07 PM
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\begingroup
\let\center\flushleft
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\maketitle
\endgroup
\sloppy
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\section{EL1}
\subsection{Simple Model of the Atom}
Atoms can be considered to consist of 3 sub-atomic particles
\begin{itemize}
\item Proton, Mr 1, Charge of +1
\item Neutron, Mr 1, Neutral
\item Electron, Mr $\frac{1}{2000}$, Charge of -1
\item Most of the atom is empty space
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Nuclear Symbols}
\begin{itemize}
\item Atomic Number, Z
\begin{itemize}
\item Number of protons
\item Lower number
\item Equal to charge on Nucleus
\end{itemize}
\item Mass Number, A
\begin{itemize}
\item Number of protons and neutrons
\item Highest number
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Isotopes}
\begin{itemize}
\item Atoms of same element with different mass numbers
\item Different number of neutrons
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{Relative Atomic Mass}
\begin{itemize}
\item Average of relative Isotopic Masses relative to Carbon-12
\item Taking abundance into account
\item Mass Spectrometry used to find it
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Mass Spectrometry}
\begin{itemize}
\item Measures atomic/molecular mass of different particles, and relative abundances
\item Ionised to cations
\item Separated by mass to charge ratios
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Nuclear Fusion}
In a nuclear fusion reaction, two light atomic nuclei fuse together to form a single, heavier nuclei, releasing huge amounts of energy in the process of doing so
\begin{itemize}
\item Impossible at normal temperature and pressure
\item Positive nuclei repel too strongly
\item Possible in stars, repulsion overcome
\end{itemize}
\begin{equation*}
{^{1}_{1}H}+{^{2}_{1}H}={^{3}_{2}He}+\gamma
\end{equation*}
\newpage
\section{EL2}
\subsection{Spectroscopy}
Under certain conditions, a substance will absorb or emit electromagnetic radiation in a characteristic way. Analysis of this can lead to identification of the substance.
\subsubsection{Absorption Spectra}
\begin{itemize}
\item Glowing stars emit all frequencies between UV and IR
\item Chromosphere contains ions, atoms, and small molecules
\item These absorb radiations
\item Emitted light is missing specific frequencies
\item Black lines on coloured backround correspond to particles in chromosphere
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{Emission Spectra}
\begin{itemize}
\item Atoms/molecules/ions raised from ground state energy level when they absorb energy
\item Become excited
\item Lose energy by emitting EM radiation
\item Spectra of coloured lines on black backround
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Continuous and Atomic Spectra}
White light contains all visible wavelengths, and has a continuous spectra. Light from stars is not the same.
\subsubsection{Atomic Spectra of Hydrogen Atoms}
\begin{itemize}
\item Balmer in visible light
\item Lyman in UV light
\end{itemize}
Spectra are the result of the interaction of light and matter
\subsection{Bohr's theory and Wave-Particle Duality (WPD)}
\subsubsection{Wave Theory of Light}
\begin{itemize}
\item Light is a form of EMR, so has wavelength and frequency
\item Moves at the speed of light in a vacuum
\item Different colours have different wavelengths
\end{itemize}
\begin{equation*}
c=\lambda \times v
\end{equation*}
\subsubsection{Particle Theory of Light}
\begin{itemize}
\item Light is a stream of packets of energy
\item Photons
\end{itemize}
\begin{equation*}
E=h \times v
\end{equation*}
\subsubsection{Bohr's Theory}
\begin{itemize}
\item An excited atoms electrons will jump into higher energy levels
\item When they drop back, they emit EMR, giving an emission spectrum
\end{itemize}
When white light is passed through a cool sample of a gaseous element, black lines appear in the absorption spectrum. These correspond to the frequencies absorbed by the atoms in the sample. The intensities of these lines provide a measure of abundance.
\begin{itemize}
\item Explains Spectra
\item Relies on quantisation of energy
\item Electrons exist in definite, discrete levels/shells
\item A photon must be emitted when the electron drops
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Energy Levels and Quanta}
An electron can only possess definite amounts of energy; \textit{QUANTA}.
\begin{itemize}
\item Higher energy levels are further from the nucleus
\item Ground state is $n=1$
\end{itemize}
\newpage
\section{EL3}
\subsection{Shells of Electrons}
It is more appropriate to talk about shells than energy levels, due to complexity of atoms beyond hydrogen.\\
Each shell has a maximum number of electrons that it can hold. For a higher value of $n$, the shell is further from the nucleus and has greater energy.\\\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{table}[!htbp]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{lll}
First Shell & $n=1$ & 2 electrons \\
Second/Third Shells & $n=2$/$n=3$ & 8 electrons \\
Fourth/Fifth Shells & $n=4$/$n=5$ & 18 electrons \\
Sixth/Seventh Shells & $n=6$/$n=7$ & 32 electrons \\
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\\
The lowest energy shells are filled first. Much of chemistry is decided by the outer shell electrons.
\subsection{Sub-Shells of electrons}
Sub-Shells are labelled \textit{s, p, d, f}. These correspond to the shells:
\begin{itemize}
\item $n=1$ has an s sub-shell
\item $n=2$ has s and p
\item $n=3$ has s, p, and d
\item $n=4$ has s, p, d, and f
\end{itemize}
\\\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{table}[!htbp]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{ll}
Sub-Shell & Maximum number of electrons \\
s & 2 \\
p & 6 \\
d & 10 \\
f & 14 \\
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\\
In atoms other than hydrogen, sub-shells within a shell have different energies. The shells of 3d and 4s have an overlap in energies.
\subsection{Atomic Orbitals}
\begin{itemize}
\item S sub-shells have one s-orbital
\item P sub-shells have three p-orbitals
\item D sub-shells have five d-orbitals
\item F sub-shells have seven f-orbitals
\end{itemize}
In an isolated atom, orbitals within the same sub-shell have the same energy.
\begin{itemize}
\item Each orbital can hold a max of 2 electrons
\item Must have opposite spin
\item Corresponds to clockwise or anti-clockwise
\end{itemize}
The position of an electron is mapped with a probablilty function as it cannot be pinpointed exactly.
\subsection{Filling Atomic Orbitals}
The orbitals are filled to give the lowest energy arrangement possible. To do so, they are filled in order of increasing energy.
\begin{itemize}
\item Orbitals will take one electron until all are full
\item 4-s fills before 3-d as it is lower energy
\item 4-s also empties first
\item Not required to write electron configs for Copper or Chromium.
\item Eg. Scandium: 1s\textsuperscript{2}2s\textsuperscript{2}2p\textsuperscript{6}3s\textsuperscript{2}3p\textsuperscript{6}3d\textsuperscript{1}4s\textsuperscript{2}
\end{itemize}
\newpage
\section{EL4}
\subsection{Periodicity}
Atomic number determines the place of an element in the periodic table. The periodic table can be categorised into four blocks; the S, P, D and F blocks. The elements in these blocks show general similarities in properties. Eg. the non-metals are in the p-block. Vertical columns are groups, and horizontal rows are periods.
\subsubsection{Physical Properties}
The elements in a group show patterns in physical properties; trends down a group. Across a period there are fewer features because of how they cut across groups, but the properties tend to vary regularly from left
to right.
\subsubsection{Melting and Boiling Points (MBP)}
When elements are melted/boiled, the intermolecular forces must be overcomes. The strength of these bonds therefore determines the MBPs.
\subsection{Electronic Structure}
The number of outer shell electrons determines the group number of an element.
\subsubsection{Chemical Properties}
The chemical properties of an element are decided by the number of electrons in its outer shell. Full sub-shells in the noble gases are known as closed shell arrangements, and are particularly stable.
\subsection{Electronic Configurations of s- and p- block ions}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{table}[!htb]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{ll}
\textit{Group/Element} & \textit{Ion Charge} \\
Group 1 & +1 \\
Group 2 & +2 \\
Group 7 & -1 \\
Group 6 & -2 \\
Aluminium & +3 \\
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\newpage
\section{EL5}
\subsection{Chemical Bonding}
\subsubsection{Covalent Bonds}
When non-metallic elements react, it is \textit{not} energetically favourable for them to form ions; instead, there are shared pairs of electrons. The resultant compound is more stable than the original elements. The pairs of electrons count as being in both of the elements outer shells. Non-bonding pairs are called lone-pairs. Bonds can have 1, 2, or 3 pairs - single, double, or triple.
\subsubsection{Dative Covalent Bonds}
\begin{itemize}
\item When both bonding electrons come from the same atom
\item Shown by atom pointing away from the donor element
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{Physical Properties of Simple Covalent Molecules}
\begin{itemize}
\item Covalent Intramolecular bonds are very strong
\item Weak electrostatic attractions between simple molecules
\item Low MPBs
\item Do not conduct - no charged particles
\item Mostly do not dissolve readily in water
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Shapes of molecules}
\subsubsection{Electron Pair Repulsion Theory}
A group of electrons can be a single, double, triple covalent bond, or a lone pair. As similar charges repel, these groups arrange themselves to be as far apart as possible. As lone pairs are not bonding, they repel more effectively, and decrease the bond angle by approxiamately 2.5 degrees.\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{table}[!htb]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{|p{1.8cm}|p{1.2cm}|p{2cm}|p{2.8cm}|p{1.8cm}|}
\hline
\textit{Electron Groups} & \textit{Lone Pairs} & \textit{Angle ($^{\circ}$)} & \textit{Shape} & \textit{Example} \\ \hline
2 & 0 & 180 & Linear & CO\textsubscript{2} \\ \hline
3 & 0 & 120 & Planar Triangular & BF\textsubscript{3} \\ \hline
4 & 0 & 109.5 & Tetrahedral & CH\textsubscript{4} \\ \hline
4 & 1 & 107 & Pyramidal & NH\textsubscript{3} \\ \hline
4 & 2 & 104.5 & Bent & H\textsubscript{2}O \\ \hline
5 & 0 & 120 and 90 & Bi-Pyramidal & PCl\textsubscript{5} \\ \hline
6 & 0 & 90 & Octahedral & SF\textsubscript{6} \\ \hline
6 & 2 & 90 & Square & XeF\textsubscript{4} \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\newpage
\section{EL6}
\subsection{Relative Atomic Mass}
Relative Atomic Mass (RAM) is the mass of an elements atom relative to carbon-12.
\subsubsection{Relative Formula Mass}
The M\textsubscript{r} of a substance is the sum of the relative atomic masses.
\begin{equation*}
\textup{mol}=\frac{\textup{mass}}{\textup{M\textsubscript{r}}}
\end{equation*}
\subsubsection{Avogradros Constant}
The number of atoms in a mole of any given substance is fixed: $6.02\times10^{23}$
\subsubsection{Yield}
The percentage yield of a reaction can be reduced by:
\begin{itemize}
\item Loss of products from reaction vessel
\item Side-reactions to give unwanted products
\item Impurities in reactants
\item Changes in conditions
\item The reaction being an equilibrium system
\end{itemize}
\begin{equation*}
\textup{Percentage Yield}=\frac{\textup{actual yield}}{\textup{theoretical yield}}\times100
\end{equation*}
\newpage
\section{EL7}
\subsection{Formation of Ions and Electrostatic Bonds}
Positively charged ions are called cations, and anions are negatively charged ions (PANIC - Positive anode, negative is cathode).
\begin{itemize}
\item Group 1 elements form +1 ions
\item Group 2 elements form +2 ions
\item Group 6 elements form -2 ions
\item Group 7 elements form -1 ions
\item -3 Anions are very rare
\item +4 Cations are almost unheard of
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Ionic Bonding}
When a metal reacts with a non-metal, ions will be formed if the overall energy change for the reaction is favourable. Electrons are transferred from the metal atoms to the non-metal atoms, giving both a stable electronic structure. The ions formed are held together by opposite charges in an electrostatic bond.\\\\The oppositely charged ions attract strongly in an ionic bond. This builds up into a giant lattice structure.
\subsection{Common Cations and Anions}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{table}[!htb]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{lllll}
\textit{+1} & \textit{+2} & \textit{+3} & \textit{-1} & \textit{-2} \\ \hline
H\textsuperscript{+} & Mg\textsuperscript{2+} & Al\textsuperscript{3+} & F\textsuperscript{-} & O\textsuperscript{2-} \\
Li\textsuperscript{+} & Ca\textsuperscript{2+} & Fe\textsuperscript{3+} & Cl\textsuperscript{-} & CO\textsubscript{3}\textsuperscript{2-} \\
Na\textsuperscript{+} & Ba\textsuperscript{2+} & & Br\textsuperscript{-} & SO\textsubscript{4}\textsuperscript{2-} \\
K\textsuperscript{+} & Fe\textsuperscript{2+} & & I\textsuperscript{-} & \\
NH\textsubscript{4}\textsuperscript{+} & Cu\textsuperscript{2+} & & OH\textsuperscript{-} & \\
& Zn\textsuperscript{2+} & & NO\textsubscript{3}\textsuperscript{-} & \\
& Pb\textsuperscript{2+} & & HCO\textsubscript{3}\textsuperscript{-} & \\
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\subsection{Making ionic salts}
\begin{itemize}
\item acid + alkali $\Rightarrow$ salt + water
\item acid + base $\Rightarrow$ salt + water
\item acid + carbonate $\Rightarrow$ salt + water + carbon dioxide
\item acid + metal $\Rightarrow$ salt + hydrogen
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Ionic substances in solution}
Ionic substances tend to dissolve readily in water. The following do not:
\begin{itemize}
\item Barium/Calcium/Lead/Silver Sulfates
\item Silver/Lead Halides
\item All Metal Carbonates
\item Metal Hydroxides (Except Group 1 and Ammonium Hydroxide)
\end{itemize}
When they dissolve, ions are surrounded by the water molecules, and spread out. They then behave independently of each other.
\subsection{Ion Testing}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{table}[!htb]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{|p{1.2cm}|p{4cm}|p{4cm}|p{2.3cm}|}
\hline
\textit{Ion} & \textit{Solution added} & \textit{PPT Formed} & \textit{Colour} \\ \hline
Cu\textsuperscript{2+} & Sodium Hydroxide & Copper Hydroxide & Blue \\ \hline
Fe\textsuperscript{2+} & Sodium Hydroxide & Iron(II) Hydroxide & Green \\ \hline
Fe\textsuperscript{3+} & Sodium Hydroxide & Iron(III) Hydroxide & Brown \\ \hline
Pb\textsuperscript{2+} & Potassium Iodide & Lead Iodide & Yellow \\ \hline
Cl\textsuperscript{-} & Silver Nitrate & Silver Chloride & White \\ \hline
Br\textsuperscript{-} & Silver Nitrate & Silver Bromide & Cream \\ \hline
I\textsuperscript{-} & Silver Nitrate & Silver Iodide & Yellow \\ \hline
SO\textsubscript{4}\textsuperscript{2-} & Barium Chloride & Barium Sulfate & White \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\subsection{Bonding Summary}
\subsubsection{Ionic Bonding}
\begin{itemize}
\item Typically solid at RTP
\item Lattice 3D structure
\item Often form regularly shaped crystals
\item Strong electrostatic attraction overcomes repulsion
\item High MBP
\item Ions are free to move once melted, so can conduct when molten or dissolved
\item Insoluble in non-polar solvents
\item Often soluble in water
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{Metallic Bonding}
\begin{itemize}
\item Lattice Structure
\item Giant structure of cations surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons
\item Cations strongly attracted to electrons, so high MBP
\item Insoluble
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{Covalent Networks}
\begin{itemize}
\item Giant Lattice Covalent Networks
\item Strong Covalent bonds between atoms
\item Intramolecular electrostatic attractions are difficult to break
\item High MPB
\item Insoluble
\item Only graphite conducts
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{Simple Molecular}
\begin{itemize}
\item Small Molecules
\item Weak Intermolecular bonds between molecules
\item Strong covalent bonds between atoms
\item Low MBP
\item Do not conduct
\item Usually soluble in non-polar solvents
\item Insoluble in water unless there is a hydrogen bonding group
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{Macromolecular}
\begin{itemize}
\item Polymers
\item Weak intermolecular bonds between molecules
\item Strong covalent bonds between atoms
\item Moderate MBP
\item Do not usually conduct
\item Usually insoluble in water
\item Sometimes soluble in non-polar solvents
\end{itemize}
\newpage
\section{EL8}
\subsection{Groups 1 and 2}
\begin{itemize}
\item Elements become more metallic down a group
\item More readily form cations
\item More reactive down group
\end{itemize}
\\
\begin{itemize}
\item Elements are less metallic across a period from left to right
\item Group 1 elements are therefore more reactive than corresponding Group 2 elements
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Chemical Reactivity}
\begin{itemize}
\item Group 1 and 2 elements show patterns of reactivity down group
\item Similarities between reactions in a group
\item Due to similar electronic arrangements
\item Differences that show as trends
\item Due to increase in atom size
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{First Ionisation Enthalpy}
If sufficient energy is given to an atom, an electron is lost and the atom is ionised to become a positive cation. The first ionisation enthalpy of an element is the energy needed to remove one electron from every atom in one mole of isolated gaseous atoms of the element.
\begin{equation*}
X(g) \Rightarrow X^+ + e^-
\end{equation*}
\begin{itemize}
\item First ionisation removes most loosely held electron
\item Highest in noble gases as they are difficult to ionise and unreactive
\item Group 1 elements to ionise as they only have one outer shell electron
\item More shielding reduces ionisation energies
\item General trend across a period - more difficult to remove an electron
\item More protons across a period, greater attraction
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{Ionisation Energies and electron shells}
\begin{itemize}
\item Supports existence of sub-shells
\item Paired electrons in sub shells provides extra repulsion
\item First Ionisation enthalpy decreases down a group
\item Due to shielding
\item Corresponds to increase in reactivity
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{Succesive Ionisation Enthalpies}
\begin{itemize}
\item Each subsequent ionisation involves removal of electron from positive ion
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Chemical Properties of Group 2 elements and compounds}
All group 2 elements are reactive
\subsubsection{Reactions with Oxygen}
\begin{equation*}
2X(s) + O_2 \Rightarrow 2XO(s)
\end{equation*}
\subsubsection{Reactions with Water}
All react to form hydroxides and hydrogen, with an increase in reavtivity down the group. Not as vigorous as Group 1.
\begin{equation*}
X(s) + 2H_2O(l) \Rightarrow X(OH)_2(aq) + H_2(g)
\end{equation*}
\subsubsection{Effect of heating Carbonates}
\begin{itemize}
\item General formula of Group 2 Carbonates: $XCO_3$
\item Decompose when heated to form oxide and release Carbon Dioxide
\item More difficult to decompose down group
\item Increasing thermal stability
\item Due to charge density of cations
\item Smaller ions have a higher charge density
\item Higher charge densities distort and polarise the negative electron cloud surrounding the carbonate ion
\item Becomes easier to break up by heating
\item Less soluble down the group
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{Oxides and Hydroxides}
\begin{itemize}
\item Form alkaline solutions in water, but not very soluble
\item Strongest at bottom of group
\item More soluble down the group too
\end{itemize}
\newpage
\section{EL9}
\subsection{Acids, bases, Alkalis and Neutralisation}
\subsubsection{Acids}
\begin{itemize}
\item Turn Litmus Red
\item Dissociates in water to produce hydrogen ions
\item H\textsuperscript{+} donor
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{Bases}
\begin{itemize}
\item A compound that reacts with an acid to produce water and a salt
\item A proton acceptor
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{Alkalis}
\begin{itemize}
\item A base that dissolves in water to give hydroxide ions
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{Solutions of Acids and Bases}
\begin{equation*}
HCl(aq) + H_2O(l) \Rightarrow H_3O^+(aq) + Cl^-(aq)
\end{equation*}
\begin{itemize}
\item Water acts as a base
\item Oxonium ion is present in every solution of an acid in water
\item Oxonium acts as an acid, becoming a water molecule
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Concentrations of solutions}
\begin{equation*}
\textup{Concentration}=\frac{\textup{Moles}}{\textup{Volume}}
\end{equation*}
\selectlanguage{english}
\FloatBarrier
\end{document}
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\title{Acute appendicitis and myocarditis in a fatal case of multisystemic
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\author[2]{Azadeh Moshtzan}%
\author[1]{Shoeleh Yaghoubi}%
\affil[1]{Shiraz University of Medical Sciences}%
\affil[2]{Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences}%
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\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{abstract}
Multisystemic Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) has emerged as a
challenging entity during the COVID-19 era. Here, we present the first
case of MIS-C comprised of acute appendicitis and myocarditis in Iran.
Unfortunately, the diagnosis was made late, and the patient died
following an appendectomy and extensive fluid therapy.%
\end{abstract}%
\sloppy
\textbf{Hosted file}
\verb`Case Report - MIS-C 28.10.2021.docx` available at \url{https://authorea.com/users/378413/articles/545241-acute-appendicitis-and-myocarditis-in-a-fatal-case-of-multisystemic-inflammatory-syndrome-in-children-mis-c-a-case-report}
\selectlanguage{english}
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\bibitem{Burrow_etal2017} Burrow, M., Cook, C., \& Gilmour, J. (2017). Life in the round and aged care: A theoretical exemplar for research with marginalised populations in institutional settings. \textit{Nursing Praxis in New Zealand}, \textit{33}(3). Retrieved October 16, 2018, from www.nursingpraxis.org
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https://www.emis.de/journals/JIS/VOL21/Liu/liu19.tex | emis.de | CC-MAIN-2023-14 | text/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296949598.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20230331082653-20230331112653-00144.warc.gz | 821,642,977 | 12,494 | \documentclass[12pt,reqno]{article}
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\begin{document}
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\theoremstyle{plain}
\newtheorem{theorem}{Theorem}
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\begin{center}
\vskip 1cm{\LARGE\bf New Sufficient Conditions for \\
\vskip .02in
Log-Balancedness, With Applications to \\
\vskip .10in
Combinatorial Sequences}
\vskip 1cm
\large Rui-Li Liu and Feng-Zhen Zhao\\
Department of Mathematics\\
Shanghai University \\
Shanghai 200444 \\
P. R. China\\
\href{mailto:[email protected]}{\tt [email protected]}\\
\href{mailto:[email protected]}{\tt [email protected]}\\
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\def\DD{\mathcal{D}}
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\begin{abstract}
In this paper, we mainly study the log-balancedness of combinatorial sequences. We first give some new sufficient conditions for log-balancedness of some kinds of sequences. Then we use these results to derive the log-balancedness of a number of log-convex sequences related to derangement numbers, Domb numbers, numbers of tree-like polyhexes, numbers of walks on the cubic lattice, and so on.
\end{abstract}
\section{Introduction}
A sequence of positive real numbers $\{z_n\}_{n\geq 0}$ is said to be {\it log-convex} (or {\it log-concave}) if $z_n^2\leq z_{n-1}z_{n+1}$ (or $z_n^2\geq z_{n-1}z_{n+1}$) for each $n\geq 1$. A log-convex sequence $\{z_n\}_{n\geq 0}$ is said to be {\it log-balanced} if $\{\frac{z_n}{n!}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-concave. See Do\v{s}li\'{c} \cite{dos05} for more details about log-balanced sequences. It is well known that $\{z_n\}_{n\geq 0}$ is log-convex (or log-concave) if and only if its quotient sequence $\{\frac{z_{n+1}}{z_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is nondecreasing (or nonincreasing) and a log-convex sequence $\{z_n\}_{n\geq 0}$ is log-balanced if and only if $\frac{(n+1)z_n}{z_{n-1}}\ge\frac{nz_{n+1}}{z_n}$ for each $n\ge 1$. It is clear that the quotient sequence of a log-balanced sequence does not grow too quickly.
In combinatorics, log-convexity and log-concavity are not only instrumental in obtaining the growth rate of a combinatorial sequence, but also important sources of inequalities. Log-convexity and log-concavity have applications in many fields such as quantum physics, white noise theory, probability, economics and mathematical biology. See, for instance \cite{asai, bren, dos10, dos04, dos08, mil04, pre04, stan89}. Since log-balancedness is related to log-convexity and log-concavity, it can help us to find new inequalities. Hence, the log-balancedness of various sequences deserves to be studied.
In this paper, we are interested in the log-balancedness of some combinatorial sequences. In fact, there are many log-balanced sequences in combinatorics and number theory. Do\v{s}li\'{c} \cite{dos05} presented some sufficient conditions for the log-balancedness of sequences satisfying three-term linear recurrences. As consequences, a number of sequences such as the Motzkin numbers, the Fine numbers, the Franel numbers of orders $3$ and $4$, the Ap\'{e}ry numbers, the large and little Schr\"{o}der numbers, and the central Delannoy numbers, are log-balanced (see Do\v{s}li\'{c} \cite{dos05}). Recently, Zhao \cite{zhao15} gave a sufficient condition for the log-balancedness of the product of a log-balanced sequence and a log-concave sequence and she also proved that the binomial transformation preserves the log-balancedness. Zhao \cite{zhao14, zhao15} showed that the sequences of the exponential numbers and the Catalan-Larcombe-French numbers are respectively log-balanced. Zhang and Zhao \cite{zhangtt16} gave some sufficient conditions for the log-balancedness of combinatorial sequences. In addition, for a log-balanced sequence $\{z_n\}_{n\ge 0}$, Zhang and Zhao \cite{zhangtt16} proved that $\{\sqrt{z_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is still log-balanced.
This paper is devoted to the study of log-balancedness of some combinatorial sequences and is organized as follows. In Section 2, we give some new sufficient conditions for log-balancedness. In Section 3, using these new results, we investigate the log-balancedness of a series of log-convex sequences.
\section{Sufficient conditions for log-balancedness}
Zhang and Zhao \cite{zhangtt16} proved that the sequence of the arithmetic square root of a log-balanced sequence is still log-balanced. For a log-convex sequence $\{z_n\}_{n\ge 0}$, here we prove that $\{\sqrt[r]{z_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced under some conditions, where $r$ is a fixed positive real number.
\begin{theorem}\label{thm:1a}
Let $\{z_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ be a log-convex sequence and $r$ be a fixed positive real number. For $n\ge 0$, let $x_n=\frac{z_{n+1}}{z_n}$. If there exists a nonnegative integer $N_r$ such that
\begin{eqnarray*}
(n+2)^rx_n-(n+1)^rx_{n+1}\ge 0, \quad n\ge N_r,
\end{eqnarray*}
the sequence $\{\sqrt[r]{z_n}\}_{n\ge N_r}$ is log-balanced.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof} Since the sequence $\{z_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-convex, $\{\sqrt[r]{z_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is also log-convex. In order to prove the log-balancedness of $\{\sqrt[r]{z_n}\}_{n\ge N_r}$, it is sufficient to show that the sequence $\{\frac{\sqrt[r]{z_n}}{n!}\}_{n\ge N_r}$ is log-concave. In fact, it is clear that $\{\frac{\sqrt[r]{z_n}}{n!}\}_{n\ge N_r}$ is log-concave if and only if $\frac{\sqrt[r]{x_n}}{n+1}\ge\frac{\sqrt[r]{x_{n+1}}}{n+2}$ for every $n\ge N_r$.
It follows from $(n+2)^rx_n-(n+1)^rx_{n+1}\ge 0$ that $\frac{\sqrt[r]{x_n}}{n+1}\ge\frac{\sqrt[r]{x_{n+1}}}{n+2}$. Hence the sequence $\{\frac{\sqrt[r]{z_n}}{n!}\}_{n\ge N_r}$ is log-concave. Therefore, $\{\sqrt[r]{z_n}\}_{n\ge N_r}$ is log-balanced.
\end{proof}
\begin{theorem}\label{thm:2a}
Suppose that $a$ and $b$ are positive real numbers with $b<a$ and $\{z_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ is a log-convex sequence. If the sequence $\{z_n^a\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced, then so is the sequence $\{z_n^b\}_{n\ge 0}$.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof} Since the sequence $\{z_n^a\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced, we have
\begin{eqnarray*}
\frac{n}{n+1}z_{n-1}^az_{n+1}^a\le z_n^{2a}\le z_{n-1}^az_{n+1}^a.
\end{eqnarray*}
Then we derive
\begin{eqnarray*}
\bigg(\frac{n}{n+1}\bigg)^{\frac{1}{a}}z_{n-1}z_{n+1}\le z_n^2\le z_{n-1}z_{n+1},
\end{eqnarray*}
\begin{eqnarray*}
\bigg(\frac{n}{n+1}\bigg)^{\frac{b}{a}}z_{n-1}^bz_{n+1}^b\le z_n^{2b}\le z_{n-1}^bz_{n+1}^b.
\end{eqnarray*}
Since $0<\frac{b}{a}<1$ and $0<\frac{n}{n+1}<1$, we have
$(\frac{n}{n+1})^{\frac{b}{a}}\geq \frac{n}{n+1}$ and hence
\begin{eqnarray*}
\frac{n}{n+1}z_{n-1}^bz_{n+1}^b\le z_n^{2b}\le z_{n-1}^bz_{n+1}^b.
\end{eqnarray*}
It follows from the definition of log-balancedness that the sequence $\{z^b_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced.
\end{proof}
In Theorem \ref{thm:2a}, if the condition ``$b<a$" is replaced by ``$b>a$", the conclusion is not valid in general. For example, the sequence $\{nn!\}_{n\ge 2}$ is log-balanced, but $\{(nn!)^2\}_{n\ge 2}$ is not log-balanced.
In the next section, we will use the results of Theorems \ref{thm:1a}--\ref{thm:2a} to derive log-balancedness of a series of sequences.
\begin{theorem}\label{thm:3a}
Let $\{z_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ be a log-concave sequence. If the sequence $\{n!z_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced, then so is the sequence $\{n!\sqrt{z_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof} Since the sequence $\{z_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-concave, then so is the sequence $\{\sqrt{z_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$. In order to prove the log-balancedness of $\{n!\sqrt{z_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$, we only need to show that $\{n!\sqrt{z_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-convex. Since $\{n!z_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced, we get
\begin{eqnarray*}
&& nz^2_n-(n+1)z_{n-1}z_{n+1}\le 0,\\
&& z_n\le\sqrt{\frac{n+1}{n}z_{n-1}z_{n+1}}<\frac{n+1}{n}\sqrt{z_{n-1}z_{n+1}},\\
&& (n!\sqrt{z_n})^2\le(n-1)!(n+1)!\sqrt{z_{n-1}z_{n+1}}.
\end{eqnarray*}
Hence $\{n!\sqrt{z_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-convex.
\end{proof}
\section{Log-balancedness of some
sequences}
In this section, we discuss the log-balancedness of a number of log-convex sequences involving many combinatorial numbers.
\subsection{The derangement numbers}
The derangement numbers $d_n$ (sequence \seqnum{A000166} in the OEIS)
count the number of permutations of $n$ elements with no fixed points.
The sequence $\{d_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ satisfies the recurrence
\begin{eqnarray}
d_{n+1}=n(d_n+d_{n-1}), \quad n\ge 1, \label{zf-3.1}
\end{eqnarray}
with $d_0=1$, $d_1=0$, $d_2=1$, $d_3=2$ and $d_4=9$; see Table \ref{tab:table1} for some information about it. In particular, Liu and Wang \cite{liu07} proved that $\{d_n\}_{n\geq2}$ is log-convex.
\begin{table} [!htbp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|ccccccccc}
$n$ & $0$ & $1$ & $2$ & $3$ & $4$ & $5$ & $6$ & $7$ & $8$ \\
\hline
$d_n$ & $1$ & $0$ & $1$ & $2$ & $9$ & $44$ & $265$ & $1854$ & $14833$ \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption {Some initial values of $\{d_n\}_{n\ge 0}$} \label{tab:table1}
\end{table}
\begin{theorem} \label{thm:4a}
For $r\ge 2$, the sequence $\{\sqrt[r]{d_n}\}_{n\ge 3}$ is log-balanced.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof} We first prove that the sequence $\{\sqrt{d_n}\}_{n\ge 3}$ is log-balanced.
For $n\geq0$, let $x_n=\frac{d_{n+1}}{d_n}$. We prove by induction that
\begin{eqnarray*}
\lambda_n\leq x_n\leq \lambda_{n+1},\quad n\ge 3,
\end{eqnarray*}
where $\lambda_n=\frac{2n+1}{2}$. It follows from (\ref{zf-3.1}) that
\begin{eqnarray}
x_n=n+\frac{n}{x_{n-1}},\quad n\ge 3. \label{zf-3.2}
\end{eqnarray}
It is clear that $\lambda_3\leq x_3\leq \lambda_4$.
Assume that $\lambda_k\leq x_k\leq \lambda_{k+1}$ for $k\geq 3$.
By applying (\ref{zf-3.2}), we get
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}=\frac{k+1}{x_{k}}-\frac{1}{2} \quad {\rm and} \quad x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+2}=\frac{k+1}{x_{k}}-\frac{3}{2}.
\end{eqnarray*}
Due to $\frac{1}{\lambda_{k+1}}\leq \frac{1}{x_k}\leq \frac{1}{\lambda_k}$ ($k\geq3$), we have
$$
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}\geq 0 \quad {\rm and} \quad x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+2}\leq 0.
$$
Then we derive $\lambda_n\leq x_n\leq \lambda_{n+1}$ for $n\geq 3$.
By means of (\ref{zf-3.2}), we obtain
\begin{eqnarray*}
(n+2)^2x_n-(n+1)^2x_{n+1}=\frac{(n+2)^2x_n^2-(n+1)^3x_n-(n+1)^3}{x_n}.
\end{eqnarray*}
For any $x\in (-\infty,+\infty)$, define a function
$$
f(x)=(n+2)^2x^2-(n+1)^3x-(n+1)^3.
$$
Then we have
$$
f'(x)=2(n+2)^2x-(n+1)^3.
$$
Since $f'(x)\geq0$ for $x\geq\frac{(n+1)^3}{2(n+2)^2}$, $f$ is increasing on $[\frac{(n+1)^3}{2(n+2)^2},+\infty)$.
We can verify that $\lambda_n>\frac{(n+1)^3}{2(n+2)^2}$. Hence, $f$ is increasing on $[\lambda_n,+\infty)$.
Note that
\begin{eqnarray*}
f(\lambda_n)&=&(n+2)^2\lambda_{n}^2-(n+1)^3\lambda_n-(n+1)^3 \\
&=&\frac{2n^3+3n^2-2n-2}{4}
> 0 \quad (n\geq 1).
\end{eqnarray*}
Then we have $f(x_n)>0$ for $n\geq3$. This implies that $(n+2)^2x_n-(n+1)^2x_{n+1}\geq0$ for $n\geq3$. It follows from Theorem \ref{thm:1a} that the sequence $\{\sqrt{d_n}\}_{n\geq3}$ is log-balanced. For $r>2$, it follows from Theorem \ref{thm:2a} that $\{\sqrt[r]{d_n}\}_{n\ge 3}$ is log-balanced.
\end{proof}
\subsection{Numbers counting tree-like polyhexes}
Let $h_n$ denote the number of tree-like polyhexes with $n+1$ hexagons
(Harary and Read \cite{hara70}); it is sequence
\seqnum{A002212} in the OEIS. It is well known that $h_n$ is equal
to the number of lattice paths, from $(0, 0)$ to $(2n, 0)$ with steps
$(1, 1)$, $(1, -1)$ and $(2, 0)$, never falling below the $x$-axis and
with no peaks at odd level. The sequence $\{h_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ satisfies
the recurrence
\begin{eqnarray}
(n+1)h_n=3(2n-1)h_{n-1}-5(n-2)h_{n-2}, \quad n\ge 2, \label{zf-3.3}
\end{eqnarray}
with $h_0=h_1=1$, $h_2=3$ and $h_3=10$; see Table \ref{tab:table2} for some information about it. In particular, Liu and Wang \cite{liu07} showed that the sequence $\{h_n\}_{n\geq0}$ is log-convex.
\begin{table}[!htbp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|cccccccc}
$n$ & $0$ & $1$ & $2$ & $3$ & $4$ & $5$ & $6$ & $7$ \\
\hline
$h_n$ & $1$ & $1$ & $3$ & $10$ & $36$ & $137$ & $543$ & $2219$ \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption {Some initial values of $\{h_n\}_{n\ge 0}$} \label{tab:table2}
\end{table}
\begin{theorem} \label{thm:5a}
For $r\ge 1$, the sequence $\{\sqrt[r]{h_n}\}_{n\ge 1}$ is log-balanced.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof} In order to prove that $\{\sqrt[r]{h_n}\}_{n\ge 1}$ is log-balanced for $r\ge 1$, we only need to show that $\{h_n\}_{n\ge 1}$ is log-balanced by Theorem \ref{thm:2a}.
For $n\geq0$, put $x_n=\frac{h_{n+1}}{h_n}$. We next prove by induction that
\begin{eqnarray*}
\lambda_n\leq x_n\leq \mu_n,\quad n\ge 0,
\end{eqnarray*}
where $\lambda_n=\frac{10n+3}{2n+4}$ and $\mu_n=\frac{5n+4}{n+1}$. It follows from (\ref{zf-3.3}) that
\begin{eqnarray}
x_n=\frac{3(2n+1)}{n+2}-\frac{5(n-1)}{(n+2)x_{n-1}},\quad n\ge 1, \label{zf-3.4}
\end{eqnarray}
It is easy to find that $\lambda_0\leq x_0\leq \mu_0$. Assume that $\lambda_k\leq x_k\leq \mu_k$ for $k\geq 0$.
By using (\ref{zf-3.4}), we derive
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}=\frac{3(2k+3)}{k+3}-\frac{10k+13}{2k+6}-\frac{5k}{(k+3)x_k}
\end{eqnarray*}
and
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\mu_{k+1}=\frac{3(2k+3)}{k+3}-\frac{5k+9}{k+2}-\frac{5k}{(k+3)x_k}.
\end{eqnarray*}
Since $\frac{1}{\mu_k}\leq \frac{1}{x_k}\leq \frac{1}{\lambda_k}$ ($k\geq0$), we have
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}&\geq& \frac{2k+5}{2(k+3)}-\frac{5k}{(k+3)\lambda_k} \\
&=&\frac{16k+15}{2(k+3)(10k+3)}
\geq 0
\end{eqnarray*}
and
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\mu_{k+1}&\leq&\frac{k^2-3k-9}{(k+2)(k+3)}-\frac{5k}{(k+3)\mu_k} \\
&=&\frac{-26k^2-67k-36}{(k+2)(k+3)(5k+4)}
\leq 0.
\end{eqnarray*}
Then we have $\lambda_n\leq x_n\leq \mu_n$ for $n\geq 0$.
By means of (\ref{zf-3.4}), we obtain
\begin{eqnarray*}
(n+2)x_n-(n+1)x_{n+1}=\frac{(n+2)(n+3)x_n^2-3(n+1)(2n+3)x_n+5n(n+1)}{(n+3)x_n}.
\end{eqnarray*}
For any $x\in (-\infty,+\infty)$, define a function
$$
f(x)=(n+2)(n+3)x^2-3(n+1)(2n+3)x+5n(n+1).
$$
It is clear that
\begin{eqnarray*}
(n+2)x_n-(n+1)x_{n+1}=\frac{f(x_n)}{(n+3)x_n}.
\end{eqnarray*}
We note that $f$ is increasing on $[\frac{3(n+1)(2n+3)}{2(n+2)(n+3)}, +\infty]$. We find that $\lambda_n>\frac{3(n+1)(2n+3)}{2(n+2)(n+3)}$ and
\begin{eqnarray*}
f(\lambda_n)&=&\frac{84n^2-41n-27}{4(n+2)} > 0 \quad (n\ge 1).
\end{eqnarray*}
Then we have $(n+2)x_n-(n+1)x_{n+1}>0$ for $n\ge 1$. Hence $\{h_n\}_{n\ge 1}$ is log-balanced.
\end{proof}
\subsection{Numbers counting walks on the cubic lattice}
Consider the sequence $\{w_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ counting the number of walks on
the cubic lattice with $n$ steps, starting and finishing on the $xy$ plane and never going below it (Guy \cite{guy}); it is sequence
\seqnum{A005572} in the OEIS. The sequence $\{w_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ satisfies the recurrence
\begin{eqnarray}
(n+2)w_n=4(2n+1)w_{n-1}-12(n-1)w_{n-2}, \quad n\ge 2, \label{zf-3.5}
\end{eqnarray}
where $w_0=1$, $w_1=4$ and $w_2=17$; see Table \ref{tab:table3} for some information about it. In particular, Liu and Wang \cite{liu07} showed that $\{w_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-convex.
\begin{table}[!htbp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|ccccccc}
{\em n} & $0$ & $1$ & $2$ & $3$ & $4$ & $5$ & $6$ \\
\hline
$w_n$ & $1$ & $4$ & $17$ & $76$ & $354$ & $1704$ & $8421$ \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption {Some initial values of $\{w_n\}_{n\ge 0}$} \label{tab:table3}
\end{table}
\begin{theorem} \label{thm:6a} Let $r$ be a positive real number.
For $r\ge 1$, the sequence $\{\sqrt[r]{w_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced. For $\frac{5}{6}<r<1$, there exists a positive integer $N_r$ such that $\{\sqrt[r]{w_n}\}_{n\ge N_r}$ is log-balanced.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof} For $n\geq0$, let $x_n=\frac{w_{n+1}}{w_n}$. Now we prove by induction that
\begin{eqnarray}
\lambda_n\leq x_n\leq \mu_n,\quad n\ge 0, \label{zf-3.6}
\end{eqnarray}
where $\lambda_n=\frac{6n+13}{n+4}$ and $\mu_n=\frac{6(n+3)}{n+4}$. It follows from (\ref{zf-3.5}) that
\begin{eqnarray}
x_n=\frac{4(2n+3)}{n+3}-\frac{12n}{(n+3)x_{n-1}},\quad n\ge 1, \label{zf-3.7}
\end{eqnarray}
We observe that $\lambda_k\leq x_k\leq \mu_k$ for $k=0, 1, 2$.
Assume that $\lambda_k\leq x_k\leq \mu_k$ for $k\geq 2$.
By using (\ref{zf-3.7}), we have
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}=\frac{4(2k+5)}{k+4}-\frac{12(k+1)}{(k+4)x_k}-\frac{6k+19}{k+5}
\end{eqnarray*}
and
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\mu_{k+1}=\frac{4(2k+5)}{k+4}-\frac{12(k+1)}{(k+4)x_k}-\frac{6(k+4)}{k+5}.
\end{eqnarray*}
Since $\frac{1}{\mu_k}\le\frac{1}{x_k}\le\frac{1}{\lambda_k}$, we derive
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}&>&\frac{4(2k+5)}{k+4}-\frac{12(k+1)}{(k+4)\lambda_k}-\frac{6k+19}{k+5}\\
&=&\frac{8k^2+17k+72}{(k+4)(k+5)(6k+13)} >0
\end{eqnarray*}
and
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\mu_{k+1}&<&\frac{4(2k+5)}{k+4}-\frac{12(k+1)}{(k+4)\mu_k}-\frac{6(k+4)}{k+5}\\
&=&-\frac{2k^2+18k+28}{(k+3)(k+4)(k+5)}
<0.
\end{eqnarray*}
Hence we have $\lambda_n\le x_n\le \mu_n$ for $n\ge 0$.
By applying (\ref{zf-3.6}), we obtain
\begin{eqnarray*}
(n+2)x_n-(n+1)x_{n+1}&\ge&(n+2)\lambda_n-(n+1)\mu_{n+1}\\
&=&\frac{n^2+7n+34}{(n+4)(n+5)} >0 \quad (n\ge 0).
\end{eqnarray*}
Then $\{w_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced. For $r>1$, it follows from Theorem \ref{thm:2a} that $\{\sqrt[r]{w_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced.
For $\frac{5}{6}<r<1$, by using (\ref{zf-3.6}), we get
\begin{eqnarray*}
(n+2)^rx_n-(n+1)^rx_{n+1}\ge\frac{(n+2)^r(n+5)(6n+13)-6(n+1)^r(n+4)^2}{(n+4)(n+5)}.
\end{eqnarray*}
It is obvious that $(n+2)^r(n+5)(6n+13)\ge6(n+1)^r(n+4)^2$ if and only if
\begin{eqnarray*}
r\ln(n+2)-r\ln(n+1)+\ln(6n^2+43n+65)-\ln(6n^2+48n+96)\ge 0.
\end{eqnarray*}
We note that
\begin{eqnarray*}
&&\quad r\ln(n+2)-r\ln(n+1)+\ln(6n^2+43n+65)-\ln(6n^2+48n+96)\\
&&=r\ln\bigg(1+\frac{1}{n+1}\bigg)-\ln\bigg(1+\frac{5n+31}{6n^2+43n+65}\bigg).
\end{eqnarray*}
Due to $\frac{x}{1+x}<\ln(1+x)<x$ for $x>0$, we have
\begin{eqnarray*}
&&\quad r\ln(n+2)-r\ln(n+1)+\ln(6n^2+43n+65)-\ln(6n^2+48n+96)\\
&&>\frac{(6r-5)n^2+(43r-41)n+65r-62}{(n+2)(6n^2+43n+65)}.
\end{eqnarray*}
Since
\begin{eqnarray*}
\lim_{n\to+\infty}[(6r-5)n^2+(43r-41)n+65r-62]=+\infty,
\end{eqnarray*}
there exists a positive integer $N_r$ such that $(6r-5)n^2+(43r-41)n+65r-62>0$ for $n\ge N_r$. Then the sequence $\{\sqrt[r]{w_n}\}_{n\ge N_r}$ is log-balanced for $\frac{5}{6}<r<1$.
\end{proof}
\subsection{Numbers counting a class of arrays}
For an integer $r\ge 0$, let $Q(n, r)$ denote the number of arrays (or matrices) of integers $a_{i, j}\ge 0$ ($1\le i, j\le n$) such that
$$
\sum_{i=1}^na_{i, j}=\sum_{j=1}^na_{i, j}=r
$$
holds for all $i$ and $j$. Consider the sequence $\{A_n\}_{n\ge 0}$, where $A_n=Q(n, 2)$. The sequence $\{A_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ satisfies the recurrence
\begin{eqnarray}
A_{n+1}=(n+1)^2A_n-n{n+1\choose 2}A_{n-1}, \quad n\ge 1, \label{zf-3.8}
\end{eqnarray}
where $A_0=A_1=1$ and $A_2=3$;
see Table \ref{tab:table4} for some information about it. It is sequence
\seqnum{A000681} in the OEIS. In particular, Zhao \cite{zhao15J} proved that the sequence $\{A_n\}_{n\ge 1}$ is log-convex (it is clear that $\{A_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ is also log-convex). See \cite{comt74} for more properties of $\{A_n\}_{n\ge 0}$.
\begin{table}[!htbp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|ccccccc}
{\em n} & $0$ & $1$ & $2$ & $3$ & $4$ & $5$ & $6$ \\
\hline
$A_n$ & $1$ & $1$ & $3$ & $21$ & $282$ & $6210$ & $202410$ \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption {Some initial values of $\{A_n\}_{n\ge 0}$} \label{tab:table4}
\end{table}
\begin{theorem} \label{thm:7a}
For $r\ge 5$, the sequence $\{\sqrt[r]{A_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof} For $n\geq 0$, set $x_n=\frac{A_{n+1}}{A_n}$. We next prove by induction that
\begin{eqnarray}
\lambda_n\leq x_n\leq \lambda_{n+1},\quad n\ge 0,\label{zf-3.9}
\end{eqnarray}
where $\lambda_n=n^2$. It follows from (\ref{zf-3.8}) that
\begin{eqnarray}
x_n=(n+1)^2-\frac{n^2(n+1)}{2x_{n-1}},\quad n\ge 1, \label{zf-3.10}
\end{eqnarray}
It is clear that $\lambda_k \leq x_k \leq \lambda_{k+1}$ for $k=0, 1, 2$.
Assume that $\lambda_k\leq x_k\leq \lambda_{k+1}$ for $k\geq 2$.
By applying (\ref{zf-3.10}), we get
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}&=&2k+3-\frac{(k+1)^2(k+2)}{2x_k}, \\
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+2}&=&-\frac{(k+1)^2(k+2)}{2x_k}.
\end{eqnarray*}
Due to $\frac{1}{\lambda_{k+1}}\leq \frac{1}{x_{k}}\leq \frac{1}{\lambda_k}$ ($k\geq2$), we have
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}& \geq & 2k+3-\frac{(k+1)^2(k+2)}{2\lambda_k} \\
&=&\frac{3k^3+2k^2-5k-2}{2k^2}
\geq 0 \quad (k\geq 2)
\end{eqnarray*}
and
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+2}&\leq&-\frac{(k+1)^2(k+2)}{2\lambda_{k+1}} \\
&=&-\frac{k+2}{2} \leq 0.
\end{eqnarray*}
Then we derive $\lambda_n\leq x_n\leq \lambda_{n+1}$ for $n\geq 0$.
By using (\ref{zf-3.9}), we have
\begin{eqnarray*}
(n+2)^5x_n-(n+1)^5x_{n+1}&\ge&(n+2)^5\lambda_n-(n+1)^5\lambda_{n+2}\\
&=&(n+2)^2(n^4+2n^3-2n^2-5n-1)
>0 \quad (n\ge 2).
\end{eqnarray*}
On the other hand, we note that $(k+2)^5x_k-(k+1)^5x_{k+1}$ for $k=0, 1$. Then $(n+2)^5x_n-(n+1)^5x_{n+1}>0$ holds for $n\ge 0$. It follows from Theorem \ref{thm:1a} that the sequence $\{\sqrt[5]{A_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced. For $r>5$, it follows from Theorem \ref{thm:2a} that $\{\sqrt[r]{A_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced.
\end{proof}
\subsection{Numbers satisfying a three-term recurrence}
Let $t_n$ counting the number of integer sequences $(f_j, \ldots, f_2, f_1, 1, 1, g_1, g_2, \ldots, g_k)$ with $j+k+2=n$ in which every $f_i$ is the sum of one or more contiguous terms immediately to its right, and $g_i$ is likewise the sum of one or more contiguous terms immediately to its left; see Odlyzko \cite{Odly95}. Fishburn et al. \cite{fish89} proved that the sequence $\{t_n\}_{n\ge 1}$ satisfies the recurrence
\begin{eqnarray}
t_{n+1}=2nt_n-(n-1)^2t_{n-1}, \quad n\ge 2, \label{zf-3.11}
\end{eqnarray}
where $t_1=t_2=1$ and $t_3=3$; see Table \ref{tab:table5} for some information about it. It is sequence \seqnum{A005189} in the OEIS. Zhao \cite{zhao15J} showed that the sequence $\{t_n\}_{n\ge 1}$ is log-convex.
\begin{table}[!htbp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|ccccccc}
{\em n} & $1$ & $2$ & $3$ & $4$ & $5$ & $6$ & $7$ \\
\hline
$t_n$ & $1$ & $1$ & $3$ & $14$ & $85$ & $626$ & $5387$ \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption {Some initial values of $\{t_n\}_{n\ge 0}$} \label{tab:table5}
\end{table}
\begin{theorem} \label{thm:8a}
For $r\ge 3$, the sequence $\{\sqrt[r]{t_n}\}_{n\ge 3}$ is log-balanced.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof} For $n\geq 0$, put $x_n=\frac{t_{n+1}}{t_n}$. We first prove by induction that
\begin{eqnarray}
\lambda_k\leq x_k\leq \mu_k,\quad k\ge 3, \label{zf-3.12}
\end{eqnarray}
where $\lambda_k=k+\sqrt{k}-\frac{1}{4}$ and $\mu_k=k+1+\sqrt{k+1}$. It follows from (\ref{zf-3.11}) that
\begin{eqnarray}
x_n=2n-\frac{(n-1)^2}{x_{n-1}},\quad n\ge 2, \label{zf-3.13}
\end{eqnarray}
It is clear that $\lambda_k \leq x_k \leq \mu_k$ for $k=3, 4$. Assume that $\lambda_k\leq x_k\leq \mu_k$ for $k\geq 4$.
By using (\ref{zf-3.13}), we have
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}=k-\sqrt{k+1}+\frac{5}{4}-\frac{k^2}{x_k} \quad {\rm and} \quad x_{k+1}-\mu_{k+1}&=&k-\sqrt{k+2}-\frac{k^2}{x_k}.
\end{eqnarray*}
Since $\frac{1}{\mu_k}\leq \frac{1}{x_k}\leq \frac{1}{\lambda_k}$ for $k\geq4$, we get
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}&\ge&k+\frac{5}{4}-\sqrt{k+1}-\frac{k^2}{\lambda_k}\\
&=&\frac{1}{\lambda_k}\bigg(k\sqrt{k}+k+\frac{5\sqrt{k}}{4}+\frac{\sqrt{k+1}}{4}-\frac{5}{16}-k\sqrt{k+1}-\sqrt{k(k+1)}\bigg) \\
&>&\frac{1}{\lambda_k}\bigg(\sqrt{k}+k-\sqrt{k(k+1)}-\frac{5}{16}\bigg)\\
&>&\frac{k+1-\sqrt{k(k+1)}}{\lambda_k}
>0
\end{eqnarray*}
and
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\mu_{k+1}&\leq&k-\sqrt{k+2}-\frac{k^2}{\mu_k} \\
&=&\frac{k+k\sqrt{k+1}-(k+1)\sqrt{k+2}-\sqrt{(k+1)(k+2)}}{k+1+\sqrt{k+1}} \\
&\leq& -\frac{\sqrt{k+2}}{k+1+\sqrt{k+1}}
\leq 0.
\end{eqnarray*}
Then we derive $\lambda_k\leq x_k\leq \mu_k$ for $k\geq 3$.
It follows from (\ref{zf-3.12}) that
\begin{eqnarray*}
(n+2)^3x_n-(n+1)^3x_{n+1}&\ge&(n+2)^3\bigg(n+\sqrt{n}-\frac{1}{4}\bigg)-(n+1)^3(n+2+\sqrt{n+2})\\
&=&\bigg(\frac{3}{4}-\frac{2}{\sqrt{n}+\sqrt{n+2}}\bigg)n^3+\frac{3n^2-4n-8}{2}\\
&&+3n ( 2(n+2)\sqrt{n}-(n+1)\sqrt{n+2} ) +8\sqrt{n}-\sqrt{n+2} \\
&>&0 \quad (n\ge 3).
\end{eqnarray*}
On the other hand, we can verify that $(n+2)^3x_n-(n+1)^3x_{n+1}>0$ for $1\le n\le 2$. Hence the sequence $\{\sqrt[3]{t_n}\}_{n\ge 1}$ is log-balanced. For $r>3$, it follows from Theorem \ref{thm:2a} that $\{\sqrt[r]{t_n}\}_{n\ge 1}$ is log-balanced.
\end{proof}
\subsection{Numbers counting bipermutations}
For a given nonnegative integer $k$, a relation $\Re$ is called a $k$-permutation of $[n]=\{1, 2, \ldots, n\}$ if all vertical sections and all horizontal sections have $k$ elements. The $k$-permutation $\Re$ is called a bipermutation when $k=2$. Let $P(n, k)$ denote the number of these relations. Let $P_n=P(n, 2)$. The sequence $\{P_n\}$ satisfies the recurrence
\begin{eqnarray}
P_{n+1}={n+1\choose 2}(2P_n+nP_{n-1}), \quad n\ge1, \label{zf-3.14}
\end{eqnarray}
where $P_0=1$ and $P_1=0$; see Table \ref{tab:table6} for some information about it. It is sequence~\seqnum{A001499} in the OEIS.
In particular, Zhao \cite{zhao15J} showed that the sequence $\{P_n\}_{n\ge 2}$ is log-convex.
\begin{table}[!htbp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|ccccccc}
{\em n} & $0$ & $1$ & $2$ & $3$ & $4$ & $5$ & $6$ \\
\hline
$P_n$ & $1$ & $0$ & $1$ & $6$ & $90$ & $2040$ & $67950$ \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption {Some initial values of $\{P_n\}_{n\ge 0}$} \label{tab:table6}
\end{table}
\begin{theorem} \label{thm:9a}
For $r\ge 3$, the sequence $\{\sqrt[r]{P_n}\}_{n\ge 3}$ is log-balanced.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof} For $n\ge 2$, put $x_n=\frac{P_{n+1}}{P_n}$. It follows from (\ref{zf-3.14}) that
\begin{eqnarray}
x_k=k(k+1)+k{k+1\choose 2}\frac{1}{x_{k-1}}, \quad k\ge 3. \label{zf-3.15}
\end{eqnarray}
We prove that
\begin{eqnarray}
\lambda_n\le x_n\le\lambda_{n+1}, \quad n\ge 2, \label{zf-3.16}
\end{eqnarray}
where $\lambda_n=n(n+1)$. It is evident that
$\lambda_k<x_k<\lambda_{k+1}$ for $k=2, 3$. Assume that $\lambda_k\leq x_k\leq\lambda_{k+1}$ for $k\ge 3$. By applying (\ref{zf-3.15}), we get
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}=(k+1){k+2\choose 2}\frac{1}{x_k}>0
\end{eqnarray*}
and
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+2}=-2(k+2)+\frac{(k+1)^2(k+2)}{2x_k}.
\end{eqnarray*}
Since $\frac{1}{x_k}\le\frac{1}{\lambda_k}$, we have
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+2}\le-\frac{3k^2+5k-2}{2k}<0.
\end{eqnarray*}
Then we have $\lambda_n\le x_n\le\lambda_{n+1}$ for $n\ge 2$.
It follows from (\ref{zf-3.15}) and (\ref{zf-3.16}) that
\begin{eqnarray*}
(n+2)^3x_n-(n+1)^3x_{n+1}&=&(n+2)^3x_n-(n+1)^4(n+2)-\frac{(n+1)^5(n+2)}{2x_n}\\
&\ge&(n+2)^3\lambda_n-(n+1)^4(n+2)-\frac{(n+1)^5(n+2)}{2\lambda_n}\\
&=&\frac{(n+1)(n+2)(n^3-n^2-5n-1)}{2n}
>0 \quad (n\ge 3).
\end{eqnarray*}
We have from Theorem \ref{thm:1a} that the sequence $\{\sqrt[3]{P_n}\}_{n\ge 3}$ is log-balanced. For $r>3$, it follows from Theorem \ref{thm:2a} that $\{\sqrt[r]{P_n}\}_{n\ge 3}$ is log-balanced.
\end{proof}
\subsection{Numbers satisfying a four-term recurrence (``minus" case)}
Let $G_n$ stand for the number of graphs on the vertex set $[n]=\{1, 2, \ldots, n\}$, whose every component is a cycle, and put $G_0=1$. The sequence $\{G_n\}$ satisfies the recurrence
\begin{eqnarray}
G_{n+1}=(n+1)G_n-{n\choose 2}G_{n-2}, \quad n\ge 2, \label{zf-3.17}
\end{eqnarray}
where $G_1=1$, $G_2=2$, and $G_3=5$; see Table \ref{tab:table7} for some information about it. It is sequence \seqnum{A002135} in the OEIS.
This example is Exercise 5.22 of Stanley \cite{stan99},
and one can find its combinatorial proof in Stanley \cite[p.~121]{stan99}.
In addition, Do\v{s}li\'{c} \cite{dos08} showed that the sequence $\{G_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-convex.
\begin{table}[!htbp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|ccccccc}
{\em n} & $0$ & $1$ & $2$ & $3$ & $4$ & $5$ & $6$ \\
\hline
$G_n$ & $1$ & $1$ & $2$ & $5$ & $17$ & $73$ & $388$ \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption {Some initial values of $\{G_n\}_{n\ge 0}$} \label{tab:table7}
\end{table}
\begin{theorem} \label{thm:10a}
For $r\ge 2$, the sequence $\{\sqrt[r]{G_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof} For $n\ge 0$, let $x_n=\frac{G_{n+1}}{G_n}$. We next prove by induction that
\begin{eqnarray}
\lambda_n\le x_n\le\lambda_{n+1}, \quad n\ge 0, \label{zf-3.18}
\end{eqnarray}
where $\lambda_n=n$. It follows from (\ref{zf-3.17}) that
\begin{eqnarray}
x_n=n+1-{n\choose 2}\frac{1}{x_{n-1}x_{n-2}}, \quad n\ge 2. \label{zf-3.19}
\end{eqnarray}
Firstly, we have $\lambda_k\le x_k\le\lambda_{k+1}$ for $0\le k\le 4$. Assume that $\lambda_k\le x_k\le\lambda_{k+1}$ for $k\ge 4$. By using (\ref{zf-3.19}), we have
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+2}=-{k+1\choose 2}\frac{1}{x_k x_{k-1}}<0
\end{eqnarray*}
and
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}&=&1-{k+1\choose 2}\frac{1}{x_k x_{k-1}}\\
&\ge&\frac{2k(k-1)-k(k+1)}{2x_k x_{k-1}}
>0.
\end{eqnarray*}
Then we derive $\lambda_n\le x_n\le\lambda_{n+1}$ for $n\ge 0$.
It follows from (\ref{zf-3.17}) and (\ref{zf-3.18}) that
\begin{eqnarray*}
(n+2)^2x_n-(n+1)^2x_{n+1}&=&(n+2)^2x_n-(n+1)^2(n+2)+\frac{(n+1)^2{n+1\choose 2}}{x_n x_{n-1}}\\
&\ge&(n+2)^2\lambda_n-(n+1)^2(n+2)+\frac{(n+1)^2{n+1\choose 2}}{\lambda_{n+1}\lambda_n}\\
&=&\frac{n^2-3}{2}
>0 \quad (n\ge 2).
\end{eqnarray*}
On the other hand, we note that $(k+2)^2x_k-(k+1)^2x_{k+1}>0$ for $k=0, 1$. Then $(n+2)^2x_n-(n+1)^2x_{n+1}>0$ holds for $n\ge 0$. We have from Theorem \ref{thm:1a} that the sequence $\{\sqrt{G_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced. For $r>2$, it follows from Theorem \ref{thm:2a} that $\{\sqrt[r]{G_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced.
\end{proof}
\subsection{Numbers satisfying a four-term recurrence (``plus" case)}
Let be given a set of $\Delta$ of $n$ straight lines in the plane, $\delta_1, \delta_2, \ldots, \delta_n$, lying in general position (no two among them are parallel, and no three among are concurrent). Let $P$ be the set of their points of intersection, $|P|={n\choose 2}$. We call any set of $n$ points from $P$ such that any three different points are not collinear, a {\it cloud}. Let $\mathscr{G}(\Delta)$ stand for the set of clouds of $\Delta$ and $g_n=|\mathscr{G}(\Delta)|$. The sequence $\{g_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ satisfies the recurrence
\begin{eqnarray}
g_{n+1}=n g_n+{n\choose 2}g_{n-2}, \quad n\ge 2, \label{zf-3.20}
\end{eqnarray}
where $g_0=1$, $g_1=g_2=0$, $g_3=1$, $g_4=3$ and $g_5=12$; see Table \ref{tab:table8} for some information about it. It is sequence
\seqnum{A001205} in the OEIS.
In particular, Zhao \cite{zhao15J} proved that the sequence $\{g_n\}_{n\ge 3}$ is log-convex. For more properties of $\{g_n\}_{n\ge 0}$, see Comtet \cite{comt74}.
\begin{table}[!htbp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|ccccccccc}
{\em n} & $0$ & $1$ & $2$ & $3$ & $4$ & $5$ & $6$ & $7$ & $8$\\
\hline
$g_n$ & $1$ & $0$ & $0$ & $1$ & $3$ & $12$ & $70$ & $465$ & $3507$\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption {Some initial values of $\{g_n\}_{n\ge 0}$} \label{tab:table8}
\end{table}
\begin{theorem} \label{thm:11a}
For $r\ge 2$, the sequence $\{\sqrt[r]{g_n}\}_{n\ge 5}$ is log-balanced.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof} For $n\ge 3$, let $x_n=\frac{g_{n+1}}{g_n}$. It follows from (\ref{zf-3.20}) that
\begin{eqnarray}
x_n=n+{n\choose 2}\frac{1}{x_{n-1}x_{n-2}}, \quad n\ge 5. \label{zf-3.21}
\end{eqnarray}
Now we show that
\begin{eqnarray}
\lambda_n\le x_n\le\lambda_{n+1}, \quad n\ge 3, \label{zf-3.22}
\end{eqnarray}
where $\lambda_n=n$. We can verify that $\lambda_k\le x_k\le\lambda_{k+1}$ for $3\le k\le 5$. Assume that $\lambda_k\le x_k\le\lambda_{k+1}$ for $k\ge 5$. By applying (\ref{zf-3.21}), we get
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}={k+1\choose 2}\frac{1}{x_k x_{k-1}}>0
\end{eqnarray*}
and
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+2}&=&\frac{k(k+1)}{2x_k x_{k-1}}-1\\
&\le&-\frac{k(k-3)}{2x_k x_{k-1}}
<0.
\end{eqnarray*}
Then we have $\lambda_n\le x_n\le\lambda_{n+1}$ for $n\ge 3$.
It follows from (\ref{zf-3.21}) and (\ref{zf-3.22}) that
\begin{eqnarray*}
(n+2)^2x_n-(n+1)^2x_{n+1}&=&(n+2)^2x_n-(n+1)^3-\frac{(n+1)^2{n+1\choose 2}}{x_n x_{n-1}}\\
&\ge&(n+2)^2\lambda_n-(n+1)^3-\frac{(n+1)^2{n+1\choose 2}}{\lambda_n \lambda_{n-1}}\\
&=&\frac{n^3-3n^2-7n+1}{2(n-1)}
>0 \quad (n\ge 5).
\end{eqnarray*}
We have from Theorem \ref{thm:1a} that the sequence $\{\sqrt{g_n}\}_{n\ge 5}$ is log-balanced. For $r>2$, it follows from Theorem \ref{thm:2a} that $\{\sqrt[r]{g_n}\}_{n\ge 5}$ is log-balanced.
\end{proof}
\subsection{Numbers counting permutation with ordered orbits}
Consider the sequence $\{T_n\}_{n\ge 2}$ defined by
\begin{eqnarray}
T_{n+1}=(n-1)T_n+\frac{n!}{2}, \quad n\ge 2, \label{zf-3.23}
\end{eqnarray}
where $T_2=1$; see Table \ref{tab:table9} for some information about it. The value of $T_n$ is related to the number of permutations with ordered orbits. In particular, Zhao \cite{zhao15J} proved that the sequence $\{T_n\}_{n\ge 2}$ is log-convex. It is sequence \seqnum{A006595} in the OEIS.
For more properties of $\{T_n\}_{n\ge 2}$, see Comtet \cite{comt74}.
\begin{table}[!htbp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|cccccc}
{\em n} & $2$ & $3$ & $4$ & $5$ & $6$ & $7$ \\
\hline
$T_n$ & $1$ & $2$ & $7$ & $33$ & $192$ & $1320$ \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption {Some initial values of $\{T_n\}_{n\ge 0}$} \label{tab:table9}
\end{table}
\begin{theorem} \label{thm:12a}
For $r\ge 2$, the sequence $\{\sqrt[r]{T_n}\}_{n\ge 2}$ is log-balanced.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof} For $n\ge 2$, let $x_n=\frac{T_{n+1}}{T_n}$. It is easy to verify that
\begin{eqnarray}
T_{n+1}=(2n-1)T_n-(n-2)n T_{n-1}, \quad n\ge 3. \label{zf-3.24}
\end{eqnarray}
It follows from (\ref{zf-3.24}) that
\begin{eqnarray}
x_n=2n-1-\frac{(n-2)n}{x_{n-1}}, \quad n\ge 3. \label{zf-3.25}
\end{eqnarray}
Now we prove by induction that
\begin{eqnarray*}
\lambda_n\le x_n\le\lambda_{n+1}, \quad n\ge 2,
\end{eqnarray*}
where $\lambda_n=n$. It is not difficult to verify that $\lambda_k\le x_k\le\lambda_{k+1}$ for $2\le k\le 4$. Assume that $\lambda_k\le x_k\le\lambda_{k+1}$ for $k\ge 4$. Using (\ref{zf-3.25}), we have
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}&=&k-\frac{(k+1)(k-1)}{x_k}\\
&\ge&k-\frac{(k+1)(k-1)}{k}
>0
\end{eqnarray*}
and
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+2}\le k-1-\frac{(k+1)(k-1)}{\lambda_{k+1}}=0.
\end{eqnarray*}
Then we derive that $\lambda_n\le x_n\le\lambda_{n+1}$ for $n\ge 2$.
By means of (\ref{zf-3.26}), we obtain
\begin{eqnarray*}
(n+2)^2x_n-(n+1)^2x_{n+1}=\frac{(n^2+4n+4)x_n^2-(2n^3+5n^2+4n+1)x_n+n^4+2n^3-2n-1}{x_n}
\end{eqnarray*}
For any $x\in (-\infty,+\infty)$, define a function
$$
f(x)=(n^2+4n+4)x^2-(2n^3+5n^2+4n+1)x+n^4+2n^3-2n-1.
$$
We can prove that $f$ is increasing on $[\sigma_n, +\infty)$, where $\sigma_n=\frac{2n^3+5n^2+4n+1}{2(n^2+4n+4)}$, $f$ is increasing on $[\sigma_n, +\infty)$.
We can verify that $\lambda_n>\sigma_n$. Hence $f$ is increasing on $[\lambda_n,+\infty)$.
We note that
\begin{eqnarray*}
f(\lambda_n)&=&(n^2+4n+4)\lambda_n^2-(2n^3+5n^2+4n+1)\lambda_n+n^4+2n^3-2n-1 \\
&=&n^3-3n-1 \\
&>& 0 \quad (n\geq 2).
\end{eqnarray*}
Then we have $f(x_n)>0$ for $n\geq2$. This implies that $(n+2)^2x_n-(n+1)^2x_{n+1}\geq0$ for $n\geq2$. It follows from Theorem \ref{thm:1a} that the sequence $\{\sqrt{T_n}\}_{n\geq2}$ is log-balanced. For $r>2$, it follows from Theorem \ref{thm:2a} that $\{\sqrt[r]{T_n}\}_{n\ge 2}$ is log-balanced.
\end{proof}
\subsection{The Domb numbers}
Let $\{D_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ be the sequence of the Domb numbers. The value of $D_n$ is the number of $2n$-step polygons on the diamond lattice. The sequence $\{D_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ satisfies the recurrence
\begin{eqnarray}
n^3D_n=2(2n-1)(5n^2-5n+2)D_{n-1}-64(n-1)^3D_{n-2}, \quad n\ge 2, \label{zf-3.26}
\end{eqnarray}
where $D_0=1$ and $D_1=4$; see Table \ref{tab:table10} for some information about it. It is sequence \seqnum{A002895} in the OEIS.
In particular, Wang and Zhu \cite{wang14} proved that the sequence $\{D_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-convex.
\begin{table}[!htbp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|cccccccc}
{\em n} & $0$ & $1$ & $2$ & $3$ & $4$ & $5$ & $6$ & $7$ \\
\hline
$D_n$ & $1$ & $4$ & $28$ & $256$ & $2716$ & $31504$ & $387136$ & $4951552$ \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption {Some initial values of $\{D_n\}_{n\ge 0}$} \label{tab:table10}
\end{table}
\begin{theorem} \label{thm:13a}
For $r\ge 2$, the sequence $\{\sqrt[r]{D_n}\}_{n\ge 1}$ is log-balanced.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof} For $n\ge 0$, let $x_n=\frac{D_{n+1}}{D_n}$. It follows from (\ref{zf-3.26}) that
\begin{eqnarray}
x_n=\frac{2(2n+1)(5n^2+5n+2)}{(n+1)^3}-\frac{64n^3}{(n+1)^3x_{n-1}}, \quad n\ge 1. \label{zf-3.27}
\end{eqnarray}
We first show that
\begin{eqnarray}
\lambda_n\le x_n\le\mu_n, \quad n\ge 1, \label{zf-3.28}
\end{eqnarray}
where $\lambda_n=\frac{16(n-1)}{n+1}$ and $\mu_n=\frac{16n}{n+1}$. It is obvious that $\lambda_k<x_k<\mu_k$ for $1\le k\le3$. Assume that $\lambda_k\le x_k\le\mu_k$ for $k\ge 3$. By means of (\ref{zf-3.27}), we have
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}&\ge&\frac{2(2k+3)(5k^2+15k+12)}{(k+2)^3}-\frac{16k}{k+2}-\frac{64(k+1)^3}{(k+2)^3\lambda_k}\\
&=&\frac{2(3k^3+12k^2-9k-38)}{(k-1)(k+2)^3}
>0 \quad (k\ge 3)
\end{eqnarray*}
and
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\mu_{k+1}&\le&\frac{2(2k+3)(5k^2+15k+12)}{(k+2)^3}-\frac{16(k+1)}{k+2}-\frac{64(k+1)^3}{(k+2)^3\mu_k}\\
&=&-\frac{2(3k^3+7k^2+4k+2)}{k(k+2)^3}
<0.
\end{eqnarray*}
Then we have $\lambda_n\le x_n\le\mu_n$ for $n\ge 1$.
It follows from (\ref{zf-3.28}) that
\begin{eqnarray*}
(n+2)^2x_n-(n+1)^2x_{n+1}&\ge&\frac{16[(n-1)(n+2)^3-(n+1)^4]}{(n+1)(n+2)}\\
&=&\frac{16(n^3-8n-9)}{(n+1)(n+2)}\\
&>&0 \quad (n\ge 4).
\end{eqnarray*}
On the other hand, we observe that $(n+2)^2x_n-(n+1)^2x_{n+1}>0$ for $0\le n\le 3$. We have from Theorem \ref{thm:1a} that the sequence $\{\sqrt{D_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced. For $r>2$, it follows from Theorem \ref{thm:2a} that $\{\sqrt[r]{D_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced.
\end{proof}
\subsection{Numbers counting a class of $n\times n$ symmetric matrices}
Let $\tau_n$ denote the number of $n\times n$ symmetric $\mathbb{N}_{0}$-matrices with every row(and hence every column) sum equals to 2 with trace zero (i.e., all main diagonal entries are zero). The sequence $\{\tau_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ satisfies the recurrence
\begin{eqnarray}
\tau_n=(n-1)\tau_{n-1}+(n-1)\tau_{n-2}-{n-1\choose 2}\tau_{n-3}, \label{zf-3.29}
\end{eqnarray}
where $\tau_0=1,\tau_1=0,\tau_2=\tau_3=1$; see Table \ref{tab:table11} for some information about it.
It is sequence \seqnum{A002137} in the OEIS.
In particular, Do\v{s}li\'{c} \cite{dos08} showed that the sequence $\{\tau_n\}_{n\ge 6}$ is log-convex.
\begin{table}[!htbp]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|ccccccccc}
{\em n} & $0$ & $1$ & $2$ & $3$ & $4$ & $5$ & $6$ & $7$ &$8$\\
\hline
$\tau_n$ & $1$ & $0$ & $1$ & $1$ & $6$ & $22$ & $130$ & $822$ & $6202$\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption {Some initial values of $\{\tau_n\}_{n\ge 0}$} \label{tab:table11}
\end{table}
\begin{theorem} \label{thm:14a}
For $r\ge 2$, the sequence $\{\sqrt[r]{\tau_n}\}_{n\ge 6}$ is log-balanced.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof} For $n\geq 2$, set $x_n=\frac{\tau_{n+1}}{\tau_n}$. We now prove by induction that
\begin{eqnarray}
\lambda_n\leq x_n\leq \lambda_{n+1},\quad n\ge 6,\label{zf-3.30}
\end{eqnarray}
where $\lambda_n=n$. It is clear that $\lambda_k \leq x_k \leq \lambda_{k+1}$ for $k=6, 7$.
Assume that $\lambda_k\leq x_k\leq \lambda_{k+1}$ for $k\geq 7$. It follows from (\ref{zf-3.29}) that
\begin{eqnarray}
x_n=n+\frac{n}{x_{n-1}}-\frac{n(n-1)}{2x_{n-2}x_{n-1}},\quad n\ge 4, \label{zf-3.31}
\end{eqnarray}
By applying (\ref{zf-3.31}), we get
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}=\frac{k+1}{x_{k}}-\frac{(k+1)k}{2x_{k-1}x_k}\quad {\rm and} \quad x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+2}=-1+\frac{k+1}{x_k}-\frac{(k+1)k}{2x_{k-1}x_k}.
\end{eqnarray*}
Due to $\frac{1}{\lambda_{k+1}}\leq \frac{1}{x_{k}}\leq \frac{1}{\lambda_k}$ ($k\geq7$), we have
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+1}& \geq & 1-\frac{k+1}{2(k-1)} \\
&=&\frac{k-3}{2(k-1)}
\geq 0
\end{eqnarray*}
and
\begin{eqnarray*}
x_{k+1}-\lambda_{k+2}&\le&\frac{1}{k}-\frac{1}{2}\\
&=&-\frac{k-2}{2k}
\leq 0.
\end{eqnarray*}
Then we derive $\lambda_n\leq x_n\leq \lambda_{n+1}$ for $n\geq 6$.
By using (\ref{zf-3.30}) and (\ref{zf-3.31}), we have
\begin{eqnarray*}
(n+2)^2x_n-(n+1)^2x_{n+1}&=&(n+2)^2x_n-(n+1)^3-\frac{(n+1)^3}{x_n}+\frac{n(n+1)^3}{2x_n x_{n-1}}\\
&\ge&(n+2)^2\lambda_n-(n+1)^3-\frac{(n+1)^3}{\lambda_n}+\frac{n(n+1)^3}{2\lambda_n \lambda_{n+1}}\\
&\ge&\frac{3n^2-6n-22}{6}
>0 \quad (n\ge 6).
\end{eqnarray*}
It follows from Theorem \ref{thm:1a} that the sequence $\{\sqrt{\tau_n}\}_{n\ge 6}$ is log-balanced. For $r>2$, it follows from Theorem \ref{thm:2a} that $\{\sqrt[r]{\tau_n}\}_{n\ge 6}$ is log-balanced.
\end{proof}
In the rest of this section, we discuss log-balancedness of some sequences by mens of Theorem \ref{thm:3a}.
\subsection{The harmonic numbers}
Let $\{H_n\}_{n\ge 1}$ be the sequence of harmonic numbers. It is well known that
\begin{eqnarray*}
H_n=\sum_{k=1}^n\frac{1}{k}, \quad n\ge 1.
\end{eqnarray*}
\begin{theorem} \label{thm:15a}
The sequence $\{n!\sqrt{H_n}\}_{n\ge 1}$ is log-balanced.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
Using the definition of log-concavity, one can immediately prove that $\{H_n\}_{n\ge 1}$ is log-concave. Moreover, from Zhao \cite{zhao15}, $\{n!H_n\}_{n\ge 1}$ is log-balanced. It follows from Theorem \ref{thm:3a} that the sequence $\{n!\sqrt{H_n}\}_{n\ge 1}$ is log-balanced.
\end{proof}
\subsection{The Fibonacci and Lucas numbers}
Let $\{F_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ and $\{L_n\}_{n\ge 0}$ denote the Fibonacci and Lucas sequence, respectively. The Binet's forms of $F_n$ and $L_n$ respectively are
\begin{eqnarray*}
F_n=\frac{\alpha^n-(-1)^n\alpha^{-n}}{\sqrt 5}, \quad L_n=\alpha^n+(-1)^n\alpha^{-n}, \quad n\ge 0,
\end{eqnarray*}
where $\alpha=\frac{1+\sqrt 5}{2}$.
\begin{theorem} \label{thm:16a}
The sequences $\{n!\sqrt{F_{2n}}\}_{n\ge 1}$ and $\{n!\sqrt{L_{2n+1}}\}_{n\ge 1}$ are both log-balanced.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
Using the definition of log-concavity, we can prove that the sequences $\{F_{2n}\}_{n\ge 1}$ and $\{L_{2n-1}\}_{n\ge 1}$ are both log-concave. Zhao \cite{zhao15} showed that $\{n!F_{2n}\}_{n\ge 1}$ and $\{n!L_{2n+1}\}_{n\ge 1}$ are log-balanced. It follows from Theorem \ref{thm:3a} that the sequences $\{n!\sqrt{F_{2n}}\}_{n\ge 1}$ and $\{n!\sqrt{L_{2n+1}}\}_{n\ge 1}$ are both log-balanced.
\end{proof}
\section{Conclusions}
For a log-convex sequence $\{z_n\}_{n\ge 0}$, we have shown that the arithmetic root sequence $\{\sqrt[r]{z_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced under suitable conditions. We have also derived the log-balancedness of a number of log-convex sequences related to many famous combinatorial numbers. However, we cannot give the minimum value of $r$ such that $\{\sqrt[r]{z_n}\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced. We hope to solve this question in the future work. In addition, we also hope to find more functions $f$ defined in $(-\infty, +\infty)$ such that $\{f(z_n)\}_{n\ge 0}$ is log-balanced.
\section{Acknowledgment}
The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for his (her) many helpful comments and suggestions.
\begin{thebibliography}{99}
\bibliographystyle{plain}
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\bibitem{comt74} L. Comtet, \textit{Advanced Combinatorics}, Reidel, 1974.
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\bibitem{dos10} T. Do\v{s}li\'{c}, Seven (lattice) paths to log-convexity, \textit{ Acta Appl. Math.} {\bf 110} (2010), 1373--1392.
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{\bf 285} (2004), 67--82.
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of some combinatorial sequences, \textit{Discrete Math.} {\bf 308}
(2008), 2182--2212.
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\end{thebibliography}
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\noindent 2010 {\it Mathematics Subject Classification}: Primary 05A20;
Secondary 11B37, 11B83, 11B39.
\noindent \emph{Keywords: } log-convexity, log-concavity, log-balancedness.
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\noindent (Concerned with sequences
\seqnum{A000166},
\seqnum{A000681},
\seqnum{A001205},
\seqnum{A001499},
\seqnum{A002135},
\seqnum{A002137},
\seqnum{A002212},
\seqnum{A002895},
\seqnum{A005189},
\seqnum{A005572}, and
\seqnum{A006595}.)
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\vspace*{+.1in}
\noindent
Received December 9 2017;
revised versions received March 16 2018; June 3 2018; June 27 2018.
Published in {\it Journal of Integer Sequences}, June 29 2018.
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\noindent
Return to
\htmladdnormallink{Journal of Integer Sequences home page}{http://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/}.
\vskip .1in
\end{document}
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% (C) 1999 Petr Olšák
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společně s~balíkem \CS\TeX{} na
\url{ftp://math.feld.cvut.cz/pub/cstex/doc}
ve zdrojovém textu ({\tt prvni.tex}), PostScriptu ({\tt prvni.ps}) a ve
formátu PDF ({\tt prvni.pdf}). Můžete jej také distribuovat, ale pouze
v~nezměněné elektronické podobě.
\bigskip\break
\egroup
\pageno=1
\sekce Úvod
%%%%%%%%%%%
Tento manuál je koncipován jako \uv{první seznámení s~programem \TeX{}%
\footnote{Název \TeX{} se čte \uv{tech}, nikoli \uv{teks}.}
na jeden večer}. Měl by umožnit začátečníkovi porozumět
základním principům \TeX{}u. Manuál obsahuje ukázku jednoduchého dokumentu,
který by si měl čtenář sám přepsat do svého počítače a na něm \TeX{}
vyzkoušet. Je to dobrý první krok do pestrého světa tohoto programu plného
zajímavých možností. Předvedená ukázka mimo jiné ilustruje základní principy
psaní dokumentů v \TeX{}u. Jsou zde předvedeny dvě úvodní ukázky: pro plain\TeX{}
a pro \LaTeX. Takže si uživatel může hned na prvním dokumentu rozhodnout,
které \TeX{}ové rozšíření je bližší jeho srdci a podle toho vybrat další
literaturu pro doplňující studium.
Předpokládáme, že čtenář má určité důvody proč použít \TeX{}, takže se zde
nebudeme zdržovat výčtem jeho výhod, rozepisovat obšírně jeho historii a
nebudeme polemizovat o~užitečnosti či neužitečnosti dávkového či
interaktivního systému na přípravu sazby.
\sekce \TeX\ a jeho okolí
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\TeX{} je formátor. Je to program, kterému předložíme vstupní text
dokumentu v~\uv{holé} textové podobě doplněný textovými
značkami, které vymezují strukturu dokumentu nebo dávají \TeX{}u pokyny
o~způsobu formátování dokumentu. Bývá obvyklé (ale není to nutné)
pojmenovat tento soubor s~použitím přípony {\tt.tex}, například
\hbox{\tt dokument.tex}. Na výstupu pak po zpracování \TeX{}em dostaneme
PDF soubor ({\tt dokument.pdf}). Dříve se též hojně používal výstup do
formátu DVI\footnote{DVI: Odvozeno z~anglického \uv{device independent}~-- na
zařízení nezávislý. Soubor lze prostřednictvím
vhodného programu prohlédnout na obrazovce, nebo jej
vytisknout na tiskárně.}.
\TeX{} tedy čte na svém vstupu textový soubor s~dobře definovanou syntaxí jazyka
značek a na výstupu je soubor s~definitivním popisem sazby. \TeX{}
jako takový je zcela nezávislý na operačním systému. Vývoj samotného \TeX{}u
je zastaven, takže pro uživatele nehrozí nebezpečí vzniku dalších
nekompatibilních verzí. Další programy \uv{okolo \TeX{}u} tvoří
společně s \TeX{}em distribuci. Dnes se nejčastěji používají volně
přístupné distribuce \TeX{}live nebo Mik\TeX.
Začínající uživatel se samozřejmě hlavně ptá po způsobu, jak může
v~konkrétním operačním systému s~konkrétní \TeX{}ovou distribucí s~tímto
programem pracovat, jak jej spustit, jakými tlačítky se ovládá textový
editor, jaké nabídky jsou k~dispozici, co nad kterým obrázkem udělá myš. Ptá
se tedy po uživatelském rozhraní. Jednotlivé manuály o~\TeX{}u tradičně
odkazují na tzv.~\uv{místní příručku} (Local Guide), která by měla toto
rozhraní popisovat. Tato příručka je závislá na použitém operačním systému,
na čase jejího vzniku, na použité distribuci \TeX{}u, na vybraném textovém
editoru a někdy též na administrátorovi systému, který konfiguruje některé
věci specificky pro větší pohodlí uživatelů. Ani v~tomto manuálu nejsou
uvedeny podrobnosti o~uživatelském rozhraní.
Při práci s \TeX{}em je obvyklé mít otevřen
v~jednom okénku textový editor, ve kterém uživatel píše nebo
modifikuje vstupní text, a ve vedlejším okénku prohlížeč výstupního
souboru. Po modifikaci vstupního textu uživatel spustí \TeX{} na
pozadí klávesovou zkratkou a ve vedlejším okénku vidí
během pár sekund výslednou změnu v sazbě.
Textový editor, ve kterém připravujeme nebo modifikujeme vstupní texty
dokumentů, nesmí ukládat na disk žádné skryté formátovací informace
implementované jen pro tento editor (jako například změna fontu, měkké
konce řádku apod.). To dělají tzv.~textové procesory, které v~případě
práce s~\TeX{}em nepoužíváme.
Zvyklosti ve značkování dokumentu jsou vesměs závislé na použitém {\it
formátu} \TeX{}u, který modifikuje jeho chování. Říkáme, že je
dokument napsán ve formátu {\it \LaTeX}, pokud je někde na začátku
vstupního textu dokumentu uvedena značka "\documentclass" nebo
"\documentstyle". Pokud tam tuto značku nenajdeme, můžeme
předpokládat, že je dokument napsán ve formátu {\it plain}.
Ten umožňuje psát jen anglické texty.
V čechách nebo na slovensku se místo formátu plain
používá {\it csplain}. Tento manuál je
například napsán ve formátu csplain a je uložen v~souboru
{\tt prvni.tex}. Může se stát, že nějaký dokument je napsán ještě v jiném
formátu méně používaném formátu. Tím se ale zde nebudeme
zabývat. Rozdíl mezi plainem a \LaTeX{}em a smysl použití formátů vyplyne
až z~dalšího textu.
Následující tabulka ukazuje způsoby spuštění \TeX{}u. Předpokládáme,
že je k~dispozici operační systém, který umožňuje uživateli zadávat
pokyny z~příkazového řádku. Tím nevylučujeme, že nelze některé
popisované činnosti implementovat do nějaké uživatelské nabídky
konkrétního uživatelského rozhraní. Předpokládejme, že je
vstupní text dokumentu připraven v~souboru {\tt dokument.tex}.
\begtable
příkazový řádek & komentář
\tabline
"tex dokument" & anglický dokument, formát plain
"csplain dokument" & formát csplain, výstup do DVI
"pdfcsplain dokument" & formát csplain, výstup do PDF
"latex dokument" & formát \LaTeX, výstup do DVI
"pdflatex dokument" & formát \LaTeX, výstup do PDF
\endtable
Všimneme si, že v~příkazovém řádku píšeme za jméno formátu název vstupního
souboru a že příponu {\tt.tex} nemusíme psát. Dobře instalovaná
distribuce \TeX{}u by měla podle jména formátu spustit \TeX{} modifikovaný
právě tímto formátem.
Pokud nemáme ve své distribuci \TeX{}u formát csplain, je to špatné
znamení. Nebudeme totiž schopni zpracovat ani tento manuál ani
ukázku, která je v~něm obsažena. V~takovém případě lze doporučit
poohlédnout se po \CS\TeX{}u, který najdeme například na
\url{http://petr.olsak.net/cstex.html}.
\sekce Jdeme na to
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Nejprve zkusíme v~nějakém textovém editoru vytvořit soubor {\tt pokus.tex},
který obsahuje zkušební větu:
\begtt %--------------------------------------------------------------
Ahoj světe!
\bye
\endtt %--------------------------------------------------------------
Pokud zpracujeme tento soubor \TeX{}em s~formátem csplain
(připomínáme, že je možné použít povel {\tt pdfcsplain pokus}),
dostaneme výstupní soubor {\tt pokus.pdf}. Navíc
\TeX{} uloží informaci o~zpracování do souboru {\tt pokus.log}. Výsledný
PDF soubor si můžeme prohlédnout vhodným prohlížečem. Dostaneme
očekávaný výsledek:
\beguk %-------------------------------------------------------------
\tencsr Ahoj světe!
\enduk %-------------------------------------------------------------
\pp Přitom dole na stránce je ještě vytištěno číslo strany:~1.
Povelem {\tt csplain pokus} dostaneme tentýž výsledek, ale
výstupem je DVI soubor.
Pokud zkusíme tentýž soubor zpracovat \TeX{}em s~formátem plain
(příkazový řádek {\tt tex pokus}), výstup bude zmršený: \uv{Ahoj svte!}.
Vidíme, že textový soubor s~akcenty nelze jednoduše vnutit originálnímu
americkému \TeX{}u, ale místo formátu plain je potřeba použít modifikovaný
csplain.
Kdybychom chtěli tentýž soubor zpracovat \TeX{}em s~formátem \LaTeX{}
(krátce říkáme, že soubor zpracováváme \LaTeX{}em), obdržíme chybové
hlášení:
\begtt %--------------------------------------------------------------
! LaTeX Error: Missing \begin{document}.
See the LaTeX manual or LaTeX Companion for explanation.
Type H <return> for immediate help.
...
l.1 A
hoj světe!
?
\endtt %--------------------------------------------------------------
Vidíme tedy, že soubor není vhodně připraven ke zpracování \LaTeX{}em.
Chybí mu "\begin{document}". Později ukážeme, že mu chybí více věcí, ale
v~tuto chvíli raději zůstaneme u~csplainu. Komunikaci s~\TeX{}em při
chybovém hlášení ukončíme odesláním znaku {\tt x}. Chceme-li, aby
\TeX{} chybu ignoroval a pokračoval ve zpracování dokumentu, stačí na
otazník odpovědět \uv{Enter} (v~tomto příkladě, kdy dokument vhodný
pro csplain chceme zpracovat \LaTeX{}em, se pouze dočkáme další
zavlečené chyby).
Zkusíme si nyní přepsat do počítače následující poněkud rozsáhlejší
dokument. Soubor nazveme třeba {\tt mujprvni.tex} a vytvoříme jej
libovolným textovým editorem. Pokud je čtenář od přírody \uv{lenivý}, může
se místo zdlouhavého přepisování pokusit najít text ukázky ve vstupním
souboru {\tt prvni.tex} tohoto manuálu a přenést jej do svého souboru
{\tt mujprvni.tex} jako blok v~textovém editoru.
Možná nám může připadat část označená jako \uv{oblast definic} hodně
nepochopitelná, skoro jako porucha na lince. Přesto se zatím pokusíme
překonat odpor k~této poruše a důsledně všechny znaky přepíšeme.
\TeX{} se nám za to odvděčí silnými možnostmi, které budeme postupně
odhalovat.
Nemusíme se obtěžovat přepisováním textů, schovaných za znakem "%", protože
tímto znakem je zahájen komentář, který končí koncem řádku a který je při
zpracování \TeX{}em ignorován. V~každém případě ale nevynechávejme prázdné
řádky v~ukázce a věnujme pozornost obsahu části označené jako \uv{vlastní
text}, kde jsou vyjmenovány základní jevy, se kterými se při pořizování
textů pro \TeX{} budeme často setkávat.
\begtt %=============================================================
%%%%%%%% Zde začíná "oblast definic" pro tento dokument %%%%%%%%%%%
\chyph % inicializace českého dělení slov v csplainu
\font\titulfont=\fontname\tenbf\space scaled \magstep2 % větší font
\def\bod{\item{$\bullet$}} % definice zkratky \bod pro výčet
\def\nadpis#1\par{ % definice nadpisu:
\removelastskip\bigskip % odmaže poslední vert. mezeru a přidá vlastní
\indent{\titulfont #1} % odsazený text nadpisu větším fontem
\par\nobreak\medskip} % konec řádku, zakázaný zlom, menší mezera
\let\itemskip=\medskip % kolem výčtu prvků bude menší mezera \medskip
%%%%%%%% Zde začíná "vlastní text" dokumentu %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\nadpis Můj první dokument
Zkouším napsat první text v~\TeX u. Tento odstavec musí být
tak dlouhý, aby bylo vidět, že se rozlomil aspoň na dva řádky.
Jednotlivé odstavce oddělujeme od sebe prázdným řádkem. Prázdnými řádky
vůbec nešetříme, protože zvyšují přehlednost zdrojového textu.
Vyzkoušíme si nyní několik věcí.
\itemskip
\bod Budeme používat české \uv{uvozovky}, které se liší od ``anglických''.
Uvědomíme si, že použití "těchto znaků" je úplně špatně!
\bod Rozlišujme mezi spojovníkem (je-li), pomlčkou ve větě~--
a dlouhou pomlčkou---ta se používá v~anglických dokumentech.
\bod Předpokládáme, že každý dokáže rozeznat 1 (jedničku) od l
(písmene el) a 0 (nulu) od O (písmene~O).
\bod Zkusíme přepnout do {\bf polotučného písma}, nebo do
{\it kurzívy}. Také vyzkoušíme {\tt strojopis}.
\bod Všimneme si, že ve slovech grafika, firma, apod. se písmena
f a i automaticky proměnila v~jediný znak fi (srovnáme to
s~nesprávným f\/i).
\bod Mezery mezi písmeny jsou automaticky vyrovnávány podle tvaru písmen.
Ve slově \uv{Tento} je například písmeno~e těsněji přisazeno
k~písmenu~T, aby se mezery mezi písmeny opticky jevily stejnoměrné.
\bod Vypravíme se na malou exkurzi do matematiky: $a^2 + b^2 = c^2$.
Zjistíme, že číslo -1 je zde napsáno špatně (prokletý spojovník),
zatímco správně má být $-1$.
\bod Protože \% uvozuje komentář a \$ přepíná do matematické sazby,
musíme před ně napsat zpětné lomítko, chceme-li je dostat do dokumentu.
\itemskip
\nadpis Závěr
To by pro začátek stačilo. Příkazem {\tt\char`\\bye} ukončíme své pokusy.
\bye
\endtt %=============================================================
Po zpracování tohoto dokumentu formátem csplain si můžeme prohlédnout
prohlížečem {\tt dvi} souboru následující výsledek:
\beguk %=============================================================
\parindent=20truept
\baselineskip=12truept
\font\tenbf=csbx10 at10truept \font\tenit=csti10 at10truept
\font\tentt=cstt10 at10truept
\font\tenrm=csr10 at10truept \tenrm
\font\symbol=cmsy10 at10truept
\font\mmi=cmmi10 at10truept \font\sevenrm=csr7 at7truept
\textfont0=\tenrm \scriptfont0=\sevenrm
\textfont1=\mmi \textfont2=\symbol
\font\titulfont=csbx10 scaled\magstep1 % větší font
\def\bod{\item{$\bullet$}} % definice zkratky \bod pro výčet
\def\nadpis#1\par{ % definice nadpisu:
\removelastskip\bigskip % odmaže poslední vert. mezeru a přidá vlastní
\indent{\titulfont #1} % odsazený text nadpisu větším fontem
\par\nobreak\medskip} % konec řádku, zakázaný zlom, menší mezera
\bigskipamount=12truept \medskipamount=6truept
\let\itemskip=\medskip % kolem výčtu prvků bude menší mezera \medskip
\nadpis Můj první dokument
Zkouším napsat první text v~\TeX u. Tento odstavec musí být
tak dlouhý, aby bylo vidět, že se rozlomil aspoň na dva řádky.
Jednotlivé odstavce oddělujeme od sebe prázdným řádkem. Prázdnými řádky
vůbec nešetříme, protože zvyšují přehlednost zdrojového textu.
Vyzkoušíme si nyní několik věcí.
\itemskip
\bod Budeme používat české \uv{uvozovky}, které se liší od ``anglických''.
Uvědomíme si, že použití \"těchto znaků\" je úplně špatně!
\bod Rozlišujme mezi spojovníkem (je-li), pomlčkou ve větě~--
a dlouhou pomlčkou---ta se používá v~anglických dokumentech.
\bod Předpokládáme, že každý dokáže rozeznat 1 (jedničku) od l
(písmene el) a 0 (nulu) od O~(písmene~O).
\bod Zkusíme přepnout do {\bf polotučného písma}, nebo do
{\it kurzívy}. Také vyzkoušíme {\tt strojopis}.
\bod Všimneme si, že ve slovech grafika, firma, apod. se písmena
f a i automaticky proměnila v~jediný znak fi (srovnáme to
s~nesprávným f\/i).
\bod Mezery mezi písmeny jsou automaticky vyrovnávány podle tvaru písmen.
Ve slově \uv{Tento} je například písmeno~e těsněji přisazeno
k~písmenu~T, aby se mezery mezi písmeny opticky jevily stejnoměrné.
\bod Vypravíme se na malou exkurzi do matematiky: $a^2 + b^2 = c^2$.
Zjistíme, že číslo -1 je zde napsáno špatně (prokletý spojovník),
zatímco správně má být $-1$.
\bod Protože \% uvozuje komentář a \$ přepíná do matematické sazby,
musíme před ně napsat zpětné lomítko, chceme-li je dostat do dokumentu.
\itemskip
\nadpis Závěr
To by pro začátek stačilo. Příkazem {\tt\char`\\bye} ukončíme své pokusy.
\enduk %=============================================================
Všimněme si, že v~příkladu je důsledně oddělena forma od obsahu dokumentu.
V~části označené \uv{vlastní text} jsou použity značky "\nadpis",
"\bod" a "\itemskip", které ohraničují logické části dokumentu (vymezení
nadpisu, uvedení další položky ve výčtu prvků, obklopení skupiny výčtu prvků)
a nepopisují žádné konkrétní formátovací informace (volba fontu, velikost
fontu, velikost mezer nad a pod nadpisem, tvar puntíku ve výčtu prvků
apod.).
Značky vymezující strukturu dokumentu jsou definovány v~části \uv{oblast
definic}. Zde je řečeno, jaký bude mít nadpis font, jak bude
v~textu umístěn a jak bude vypadat formátování výčtu prvků. Podrobnější
rozbor těchto definic uvedeme za chvíli.
Toto oddělení formy od obsahu se v~mnoha případech začátečníkům nedaří.
Přímo v~textu jejich dokumentů se vyskytují značky jako "\vskip12mm"
(vertikální mezera 12\,mm), "\vfill\break" (vynucené ukončení strany) a mnoho
dalších nešvarů. My se pokusíme hned z~počátku se takovým věcem pokud možno
vyhnout. V~sekci \uv{změna vzhledu dokumentu} uvidíme, že se nám to bohatě
vyplatí.
\sekce Vysvětlení použitých značek v~příkladu
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Jednotlivé značky, které řídí formátování a vymezují strukturu dokumentu
jsou vesměs ve tvaru "\slovo". Tyto značky se nazývají
{\it řídicí sekvence\/} a někdy též budeme hovořit o~{\it příkazech},
protože jimi přikazujeme, aby \TeX{} něco vykonal.
Řídicí sekvence v~příkladu rozdělíme na dvě skupiny. 1.~ty, co jsou
definovány v~samotném \TeX{}u nebo v~použitém formátu (v~našem případě
ve formátu {\tt csplain}). 2.~řídicí sekvence, které jsme definovali sami.
Začneme rozborem druhé skupiny řídicích sekvencí:
\begitems
\bod "\nadpis" je sekvence, která za sebou očekává text nadpisu a pak
prázdný řádek.
\bod "\titulfont" je přepínač pro větší velikost fontu pro nadpis.
Je definován na řádku začínajícím příkazem "\font" a použit v~definici
řídicí sekvence "\nadpis".
\bod "\bod" je sekvence, která uvozuje položku ve výčtu prvků. Promění se
v~nějakou grafickou realizaci zarážky (zde puntík) a způsobí odsazení
textu položky.
\bod "\itemskip" vytvoří vertikální mezeru, která oddělí výčet prvků
od ostatního textu. Použije se na začátku i na konci výčtu.
\enditems
Ostatní řídicí sekvence jsou definovány v~použitém formátu nebo přímo
zabudovány v~\TeX{}u. Uživatel se s~nimi bude postupně seznamovat
studiem vhodné literatury. Zde uvedeme velmi stručně jen ty nejdůležitější
řídicí sekvence, abychom usnadnili pochopení příkladu.
\begitems
\bod "\chyph". Tato řídicí sekvence inicializuje české vzory dělení slov a
je definována pouze ve formátu csplain. V~případě českých textů
bychom ji nikdy neměli vynechat! Analogicky "\shyph" inicializuje
slovenské vzory dělení slov. Bez těchto příkazů \TeX{} pracuje
implicitně s~anglickými vzory dělení.
\bod "\font" zavede z~instalace \TeX{}u do dokumentu další font.
Struktura parametrů příkazu bude vysvětlena v~sekci o~fontech.
\bod "\def" definuje novou řídicí sekvenci (zde "\bod" a "\nadpis").
Za řídicí sekvencí může následovat formální popis parametrů nové
sekvence a pak následuje ve složených závorkách tělo definice.
V~ní je popsáno, co se při použití nové řídicí sekvence má vykonat.
\bod "\item" zahájí výčtovou položku (odsazením textu) a převezme
za sebou ve složených závorkách parametr, který popisuje vzhled puntíku.
\bod "\bullet" vytvoří v~matematickém módu černý puntík: $\bullet$.
\bod "\bigskip" vytvoří vertikální mezeru velikosti jednoho řádku a
"\medskip" velikosti poloviny řádku. "\indent" odsadí další text
o~velikost odstavcové zarážky.
\bod Řídicí sekvence "\par" je explicitní ukončení odstavce. \TeX{} ji
interně vytváří v~místě každého prázdného řádku. Ve formálním popisu
parametru za "\def\nadpis" má ale "\par" pouze vymezovací
účinek. Formální popis parametru v~našem příkladě čteme takto:
nově definovaná řídicí sekvence "\nadpis" převezme za sebou text
až po první výskyt "\par" (tedy až po první výskyt prázdného řádku)
a uloží jej do \uv{proměnné} s~označením "#1".
\bod "\let" čteme česky nechť. Tento příkaz ztotožní význam nové
řídicí sekvence (v~našem příkladě "\itemskip") s~předlohou (v~tomto
příkladě "\medskip").
\enditems
V~naší ukázce jsme použili též některé speciální \TeX{}ovské znaky.
Vysvětlíme si nyní stručně jejich význam.
\begitems
\bod Znak "~" znamená nedělitelnou mezeru. Je zde použita za neslabičnými
předložkami a před jednopísmennými ukázkami, aby se v~těchto místech
nerozdělil řádek. Při pořizování textu nemusíme psát za neslabičnými
předložkami vlnku \uv{ručně}. Vlnky tam lze doplnit později jednoduchými
programy, které bývají součástí \TeX{}ovských instalací.
\bod Znaky "{ }" mají v~\TeX{}u tři mírně odlišné významy.
\itemitem{1.} Obklopují těla definic za příkazem "\def", jak již bylo řečeno.
\itemitem{2.} Obklopují parametry některých řídicích sekvencí (viz
například text {\tt uvozovky}, který je parametrem řídicí sekvence
"\uv", nebo text "$\bullet$", který je parametrem řídicí sekvence
"\item".
\itemitem{3.} Samotné znaky "{ }" vymezují jisté skupiny, ve kterých je
veškeré přiřazení a nastavení lokální. Skupiny se často používají pro
vymezení platnosti přepínačů písma (viz "\bf", "\it", "\tt" a
"\titulfont").
\item{} Závorky "{ }" musí vzájemně párovat, což je důležité zejména ve
vymezovacích významech~(ad~1 a~2). Proto třeba tělo definice
"\bod" obsahuje text "\item{$\bullet$}" a je ukončeno až druhou
závorkou~"}".
\bod Znak "%" uvozuje komentář až do konce řádku.
\bod Znak "$" přepíná do {\it matematického módu} a zpět. V matematickém
módu \TeX{} sestavuje sazbu poněkud odlišným způsobem (všimneme
si, že například proměnné $a$, $b$ jsou v matematickém módu
automaticky sázeny kurzívou).
\bod Znak "^" v~matematickém módu uvozuje horní index (exponent).
\enditems
\sekce Změna vzhledu dokumentu
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Předvedeme, v~čem spočívá výhoda oddělení obsahu
dokumentu od formy. Předpokládejme, že nám nějaký zkušenější kolega
pomůže s~přípravou definic pro náš dokument. Předpokládejme dále, že onen
kolega má na věc poněkud jiný typografický názor a začne věci předělávat.
V~editoru modifikuje definice a ve vedlejším okénku v~prohlížeči se průběžně
mění náš první dokument skoro k~nepoznání. Přitom kolega
{\it vůbec nemusí\/} zasáhnout do vlastního textu dokumentu.
Především se mu nelíbí rodina fontů Computer Modern, která je
v~\TeX{}u implicitně nastavena. Napíše tedy na začátek dokumentu třeba
"\input cbookman" a celý dokument je nyní v~rodině Bookman. Příkaz "\input"
zavádí do dokumentu externí soubor definic, zde soubor s~názvem
{\tt cbookman.tex}. Tento soubor obsahuje příkazy "\font" na zavedení
skupiny fontů Bookman a nastaví je jako implicitní.
Kolega se dále rozhodl vkládat mezi každý odstavec drobnou vertikální mezeru
a místo puntíků pro výčty chce použít čtverečky, které ve větší velikosti
zařadí i do nadpisů. Konečně velikost fontu pro nadpis se mu zdá příliš
velká (místo "\magstep2" v~řádku "\font" použije \uv{menší} "\magstep1").
Výsledek jeho snažení v~\uv{oblasti definic} dopadne třeba takto:
\begtt %=============================================================
\chyph % inicializace českého dělení slov v csplainu
\magnification\magstep1 % celý dokument bude 1,2 krát větší
\input cbookman \setsimplemath % použité písmo: Bookman i v matematice
\font\titulfont=\fontname\tenbf\space scaled \magstep1 % větší font
\newdimen\indskip \indskip=15pt % výčty budou odsazeny 15pt
\def\ctverecek#1{\noindent % čtvereček proměnné velikosti v místě \indskip
\hbox to\indskip{\vrule height#1pt depth0pt width#1pt\hss}}
\def\bod{\par\hangindent=\indskip \ctverecek{4}} % definice zkratky \bod
\def\nadpis#1\par{ % definice nadpisu:
\removelastskip\bigskip % odmaže poslední vert.mezeru a přidá vlastní
\ctverecek{7}{\titulfont #1} % nadpis odsazený čtverečkem
\par\nobreak} % konec řádku, zakázaný zlom, žádná mezera
\parskip=\medskipamount % mezi odstavci bude mezera jako \medskip
\parindent=0pt % odstavce nebudou odsazeny zarážkou
\let\itemskip=\relax % žádné další mezery mezi výčty
\endtt %=============================================================
Náš dokument vypadá pak následovně:
\beguk %=============================================================
\input cbookman % použité písmo: Bookman
\font\mmi=\fontname\tenit
\font\sevenrm=\fontname\tenrm\space at 7pt
\textfont0=\tenrm \scriptfont0=\sevenrm
\textfont1=\mmi
\font\titulfont=\fontname\tenbf\space scaled \magstep1 % větší font
\newdimen\indskip \indskip=15pt % výčty budou odsazeny 15pt
\def\ctverecek#1{\noindent % čtvereček o proměnné velikosti v místě \indskip
\hbox to\indskip{\vrule height#1pt depth0pt width#1pt\hss}}
\def\bod{\par\hangindent=\indskip \ctverecek{4}} % definice zkratky \bod
\def\nadpis#1\par{ % definice nadpisu:
\removelastskip\bigskip % odmaže poslední vert. mezeru a přidá vlastní
\ctverecek{7}{\titulfont #1} % nadpis odsazený čtverečkem
\par\nobreak} % konec řádku, zakázaný zlom, žádná mezera
\parskip=\medskipamount % mezi odstavci bude mezera jako \medskip
\parindent=0pt % odstavce nebudou odsazeny zarážkou
\let\itemskip=\relax % žádné další mezery mezi výčty
\nadpis Můj první dokument
Zkouším napsat první text v~\TeX u. Tento odstavec musí být
tak dlouhý, aby bylo vidět, že se rozlomil aspoň na dva řádky.
Jednotlivé odstavce oddělujeme od sebe prázdným řádkem. Prázdnými řádky
vůbec nešetříme, protože zvyšují přehlednost zdrojového textu.
Vyzkoušíme si nyní několik věcí.
\itemskip
\bod Budeme používat české \uv{uvozovky}, které se liší od ``anglických''.
Uvědomíme si, že použití \"těchto znaků\" je úplně špatně!
\bod Rozlišujme mezi spojovníkem (je-li), pomlčkou ve větě~--
a dlouhou pomlčkou---ta se používá v~anglických dokumentech.
\bod Předpokládáme, že každý dokáže rozeznat 1 (jedničku) od l
(písmene el) a 0 (nulu) od O~(písmene~O).
\bod Zkusíme přepnout do {\bf polotučného písma}, nebo do
{\it kurzívy}. Také vyzkoušíme {\tt strojopis}.
\bod Všimneme si, že ve slovech grafika, firma, apod. se písmena
f a i automaticky proměnila v~jediný znak fi (srovnáme to
s~nesprávným f\/i).
\bod Mezery mezi písmeny jsou automaticky vyrovnávány podle tvaru písmen.
Ve slově \uv{Tento} je například písmeno~e těsněji přisazeno
k~písmenu~T, aby se mezery mezi písmeny opticky jevily stejnoměrné.
\bod Vypravíme se na malou exkurzi do matematiky: $a^2 + b^2 = c^2$.
Zjistíme, že číslo -1 je zde napsáno špatně (prokletý spojovník),
zatímco správně má být $-1$.
\bod Protože \% uvozuje komentář a \$ přepíná do matematické sazby,
musíme před ně napsat zpětné lomítko, chceme-li je dostat do dokumentu.
\itemskip
\nadpis Závěr
To by pro začátek stačilo. Příkazem {\tt\char`\\bye} ukončíme své pokusy.
\enduk %==============================================================
Kdyby náš kolega chtěl, implementoval by třeba automatické číslování
položek, automatické číslování nadpisů, generování obsahu a další věci.
Vysvětlení nových řídicích sekvencí, které kolega použil, bohužel
překračuje rámec tohoto úvodního dokumentu.
Definice lze umístit do jiného souboru než vlastní text dokumentu.
Na začátku dokumentu pak soubor definic načteme příkazem "\input".
Nebo naopak, hlavní bude soubor definic, ze kterého se příkazem "\input"
postupně načítají jednotlivé kapitoly rozsáhlejšího díla.
\goodbreak
\sekce Stojíme na křižovatce
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
V~předchozím příkladě jsme ilustrovali důležitou vlastnost \TeX{}u~--
schopnost měnit vzhled dokumentu jen výměnou některých definic. Kromě toho
ale tyto definice také musejí navazovat na úmluvu, jakými značkami bude
autor vymezovat strukturu svého dokumentu. Kdyby autor použil místo značky
"\nadpis" značku "\section", \TeX{} by nám při zpracování dokumentu vynadal:
\begtt %--------------------------------------------------------------
! Undefined control sequence.
l.14 \section
Můj první dokument
?
\endtt %--------------------------------------------------------------
\pp tedy: nedefinovaná řídicí sekvence. Odpovíme-li na otazník pouhým
stiskem klávesy Enter, \TeX{} tuto sekvenci zcela ignoruje a pracuje dál.
Žádného zvýraznění nadpisu bychom se nedočkali. Je tedy vidět,
že je podstatné ujasnit si, jaké značkování struktury dokumentu
použijeme.
V~této souvislosti si musíme odpovědět jednu důležitou otázku. Chceme se
naučit jazyk definic \TeX{}u na takové úrovni, jako náš imaginární kolega
z~předchozího příkladu? Budeme raději sami kontrolovat každý detail vzhledu
dokumentu prostřednictvím vlastních definic, než abychom přebírali hotová
řešení odjinud?
Pokud na tyto otázky odpovíme \uv{ano}, pak je pro nás
výhodné použít formát plain (pro české a slovenské dokumenty jen mírně
modifikovaný formát csplain), který definuje jen minimum základních
řídicích sekvencí. O~další řídicí sekvence stejně jako o~modifikaci
vzhledu dokumentu podle našich představ se musíme postarat sami.%
\footnote{Po zveřejnění makra OPmac (\url{http://petr.olsak.net/opmac.html})
uvedená věta o nutnosti plain\TeX{}isty vše si programovat vlastními silami
není zcela pravdivá.
I tito uživatelé mohou použít hotové řešení OPmac. Navíc
mají možnost snadno do jeho maker nahlédnout a upravit si je k obrazu
svému.}
V~takovém případě si můžeme sami rozhodnout, jaké značky pro vymezení
struktury dokumentu použijeme, protože si pro ně nakonec uděláme vlastní
definice.
Na druhé straně, pokud rádi přebíráme hotová řešení, pokud nechceme
zbytečně pronikat do problematiky jazyka definic \TeX{}u, pokud se
spokojíme s~už připravenými šablonami vzhledu dokumentu (tzv. styly),
pokud jsme ochotni se místo tří set základních příkazů \TeX{}u učit
zhruba tisíc uživatelských značek pro \LaTeX, bude pro nás
výhodné použít raději formát \LaTeX{}.
\LaTeX{} doporučuje určité značkování struktury dokumentu. Například se
předpokládá členění na kapitoly (značka "\chapter") a na sekce (značka
"\section"). Každý dokument by měl začít záhlavím uvozeným sekvencí
"\documentclass". Parametrem této sekvence by měl být název
základního stylového souboru (souboru definic upravujících vzhled
dokumentu). Nejčastěji bývá tímto parametrem "book" (formát knihy)
nebo "article" (formát článku). Doplňkové stylové soubory se načítají pomocí
sekvence "\usepackage". Vlastní text dokumentu musí být uzavřen mezi
značkami "\begin{document}" a "\end{document}". Často se vyskytují další
značky "\begin" a "\end" vymezující v~\LaTeX{}u jistá prostředí (například
prostředí pro výčtové položky).
Vraťme se k~našemu příkladu a přepišme jej do značkování podle \LaTeX{}u.
\begtt %=============================================================
\documentclass{article} % základní styl bude "odborný článek"
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc} % je nutno specifikovat kódování dokumentu
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc} % požadujeme LaTeXovské fonty s akcenty
\usepackage[czech]{babel} % z Babylónu jazyků volíme češtinu
\begin{document}
\section{Můj první dokument}
Zkouším napsat první text v~\TeX u. Tento odstavec musí být
tak dlouhý, aby bylo vidět, že se rozlomil aspoň na dva řádky.
Jednotlivé odstavce oddělujeme od sebe prázdným řádkem. Prázdnými řádky
vůbec nešetříme, protože zvyšují přehlednost zdrojového textu.
Vyzkoušíme si nyní několik věcí.
\begin{itemize}
\item Budeme používat české \uv{uvozovky}, které se liší od ``anglických''.
Uvědomíme si, že použití "těchto znaků" je úplně špatně!
\item Rozlišujme mezi spojovníkem (je-li), pomlčkou ve větě~--
a dlouhou pomlčkou---ta se používá v~anglických dokumentech.
\item Předpokládáme, že každý dokáže rozeznat 1 (jedničku) od l
(písmene el) a 0 (nulu) od O~(písmene~O).
\item Zkusíme přepnout do {\bf polotučného písma}, nebo do
{\it kurzívy}. Také vyzkoušíme {\tt strojopis}.
\item Všimneme si, že ve slovech grafika, firma, apod. se písmena
f a i automaticky proměnila v~jediný znak fi (srovnáme to
s~nesprávným f\/i).
\item Mezery mezi písmeny jsou automaticky vyrovnávány podle tvaru písmen.
Ve slově \uv{Tento} je například písmeno~e těsněji přisazeno
k~písmenu~T, aby se mezery mezi písmeny opticky jevily stejnoměrné.
\item Vypravíme se na malou exkurzi do matematiky: $a^2 + b^2 = c^2$.
Zjistíme, že číslo -1 je zde napsáno špatně (prokletý spojovník),
zatímco správně má být $-1$.
\item Protože \% uvozuje komentář a \$ přepíná do matematické sazby,
musíme před ně napsat zpětné lomítko, chceme-li je dostat do dokumentu.
\end{itemize}
\section{Závěr}
To by pro začátek stačilo. Příkazem \verb|\bye| ukončíme své pokusy.
\end{document}
\endtt %--------------------------------------------------------------
Poznamenejme, že zavedení doplňkového stylu {\tt czech} způsobí aktivaci
českých vzorů dělení slov a písma s~českými znaky. Bez použití tohoto stylu
pracuje \LaTeX{} implicitně s~anglickými vzory dělení slov a s~písmy, která
neobsahují háčkovaná a čárkovaná písmena.
Upozorňujeme, že v~současné době je bohužel \LaTeX{}ů několik druhů.
\uv{Starý \LaTeX} (verze~2.09), ve kterém se
struktura záhlaví dokumentu mírně lišila. Dále je pro potřeby
českých dokumentů nutné rozlišovat mezi \LaTeX{}em a \CS\LaTeX{}em
(druhý jmenovaný je dnes považován zastaralý).
\LaTeX{} implementuje
český a slovenský jazyk pomocí balíku maker \uv{Babel} nebo
\uv{polyglossia}, zatímco \CS\LaTeX{} měl k tomu vlastní stylový soubor.
\CS\LaTeX{} byl u nás mnoho let používán jako jistá
modifikace \LaTeX{}u. Uvedená ukázka předpokládá \LaTeX{} s balíčkem
Babel.
Výsledek po zpracování našeho dokumentu \LaTeX{}em v~tomto manuálu
pro stručnost neuvádíme. Kdo chce, může si sám \LaTeX{}
vyzkoušet. Nelíbí se nám, že za čísly v~nadpisech nejsou tečky?
Zavedeme do dokumentu prostřednictvím "\usepackage" další doplňkový
styl, který toto výchozí chování základního stylu {\tt article}
upraví. Nelíbí se nám, že jsou mezi jednotlivými položkami ve výčtu
velké mezery a položky jsou až příliš odsazeny? Použijeme v~dokumentu
další doplňkový styl. Nelíbí se nám, že je použito písmo Computer
Modern? Napišme třeba "\usepackage{times}".
Otázka ale je, kdo pro nás tyto doplňkové styly (neboli doplňující sady
definic pro \TeX) bude připravovat. Velké množství stylů na všechno možné
lze nalézt ve veřejných archivech \TeX{}ovského softwaru. \LaTeX{} nám tedy
při jednoduchých šablonovitých požadavcích na vzhled dokumentu umožňuje
zůstat v~roli autora, který pořizuje text. Nemusíme umět poměrně složitý
jazyk definic \TeX{}u.
Pokud nám žádná z~možností nabízených stylů nevyhovuje, musíme se pokusit
tyto styly modifikovat podle své potřeby. To ale může být už hodně
komplikované. Záleží znovu na nás, zda rádi modifikujeme zdrojové kódy
cizích programů nebo si raději napíšeme programy vlastní. Pokud rádi píšeme
programy vlastní, asi nám bude spíše vyhovovat jednodušší výchozí
formát plain (csplain).
Jestliže jsme se rozhodli pracovat raději v~plainu, pak lze k~dalšímu
studiu doporučit následující literaturu:
\begitems
\bib Petr Olšák. {\it \TeX{} pro pragmatiky (\TeX{} -- plain\TeX{} --
\CS plain{} -- OPmac)}. Pracovní verze textu je
volně k dispozici na
{\tt http://petr.olsak.net/tpp.html}.
\bib Petr Olšák. {\it \TeX{}book naruby}. Konvoj 1997. Celý text knihy je
volně k~dispozici ve formátu {\tt pdf}
na \url{http://math.feld.cvut.cz/olsak/tbn.html}.
\enditems
Vyhovuje-li nám více \LaTeX, pak je možné sáhnout po těchto manuálech:
\begitems
\bib Pavel Satrapa. {\it \LaTeX{} pro pragmatiky}. Text je volně dostupný na
\hfil\break{\tt http://www.nti.tul.cz/\char`\~satrapa/docs/latex/}.
\bib Leslie Lamport. {\it\LaTeX---A Document Preparation System---User's
Guide and Reference Manual}. Ad\-di\-son-Wes\-ley, Reading, MA,
USA, 2nd ed. 1994.
\bib Michel Goossens, Frank Mittelbach, Alexander Samarin.
{\it The \LaTeX{} Companion}. Druhé vydání, Addisson Wesley 1994.
\bib Michel Goossens, Sebastian Rahtz, Frank Mittelbach.
{\it The \LaTeX{} Graphics Companion: Illustrating Documents with
\TeX{} and PostScript}. Addisson Wesley 1997.
\bib Jiří Rybička. {\it \LaTeX{} pro začátečníky}. Druhé, upravené vydání,
Konvoj 1999.
\enditems
Pokud budeme používat \LaTeX{} a budeme chtít rozumět použitým stylovým
souborům, můžeme použít knihu [2]. Popisuje totiž vnitřní algoritmy
\TeX{}u, což jsou informace, které využijeme jak v~plainu tak v~\LaTeX{}u.
Pro úplnost ještě citujme dva tituly. První z~nich je základní biblí
k~\TeX{}u od samotného autora \TeX{}u (česká alternativa [2] ji poměrně
dobře nahrazuje) a druhý titul obsahuje informace o~\TeX{}ových
souvislostech, tj. popis spolupracujících programů v~běžných distribucích,
implementace fontů, vkládání obrázků apod.
\begitems
\bib Donald E. Knuth. {\it The \TeX{}book}. Mnohonásobné vydání. Addison
Wesley, 1986--{\tt*}. Díl~A~z~pětidílné monografie k~\TeX{}u a \mf{}u
\uv{Computers \& Typesetting}.
\bib Petr Olšák. {\it Typografický systém \TeX}. \CS{}TUG 1995.
\enditems
Další text v~tomto manuálu se věnuje základům \TeX{}u, které bývají
shodné při použití většiny formátů. Ukázky budeme pro jednoduchost
nadále zkoušet ve formátu csplain, protože jinak bychom museli kolem
vlastního textu ukázky přidat zmíněné \uv{obkladové řádky} závislé na
použitém \uv{druhu} \LaTeX{}u.
\sekce Technické pozadí formátů
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
V~předchozím textu jsme na mnoha místech hovořili o~formátech \TeX{}u
(plain, \LaTeX{}, csplain), ale zatím jsme pořádně neřekli, co to je.
Formát je binární soubor (v~\TeX{}ové distribuci má příponu {\tt.fmt}),
který zahrnuje:
\begitems
\bod výchozí sadu definic, která rozšiřuje vestavěné řídicí sekvence
o~další, pro uživatele většinou snadněji použitelné,
\bod výchozí nastavení vnitřních parametrů \TeX{}u (například šířka
odstavce nebo velikost odstavcové zarážky),
\bod výchozí fonty, které budou v~dokumentu použity, pokud uživatel
nespecifikuje jiné,
\bod vzory dělení vybraných jazyků, podle kterých \TeX{} dělí slova při
zalamování odstavce.
\enditems
Až na vzory dělení lze vše ostatní ve vlastním dokumentu pomocí
\TeX{}ových definic dodatečně měnit. Pro načtení vzorů dělení
jednotlivých jazyků má \TeX{} speciální řídicí sekvenci "\patterns",
která funguje jen při vytváření formátu. Existuje ještě jedna řídicí
sekvence, která má smysl pouze při generování formátu: "\dump". Tento
příkaz způsobí uložení \uv{nabytých vědomostí}
\TeX{}u z~jeho vnitřní paměti do binárního formátového souboru {\tt *.fmt}
a ukončí činnost \TeX{}u. Tento soubor se může později při startu
\TeX{}u načíst, a \TeX{} tím začíná se svými znalostmi z~místa, kde
naposledy načítání definic skončil v~době příkazu "\dump".
Příkazy "\patterns" a "\dump" umí speciální varianta \TeX{}u zvaná
ini\TeX{}. V~nových distribucích \TeX{}u není tato varianta
reprezentována samostatným programem, ale vyvolá se prostřednictvím
přepínače {\tt -i} nebo {\tt -ini}. Například k~vygenerování formátu
plain lze postupovat takto:
\begtt
> tex -ini plain
* \dump
\endtt
\TeX{} zde ve variantě ini\TeX{} načetl soubor definic plain.tex a uložil
nabyté vědomosti do souboru {\tt plain.fmt}. Nyní lze formátový soubor
použít:
\begtt
> tex -fmt plain document
\endtt
V~běžných \TeX{}ových distribucích je implementována nějakým způsobem
zkratka, která uživateli umožní místo příkazu {\tt tex -fmt plain} psát pouze
{\tt tex} a třeba místo {\tt tex -fmt latex} psát pouze {\tt latex}.
\sekce Speciální znaky
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
V~této sekci popíšeme chování speciálních vstupních znaků, které
nejsou \TeX{}em většinou slepě přepisovány do výstupu, ale \TeX{} na
ně určitým způsobem zareaguje.
Jedním takovým speciálním znakem je "\" (zpětné lomítko). Pokud za ním
následuje písmeno, \TeX{} přečte řídicí sekvenci typu "\slovo"
ukončenou prvním znakem, který není písmeno (separátorem). Je-li
tímto separátorem mezera, pak se na výstupu neobjeví. Ostatní
separátory nejsou na rozdíl od mezery ignorovány.
Vyzkoušejte si:
\begtt %----------------------------------------------------------
Zkouším \TeX. % Tečka je separátor sekvence \TeX, který se vytiskne
Píšu v \TeX u % Separátorem je mezera před u, která se netiskne
\TeX je formátor.
\endtt %----------------------------------------------------------
Z~posledního řádku ukázky dostáváme nesprávný výsledek: \TeX je formátor.
Projevila se totiž další vlastnost \TeX{}u: jednu mezeru i více mezer
za sebou považuje za mezeru jedinou a ta v~našem příkladě funguje jako
separátor, který mizí. Proto se často používají \uv{zbytečné skupiny},
jejichž závorky mají funkci separátoru řídicí sekvence:
\begtt %-----------------------------------------------------------
Píšu v \TeX{}u. \TeX{} je formátor.
\endtt %-----------------------------------------------------------
Pokud za zpětným lomítkem následuje něco jiného, než písmeno
(například "\$"), je řídicí sekvence tvořena jen tímto znakem.
Mezery za takovými jednoznakovými sekvencemi zůstávají
zachovány:
\begtt %-----------------------------------------------------------
Pracuji se 100\% nasazením.
\endtt %-----------------------------------------------------------
Vidíme, že dalším speciálním znakem v~\TeX{}u je mezera. Jak jsme před
chvílí uvedli, více mezer za sebou se chová jako mezera jediná.
Všechny mezery na začátku řádku jsou ignorovány až po první znak, který
není mezera. Toho můžeme využít pro zlepšení přehlednosti našich
vstupních textů (viz naše ukázka s~výčtem prvků).
Konec řádku je v~\TeX{}u interpretován jako mezera, která se vytiskne,
pokud není separátorem řídicí sekvence. Pokud si mezeru z~konce
řádku nepřejeme, můžeme ji \uv{zamaskovat} komentářovým znakem:
\begtt %-----------------------------------------------------------
Toto je
zvrácený
pří%
klad v~\TeX
u.
\endtt %-----------------------------------------------------------
Prázdný řádek vytvoří interní příkaz "\par", který ukončuje
odstavec. Není-li co ukončovat, "\par" nedělá nic. Proto více
prázdných řádků pod sebou se chovají stejně jako jeden prázdný
řádek. I~toho lze využít pro zvýšení přehlednosti zdrojových textů.
\iffalse
Zdrojový text pro \TeX{} většinou píšeme v nějakém textovém editoru, který
automaticky na koncích řádků zalomí na další řádek (vloží Enter). Odstavce
oddělujeme prázdným řádkem (dvojí Enter). Je to poněkud odlišné od pravidel
používaných v~běžných textových procesorech. Tam je zakázáno vkládat
Enter mezi řádky a odstavce jsou odděleny jediným Enter.
\fi
V~následující tabulce je přehled všech znaků, které bývají
nastaveny jako speciální:
\begtable
"\" & uvozuje řídicí sekvenci
"{" & zahájení skupiny, parametru nebo definice
"}" & konec skupiny, parametru nebo definice
"$" & přepínač matematického módu
"&" & separátor používaný v tabulkách
"#" & označení parametru v definicích
"^" & konstruktor mocniny v matematickém módu
"_" & konstruktor indexu v matematickém módu
"~" & nedělitelná mezera
"%" & zahajuje na řádku komentář
\endtable
Speciální význam každého znaku lze v~\TeX{}u nastavit pomocí určitých
definic. Výše uvedená tabulka tedy není v~ničem definitivní.
Uvedený seznam speciálních znaků bývá takto nastaven ve
formátech plain, csplain i \LaTeX.
Pokud chceme vytisknout souvislejší část textu bez speciální
interpretace, musíme těmto znakům jejich speciální funkce odebrat.
V~\LaTeX{}u se pro tyto účely používá \LaTeX{}ové prostředí vymezené
příkazy "\begin{verbatim}" a "\end{verbatim}". Vše mezi těmito příkazy%
\footnote{s výjimkou sekvence čtrnácti znaků
\uv{{\tt \char`\\end\char`\{verbatim\char`\}}}}
se vytiskne tak, jak je napsáno ve vstupním textu. Uvedené prostředí
vždy ukončí odstavec a zahájí tisk textu bez speciální interpretace.
Pokud chceme mít bez speciální interpretace jen část textu uvnitř
odstavce, použijeme v~\LaTeX{}u příkaz "\verb|text bez svislé čáry|"
nebo třeba "\verb+text bez znaku plus+".
V~plainu ani v~csplainu hotové řešení na vypnutí speciální
interpretace znaků nenajdeme. OPmac nabízí dvojici "\begtt"
a "\endtt" .
Pokud chceme vytisknout jen jednotlivé speciální znaky, měli bychom
vědět, jakou sekvencí to zařídit. Pro znaky používané v~běžném textu
("$", "&", "#" a "_") jsou ve všech formátech připraveny řídicí
sekvence "\$", "\&", "\#" a "\_". Tím požadovaný znak vytiskneme
v~libovolném fontu. Výjimkou je znak \$, který se v~kurzívě
Computer Modern fontu mění v~libru: {\cmit\$}. Je to taková malá
kuriozita \TeX{}u.
S~ostatními speciálními znaky to tak jednoduché není. Zaručeně je vytiskneme
pomocí "{\tt\char`\"$\langle\it znak\rangle$"}". Zde "\tt" přepíná do
strojopisu (v tomto fontu jsou znaky dle ASCII zaručeně přítomny) a příkazem
"\char" je možné vytisknout znak s libovolnám kódem. Například
"{\tt\char`\\}" vytiskne backslash strojopisem. Je třeba upozornit na to,
že chlup za příkazem "\char" v této ukázce je {\it zpětný apostrof}, který najdeme na klávesnici
vlevo nahoře.
Znaky "< > | \ { }" nejsou v implicitním fontu Computer Modern (s výjimkou
strojopisu) bohužel
zastoupeny, protože se v běžném textu nevyskytují. Jsou určeny pro
sazbu matematických vzorečků. V matematickém módu (mezi "$...$") znaky
"< > |" fungují přímo a pro "\ { }" má \TeX{} rezervovány speciální
řídicí sekvence: "\setminus", "\{" a "\}".
V~\LaTeX{}u lze místo konstrukcí "{\tt\char`\znak}" použít
jednodušší "\verb|znak|". Ovšem příkaz "\verb", který odebírá znaku
jeho speciální funkci a zapíná tisk ve strojopisu, nemusí fungovat
všude. Například jej nelze použít jako argument jiného příkazu
("\section", "\uv", apod.).
\sekce Rozměrové jednotky používané v~\TeX u a typografii
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Z~historických důvodů v~typografii stále přežívají měrné jednoty
rozdílné od soustavy SI. Základní měrnou jednotkou, která se používá
v~anglosaských zemích, je jednotka point ({\tt pt}), která má rozměr
asi třetinu milimetru. Dvanáctinásobek je pica (čteme pajka, {\tt
pc}). Jednotkou, která se používala v~Evropě, je \uv{Didotův bod}
({\tt dd}), který je větší než point, ale zhruba taky měří třetinu
milimetru. Dvanáctinásobek tohoto bodu je cicero ({\tt cc}).
V~počítačových programech pro sazbu se používá počítačový bod
({\tt bp}), který je jen velmi nepatrně větší. 72 počítačových bodů se
přesně vejde do jednoho palce ({\tt in}, inch používaný především
v~Americe).
Všechny tyto jednotky je možné použít v~\TeX{}u jako dvoupísmenové zkratky,
jak ukazuje následující tabulka. Navíc lze použít jednotky odvozené
z~metru.
\begtable
"pt" & monotypový bod & $1\,{\tt pt} = 1/72.27\,{\tt in} \doteq %
0.35146\,{\tt mm}$
"pc" & pica & $1\,{\tt pc} = 12\,{\tt pt}$
"bp" & počítačový bod & $1\,{\tt bp} = 1/72\,{\tt in}$
"dd" & Didotův bod & $1\,{\tt dd} = 1238/1157\,{\tt pt}$
"cc" & cicero & $1\,{\tt cc} = 12\,{\tt dd}$
"in" & palec (inch, coul) & $1\,{\tt in} = 25.4\,{\tt mm}$
"cm" & centimetr & $1\,{\tt cm} = 10\,{\tt mm}$
"mm" & milimetr & $1\,{\tt mm} \doteq 2.84528\,{\tt pt}$
"sp" & jednotka \TeX{}u & $1\,{\tt sp} = 1/65536\,{\tt pt}$
"em" & velikost písma & závislé na aktuálním písmu
"ex" & výška malého x & závislé na aktuálním písmu
\endtable
Velikost písma se měří zhruba jako celková výška řádku, který obsahuje
všechny znaky písma (mimo akcentované verzálky, tj. neuvažujeme v~takovém
řádku háčky a čárky nad velkými písmeny). Zhruba to také odpovídá
šířce velkého písmene M (odtud jednotka {\tt em}). Bohužel, na jednotlivých
písmech není nic společného, co by se dalo vždy jednoduše změřit a přesně
říci, že právě to je ona velikost písma.
\sekce Práce s~fonty
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Implicitní fonty, které jsou v~každé distribuci \TeX{}u k~dispozici
a které jsou nezávislé na použitém operačním systému, jsou fonty
rodiny Computer Modern. Běžná antikva v~této rodině má název {\tt
cmr10}. To je zkratka pro \uv{Computer Modern Roman ve velikosti 10pt}.
Fonty Computer Modern bývají už načteny ve formátu a pro
jednotlivé varianty (antikva, kurzíva, polotučné, strojopis) bývají
připraveny přepínače "\rm", "\it", "\bf", "\tt".
Fonty Computer Modern neobsahují akcentovaná písmena (s~háčky a čárkami).
Proto jsou ve formátu csplain místo nich implicitně načteny tak zvané
\CS{}fonty, které rozšiřují Computer Modern fonty o~písmena s~akcenty
z~české a slovenské abecedy. Běžná antikva v~této rodině má název
{\tt csr10}. \LaTeX{} také implicitně pracuje s~rodinou Computer Modern,
pomocí dodatečných stylů se dá přinutit k zavedení dalších fontů. Používá k
tomu zabudovaný balík makrer NFSS, který uživatele totálně odstíní od
primitivního příkazu "\font".
Ve všech formátech (v~\LaTeX{}u navzdory jeho NFSS konceptu)
můžete zavést nový přepínač pro nové písmo
pomocí příkazu "\font". Ten má následující syntaxi:
\begtt
\font\přepínač=název-fontu nepovinné parametry zvětšení
\endtt
Například
\begtt
\font\titulfont=csr10 scaled \magstep2
\endtt
\pp zavede do \TeX{}u font csr10 (tedy běžnou počeštěnou antikvu
odvozenou z~Computer Modern) ve zvětšení $1.44$ krát normální
velikost, která je 10 bodů. Tento font se pak v~textu aktivuje
přepínačem "\titulfont". Proč zrovna koeficient $1.44$? To je
koeficient, pro který byla v~\TeX{}u vytvořena zkratka
"\magstep2". Následující tabulka shrnuje všechny zkratky typu
"\magstep", které jsou definovány ve všech běžně používaných
formátech.
\begtable
sekvence & koeficient & implementováno jako
\tabline
"\magstep0" & 1:1 (žádné zvětšení) & 1000
"\magstep1" & $1.2$ & 1200
"\magstep2" & $1.2^2 = 1.44$ & 1440
"\magstep3" & $1.2^3 = 1.728$ & 1728
"\magstep4" & $1.2^4 = 2.0736$ & 2074
"\magstep5" & $1.2^5 = 2.48832$ & 2488
"\magstephalf" & $\sqrt{1.2}\doteq1.095445$ & 1095
\endtable
Odstupňování jednotlivých velikostí písma pomocí mocnin čísla $1.2$ bývá
v~typografii dobrým zvykem.
Ve sloupci \uv{implementováno jako} vidíme, že koeficient se za slovem
{\tt magstep} (stejně jako na mnoha dalších místech v~\TeX{}u) zadává jako
celé číslo odpovídající tisícinásobku uvažované hodnoty. Chceme-li tedy
použít font dvojnásobně velký, použijeme {\tt scaled~2000} a při požadavku
na poloviční velikost píšeme {\tt scaled~500}.
Kromě koeficientu zvětšení (slovo {\tt scaled}) můžeme chtít zvětšit
font bez ohledu na jeho původní velikost do námi požadované velikosti.
K~tomu se používá slovo {\tt at}, například:
\begtt %--------------------------------------------------------------
\font\prvni=csr10 at 20pt
\font\druhy=csr10 scaled 2000
\endtt %--------------------------------------------------------------
Oba řádky této ukázky zavádějí stejný font ve stejném zvětšení.
Rodina písma Computer Modern (a jeho odvozeniny, například \CS{}fonty)
obsahuje různé velikosti stejné varianty písma, přitom tyto
alternativy nejsou jen stejnoměrným násobením všech rozměrů.
Doporučuje se, zvláště v~menších velikostech písma, používat
implicitní velikost písma a dále ji nezmenšovat ani nezvětšovat.
Implicitní velikost písma je označena číslem v~názvu
fontu, tj. například {\tt csr10} má implicitní velikost 10\,pt a
{\tt csr5} má velikost 5\,pt. Srovnáme výsledek tohoto příkladu:
\begtt %--------------------------------------------------------------
\font\zvetseny=csr5 at10pt
\font\normalni=csr10
\normalni Tady je přirozená velikost písma 10 bodů
\zvetseny a tady je písmo navržené pro pět bodů zvětšeno na 10 bodů.
\endtt %--------------------------------------------------------------
Na výstupu dostaneme:
\beguk %--------------------------------------------------------------
\font\zvetseny=csr5 at10truept
\font\normalni=csr10 at10truept
\baselineskip=12truept
\normalni Tady je přirozená velikost 10 bodů
\zvetseny a tady je písmo navržené pro pět bodů zvětšeno na 10 bodů.
\enduk %--------------------------------------------------------------
Přepnout písmo dokumentu do jiné rodiny fontů znamená postarat se o~změnu
významu všech přepínačů jednotlivých variant písma ("\rm", "\bf", "\it" a
"\tt") a nezapomenout na vhodnou změnu fontu též v~nadpisech a v~dalších
velikostech písma, které jsou v~dokumentu použity. Jednoduché definice
alternativních přepínačů najdeme pro csplain v~následujících souborech:
\begtable
soubor & Rodina fontů
\tabline
"cavantga.tex" & Avantgarde Book
"cbookman.tex" & Bookman
"chelvet.tex" & Helvetica
"cncent.tex" & New Century
"cpalatin.tex" & Palatino
"ctimes.tex" & Times Roman
\endtable
Tyto rodiny fontů jsou instalovány v~každé \TeX{}ové distribuci
(přesněji jsou instalovány jejich volně přístupné alternativy).
Chceme-li například přepnout do písma Bookman, stačí napsat do dokumentu
"\input bookman". Takovou věc jsme už ilustrovali na našem příkladě
v~předchozím textu.
Podíváme-li se do souborů {\tt cbookman.tex} a dalších, které najdeme
v~instalaci \TeX{}u někde v~adresáři {\tt csplain}, zjistíme, že zde nejsou
předefinovány přímo přepínače "\rm", "\bf", "\it" a "\tt", ale že se zde
místo nich pracuje s~přepínači "\tenrm", "\tenbf", "\tenit" a "\tentt".
To jsou totiž v~plainu (i csplainu) skutečné přepínače \uv{nejnižší
úrovně}. Pro uživatele se pak definují značky "\rm", "\bf", "\it" a "\tt"
s~dalším přihlédnutím na chování těchto značek v~matematickém módu.
Například "\bf" je definováno takto:
\begtt %--------------------------------------------------------------
\def\bf{\tenbf \fam\bffam}
\endtt %--------------------------------------------------------------
Je-li tedy předefinován přepínač "\tenbf", bude se od této chvíle chovat
jinak i značka "\bf". Kód "\fam\bffam" zde nebudeme rozebírat, protože
překračuje rámec tohoto úvodního textu. Spokojíme se s~tím, že v~textovém
módu nemá tento kód žádný vliv a v~matematickém módu cosi udělá.
Příkaz "\fontname\přepínač\space" se promění zpět v~původní název
fontu ukončený mezerou. Tato vlastnost byla použita v~našem příkladu,
kde jsme zaváděli větší font pomocí této konstrukce:
\begtt %---------------------------------------------------------------
\font\titulfont=\fontname\tenbf\space scaled \magstep2 % větší font
\endtt %---------------------------------------------------------------
Výhodou tohoto zápisu je fakt, že nemusíme znát název fontu, stačí si
zapamatovat základní přepínače "\tenrm", "\tenbf", "\tenit" a "\tentt".
Názvy fontů se nejenom těžko pamatují, ale také se mohou změnit,
pokud před takovou konstrukcí použijeme "\input cbookman" nebo něco
podobného.
V~\LaTeX{}u asi takové obraty nebudeme potřebovat, protože o~zavedení
potřebných fontů pro různé velikosti se \LaTeX{} stará sám. Pro
přepínání mezi rodinami fontů používáme v~\LaTeX{}u příkaz
"\usepackage" a následuje ve složených závorkách jedno ze slov
{\tt avantgar}, {\tt bookman}, {\tt helvet}, {\tt newcent},
{\tt palatino}, {\tt times}. Písmeno {\tt c} na začátku názvu rodiny
fontů (na rozdíl od csplainu) nepíšeme.
Možná nás začne zajímat, jaké fonty máme v~\TeX{}ové instalaci
připraveny k~použití. Stačí udělat menší průzkum v~adresáři {\tt tfm}
(odvozeno od zkratky \TeX{} font metrics) a podívat se do jednotlivých
podadresářů na názvy přítomných souborů. To jsou současně názvy fontů,
které jsou použitelné v~příkaze "\font". Chceme vědět, jak který
font vypadá? Napišme na příkazový řádek
\begtt %-----------------------------------------------------------------
tex testfont
\endtt %-----------------------------------------------------------------
\TeX{} se nás vyptá na název fontu, který zadáme bez přípony
{\tt.tfm}. Pak nás požádá o~instrukci, co s~načteným fontem má dělat.
Nejlépe je odpovědět "\table\end" a podívat se na tabulku znaků
testovaného fontu třeba pomocí "xdvi testfont".
\sekce Umístění sazby na papíře
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Při poznávání \TeX{}u si jistě velmi brzo položíme otázku, jak je
možné změnit velikost okrajů, neboli jak umístit sazbu na papíře.
V~plainu jsou implicitně nastaveny velikosti okrajů jeden palec
z~každé strany papíru amerického formátu Letter. Takové formáty papíru
u~nás většinou nerostou, takže plain nám na papíru A4 udělá jen levý a
horní okraj velikosti jeden palec a pravý okraj bude menší a spodní
větší.
V~csplainu jsou implicitně nastaveny velikosti okrajů jeden palec
z~každé strany pro formát A4. Sazba je tedy v~csplainu mírně užší a
vyšší, než v~plainu. Sazbu přitom měříme bez případného záhlaví a bez
stránkových číslic.
Po zavedení makra OPmac v~plainu nebo csplainu je možné
okraje pohodlně nastavit makrem "\margins". Jak to udělat je popsáno v
dokumentaci k OPmac. Níže je uveden postup nastavení okrajů v \TeX{}u na
úrovni \TeX{}u samostného bez použití maker.
Umístění sazby měříme vzhledem k~počátku, který se nalézá na papíře
1~palec od levého okraje a 1~palec od horního okraje. Levý horní roh
sazby se kryje s~tímto počátkem, pokud jsou nastaveny registry
"\hoffset=0pt" a "\voffset=0pt". Levý horní roh sazby se posune
doprava o~hodnotu "\hoffset" a dolů o~hodnotu "\voffset". Při
záporných hodnotách těchto registrů se sazba posunuje samozřejmě doleva
respektive nahoru.
Šířka sazby (přesněji šířka zpracovávaného odstavce) se nastaví pomocí
registru "\hsize". Výška sazby na stránce se nastaví pomocí "\vsize".
V~následující ukázce jsou uvedeny hodnoty, které nastavuje plain.
\begtt
\voffset=0in % velikost horního okraje = \voffset + 1 palec
\hoffset=0in % velikost levého okraje = \hoffset + 1 palec
\hsize=6.5in % šířka řádku, 165.1mm
\vsize=8.9in % výška sazby, 266mm
\endtt
Formát csplain má registry "\hoffset" a "\voffset" také nulové, ale
šířku a výšku sazby nastavuje odlišně:
\begtt
\hsize= 159.2 mm % šířka řádku v csplainu (šířka A4 - 2in)
\vsize= 239.2 mm % výška sazby (výška A4 - 2in)
\endtt
Pokud chceme nastavit vlastní velikosti, doporučujeme nejprve registry
"\hoffset" a "\voffset" nastavit na hodnotu $-1$\,in a pak k~nim přičíst
hodnoty požadovaných okrajů pomocí příkazu "\advance". Dále
doporučujeme výšku sazby přesně rozměřit na počet řádků. K~tomu
potřebujeme vědět, že vzdálenost dvou řádků se určí pomocí registru
"\baselineskip" (pozor: při větším písmu se toto řádkování může
rozhodit). Plain i csplain nastavují "\baselineskip" na 12\,pt.
Kromě toho je účaří prvního řádku od pomyslného horního okraje sazby
vzdáleno o~"\topskip", který má v~plainu i v~csplainu hodnotu 10\,pt.
Protože se výška sazby "\vsize" měří od horního pomyslného okraje po
účaří posledního řádku na stránce, vychází "\vsize" jako
\hbox{$"\topskip" + (n-1)\times "\baselineskip"$}, kde $n$ je počet řádků na
stránce. Nastavení velikosti sazby tedy můžeme udělat například takto:
\begtt
\voffset=-1in
\advance\voffset by 2cm % velikost horního okraje bude 2cm
\hoffset=-1in
\advance\hoffset by 1.5cm % velikost pravého okraje bude 1.5cm
\hsize=10cm % šířka řádku bude 10cm
\vsize=\topskip
\advance\vsize by 15\baselineskip % sazba bude mít 16 řádků na stránce
\endtt
V~\LaTeX{}u se při nastavování rozměrů sazby používají registry
speciálně deklarované v~tomto formátu. Jedná se o~"\textheight" (výška
sazby), "\textwidth" (šířka sazby), "\oddsidemargin" (levý okraj na
lichých stránkách), "\evensidemargin" (levý okraj na sudých stránkách)
a "\topmargin" (horní okraj). \LaTeX{} pak sám podle hodnot těchto
registrů nastaví vnitřní registry \TeX{}u "\hoffset", "\voffset",
"\hsize" a "\vsize". Uživatel \LaTeX{}u by k~nim neměl přistupovat
přímo a navíc by měl s~registry zacházet \uv{\LaTeX{}ovsky}, což
prakticky znamená, že místo jednoduchého přiřazení nebo příkazu
"\advance" by měl zapisovat své požadavky zhruba takto:
\begtt
\setlength\topmargin{-1in}
\addtolength\topmargin{2cm} % velikost horního okraje bude 2cm
\setlength\oddsidemargin{-1in}
\addtolength\oddsidemargin{1.5cm} % velikost pravého okraje bude 1.5cm
\setlength\evensidemargin{\oddsidemargin}
\setlength\textwidth{10cm} % šířka sazby bude 10cm
\setlength\textheight{\topskip}
\addtolength\textheight{15\baselineskip} % 16 řádků
\endtt
\TeX{}em většinou nenastavujeme parametry pro archovou montáž sazby,
takže nám výše uvedené příklady pro nastavení velikosti sazby bohatě
stačí. Pokud bychom chtěli se sazbou dále manipulovat a umisťovat ji
na jednotlivé archy podle určitých požadavků, použijeme většinou
pomocné programy, které manipulují s~PostScriptovým výstupem.
Představme si, že chceme stránky tohoto manuálu zmenšit tak, aby se
vešly dvě vedle sebe na stranu A4. Dále chceme tyto stránky uspořádat
tak, abychom po oboustranném vytištění manuálu na šest archů A4
dostali svazeček, který přeložíme v~půli a máme knížečku
s~24 na sebe navazujícími stránkami. Pro takový úkol se asi nejlépe hodí
programy z~volně šířeného balíčku psutils. Na příkazový řádek můžeme
postupně napsat tyto instrukce:
\begtt
> csplain prvni
> dvips prvni
> psbook prvni.ps p0.ps
> pstops "4:[email protected](21cm,.5cm)[email protected](21cm,14.4cm)" p0.ps p1.ps
> pstops "4:[email protected](21cm,.5cm)[email protected](21cm,14.4cm)" p0.ps p2.ps
> lpr -Ptiskarna p1.ps
> lpr -Ptiskarna p2.ps
> rm prvni.ps p0.ps p1.ps p2.ps
\endtt
Příkaz {\tt dvips} převede dokument do PostScriptu a {\tt psbook}
uspořádá stránky pro použití do \uv{svazečku}. První volání příkazu
{\tt pstops} vybere vždy dvě ze čtyř stránek, zmenší je na
$0.7$\,násobek původní velikosti ({\tt @.7}) a umístí je do archu
podle uvedených parametrů. Tím vzniká podklad pro tisk lícových stran
archů A4 ({\tt p1.ps}). Podobně druhé volání příkazu {\tt pstops}
vytvoří podklad pro rubovou stranu archů. Vlastní tisk ({\tt lpr})
pak můžeme provést na tiskárně, která neumí oboustranný tisk, ve dvou
průchodech. Před druhým průchodem obrátíme vytištěné papíry a vložíme
je do zásobníku tiskárny znovu.
\sekce Overfull/Underfull box
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Při práci s~\TeX{}em narazíme postupně na celou řadu chybových
hlášení, při kterých se program většinou zastaví a vyzve nás k~nějaké
akci. Ačkoli třeba jen stiskneme klávesu Enter, uvědomíme si, že je
něco špatně a pokusíme se chybu řešit.
Kromě toho \TeX{} vypisuje varování o~přetečených (overfull) a
nedoplněných (underfull) boxech. Protože se při těchto výpisech
nezastavuje, považují to mnozí začátečníci za menší zlo, kterého si
není nutné všímat. Není to tak docela pravda.
Přetečené boxy (overfull) bychom měli rovněž zařadit do kategorie
chyb. \TeX{}u se totiž nepodařilo vměstnat sazbu do předepsané šířky
"\hsize". Prakticky to znamená, že sazba v~daném místě \uv{vyčnívá}
na pravé straně ven směrem do okraje. Hlášení obsahuje údaj, o~kolik
bodů sazba vyčnívá, číslo řádku ve zdrojovém kódu a kus textu, který určuje
problémové místo. Plain a csplain dále nastavuje registr
"\overfullrule" na 5\,pt, takže se v~sazbě na problémovém místě objeví
těžko přehlédnutelný černý obdélník. \LaTeX{} tento registr nuluje,
takže černé obdélníky nejsou vidět, což dává uživateli pocit, že je
všechno v~pořádku.
Objeví-li se přetečený box v~odstavci, většinou stačí \uv{rozvolnit}
mezery. Mezery mezi slovy mají totiž pružnost (mohou se smršťovat nebo
natahovat). Tato pružnost není neomezená, ale je daná jistými
parametry podle použitého fontu. Chceme-li dát mezerám větší volnost
v~roztahování, než si přál autor fontu, pišme například
"\emergencystretch=2cm". \TeX{} má plno dalších vnitřních registrů,
jejichž nastavením ovlivníme algoritmy na sestavování
odstavce. Jejich popis ovšem překračuje rámec tohoto úvodního textu.
Nedoplněné boxy (underfull) můžeme na rozdíl od přetečených boxů
považovat pouze za varování. \TeX{} nás informuje, že byl nucen
v~některém místě natáhnout mezery víc, než je esteticky zdrávo. Hodnota
{\tt badness}, která hlášení doprovází, udává zhruba stupeň estetické
vady v~takovém místě (nebo také velikost násilí provedené na
mezerách). Čím vyšší badness, tím horší výsledek. Maximální hodnota
badness je 1000, což značí, že některý řádek je úplně špatně. Stojí
zato se podívat do sazby na takto označená místa a zamyslet se, co by
se dalo změnit, aby se zlepšila estetická úroveň výsledku.
\LaTeX{}oví uživatelé dosti často neopatrně pracují s~příkazem "\\",
který se v~různých \LaTeX{}ových prostředích chová jako ukončení
řádku. Někdy se dostane takový příkaz i na konec odstavce, což samo
o~sobě nemá logiku, protože na konci odstavce se samo sebou ukončí
řádek. Pokud se tak stane, \TeX{} na konci odstavce vytvoří ještě další
prázdný řádek, ve kterém nemá žádnou mezeru k~natažení na šířku
"\hsize" a oprávněně se rozčílí: {\tt Underfull hbox badness 1000}.
V~tomto případě vlastně \TeX{} křičí na uživatele, který nebyl schopen
opustit principy starodávného psacího stroje a potřebuje mít k~ruce tu
velikou páku, do které je občas potřeba praštit, aby se přešlo na nový
řádek.
\end
|
https://ctan.math.washington.edu/tex-archive/info/examples/PSTricks_en/05-02-1.ltx | washington.edu | CC-MAIN-2022-27 | text/x-tex | text/x-matlab | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656103626162.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20220629084939-20220629114939-00125.warc.gz | 240,506,180 | 1,040 | %%
%% A DANTE-Edition example
%%
%% Example 05-02-1 on page 60.
%%
%% Copyright (C) 2011 Herbert Voss
%%
%% It may be distributed and/or modified under the conditions
%% of the LaTeX Project Public License, either version 1.3
%% of this license or (at your option) any later version.
%%
%% See http://www.latex-project.org/lppl.txt for details.
%%
%%
%% ====
% Show page(s) 1
%%
\documentclass[]{article}
\pagestyle{empty}
\setlength\textwidth{201.70511pt}
\setlength\parindent{0pt}
\usepackage{pstricks}
\begin{document}
\begin{pspicture}[showgrid](3,3)
\pscircle[linecolor=blue,doubleline=true,
doublecolor=red,doublesep=12pt](1.5,1.5){1.5}
\pscircle*[linecolor=green](1.5,1.5){0.25}
\end{pspicture}
\end{document}
|
https://anarhisticka-biblioteka.net/library/ivan-illich-h2o-i-vode-zaborava.tex | anarhisticka-biblioteka.net | CC-MAIN-2022-05 | application/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320304528.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20220124094120-20220124124120-00288.warc.gz | 165,427,370 | 17,724 | \documentclass[DIV=12,%
BCOR=10mm,%
headinclude=false,%
footinclude=false,open=any,%
fontsize=11pt,%
twoside,%
paper=a4]%
{scrbook}
\usepackage{fontspec}
\usepackage{polyglossia}
\setmainfont{Linux Libertine O}
% these are not used but prevents XeTeX to barf
\setsansfont[Scale=MatchLowercase]{CMU Sans Serif}
\setmonofont[Scale=MatchLowercase]{CMU Typewriter Text}
\setmainlanguage{croatian}
% global style
\pagestyle{plain}
\usepackage{microtype} % you need an *updated* texlive 2012, but harmless
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage{alltt}
\usepackage{verbatim}
% http://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/3033/forcing-linebreaks-in-url
\PassOptionsToPackage{hyphens}{url}\usepackage[hyperfootnotes=false,hidelinks,breaklinks=true]{hyperref}
\usepackage{bookmark}
% footnote handling
\usepackage[fragile]{bigfoot}
\usepackage{perpage}
\DeclareNewFootnote{default}
\DeclareNewFootnote{B}
\MakeSorted{footnoteB}
\renewcommand*\thefootnoteB{(\arabic{footnoteB})}
\deffootnote[3em]{0em}{4em}{\textsuperscript{\thefootnotemark}~}
% continuous numbering across the document. Defaults to resetting at chapter. Unclear
% \usepackage{chngcntr}
% \counterwithout{footnote}{chapter}
\usepackage[shortlabels]{enumitem}
\usepackage{tabularx}
\usepackage[normalem]{ulem}
\def\hsout{\bgroup \ULdepth=-.55ex \ULset}
% https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/22410/strikethrough-in-section-title
% Unclear if \protect \hsout is needed. Doesn't looks so
\DeclareRobustCommand{\sout}[1]{\texorpdfstring{\hsout{#1}}{#1}}
\usepackage{wrapfig}
\usepackage{indentfirst}
% remove the numbering
\setcounter{secnumdepth}{-2}
% remove labels from the captions
\renewcommand*{\captionformat}{}
\renewcommand*{\figureformat}{}
\renewcommand*{\tableformat}{}
\KOMAoption{captions}{belowfigure,nooneline}
\addtokomafont{caption}{\centering}
% avoid breakage on multiple <br><br> and avoid the next [] to be eaten
\newcommand*{\forcelinebreak}{\strut\\*{}}
\newcommand*{\hairline}{%
\bigskip%
\noindent \hrulefill%
\bigskip%
}
% reverse indentation for biblio and play
\newenvironment*{amusebiblio}{
\leftskip=\parindent
\parindent=-\parindent
\smallskip
\indent
}{\smallskip}
\newenvironment*{amuseplay}{
\leftskip=\parindent
\parindent=-\parindent
\smallskip
\indent
}{\smallskip}
\newcommand*{\Slash}{\slash\hspace{0pt}}
\addtokomafont{disposition}{\rmfamily}
\addtokomafont{descriptionlabel}{\rmfamily}
% forbid widows/orphans
\frenchspacing
\sloppy
\clubpenalty=10000
\widowpenalty=10000
% http://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/304802/how-not-to-hyphenate-the-last-word-of-a-paragraph
\finalhyphendemerits=10000
% given that we said footinclude=false, this should be safe
\setlength{\footskip}{2\baselineskip}
\title{H2O i Vode Zaborava}
\date{1984.}
\author{Ivan Illich}
\subtitle{}
% https://groups.google.com/d/topic/comp.text.tex/6fYmcVMbSbQ/discussion
\hypersetup{%
pdfencoding=auto,
pdftitle={H2O i Vode Zaborava},%
pdfauthor={Ivan Illich},%
pdfsubject={},%
pdfkeywords={Kritika razvoja; ekologija; sociologija}%
}
\begin{document}
\begin{titlepage}
\strut\vskip 2em
\begin{center}
{\usekomafont{title}{\huge H2O i Vode Zaborava\par}}%
\vskip 1em
\vskip 2em
{\usekomafont{author}{Ivan Illich\par}}%
\vskip 1.5em
\vfill
{\usekomafont{date}{1984.\par}}%
\end{center}
\end{titlepage}
\cleardoublepage
\begin{quote}
\emph{Predavanje na Dalaskom Institutu za humanistiku i kulturu, maj 1984.}
\end{quote}
Rečeno mi je da su se u poslednjih sedamdeset godina neki građani Dalasa zalagali da se u centru grada napravi jezero. Zajednica očekuje da to jezero navodni finansije i fantaziju, trgovinu i zdravlje. Posebna komisija istražuje održivost te veštačke vodene mase u centru grada. Toj studiji Dalaski Institut za humanistiku i kulturu želi da doprinese na jedinstven način: ovde bi trebalo da razmišljamo o odnosu između vode i snova, sve dok u toj vezi ima „nečega što čini da grad funkcioniše“.
Snovi su oduvek oblikovali gradove, a gradovi nadahnjivali snove, dok je voda tradicionalno pospešivala i jedne i druge. Ozbiljno sumnjam da još uvek postoji voda koja bi to dvoje mogla povezivati. Industrijsko društvo je pretvorilo H\textsubscript{2}O u supstancu s kojom se arhetipski element vode ne može mešati. Zato je moje predavanje podeljeno na dva dela. Prvi deo evocira Letine vode snova, dok drugi donosi uvod u istoriju klozetske šolje. U zaključku se vraćam na početno pitanje o sudbini fantazije među fabrikovanim stvarima, koje su izgubile elementarnu moć da odražavaju nedokučive vode snova.
U nemačkom gradu Kaselu, jedan barokni princ podigao je sebi zamak okružen engleskim vrtovima, koji su mamili vode da im odaju sve tajne koje nose. Voda nije trebalo da bude izložena samo pogledu i dodiru već i da govori i peva u sedamnaest različitih registara. Tako su vode snova mrmljale, povlačile se, nadolazile, hučale, kapljale, obrušavale se, strujale i ludovale, prale vas i odnosile daleko. Mogle su da padaju odozgo i da izbijaju iz dubina; mogle su da natope ili da samo pokvase. Među svim tim čudima vode, izabrao sam njenu moć da čisti: Letinu sposobnost da spere celo pamćenje i funkciju H\textsubscript{2}O da uklanja otpad.
Snovi izvode katarzu, što znači da čiste, a vode snova mogu da čiste na nekoliko načina. Prskanje svetom – \emph{lustralnom} – vodicom rastvara \emph{miasmu}; ono skida kletve, uništava zagađenje koje vreba na određenim mestima; njome se mogu poprskati ruke, glava ili stopala, da bi se sprali nečistoća, krv ili krivica. Ali, tu je još jedna vrsta katarze, koju mogu izvesti samo tamne vode Lete: njene vode razdvajaju od pamćenja one koji ih prelaze i tako im omogućavaju zaborav. Pošto ovde mogu da govorim samo trideset minuta, Letina katarza je jedina na koju ću se osvrnuti. To je razlog zašto je moje pitanje o predloženom gradskom jezeru postavljeno veoma usko: može li duševna reka zaborava, koja se uliva u društveni basen sećanja, i dalje odražavati sebe, u obliku pročišćenog dezinfekcionog sredstva, koje se meri, odliva u kanalizaciju, ubacuje u cevi i onda izliva u otvoreni rezervoar u centru grada? Da li će se snovi gradskog deteta, o „napuštanju svega i zaboravljanju“, razvodniti tečnošću koja dolazi iz slavina, tuševa i toaleta? Može li pročišćena otpadna voda „cirkulisati“ u fontanama ili jezerima koji odražavaju snove?
Lustralne vode Lete \emph{teku}; one ne \emph{cirkulišu}, kao krv, novac ili tečnost iz klozetskih šolja, koji su hranili socijalnu imaginaciju ranog industrijskog doba. Vilijam Harvi (William Harvey) je još 1616, na Londonskom lekarskom koledžu, objavio da krv cirkuliše ljudskim telom. Trebalo je da prođe pun vek pre nego što je Harvijeva ideja bila široko prihvaćena u lekarskoj praksi. Doktor Johanes Pelargius Stork (Johannes Pelargius Storch), autoritativni autor ginekološke studije iz osam tomova, ni 1750. nije mogao da prihvati opštu ispravnost Harvijeve teorije. Mogao je da prihvati da krv možda teče kroz tela Engleza i čisti njihov otpad; kod njegovih pacijenata, žena iz donje Saksonije, on je video kako krv teče, nadolazi i povlači se kroz tkivo. Stork je shvatio ono što mi danas tek počinjemo da naslućujemo: da redefinicija krvi kao medija cirkulacije zahteva društvenu rekonstrukciju tela. Drhtavi i simbolima ispunjeni telo i krv iz tradicije moraju se preoblikovati u funkcionalni sistem filtera i cevi. Do kraja XVIII veka Harvijeva teorija je bila široko prihvaćena u medicini. Shvatanje ličnog zdravlja na osnovu žustre cirkulacije krvi uklapalo se u merkantilistički model bogatstva – neposredno pre Adama Smita – zasnovanog na intenzivnoj cirkulaciji novca.
Sredinom XIX veka, nekoliko britanskih arhitekata je počelo da o Londonu govori u skladu s tom paradigmom i da stalno naglašava svoj dug „besmrtnom Harviju“. Grad su zamišljali kao društveno telo kroz koje voda mora neprekidno cirkulisati, da nijednog trenutka ne bi mogao postati leglo prljavštine. Voda mora neprekidno doticati u grad da bi iz njega očistila otpatke i znoj. Što je taj protok žustriji, što je manje rezervoara u kojima se legu „zarazne bolesti“, to će grad biti zdraviji. Ako voda stalno dotiče u grad i ako se iz njega stalno izbacuje kroz kanalizaciju, taj novi grad iz mašte nikada neće utonuti u buđ i trulež. Kao što je Harvi stvorio nešto ranije nezamislivo, naime, krv kao medij cirkulacije i, samim tim, telo kojim se bavi moderna medicina, tako su i Čadvik (Chadwick), Vord (Ward) i njihove kolege izumom klozetske šolje stvorili grad kao mesto koje se mora stalno oslobađati od svojih otpadaka. Kao i telo i ekonomija, grad se od tada mogao vizuelizovati kao sistem cevovoda.
Istorija H\textsubscript{2}O kao otelotvorenja arhetipske vode može se pisati na više načina. Ovde se bavim inženjerskom degradacijom supstance koja se pravi neprobojnom, nepodesnom za metaforu koju bismo želeli da prenese. Sada mogu samo da insistiram na tome da je „voda“, za razliku od „H\textsubscript{2}O“, istorijska konstrukcija, koja – na pozitivan ili negativan način – odražava tečni element duše, a da je voda vezana u H\textsubscript{2}O plod društvene imaginacije, koji može biti nešto potpuno strano vodi za kojom žudimo u našim snovima.
Današnja gradska voda stalno prelazi gradske granice: ona dolazi kao roba i odlazi kao otpad. Suprotno tome, u svim indogermanskim (indoevropskim) mitovima, sâma voda je granica. Ona razdvaja ovaj svet od onog drugog; ona razdvaja svet onih koji žive sada od onog minulog ili sledećeg. U velikoj porodici indogermanskih mitova drugi svet nema utvrđeno mesto na mentalnoj mapi: može se nalaziti ispod zemlje, na vrhu planine, na nekom ostrvu, na nebesima ili u pećini. Ipak, taj drugi svet se svuda nalazi s druge strane neke velike vode: s druge strane okeana, na drugoj obali zaliva. Da bi se do njega stiglo, mora se preći preko reke: tu vas prevozi čamac, tu se morate otisnuti preko vode. Kao što je kod Egipćana Nil bio granica koja je delila dva sveta, pri čemu se carstvo senki nalazilo na zapadnoj obali, u pravcu horizonta na kojem su se spajali Nebo i Zemlja, tako je u kasnoj antici ta velika voda bila smeštena u daleku Galiciju (krajnji zapad Španije). Tokom srednjeg veka, duše mrtvih su na svom putu ka čistilištu morale preći Atlantski okean i doći do basnoslovnog ostrva Svetog Patrika, koje je sve do kasnog XV veka na mapama bilo ucrtano severozapadno od Zelenortskih Ostrva. Ali, u svim mitovima, taj put koji vodi preko vode, na drugoj strani vodi ka izvoru, a reka koju ste prešli hrani i to onostrano vrelo.
Brus Linkoln\footnote{Bruce Lincoln, „Waters of Memory, Waters of Forgetfulness“, \emph{Fabula} 23 (1982): 19–34; članak je kasnije objavljen i kao poglavlje 4. u B. Lincoln, \emph{Death, War, and Sacrifice: Studies in Ideology and Practice}. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991. — Prim. prev.} je pokazao da su grčki, indijski, nordijski i keltski hodočasnici, na svom putu ka drugoj strani, prolazili kroz isti zagrobni pejzaž, oblikovan u skladu sa istom mitskom hidrologijom. Trome vode koje putnik prelazi su Reka Zaborava. Ta reka ima moć da one koji je prelaze oslobodi svih sećanja. Sneno klimanje glavom iz \emph{thremos} (tužbalica), kojima su ožalošćene žene uljuljkivale junake iz Tebe u njihov poslednji san, podsetilo je Eshila na monotoni bat vesala pri prelasku preko Aherona. Ipak, ono što je reka isprala iz onih koji su krenuli na drugu stranu nije i uništeno: putnik je lišen samo podviga po kojima će ostati upamćen. Reka ih nosi ka izvoru, u kojem se talože kao pesak na dnu kosmičkog vrela, da bi poslužili kao piće izabranima: pesnicima, snevačima, vidovitima, mudrima. Voda izaziva neku vrstu trezvene opijenosti, \emph{sobriam ebriatatem}. Na taj način, tanak mlaz vode iz carstva mrtvih vraća glasnicima koji su se vratili iz snova ili s putovanja njihova sećanja, koja njima više nisu potrebna, ali koja imaju ogromnu važnost za žive. Ono što je Leta oprala s njihovih stopala, pulsirajuće vrelo Mnemoizne vraća u život.
Dok su nebesa još bila pod okriljem Zemlje i dok je Uran još delio postelju sa „stamenom Gejom“, pojavili su se Titani. U toj prvoj generaciji koja je prethodila Bogovima, bila je i Mnemozina. Ona je suviše stara, suviše drevna da bi bila Apolonova majka, ali je zato Majinom sinu podarila dušu koja uvek pronalazi put do svog izvora, koji nikada ne zaboravlja. Hermes-Apolon tako ima dve majke i to je ono što ga čini bogom-vodičem. U himnama o Hermesu, Mnemozina se naziva Majkom Muza. Hesiod se posebno seća njene tečne kose, kada opisuje kako se raširila kada je sa Zevsom porodila svoje kćerke. Ona sama je basen u kojem se kupa Muza Entuzijazma, ali i njena druga kćerka, Zaborav. To prisustvo Mnemozine među Titanima, koji su prethodili Bogovima, od ključne je važnosti za istoriju naše vode. Smešten među Titane, taj kosmički element postaje izvor sećanja. Voda – kao vrelo kulture, kao kolevka prvog grada i kao izvor sećanja – poprima oblik žene.
Ipak, to drevno vrelo usmene tradicije nema svoje mesto u klasičnim gradovima. Klasični gradovi Grčke, a posebno Rima, izgrađeni su oko akvadukta koji sprovode vodu do fontana. Umesto vrela koje hrani jezerce ili epskog pevača, projektovani mlaz vode i pisani tekst iz knjiga počinju da oblikuju tokove vode i reči. Nijedan grčki grad nije sačuvao oltar ili izvor posvećen Mnemozini. Nju i dalje prizivaju pesnici iz epohe pisma, koji bi hteli da se približe Homeru. Ali, Mnemozina više nije izvor trezvene intoksikacije. Njeno ime sada služi kao personifikacija skladišta pisanog pamćenja, za koje je Platon znao da će isušiti sećanje kao pulsirajući izvor s one strane reke Zaborava, sećanje kao jezero koje hrani konačna reka. Sećanje, kao Hermesovu titansku komajku, zamenila je nova vrsta pamćenja, kao što je i pisana kultura zamenila usmenu, a zakonski poredak onaj stari, običajni.
Od vrela do mlaza, od jezera sećanja do izvajane fontane, od epske pesme do zabeleženog pamćenja, voda, kao društvena metafora, prošla je kroz svoju prvu duboku transformaciju. Vode usmene kulture, koje su tekle s one strane obala ovog sveta, pretvorene su u dragocenu potrepštinu kojom vlast može snabdeti grad. S obzirom na zadatak, mogao bih početi s pisanjem istorije izmenjenog oblika i značenja koje je promenjena percepcija vode donela gradu. U takvoj istoriji, fontane Rima, vodeni aranžmani iz Isfahana, kanali Venecije i Tenočtitlana, mogli se pojaviti samo kao ekstremni i retki slučajevi. Grad podignut duž reke, grad izgrađen oko vrela, kao oko pupka, grad koji zavisi od kišnice s krovova – to su neki od idealnih tipova, među mnogima. Ipak, uz nekoliko retkih izuzetaka, svi gradovi u koje je voda bila namenski dopremana iz daleka, sve do skora su imali jednu zajedničku crtu: ono što je vijadukt donosio iz prostora van gradskih granica, završavalo je natapajući gradsko tlo. Ideja da bi voda koja je cevima dolazila u grad morala otići iz njega preko kanalizacije, nije služila kao vodeće načelo gradskog planiranja sve dok parna mašina nije postala uobičajen prizor. U međuvremenu, ta ideja je poprimila oblik nužnosti – čak i danas, kada kanalizacija često vodi u pogone za prečišćavanje otpadnih voda. Ono što takvi pogoni proizvode i generišu još je udaljenije od vode snova. Gradska potreba za stalnom toaletom samo je još jače ovladala maštom planera. Da bismo oslabili stisak vradžbine te društvene konstrukcije na našu maštu, predlažem da istražimo kako je ta vradžbina bila bačena.
Pritužbe da su gradovi prljava mesta sežu daleko u antiku. Čak je i Rim, sa svojih devet stotina fontana, bio opasno mesto za šetnju. Posebna sorta nižih sudija sedela je pod suncobranima s jedne strane Foruma: na njima je bilo da saslušaju i prosude pritužbe građana koje je povredio izmet izbačen kroz prozor. Srednjovekovne gradove čistile su svinje. Sačuvano je na desetine uredbi koje regulišu pravo burgera da poseduju svinje i hrane ih javnim otpacima. Zadah radionica za štavljenje kože bio je znamen pakla. Ipak, opažanje grada kao mesta koje se mora stalno dezodorisati pranjem ima sasvim određeno istorijsko poreklo: ono se javlja s ranim prosvetiteljstvom. Nova briga za ribanjem i čišćenjem pre svega je bila usmerena na uklanjanje onih crta koje nisu bile toliko vizuelno ružne koliko neprijatnog mirisa. Ceo grad je po prvi put bio opažan kao mesto koje gadno zaudara. Tada je prvi put predložena utopija bezmirisnog grada. I, koliko mogu da procenim, ta nova briga za gradske mirise pre svega odražava preobražaj čulne percepcije, a ne povećanu zasićenost vazduha gasovima karakterističnog mirisa.
Istorija čulne percepcije nije sasvim nova, ali neki istoričari su tek od skora počeli da posvećuju pažnju razvoju čula mirisa. Rober Mandru (Robert Mandrou) je prvi, 1961. godine, skrenuo pažnju na prvenstvo čula dodira, mirisa i sluha u premodernim evropskim kulturama.\footnote{Robert Mandrou, \emph{Introduction à la France Moderne: essai de psychologie historique, 1500–1640. Collection L’Evolution de l’Humanité}. Paris, Albin Michel, 1961.} Ta složena, tamna tekstura čulne percepcije je tek vrlo postepeno ustuknula pred „prosvećenim“ prvenstvom oka, koje danas uzimamo zdravo za gotovo. Kada bi Ronsar (Ronsard) ili Rable (Rabelais) dodirivali usne svoje drage, govorili su da uživaju u njihovom ukusu i mirisu. Pisanje o nekadašnjoj percepciji miris bilo bi vrhunsko istorijsko dostignuće: pošto mirisi ne ostavljaju nikakav „objektivni“ trag, istoričar može saznati samo kako su oni bili opažani. Prošle godine, Alen Korben je objavio prvi monografski pokušaj opisivanja preobražaja opažanja mirisa u poslednjoj fazi \emph{Ancien Régime}.\footnote{Alain Corbin, \emph{Le miasme et la jonquille: l’odorat et l’imaginaire social XVIIIe-XIXe siecles}, Paris: Aubier Montaigne, 1982; \emph{The foul and the fragrant: odor and the French social imagination}, Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1986.}
Na osnovu ličnog iskustva, još uvek znam kakav je bio tradicionalni miris gradova. Tokom dve decenije, najveći deo vremena sam proveo u sirotinjskim četvrtima između Ria i Lime, Karačija i Benaresa. Trebalo mi je mnogo vremena da prevaziđem svoje usađeno gađenje prema smradu ljudskog izmeta i ustajale mokraće, koji, s nekim malim nacionalnim varijacijama, čini da sve industrijske sirotinjske četvrti bez kanalizacije mirišu slično. Ipak, ono na šta sam se vremenom navikao bilo je samo dašak u poređenju s gustom atmosferom iz Pariza za vreme Luja XIV i Luja XV. Tek u poslednjoj godini njegove vladavine donet je ukaz kojim je uklanjanje fekalnih materija iz hodnika Versajske palate postalo nedeljna procedura. Ispod prozora Ministarstva finansija, svinje su bile klane decenijama, a zidovi palate bili su impregnirani slojevima krvi. Čak su i kožari još uvek radili u sâmom gradu – iako na obalama Sene. Ljudi su se najnormalnije olakšavali uz zidove ma kojeg zdanja ili crkve. Zadah plitkih grobova bio je deo prisustva mrtvih unutar gradskih zidina. Ta atmosfera se uzimala zdravo za gotovo do te mere da je sačuvani izvori jedva i spominju.
Toj olfaktornoj opuštenosti došao je kraj kada su neki građani izgubili toleranciju prema zadahu koji se širio iz grobova unutar crkvi. Iako nije bilo nikakvih indikacija da se fizička procedura kojom su se leševi spuštali u grobove blizu oltara menjala još od srednjeg veka, pariski Parlament je 1737. imenovao komisiju koja je trebalo da istraži opasnost tih grobova po javno zdravlje. Mijazma koja je zračila iz grobova bila je proglašena opasnom po žive. Tokom naredne decenije, rasprava opata Šarla Gabrijela Porea, Fenelonovog bibliotekara, \emph{Pisma o sahranjivanju u crkvama} (1745), doživela je nekoliko izdanja.\footnote{Charles Gabriel Porée, \emph{Lettres sur la sépulture dans les églises}, 1745.} U toj knjizi, teolog je dokazivao kako filozofski i pravni razlozi nalažu da se mrtvi sahranjuju van gradskih zidina. Prema Filipu Arijesu, nova olfaktorna osetljivost na prisustvo leševa bila je posledica novog straha od smrti.\footnote{Filip Arijes, \emph{Eseji o istoriji smrti na Zapadu}\emph{: od srednjeg veka do naših dana}, Beograd: Rad, 1989, prevela Zorica Banjac. Philippe Ariès, \emph{Essais sur l'histoire de la mort en Occident: du Moyen Âge à nos jours}, Seuil, Paris 1975. \emph{Western Attitudes Toward Death: From the Middle Ages to the Present}, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974.} Tokom treće četvrtine XVIII veka, izveštaji o ljudima koji su umrli od sâmog zadaha postali su uobičajeni. Od Škotske do Poljske, ljudi nisu samo mrzeli zadah raspadajućih tela nego su ga se i plašili. Navodni svedoci su opisivali masovna umiranja članova crkvenih kongregacija sat vremena nakon izlaganja mijazmi oslobođenoj iz groba otvorenog zbog sahrane. Dok je tokom šezdesetih godina XVIII veka \emph{Cimetière des Innocents} (Groblje nevinih) bilo mesto brojnih popodnevnih zabava i tajnih susreta tokom noći, godine 1780. bilo je zatvoreno na opšti zahtev, zbog nepodnošljivog zadaha raspadajućih tela.
Bilo je potrebno mnogo više vremena da se razvije netolerancija prema mirisu fecesa, iako su se prve pritužbe zbog njegovog intenziteta mogle čuti tokom četrdesetih godina XVIII veka. Prvi koji skrenuli pažnju na to pitanje bili su javno orijentisani naučnici koji su proučavali „vetrove“ – danas bismo rekli gasove. Instrumenti za proučavanje isparljivih supstanci u to vreme su još bili grubi; postojanje kiseonika i njegova uloga u sagorevanju još nisu bili shvaćeni. U analizama koje su obavljali, istraživači su morali da se oslone na svoje noseve. Ali, to ih nije sprečilo da objavljuju rasprave na temu gradskih „isparenja“. Zna se za nekih dvadesetak takvih eseja i knjiga objavljenih od polovine veka do Napoleona. Te rasprave govore o sedam smrdljivih tačaka ljudskog tela, od vrha glave do prostora između prstiju na nogama; u njima se klasifikuje sedam mirisa koji, jedan za drugim, prate raspadanje životinjskog tela; one prave razliku između zdravih neprijatnih mirisa, kao što su miris balege ili izmeta, i onih trulih i štetnih; one podučavaju kako flaširati mirise za kasnije poređenje i proučavanje njihove evolucije; procenjuju prosečnu težinu izlučevina po građaninu i posledice njihovog ispuštanja – u vazduh – po gradsku okolinu. To novo zanimanje za smrdljivu mijazmu najviše je pokazivala mala grupa lekara, filozofa i pisaca. U skoro svakoj prilici autori su se žalili na neosetljivost najšire javnosti prema potrebi da se ti „loši vetrovi“ uklone iz grada.
Do kraja veka, ti avangardni dezodoratori su počeli da računaju na podršku male, ali značajne manjine u okviru grada. Društveni stavovi prema telesnim otpatcima počeli su da se menjaju u nekoliko pogleda. Kraljevske audijencije u klozetu (\emph{en selle}, „na sedlu“) bile su napuštene pre dve generacije. Sredinom veka stižu pri izveštaji o tome kako su na velikim balovima bili obezbeđeni posebni klozeti za žene. Najzad, u odajama Marije Antoanete bila su postavljena vrata koja su privatizovala njenu veliku nuždu i tako od nje napravila intimnu funkciju.
Prvo je procedura, a zatim i njena posledica bila gurnuta izvan dometa oka i nosa. U modu su ušli donje rublje koje se može često prati i bide. Spavati između čaršava i u posebnom krevetu sada je bilo ispunjeno moralnim i medicinskim značenjem. Teška ćebad je uskoro bila zabranjena, zato što je akumulirala telesnu auru i dovodila do vlažnih snova. Ljudi od medicine su otkrili da zadah bolesnog čoveka može zaraziti zdravog i zasebni bolnički krevet je postao higijenska nužnost, ako ne i praksa. A onda je, 15. novembra 1793, Revolucionarna Skupština svečano proglasila pravo svakog čoveka na sopstvenu postelju kao deo ljudskih prava. Privatna tampon zona, koja svakoga okružuje oko njegovog kreveta, na klozetskoj dasci i u grobu, postala je nužna za građansko dostojanstvo. Osnivana su dobrotvorna društva s ciljem da siromašne poštede makar jednog novog užasa: sahrane u masovnoj grobnici.
Ruku pod ruku s novom toaletnom obukom buržoazije, društvena toaleta sâmog grada postala je glavni urbani problem. Od početka XVIII veka, posebno nezdravi uslovi zatvora i ludnica počeli su privlače internacionalnu pažnju. Velika pažnja koja se pridavala njihovoj neopisivoj prljavštini pomogla je da ostatak grada u poređenju s tim izgleda čisto. Stopa smrtnosti u zatvorima sada se povezivala sa intenzitetom njihovog smrada, koji se osećao iz daleka. Izmišljen je ventilator, a prvi je bio postavljen da bi ubacio dašak svežeg vazduha, makar u onim prostorijama u kojima su nalazili nevini zatvorenici. „Provetravanje“ zatvora je izgledalo neophodno, ali teško izvodljivo. Tako je nekoliko gradova, od Švajcarske do Belgije, prihvatilo ideju grada Berna o kombinovanju uklanjanja izmeta i provetravanja zatvorenika pomoću nove mašine. Bila je to zaprega koju su vukli lancima okovani muškarci i nešto tanjim lancima okovane žene, što im je omogućavalo da se relativno slobodno kreću ulicom dok sakupljaju otpatke, mrtve životinje i ljudski izmet. Grad je počeo da se upoređuje sa organizmom, tako da je i on imao svoje smrdljive tačke. Miris je počeo da poprima klasne specifičnosti. Siromašni su bili oni koji su smrdeli, a da toga često nisu bili svesni. Osmologija – proučavanje mirisa – pokušavala je da se uspostavi kao posebna nauka. Navodni eksperimenti su dokazivali kako divljaci mirišu drugačije od Evropljana. Samojedi, crnci i Hotentoti mogli su se prepoznati po svom rasnom mirisu, nezavisnom od njihove ishrane ili od toga koliko se često peru.
Biti dobro vaspitan značilo je biti čist: ne smrdeti i nemati miris svojstven sopstvenoj auri i domu. Početkom XIX veka, žene su bile vaspitavane da neguju vlastite, individualne miomirise. Taj ideal se pojavio krajem \emph{Ancien Régime}, u vreme kada su snažni i tradicionalni životinjski parfemi, kao siva ambra, mošus i zibet, bili odbačeni u korist toaletnih vodica i biljnih ulja. Napoleonova skorojevićka naklonost ka staroj tradiciji dovela je do kratkotrajnog povratka upotrebe dragocenih životinjskih masti, dobijenih iz genitalija glodara; ali, do vremena Napoleona III njihova upotreba je postala znamen razvrata. Dobrostojeća dama sada je uvećavala svoj lični šarm biljnim miomirisima, koji brže isparavaju, moraju se češće nanositi, ostaju da lebde u domaćoj sferi i postaju znamen upadljive potrošnje. Rusoov Emil je sada naučio kako nije stvar u tome „da miomiris nešto pruža, koliko te drži u nadi“. Zasebni, ogledalima zastrti kabineti, jedan za pranje, drugi za nuždu, koje je operska pevačiva Mij Dešon (Mille Deschapms) donela iz engleske 1750, na veliko nezadovoljstvo Francuza, do pre dve generacije bili su nešto ekskluzivno. Dok su se bogati parfemisali lakim biljnim uljima, a oni manje bogati sve bolje ribali i navikavali da ostavljaju cipele ispred vrata, dezodoracija siromašne većine postala je glavni cilj medicinske policije.
U prvoj polovini XIX veka, Englezi su se već spremali da vodom čiste svoje gradove i zagađuju Temzu. U Francuskoj, kao i na celom kontinentu, javnost još nije bila spremna za takvo rasipništvo. U svom izveštaju iz 1835, L’Institut de France je odbacio predlog za uvođenje WC (water closet) i kanalisanje izmeta u Senu. Odluka nije bila motivisana ni brigom za Senu, niti antibritanskim sentimentom, već proračunom ogromne ekonomske vrednosti koja bi otišla niz vodu zajedno sa konjskim i ljudskim izmetom. Dvadeset godina kasnije, uredništvo pariskog \emph{Časopisa za modernu hemiju} ponovo se oglasilo protiv takvog „javnog nedela“. Sredinom XIX veka, šest pariskih oblasti je proizvodilo pedeset kilograma sveže salate, voća i povrća po glavi stanovnika, što je bilo više od prosečne potrošnje iz 1980. U Mareu (desna obala Sene), na svakom hektaru zemlje 6,5 osoba se bavilo isključivo baštovanstvom i sakupljanjem otpadaka, a još više trgovinom. Za četiri decenije, proizvedeno je toliko novog „tla“ da se obradiva površina širila za 6\% godišnje.
Tehnike uzgajanja dostigle su vrhunac tokom osamdesetih godina XIX veka: kombinovani i zasebni usevi donosili su najviše šest i nikada manje od tri žetve godišnje. Zimske žetve bile su moguće zahvaljujući zagrevanju stajskim đubrivom, zvonasto oblikovanim staklenim omotačima za sadnice, posebnim slamnatim podlogama i dva metra visokim zidovima koji su okruživali mala gradska imanja.
Kropotkinova tvrdnja, iz 1899, da bi Pariz mogao snabdevati London svežim povrćem, uopšte nije bila preterana. A pošto je taj sistem stvarao više plodnog tla nego što se moglo obraditi u okviru grada, pariski humus se mogao i izvoziti. Predloženo je da starije osobe sakupljaju probrano đubrivo i da se taj gradski proizvod, preko novih železničkih pruga, izvozi na selo. Čak i posle izgradnje prva dva moderna akvadukta – jednog iz 1865, dugačkog 81 kilometar i drugog iz 1871, od 106 kilometara – upotreba vode za odstranjivanje izmeta ostala je izuzetak.
Početkom šezdesetih godina XIX veka, dve nacionalne ideologije o vrednosti kanalizacije sučelile su se preko kanala. Viktor Igo je dao vrhunski književni izraz francuskoj poziciji. Prema Kambronu (Cambronne)\footnote{Pierre Cambronne (1770–1842), francuski general iz vremena Napoleonovih ratova, poznat po odgovoru koji dao na poziv na predaju svoje jedinice (Stare Garde) kod Vaterloa: „Sranje!“ Igo mu je posvetio jedno poglavlje iz \emph{Jadnika}. — Prim. prev.}, „la merde“ se mora smatrati nečim vrlo francuskim i potencijalno veoma komercijalnim. U \emph{Jadnicima} je pisao da izmet „hrani creva Levijatana“. „Nema sumnje“, kaže on, „da je u poslednjih deset vekova pariska kanalizacija bila bolest grada, otvorena rana koja se gnoji na njegovom dnu“. Ali, to je deo sâme prirode grada: „L’égout est le vice que la ville a dans le sang“. („Kanalizacija je porok koji grad nosi u svojoj krvi.“) Svaki pokušaj da se u kanalizaciju nagura još više ljudskog izmeta samo bi uvećao ionako nepojmljivi užas gradske kloake. Živeti u gradu značilo je prihvatati njegov smrad.
Suprotno stanovište, o vrednosti kanalizacije i ništavnosti izmeta, izrazio je Princ od Velsa, 1871, pre nego što je postao Kralj Edvard VII. Da nije princ, rekao je, njegov sledeći izbor bila bi profesija vodoinstalatera. Otprilike u isto vreme, Helinger (Hellinger) je podsticao svoje kolege iz Kraljevskog društva za ohrabrivanje umeća, manufaktura i trgovine: „Ono što leškari u vašim snažnim rukama, što mirno drema u vašim tvrdim mišicama, što počiva u vašim dobro obučenim i veštim prstima jeste zdravlje ovog levijatanskog grada!“ U jednom romanu, Žil Vern daje francuski izraz tog engleskog stanovišta: „\dots{} čistiti, stalno čistiti, uništavati mijazmu čim se pomoli iz ljudskih konglomeracija, to je glavni i najvažniji zadatak centralne vlasti.“\footnote{Jules Verne, \emph{Les Cinq cents millions de la Bégum} (Pet stotina miliona Beguminih ili Grad čelika), 1879.} Znoj radničke klase bio je opasan sve dok se osećao.
Kao sredstvo za dezodoraciju grada engleski arhitekti su predložili vodu. Još 1596, ser Džon Harington (John Harrington), kumić Kraljice Elizabete I, izmislio je „vodeni klozet“ i objavio raspravo o „Ajaksu“, ali taj izum je za većinu ljudi ostao kuriozitet. A onda je, na Svetskoj izložbi u Londonu 1851, u Kristalnoj Palati, Džordž Dženings (George Jennings) instalirao javni WC. Posetilo ga je, plativši za njegovu upotrebu, 827280 osoba ili 14\% ukupnog broja posetilaca. „Uređaj prilagođen naprednom dobu civilizacije“ usavršio je Tomas Kraper (Thomas Crapper), vlasnik livnice. Klozetsko kazanče za „anus mirabilis“ patentirano je u Engleskoj, a engleska reč „WC“ postala je sastavni deo svakog civilizovanog jezika. Prema izveštaju vlade SAD, Baltimor je bio poslednji grad na istoku koji je svoje đubrivo proizvodio „na prirodan način“, pre nego što je 1912. prešao na obavezne klozetske šolje.
Krajem XIX veka, fekalno izazvane infekcije počele su da prodiru u vodu iz slavina. Inženjeri su se suočavali sa izborom da ograničene ekonomske i institucionalne resurse primene ili na drugačiji tretman kanalizacije, pre ispuštanja otpada, ili na drugačiji pristup snabdevanju vodom. U prvoj polovini XX veka naglasak je bio stavljen na sterilizaciju snabdevanja. Bakteriologija je tek nedavno zamenila staru teoriju o prljavštini; ona je bolest objašnjavala kao posledicu poremećaja unutar tela, pomoću teorije o zaraznim klicama, koje stalno prete telu invazijom mikroba. Građani su pre svega zahtevali da im iz njihovih slavina dotiče „pijaća voda bez klica“. A onda je, sredinom veka, ono što je dolazilo iz slavina prestalo da bude bez mirisa i pretvorilo se u tečnost koju se mnogi nisu usuđivali da piju. Preobražaj H\textsubscript{2}O u tečnost za čišćenje bio je završen. Javni naglasak se mogao pomeriti na „prečišćavanje“ kanalizacije i spasavanje jezera. Do 1980, troškovi održavanja kanalizacije i sakupljanja otpadnih voda u SAD postali su najveći izdatak lokalnih vlasti. Samo su škole koštale više.
Pretpostavljam da su ritualne lustracije drevnih Grka uglavnom uspevale da proteraju mijazmu. Naš pokušaj da grad očistimo od loših mirisa očigledno nije uspeo. U dalaskom hotelu u kojem sam spavao, male boce s pamučnim jezičcima ispuštaju moćni anestetik koji parališe lučenje nazalne sluzi, da bi se prikrili nedostaci preskupih instalacija. Dezodorans obogaljuje percepciju ružičastim šumom usmerenim na čulo njuha. Naši gradovi su postali mesta istorijski nezabeleženog industrijskog smrada. A mi smo postali neosetljivi na to zagađenje isto kao i građani Pariza s početka XVIII veka na njegove leševe i izlučevine.
Pratili smo vodu kroz istoriju, od stare Grčke do ekoloških slavina. Osmotrili smo rimske fontane koje su isprale titansku Mnemozinu iz svesti pismenog grada i naselili je klasičnim nimfama. Osmotrili smo i vodovodna postrojenja koja uklanjaju H\textsubscript{2}O iz vidnog polja. \emph{Oslušnuli} smo improvizacije žuborećih potoka, isplanirane simfonije fontane Trevi, a onda i šištanje slavina, slivnika i zvuk klozetske šolje. Uvideli smo da gradska voda, u zapadnoj kulturi, ima svoj početak i da zato može imati i kraj. Ona se rađa u svakoj od rimskih fontana u kojima je umetnik uspeo da je ukroti, gde je služila da svoju jedinstvenu priču prenese u snove građana; ona je ugrožena kada je turbine vodovodnih postrojenja pretvore u sredstvo za čišćenje i rashlađivanje, što ponekad može poprimiti oblik jezera. Počeli smo da se pitamo da li je koegzistencija između bogatstva i snova uopšte moguća.
Kada se osvrnemo na vode koje su tekle kroz gradove, možemo shvatiti njihov značaj za snove. Samo kada su se snovi odražavali u vodama koje su pripadale svima, gradovi su mogli da pletu svoje tkivo. Samo vode oživljene nimfama i sećanjima mogu povezati arhetipsku i istorijsku stranu snova. H\textsubscript{2}O nije voda u tom smislu. H\textsubscript{2}O je tečnost lišena i svog kosmičkog značenja i svog \emph{genius loci} (duha mesta). Ona je neprozirna za snove. Gradska voda je izopačila \emph{zajedničko dobro} snova.
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Ivan Ilič, 1984.
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Anarhistička biblioteka
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Ivan Illich
H2O i Vode Zaborava
1984.
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Ivan Illich, \emph{In the Mirror of the Past: Lectures and Addresses 1978–1990}, „H2O and the Waters of Forgetfulness“, Lecture to the Dallas Institute of Humanities and Culture, May 1984, str. 145–158; New York \& London: Marion Boyars Publishers 1992.
Preveo Aleksa Golijanin, 2011. \href{http://anarhija-blok45.net1zen.com}{http:\Slash{}\Slash{}anarhija-blok45.net1zen.com}
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\title{El anarquismo indígena en Bolivia}
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\author{Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui}
\subtitle{Entrevista de Andalusia Knoll a Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui}
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La nación sudamericana de Bolivia ha llenado los titulares de la prensa mundial con su lucha contra la privatización del agua, lucha por la nacionalización del gas, el incumplimiento de las políticas de libre comercio, y la elección del primer presidente indígena del continente en el 2005, Evo Morales. Estas luchas tienen sus raíces en la larga historia de resistencia indígena al colonialismo y el imperialismo en Bolivia. En una entrevista realizada durante su reciente estancia en Pittsburgh, la teórica, socióloga e historiadora aymara Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui discutió sobre el anarquismo boliviano, los beneficios para la salud de la planta de coca y de los cocaleros (cultivadores de coca) y la lucha por la soberanía. Rivera Cusicanqui es una de las fundadoras del Taller de Historia Oral Andina y autora de Oprimidos pero no derrotados: luchas del campesinado aymara y quechua en Bolivia, 1910-1980 (Instituto de Investigación de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo Social de 1987). Silvia nació en 1949 en La Paz.
Andalucía Knoll: ¿Podrías hablar de algunas de las cosas que se han expuesto en tu investigación sobre el anarquismo en Bolivia en relación con las luchas del pueblo Aymara y Quechua?
Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui: Empezamos como un colectivo aymara que, básicamente, buscaba dejar al descubierto las luchas aymaras y quechuas. Descubrimos que había muchos vínculos con las comunidades aymaras urbanas que tenían a su vez organizaciones vinculadas tanto a las comunidades indígenas como al movimiento sindical, que en los años 20 era básicamente anarquista. Lo que ocurrió en Bolivia es que han existido dos historias oficiales: la historia oficial escrita por el [revolucionario] Partido Nacionalista —MNR— que, básicamente, niega toda la acción de los trabajadores y los campesinos y los pueblos indígenas; y la historia oficial de la izquierda, que se olvida de todo lo que no era marxista, eclipsando o distorsionando la historia autónoma de los sindicatos anarquistas. En este sentido, los vínculos entre los anarquistas y los indígenas le otorgó otro matiz a la historia, debido a que sus comunidades son entidades auto-sostenidas y que básicamente son lugares donde el tipo antiautoritario de organización puede echar raíces. Ellos no necesitan este liderazgo, que es como el liderazgo permanente. Las comunidades tienen líderes, pero resulta ser más una cosa de rotación que un servicio a la comunidad. Es una especie de carga ser un líder de una comunidad, ¿sabes? Es algo que se hace una vez en la vida y lo haces porque se debe hacer, y es la comunidad la cual decide cuál es el turno, tanto de tu familia o el cambio a otra familia. Por lo tanto, esto crea una relación totalmente diferente con las estructuras de poder y, en cierto modo, descoloniza el poder, devolviéndoselo en cierta medida a la gente. Eso es lo que nos fascinó de la mayoría de las comunidades y, por otro lado, nos llevó a descubrir que las comunidades no eran sólo rurales, sino también urbanas, y trabajaron con Luis Cusicanqui y otros dirigentes anarquistas porque tenían una afinidad tan grande en las formas con las que veían la lucha, la autonomía, la dominación y la opresión.
Andalucía Knoll: El anarquismo en general, creo, es percibido como una tradición Europea que se ha traído a los Estados Unidos y a lugares como Argentina. La gente por lo general no asocia el anarquismo con lugares como Bolivia o lugares de África, etcétera. ¿Podrías comentarnos cómo el anarquismo logra confluir con muchas de las ideas o creencias del pueblo aymara y quechua en relación a la manera en que se rigen sus comunidades?
Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui: Un punto de partida general de la historia de Bolivia con el resto de América Latina es que muchos anarquistas han tenido que pasar por el filtro de sus propias tradiciones de lucha, que son básicamente anti-coloniales. Por lo tanto, lo que pasó fue que nació una especie de cría mutua, una fertilización mutua de pensamiento y una capacidad de interpretar la doctrina universal que es, básicamente, una doctrina europea en términos de lo que es Bolivia. Es por eso que el anarquismo boliviano es tan importante, ya que tiene sus raíces en los sindicatos de base urbana. Debido a que la mayoría de los trabajadores urbanos fueron también indios en Bolivia y todavía lo son. El 62\% de la población en Bolivia se identifica a sí mismos como indígenas, como aymara, quechua, guaraní y con muchos otros pueblos indígenas. Por lo tanto, tenemos una mayoría, incluso en los entornos urbanos, lo cual le da una marca en particular al anarquismo. Yo diría que es anarco-indigenismo. Y también es anarco-indianismo, porque la figura de la chola, las mujeres, la mujer combatiente, la organización femenina, es parte de la vida diaria boliviana. Si has tenido la oportunidad de estar allí saber cómo es el mercado, lo fuerte que estas mujeres son, por ejemplo, cómo la solidaridad se ve expresada cuando hay una marcha de los cocaleros, cuando existen estas marchas en las cuales los cocaleros pueden pasar más de diez o veinte días con muy poco para comer. Estas mujeres preparan enormes ollas de sopa que regalan a los más pobres. Tienen una tradición tan de asociaciones sindicales que confluye en un llamado a auto-organizarse. Y ellas se auto-organizan básicamente en la administración del espacio. El mercado es un espacio muy simbólico y son ellas las que se apoderan de él, sólo lo toman del municipio o del Estado central. Por lo tanto, tú puedes evidenciar en la figura de la chola una marca muy específica del anarquismo, lo cual explica por qué la idea es tan atractiva para tanta gente. Además, nos da a entender por qué una de las cosas más sobresalientes de la historia boliviana anarquista es que sus líderes hicieron sus discursos en aymara. El solo hecho de pensar en otro idioma que no sea el occidental, o sea una lengua no europea, está filtrando los pensamientos de los anarquistas y ayudando a la creación de frases, para expresar la rabia, las propuestas, las ideas — le da tanta riqueza. ¿Sabes? En aymara se puede decir, "nosotros" de cuatro maneras diferentes.
Andalucía Knoll: ¿Cómo los esfuerzos de los indígenas en los años 20 y 30 se relacionan con las luchas contra el neoliberalismo hoy?
Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui: El Liberalismo hizo sus grandes reformas a finales del siglo 19, eran reformas que apuntaban directamente contra los indios. Mataron el mercado de artesanías y de productos indígenas. Usurparon las tierras indígenas. Encarcelaron a todos los líderes de las comunidades. Los querían para convertirlos en sirvientes de las haciendas y así tener una fuerza tranquila y domesticada, dándoles los trabajos peor pagados en las minas y en las fábricas. Tú puedes distinguir un segundo liberalismo aquí y ahora, el cual pretende básicamente la misma cosa, a excepción de la cuestión de las haciendas. Las haciendas es un tema que se encuentra desfasado en Bolivia a causa de la reforma agraria. Sin embargo, todavía hay una necesidad de una reforma agraria, porque la gran propiedad de la tierra se ha movido, se ha desplazado a las tierras bajas y todavía en esos sectores se están haciendo las mismas cosas de antes. Se están usurpando tierras indígenas. Por lo que tiene básicamente el mismo conjunto de problemas y de agresiones, pero es obvio que existen grandes diferencias culturales, una brecha cultural. Esto debido a que en aquellos tiempos, la clase obrera no sabía de leer y escribir, ni de liderazgo en las comunidades. Las comunidades tenían muchos problemas tratando de entender el lenguaje de los documentos que decretaron su extinción, o las leyes decretadas contra ellos. Así es que crearon un movimiento en favor de las escuelas. Ese fue otro vínculo con los trabajadores, debido a que los trabajadores, especialmente los anarquistas, tenían sus propias escuelas autogestionadas. Las comunidades indígenas llegaron en busca de apoyo para sus escuelas y encontraron un terreno muy fértil en los sindicatos anarquistas.
Andalucía Knoll: ¿Podría hablar más sobre la lucha de los cocaleros? Aquí en los Estados Unidos hay muy poco diálogo sobre su lucha y la gente no se da cuenta de que hay una diferencia entre la coca y la cocaína.
Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui: Bueno, déjame decirte, he estado investigando, y cada vez que voy a los EE.UU. voy a las librerías y me hago una pregunta: ¿Porque la coca es tan clandestina, escondida, estigmatizada y maltratada? ¿Por qué la gente cree todas estas mentiras? ¿Por qué se puede conseguir cualquier droga pero no la coca? Es porque antes la coca era un medicamento que si se podía conseguir. En estos momentos me he encontrado con una gran conspiración contra la coca realizada en el siglo 19 por la industria farmacéutica. Y es una conspiración contra la salud de las personas en general. Era una conspiración contra un pueblo entero. Los indios habían estado en contacto con la coca durante miles de años y han sido capaces de usarla de múltiples formas; como un estimulante suave para el trabajo, como un elemento ritual, como una mercancía recreativa que se mastica en las fiestas, en los velorios, en las bodas, o incluso como un símbolo de la identidad y de la lucha. Por lo tanto, las hojas de coca son casi omnipresentes en el contexto boliviano, pero la prensa se ha encargado de infundir una visión muy diferente. La ceguera que se encuentra en los medios de comunicación es dictada por la embajada de Estados Unidos, ¿sabes? Es la embajada de los Estados Unidos la que dicta la política contra la coca y el chantaje, si no hacemos lo que se encuentra estipulado, los fondos para el desarrollo o, no sé qué, destinados al gobierno boliviano se cortarán. Siempre los líderes han dicho, "¡Que se corten! ¡No vamos a morir! No podemos vivir para siempre de la pensión alimenticia de otra persona". Es difícil porque realmente la pobreza es un problema; pero la pobreza en Bolivia se construye, ¡es una consecuencia de las malas políticas! Y es una consecuencia basada en la usurpación de nuestros recursos. En consecuencia, creo que el tema de la coca es muy, muy esclarecedor en cuanto a lo que el poder de los intereses de las corporaciones pueden hacer con respecto a la verdad\dots{} Se oculta la verdad a tal punto que\dots{} el sentido común ha sido superado por esta idea absurda que la coca es cocaína. He masticado coca desde que tenía 16 años de edad. Cuando me vine a los Estados Unidos, por supuesto que uno extraña todo lo que no tiene, pero yo no me encuentro con un síndrome (de abstinencia), ¡yo tengo un síndrome (de abstinencia) de café! Cuando dejé el café tuve síntomas de adicción al café, pero las hojas de coca no son adictivas. Yo suelo masticar y disfrutar de ellas todos los días y si no las tengo no las mastico y eso es todo. Me encuentro muy saludable y creo que muchas personas se pueden librar de la osteoporosis y los déficit de calcio, además de los trastornos gástricos, la obesidad, la diabetes y problemas cardiovasculares [Todo esto si se dispusiera de coca]. Y es por eso que es un enemigo de los productos farmacéuticos; ¡porque no tendríamos la necesidad de usar toda su mierda! Todas sus píldoras, todos sus venenos que nos hacen creer que son buenos, pero tienen efectos secundarios y luego todo vuelve, para que al final te den otra cosa, y luego te mantienes pero puedes retroceder hasta el punto de terminar con una farmacia completa en el cajón y sentirse miserable pensando en que se ha perdido el control sobre la vida. Eso es lo que quieren y es por eso que están contra la coca, sin embargo, es nuestro gran escudo contra las empresas que asumen el control sobre nuestros cuerpos.
Andalucía Knoll: Anteriormente habías mencionado una de las marchas de los cocaleros. ¿Podrías contarme sobre alguna de las acciones que la gente ha tomado para defender su derecho a cultivar coca y su soberanía?
Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui: Sí. Bueno, me gusta hablar de cosas que realmente conozco de primeras y ha habido muchas, muchas marchas. Una de las más impresionantes fue en 1994, fue realmente muy increíble ser parte de uno de estos eventos. Y en 1998, cuando las cosas estaban muy mal debido a la erradicación forzada y los asesinatos de los cocaleros, las incursiones del ejército lograron entraron en los campos de coca y destruyeron todo. Era algo que ocurría diariamente\dots{} había una gran marcha a la cual me uní\dots{} Y fui capaz de entrar entre la tropa de cocaleros al interior de la marcha y ver cómo existe esta ética de autosacrificio gandhiana en relación a la coca. También es una ética propia de Gandhi el no comer demasiado, porque es la fuerza del espíritu y de la creencia que va y lleva tu cuerpo. Por lo que tu cuerpo debe estar liviano. Y por eso se aprende mucho acerca de la ética cuando se hace este tipo de lucha\dots{} se está haciendo un sacrificio por una causa que es por el bien de muchas personas y lo que realmente alimenta es tu espíritu. Es muy importante tener algo más allá de su propio de tu propio estómago\dots{} esto es fundamental para ir a por una causa que es para el conjunto de la población boliviana, porque la soberanía es la tarea perdida. Ninguna revolución de cualquier tipo —revolución liberal o revolución nacionalista, izquierdista— realmente nos ha liberado del imperialismo, liberado de la dominación colonial. Por lo tanto, esta tarea requiere toda la fuerza, tanto de marchas, vigilias, etc. Las huelgas de hambre han sido siempre, una característica típica de la población boliviana. Un acción de tipo pacífica y no violenta ¡pero muy masiva! tan masiva que la gente está dispuesta a morir. ¿Sabes? La generosidad\dots{} es muy, muy de corazón. Y así, se genera en la gente una fuerza para superar muchos obstáculos, para derrocar gobiernos, e incluso tomar los gobiernos. En definitiva creo que todo esto es un resultado de nuestra fuerza; nuestra fuerza colectiva.
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Biblioteca anarquista
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Anti-Copyright
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Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui
El anarquismo indígena en Bolivia
Entrevista de Andalusia Knoll a Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui
2007
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Entrevista de Andalusia Knoll. Transmitido en audio (en inglés) en Rustbelt Radio. El texto de la entrevista se encuentra en \url{http://pittsburgh.indymedia.org/news/2007/03/26831.php}.
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\textbf{es.theanarchistlibrary.org}
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\begin{document}
\title{Vegetation structure modulates ecosystem and community responses to
spatial subsidies}
\author[1]{Matthew McCary}%
\affil[1]{Affiliation not available}%
\vspace{-1em}
\date{\today}
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\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{abstract}
Ecosystem responses to external inputs of nutrients and organisms are
highly variable. Theory predicts that ecosystem traits will determine
the responses to spatial subsidies, but evidence for how vegetation
structure can modulate those effects is lacking. We investigated how
vegetation structure (i.e., leaf area index {[}LAI{]} and vegetation
height) influenced the ecosystem and community responses to insect
spatial subsidies in a subarctic grassland. Our experiment consisted of
a 2 x 2 manipulation where in one treatment we either blocked flying
insects over a 2-year period in 1-m2 plots near the shore of Lake
M\selectlanguage{ngerman}ývatn, Iceland where deposition of aquatic adult midges (Diptera:
Chironomidae) to land is high, or we left control plots accessible to
flying midges. In the second treatment, grassland vegetation was cut
(Tall vs. Short) at the start of each season and then allowed to regrow.
Within each plot (n = 6 replicates x 4 treatments), we measured litter
decomposition and arthropod composition and density. Midge-exclusion
cages reduced midge deposition by 81\% relative to the open plots.
Vegetation cutting initially reduced LAI and vegetation height by 3x and
1.5x, respectively, but these were not different by the end of the
second growing season. We found that vegetation structure modulated the
effects of midge subsides on litter decomposition, with taller canopies
intercepting more insect subsidies than shorter ones, leading to 18\%
faster litter decomposition. In contrast, the short-vegetation plots
intercepted fewer subsidies, had higher temperatures and sunlight, and
thus resulted in no effects of midges on decomposition. However, by the
end of the experiment when all vegetation structure characteristics had
converged across all plots, we found no differences in decomposition
between treatments. The effects of midge subsidies on arthropod
composition depended on vegetation structure in the last year,
suggesting that arthropod predators might also be responding to
vegetation structure effects on insect subsidies. Our findings indicate
that vegetation structure can modify the quantity of subsidies entering
a recipient ecosystem as aerial insects, resulting in ecosystem- and
community-level responses. Thus, changing vegetation structure via
habitat disturbances will likely have important implications for
ecosystem functions that depend on spatial subsidies.%
\end{abstract}\selectlanguage{ngerman}%
\sloppy
\textbf{INTRODUCTION}
Fluxes of nutrients, energy, and organisms across ecosystem boundaries
are ubiquitous (Polis et al. 1997). These spatial subsidies can alter
recipient systems (Subalusky and Post 2019), with implications for
ecosystem structure and function. For instance, aquatic insects can
subsidize terrestrial predators such as spiders, reptiles, and birds
(Nakano and Murakami 2001, Barrett et al. 2005, Marczak and Richardson
2007), increasing top-down pressure on herbivores and indirectly
enhancing plant biomass. Spatial subsidies can also induce bottom-up
effects in nutrient-poor ecosystems by releasing limiting nutrients,
thereby shifting plant composition and biomass (Gratton et al. 2017).
The strength of responses to spatial subsidies is variable across
ecosystems (Marczak et al. 2007). Thus, considerable efforts have
examined which ecosystem traits help explain the variation of responses,
including investigations on recipient ecosystem elevation (Leroux and
Loreau 2008), boundary permeability (Cadenasso and Pickett 2001), and
perimeter-area ratios (Polis and Hurd 1996). Despite advances in our
understanding of how ecosystem traits can affect subsidy impacts on
recipient systems (Richardson et al. 2010, Leroux and Loreau 2012,
Schindler and Smits 2017), knowledge of how those traits modulate
community- and ecosystem-level responses to spatial subsidies is
lacking.
One ecosystem trait that has not been investigated, but might strongly
influence how spatial subsidies affect recipient systems, is vegetation
structure. Vegetation structure---which is comprised by NPP, leaf area,
plant composition, and plant height (Van der Maarel and Franklin
2012)---can affect the rate, amount, and distribution of subsidies
entering a recipient ecosystem. Furthermore, changes to vegetation
structures will likely affect abiotic factors such as soil temperature
and light, which may also indirectly influence recipient ecosystem
responses to spatial subsidies. Here we use emergent aquatic insects to
illustrate how vegetation structure might affect the impacts of spatial
subsidies on community and ecosystem outcomes. We present two
contrasting hypotheses (Fig. 1). First, tall or dense vegetation may
intercept more aerial insects, thereby subsidizing prey availability for
canopy-dwelling predators (e.g., web-building spiders) and reducing the
input of nutrients into the soil (Fig. 1, ``a1''). Short vegetation, in
contrast, would allow for insect subsidies to more easily come into
contact with the soil and rapidly enter the detrital-resource pool,
inducing bottom-up effects in the recipient environment (Fig. 1,
``a2''). Alternatively, tall vegetation will ensure that subsidy
nutrients are retained in the recipient environment via interception,
thus increasing the rate of resource capture (Fig. 1, ``b1''), while
short vegetation should collect fewer insects on less surface area with
most organisms escaping the system and reducing allochthonous nutrients
(Fig. 1, ``b2''). Differences in subsidy inputs proposed by these two
competing hypotheses have implications for community and ecosystem
responses to spatial subsidies in the recipient habitat. However, no
studies have tested these hypotheses empirically, limiting our ability
to generalize the impacts of spatial subsidies across ecosystems with
different vegetation structures.
Lake M\selectlanguage{ngerman}ývatn (``lake of midges'') in northeastern Iceland is the system
in which we test how different vegetation structures can influence
ecosystem-level impacts of spatial subsidies. Mývatn is surrounded by a
mosaic of short-statured heathlands and tall-statured grasslands
(Hoekman et al. 2019), with insect subsidies potentially affecting these
plant communities disproportionally. Mývatn is naturally eutrophic and
sustains large populations of midges (Diptera: Chironomidae) (Einarsson
et al. 2002), which emerge as adults for several weeks each year and
form mating swarms over the surrounding landscape (Gardarsson et al.
2004). When not swarming, the adult midges settle in the vegetation
where they can become an abundant food resource for predatory arthropods
(Hoekman et al. 2019). When the midges die uneaten, their carcasses
enter the detrital food web and subsidize the soil biota and increase
soil nutrient inputs (Hoekman et al. 2011, Gratton et al. 2017).
We examined how vegetation structure modulated ecosystem-level effects
of insect subsidies in a subarctic grassland. We addressed two
questions: 1) how does vegetation structure influence the effects of
spatial subsidies on litter decomposition? and 2) what effects do
vegetation structure and midge reduction have on arthropod composition
and densities of trophic guilds (i.e., detritivores, herbivores, and
predators)? To address these questions, we altered grassland vegetation
structure via cutting and suppressing subsidy inputs. We then monitored
litter decomposition and arthropod composition and density over two
years. We predicted that short vegetation would allow aerial insects to
enter the detrital-resource pool directly, thereby increasing litter
decomposition through the release of limiting nutrients (i.e., the
Subsidy Consumption Hypothesis, Fig. 1a). We further predicted that
detritivore, herbivore, and predator densities would be higher in tall
versus short vegetation, but that arthropod composition and densities
would decline where insect subsidies were reduced.
\textbf{METHODS}
\textbf{Study site}
This study was performed at several locations on the eastern shore of
the Kálfaströnd peninsula of Mývatn. Each location receives midge
deposition that in high-midge years can be as high as 110 kg
ha\textsuperscript{-1} in the near-shore (50 m) environment (Dreyer et
al. 2015). Mývatn's midge community is dominated primarily by two
species,~\emph{Tanytarsus gracilentus} and~\emph{Chironomus islandicus},
which together comprise \textasciitilde{}90\% of the total midge
abundance (Lindegaard and Jónasson 1979). The grassland vegetation
consisted mainly of forbs (\emph{Ranunculus acris},~\emph{Geum
rivale,~}and~\emph{Potentilla palustris} ), grasses
(\emph{Deschampsia},~\emph{Poa,} and~\emph{Agrostis} spp.), and sedges
(\emph{Carex} spp.).
\textbf{Vegetation structure effects on litter decomposition and
arthropod communities}
We conducted a 2 x 2 factorial experiment that was spread across 6
replicate blocks. Within each block, four 1 x 1-m plots were established
to assess the effects of midge deposition (a full-exclusion cage vs.
open plot) and vegetation structure (Tall vs. Short) on litter
decomposition and arthropod composition and density (n = 24 total
plots). Experimental midge-exclusion cages (n = 12) were 1-m high and
constructed from white PVC tubing attached to rebar posts on each plot
corner (Supplementary Materials Appendix S1 {[}Plate A1{]}).
Midge-exclusion cages were covered with white polyester netting (mesh
size = 2 mm; Barre Army Navy Store, Barre VT, USA) to block flying
insects from entering the plot. The mesh netting also had a
\textasciitilde{}10-cm gap at ground level to allow ground-active
arthropods to enter and exit the cages freely. This cage design has
limited effects on other environmental factors, such as sunlight and
temperature (Hoekman et al. 2019). Experimental cages were permanently
installed in the field in June 2017 and were maintained until August
2018 (i.e., two full plant growing seasons), which corresponded to three
periods of midge emergences from the lake: \textasciitilde{}1 to 14
August 2017, \textasciitilde{}2 to 16 June 2018, and \textasciitilde{}26
July to 10 August 2018. The midge-access plots (n = 12) were fully open
to allow access to all arthropod groups including midges.
Vegetation structure was manipulated once at the start of each year by
cutting the vegetation with garden shears (hereafter referred to the
``Short'' treatment, n = 12), with the Short plots being cut to
\textasciitilde{}15 cm residual stubble height in June 2017 and then cut
again in May 2018. Short plots had the same grassland community and soil
characteristics as the uncut plots (hereafter referred to the ``Tall''
treatment, n = 12); only the structure was different. All cut plant
biomass was removed from the plots and vegetation was allowed to regrow
after each cutting.
\emph{Midge deposition measurements}
We measured midge deposition in all plots to evaluate the efficacy of
midge-exclusion cages deployed during the summer. Midge abundance was
measured using passive aerial ``infall'' traps; these traps are
indicators of activity-density for flying insects and served as a proxy
for midge deposition rates (Hoekman et al. 2019). Each infall trap
consisted of a 500-mL clear plastic cup affixed to a 0.5-m post placed
in a random corner of a plot. Infall cups were filled with 250 mL of a
1:1 propylene glycol:water solution and a small amount of unscented
detergent to capture and kill flying insects. We emptied infall traps
every two to three weeks and then identified and counted the contents of
each trap.
\emph{Vegetation structure measurements}
We quantified vegetation structure with two measurements: leaf area
index (LAI) and vegetation height. We estimated LAI with an AccuPAR 80
ceptometer (Decagon Accupar, Decagon Devices, Pullman, WA, USA), which
measures canopy photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) interception
by quantifying PAR above and below the vegetation canopy. We took six
PAR measurements (three above and three below the plant canopy) per plot
and then averaged them to calculate a composite value for each replicate
plot.
Vegetation height was estimated as the average of five measurements of
the tallest plant halfway between the center and the edge of each plot
along a north-south axis plus the center (i.e., North, South, East,
West, and Center). LAI and vegetation height measurements were made on
the same four days in this experiment (28 Jul 2017, 31 May 2018, 17 Jul
2018, and 17 August 2018).
To examine how vegetation cutting may influence abiotic variables, such
as temperature and sunlight, we installed a temperature/light logger
(HOBO Penchant Logger; Onset Computer Corp., Bourne, MA, USA) in one
randomly selected Tall and Short plot for 10 d in early August 2018. The
loggers were placed on top of the soil surface but underneath the plant
canopy; observations were recorded every 15 min. HOBO loggers measure
light wavelengths from 150 to 1,200 nm, which are reported in lux units
(range = 0 - 320,000 lux).
\emph{Response variables}
Litter decomposition
We installed litter decomposition bags constructed of 2-mm polyester
mesh (Barre Army Navy Store, Barre VT, USA) designed to allow access to
litter by microbes and small invertebrates. Plant litter within each bag
consisted of a mix of local Icelandic grasses
(\emph{Deschampsia},~\emph{Poa,} and \emph{Agrostis}) collected fresh
from a nearby grassland. Grass tillers were first dried at 60 °C for 48
h, weighed in 2-g aliquots, and placed into a litter bag. Litter bags
were 5 x 5 cm and pinned down horizontally to the soil surface. Two
litter bags were installed in each plot at the beginning of the
experiment (July 2017). One bag was removed on 24 June 2018 and the
other on 17 August 2018 at the end of the experiment. Following
collection, remaining grass tillers in each bag were separated from
foreign material (ingrown roots, moss, etc.), dried at 60°C for 48 h,
and weighed.
Arthropod density
Vacuum sampling was used to measure arthropod density in each plot
during peak activity each summer (i.e., 16 or 24 July 2017 and 15 or 20
July 2018). Arthropod samples were collected by vacuuming the litter and
vegetation using a modified SH 85 Shredder Vac/Blower (Stihl
Incorporated, Virginia Beach, Virginia, USA) retrofitted to accept a
thin vacuum bag over the sucking end. The vacuum sampler head (0.01
m\textsuperscript{2}, fitted with a mesh sampling bag) was pressed
firmly against the ground for 10 seconds (i.e., 30 seconds per plot) in
three random locations in the plot to remove arthropods from the
vegetation and leaf litter. The contents of each bag were placed in a
portable Berlese funnel (Bioquip Products Inc., Rancho Dominguez CA,
USA) equipped with a 40W bulb and allowed to extract arthropods for 48 h
into 70\% ethanol. We sorted and identified arthropods to the lowest
taxonomic level possible (usually family). Densities were calculated as
the number of arthropods per 0.03 m\textsuperscript{2}. Refer to
Appendix S1 Table S1 for details on the arthropods sampled and their
mean annual densities.
\emph{Data analyses}
Efficacy of experimental manipulations
We used linear mixed-effects models (LMMs) to examine how our
manipulations affected midge deposition (infall trap abundance) and
vegetation structure (LAI and vegetation height). The LMMs had three
factors and their interactions: (1) midge exclusion {[}caged vs.
uncaged{]}, (2) vegetation structure {[}Tall vs. Short{]}, and (3)
collection date. Random effects in the mixed model included plot nested
in block, to account for the repeated sampling of plots across time, and
a block effect to account for variability across sites. Midge infall
trap abundance was log-transformed prior to analysis, while LAI and
vegetation height were square-root transformed. LMMs were fit using the
``lme4'' package in R version 3.5.2 (Bates et al. 2015, R Development
Core Team 2018). Kenward-Roger approximations for degrees of freedom
were used to calculate~\emph{P} -values (Type III SS) using the
``lmerTest'' R package (Kuznetsova et al. 2017). Tukey's HSD post-hoc
comparisons were also used to examine treatment effects for individual
sample dates using the ``emmeans'' R package (Lenth et al. 2018).
\emph{Litter decomposition}
To evaluate the effects of midge exclusion and vegetation structure on
litter decomposition, we first calculated the proportion of initial
litter mass remaining by dividing the mass at each harvest date by
initial plant mass in the litter bags. We then performed an LMM on
proportion litter decomposed with two fixed factors: (1) midge exclusion
{[}caged vs. uncaged{]} and (2) vegetation structure {[}Tall vs.
Short{]}. The random effects included a block term to account for
potential variability across sites. We performed separate LMMs for each
harvest date (24 June 2018 and 17 August 2018); decomposed litter mass
proportions were arcsine-transformed to minimize heteroscedasticity
among treatments. We removed extreme values (\selectlanguage{english}[?] 3 SD of the mean, 2
removed out of 48 samples) prior to analysis, although the results were
similar if they were included (Appendix S1: Table S2). As above, LMMs
were fit using the ``lme4'' package in R version 3.5.2 with
Kenward-Roger approximations for degrees of freedom (Type III SS)
(Kuznetsova et al. 2017).
\emph{Arthropod composition and density}
We examined arthropod community responses to vegetation structure and
midge exclusion using permutational analysis of variance (PERMANOVA:
10,000 permutations; Type III SS) (Anderson et al. 2008). Midge
exclusion and vegetation structure were treated as fixed factors, with
block as the random effect (Anderson et al\emph{.} 2008). We performed
separate PERMANOVA tests for July 2017 and 2018 dates of the experiment.
Prior to analysis, we scaled the data by centering the abundance of each
arthropod taxon to a mean of zero and dividing by the standard
deviation; taxonomic singletons were removed. A Euclidean dissimilarity
distance matrix was calculated between plots using the z-score
transformed data. To visualize differences in arthropod composition in
two-dimensional space, we conducted either a Canonical Analysis of
Principal Coordinates (CAP) ordination constrained by midge exclusion
and vegetation structure if there was a strong treatment effect, or a
Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCO) for non-significant tests (Anderson
et al. 2008). Vector overlays were used to show which arthropod
functional guild (i.e., herbivores, predators, or detritivores) was
associated with each treatment; a vector reflects partial correlation
coefficients for a guild against the two axes.
In addition to the arthropod community analyses, we performed LMMs to
test how midge exclusion and vegetation structure affected arthropod
functional guild density (herbivores, detritivores, and herbivores) at
the end of the experiment (i.e., 2018). We investigated these functional
groups because they represent components of arthropod communities
(Coleman and Crossley Jr. 2003) that might be directly or indirectly
affected by spatial subsidies. The LMM had two fixed factors: (1) midge
exclusion {[}caged vs. uncaged{]} and (2) vegetation structure {[}Tall
vs. Short{]}. The block term accounted for variability across the
experimental sites. LMMs were fit with the ``lme4'' package in R version
3.5.2 using Kenward-Roger approximations for degrees of freedom (Type
III SS) (Kuznetsova et al. 2017).
\textbf{Vegetation structure effects on midge deposition}
At a site near the study described above (\textless{} 20 m away), we
performed a separate field experiment to test how vegetation structure
can influence midge deposition rates. Here, we manipulated the grassland
vegetation to represent tall and short vegetation structures. Half the
plots (0.25 m\textsuperscript{2}) were manipulated by cutting the
vegetation down to \textasciitilde{}15 cm using garden shears (``Short''
treatment, n = 4); the other plots (``Tall'' treatment, n = 4) were left
uncut. The experimental treatments were assigned at random. At the end
of the experiment (16 August 2018), we measured LAI and vegetation
height as described in the experiment above (see the section
on~\emph{Vegetation structure measurements} ).
Within each plot, we installed a pair of infall and pitfall traps to
measure canopy interception of midges. We placed the infall traps above
the vegetation canopy using a 500-mL clear plastic cup attached to a 1-m
post placed in the center of the plot. The pitfall traps were installed
in the ground directly beneath the infall trap, with each trap
consisting of the same dimensions as the infall traps (i.e., 500 ml,
\textasciitilde{} 9 cm in diameter and depth) and being placed flush
with the soil surface. Although pitfall traps are generally used to
measure ground arthropod activity-density (Coleman and Crossley Jr.
2003), here we repurposed them to estimate canopy interception by
counting how many midges reach the soil surface. We calculated canopy
interception using the following equation:
\begin{equation}
\text{Canopy\ Interception}_{\text{CI}}=\ \frac{i_{1}-\ p_{1}}{i_{1}+\ p_{1}},\nonumber \\
\end{equation}
where \emph{i} \textsubscript{1} and \emph{p} \textsubscript{1} are the
total midges collected for a given infall and pitfall trap,
respectively. Because the infall traps were placed above the canopy
(representing the maximum amount of midge deposition in the absence of
vegetation), and the pitfall traps were placed below the canopy, this
equation represents the proportion of midges that were intercepted by
the canopy within a given plot. Both infall and pitfall traps contained
\textasciitilde{}250 mL of a 1:1 mix of propylene glycol and water with
a drop of non-scented detergent to serve as a killing agent and
preservative (Hall 1991). Altogether there were eight infalls and eight
pitfalls (i.e., four pairs); the infall and pitfall traps were left open
for 21 d and collected and processed for midges every 7 to 8 d.
\emph{Data analyses}
We performed Welch's t-test to evaluate differences in LAI and
vegetation height at the end of the 3-week experiment using R version
3.5.2 (R Development Team 2018). We performed LMMs to examine how
vegetation structure affected canopy interception of midges as well as
midge deposition into pitfall and infall traps. The LMMs had two factors
and their interaction: (1) vegetation structure {[}Tall vs. Short{]} and
(2) collection date. Random effects included plot to account for the
repeated sampling of plots across time. To limit heteroscedasticity, we
performed arcsine transformations on the proportion of midges
intercepted by the plant canopy, whereas infall and pitfall deposition
data were log-transformed. We fit the LMMs using the ``lme4'' package in
R (Bates et al. 2015); Kenward-Roger approximations for degrees of
freedom were used to calculate~\emph{P} -values (Type III SS) using the
``lmerTest'' R package (Kuznetsova et al. 2017).
\textbf{RESULTS}
\textbf{Vegetation structure effects on litter decomposition and
arthropod communities}
\emph{Midge deposition rates}
The midge-exclusion cages reduced midge deposition into experimental
plots by over 81\%: open plots had daily midge inputs of 78 midges \selectlanguage{ngerman}± 16
d\textsuperscript{-1} (mean ± SE), whereas midge-exclusion cages
received only 15 midges ± 3 d\textsuperscript{-1}. The differences
between midge deposition in the exclusion and open plots were consistent
across both years (Fig. 2), although the magnitude of treatment
differences differed depending on the sampling date (LMM, \emph{F}
\textsubscript{5, 100} = 7.13,~\emph{P} \textsubscript{{[}Midges x
Date{]}} \textless{} 0.001).
\emph{Vegetation structure measurements and abiotic conditions}
Cutting of the vegetation reduced LAI on average by 50\% throughout the
experiment (Tall = 3.49 ± 0.20 {[}mean ± SE{]}; Short = 1.98 ± 0.21).
However, the effects were most pronounced immediately following cutting
events in each season (30 June 2017 and 20 May 2018) and then gradually
dissipated by the experiment's end (LMM, \emph{F} \textsubscript{3, 60}
= 16.34, \emph{P} \textsubscript{{[}LAI x Date{]}} \textless{} 0.001,
Fig. 3a). For the first cut in June 2017, LAI was 3x higher in the Tall
than the Short treatment (Tukey's HSD,~\emph{t} = -7.31, \emph{P}
\textsubscript{{[}LAI{]}} \textless{} 0.001, Fig. 3a). By the end of the
experiment, there was no statistical difference between LAI in any of
the experimental treatments (\emph{t} = -0.75, \emph{P}
\textsubscript{{[}LAI{]}} = 0.99).
Vegetation height followed the same pattern as LAI, although the
magnitude of differences was less apparent. Overall mean height for the
plants in the Tall treatment was 65 ± 4 cm (mean ± SE) and 55 ± 5 in the
Short treatment, but the magnitude of height differences between the
treatments depended on collection date (LMM, \emph{F} \textsubscript{3,
60} = 23.64, \emph{P} \textsubscript{{[}Height x Date{]}} \textless{}
0.001, Fig. 3b). Vegetation height was \textasciitilde{}40\% shorter in
the Short treatment after the first cut, with a pronounced statistical
difference (Tukey's HSD, \emph{t} = -6.02,\emph{P}
\textsubscript{{[}Height{]}} \textless{} 0.001). There was no difference
in vegetation height according to cutting by the end of the experiment
(\emph{t} = 0.18, \emph{P} \textsubscript{{[}Height{]}} = 0.99, Fig.
3b).
During a 10-day period in the middle of the summer, sensor measurements
(n = 1,017 per treatment) showed that vegetation cutting affected the
temperature and light of an experimental plot, with the Short plot being
a \textasciitilde{}0.5 ºC warmer (10.42 °C {[}95\% CI = 10.1\selectlanguage{english}-10.7{]})
and receiving \textasciitilde{}3x more light (Short = 8,373 lux {[}95\%
CI = 7,728\selectlanguage{english}-9,017{]}) on average than the Tall plot (9.94 degC {[}95\% CI =
9.7\selectlanguage{english}-10.2{]}; 2,844 lux {[}95\% CI = 2,611\selectlanguage{english}-3,076{]}).
\emph{Litter decomposition}
Litter decomposition for the first set of harvested litter bags (i.e.,
the start of the second growing season, June 2018) indicated an
interaction between vegetation structure and midge exclusion
(LMM,\emph{F} \textsubscript{1, 13} = 13.78,\emph{P}
\textsubscript{{[}Structure x Midges{]}} = 0.003). In the Short
treatment, the proportion of litter decomposed was unchanged between the
midge-exclusion and open plots (Fig. 4a). In the Tall treatment,
however, the midge-exclusion plots had 18\% less litter decomposition
compared to the open plots (Fig. 4a), indicating an interaction between
vegetation structure and midge exclusion. The highest litter
decomposition rates occurred in the Tall open plots. The last set of
litter bags collected at the end of the second growing season (August
2018) showed no interaction or treatment differences in the amount of
litter decomposed (\emph{P} \textgreater{} 0.05 for all tests, Fig. 4b).
\emph{Arthropod composition and density response}
In the first year of the experiment (July 2017), arthropod composition
remained unchanged according to vegetation structure or midge exclusion
(PERMANOVA; \emph{P}\textgreater{} 0.5, Fig. 5a, Appendix S1: Table S3).
In 2018, arthropod composition shifted with the effects of midge
exclusion depending on vegetation structure
(\emph{Pseudo-F\textsubscript{1, 4}} \textsubscript{{[}Structure x
Midges{]} =} 1.74, \emph{P} = 0.04, Appendix S1 Table S3). Arthropod
communities in plots with tall vegetation were clustered in the top left
quadrant of the CAP ordination, which included both the open and
midge-exclusion plots. In contrast, arthropod communities in plots with
short vegetation had dissimilar communities based on being an open or a
midge-exclusion plot (Fig. 5b). For example, open plots with shorter
vegetation structure were clustered in the bottom left quadrant of the
ordination, whereas the midge-exclusion plots were separated and grouped
on the right side of CAP axis 1 (Fig. 5b). Predators, decomposers, and
herbivores were generally correlated with arthropod communities of the
Tall plots.
In the final year of the experiment, detritivore density was not
affected by vegetation structure (LMM, \emph{F\textsubscript{1, 14}}
\textsubscript{{[}Structure{]} =} 2.84, \emph{P} = 0.11, Fig. 6a).
However, herbivores and predators were both sensitive to plant height,
with herbivores 2.86x (\emph{F\textsubscript{1, 14}}
\textsubscript{{[}Structure{]} =} 4.87, \emph{P} = 0.04) and predators
1.6x (\emph{F\textsubscript{1, 14}} \textsubscript{{[}Structure{]}
=}6.10, \emph{P} = 0.03) more abundant in the Tall than the Short plots,
respectively (Figs. 6b and c, Appendix S1 Table S4).
\textbf{Vegetation structure effects on midge deposition}
\emph{Vegetation structure measurements}
At the end of the separate 3-week experiment in 2018, the average LAI
for Tall and Short plots was 2.2 +- 0.1 (mean +- SE) and 0.6 +- 0.1
(Welch's t-test; \emph{t} = -8.3, \emph{P} \textless{} 0.001),
respectively. Vegetation height was also much higher in the Tall than
Short plots (\emph{t} = -4.60, \emph{P} = 0.02), with average heights of
60 cm +- 11 and 20 cm +- 1 for Tall and Short treatments, respectively.
\emph{Vegetation canopy interception}
Tall vegetation intercepted 11\% more midges when compared to the
vegetation in the Short plots (LMM, \emph{F\textsubscript{1, 6}}
\textsubscript{{[}Structure{]} =} 8.51, \emph{P} = 0.03, Appendix S1
Fig. S1). This pattern was consistent throughout the experiment, as
there was no interaction between canopy interception and collection date
(\emph{F\textsubscript{2, 12}} \textsubscript{{[}Structure x Date{]}
=}0.51, \emph{P} = 0.61). On average, vegetation in the Tall treatment
intercepted 95\% +- 0.01 (mean +- SE) of midge deposition into the pitfall
traps, whereas the vegetation in the Short plots intercepted 85\% +- 0.03
of midge deposition.
\emph{Deposition of midges into pitfall and infall traps}
Although there was a statistical difference in the number of midges that
reached the pitfall traps (at the soil surface) in the Tall vs. Short
plots (LMM, \emph{F\textsubscript{1, 6}} \textsubscript{{[}Structure{]}
=} 23.8, \emph{P} = 0.003), both treatments received few midges compared
to their respective infall traps located 1 m above the soil surface
(Short = 15 midges +- 3 d\textsuperscript{-1} pitfall
trap\textsuperscript{-1} {[}mean +- SE{]}; Tall = 4 midges +- 1
d\textsuperscript{-1} pitfall trap\textsuperscript{-1}). These estimates
were comparable to the infall deposition rates of the midge-exclusion
plots (with cages) in the first experiment (i.e., 15 midges +- 3
d\textsuperscript{-1} infall trap\textsuperscript{-1}) indicating that
few intact midge carcasses actually reach the soil directly whether
vegetation is tall or short.
Infall traps in the Short plots received more daily midge inputs than
the Tall plots (LMM, \emph{F\textsubscript{1, 6}}
\textsubscript{{[}Structure{]} =} 6.81, \emph{P} = 0.04), with the Short
plots receiving 196 midges +- 19 d\textsuperscript{-1} infall
trap\textsuperscript{-1} {[}mean +- SE{]} and Tall plots receiving 144
midges +- 20.
\textbf{DISCUSSION}
We found that vegetation structure can influence the effects of spatial
subsidies on litter decomposition and arthropod composition. This is
further supported by the disappearance of the decomposition effect at
the end of the experiment when all vegetation-structure characteristics
between plots were similar. We also found that arthropods in the second
year showed an interactive effect of subsidies and vegetation structure,
suggesting that arthropods might also be responding to the vegetation
structure effects on spatial subsidies. These results support a body of
literature showing the impacts of resource subsidies on recipient
ecosystems (Polis and Hurd 1995, Nakano et al. 1999, Kato et al. 2003,
Piovia\selectlanguage{english}-Scott et al. 2019), but this is the first study to demonstrate
that vegetation structure can influence those effects.
We predicted that shorter vegetation would allow midges to directly
enter the detrital-resource pool, increasing litter decomposition
relative to plots with tall vegetation (i.e., the Subsidy Consumption
Hypothesis). But, we found that even though midges had easier access to
the soil surface in short vegetation, the number of midges reaching the
soil was low and insufficient to affect decomposition. Instead, we found
that taller vegetation intercepted and retained more midges in the
canopy than the shorter vegetation, indicating that midge nutrients had
a greater likelihood of entering the soil---a finding more consistent
with the Subsidy Percolation Hypothesis (Fig. 1b). This suggests that
although canopy-dwelling predators can consume insect subsidies (Hoekman
et al. 2019), they do not capture enough insects to reduce subsidy
inputs into the detrital pool of the recipient grassland. Our findings
also indicate that systems with higher plant biomass (such as our
Tall-statured plots) could result in higher capture rates of insect
subsidies through a physical interception and retention of the subsidy.
This may create a positive feedback between insect allochthony and plant
biomass in the recipient ecosystem. However, because we imposed a
short-term manipulation to the grassland plant community, this
interpretation should be investigated further.
Short-canopy plots had less surface area to intercept midges, resulting
in less overall deposition of midges and their nutrients into the soil.
Because midges do not immediately perish when they settle in the short
vegetation, more midges were presumably lost from the short vegetation
plots. It is worth noting that even though we did not directly measure
soil nutrient inputs from the midges in this study, we have documented
elsewhere that midge deposition can significantly increase soil nitrate
and ammonium concentrations (Gratton et al. 2017).
In addition to tall vegetation intercepting more midges, these canopies
also foster an environment that is more ideal for soil biota, such as
decomposer microbes and arthropods (Liu et al. 2010, Tiemann and
Billings 2011, De Smedt et al. 2018). Unlike short vegetation plots that
could be more prone to desiccation via increased sunlight and
temperature, tall vegetation likely created more stable, moist
environments for soil microbial and arthropod communities. For example,
we found that entomobryid springtails---an abundant detritivore in this
subarctic system---were more than 2x more abundant in the tall than
short vegetation (Appendix S1: Table S1). In this subarctic ecosystem
(Arnalds and Kimble 2001), dry soil conditions can limit the midge
effects on plant biomass and arthropod composition (Webert 2016).
Moreover, the soil microbial community was likely responsible for higher
rates of litter disappearance in the tall open plots. As mostly
carbon-limited organisms (Demoling et al. 2007), the pool of labile
carbon via midge inputs (i.e., low C: N ratios
{[}\textasciitilde{}5:1{]}) likely stimulated microbial activity and
increased their biomass (Kolb et al. 2009) when midges were intercepted
by the vegetation.
We found that the arthropod communities were affected by both vegetation
structure and midge inputs, but only in the last year of the experiment.
Higher abundances of decomposers, herbivores, and predators were
associated with tall vegetation, with overall lower densities in short
vegetation. This was expected because arthropod densities are known to
be positively correlated with plant biomass and structure; higher
aboveground biomass and structure usually provide more habitat and food
resources for terrestrial arthropods (Siemann 1998, Schaffers et al.
2008). We also found disparate communities of arthropods in short
vegetation depending on the presence/absence of midges. The large,
mobile predators appear to be driving this pattern, which were more
associated with the short plots with access to midges. Other studies
have documented this aggregative effect of predators when utilizing
allochthonous prey subsidies (Henschel et al. 2001, Schmidt and Ostfeld
2008, Yang et al. 2010, Dreyer et al. 2012, Hoekman et al. 2019).
\textbf{Conclusions}
While other studies have demonstrated the impacts of resource subsidies
on recipient ecosystems (Nakano and Murakami 2001, Sabo and Power 2002,
Fukui et al. 2006), we illustrate that vegetation structure could
modulate those effects. Plant height altered the impact of spatial
subsides on litter decomposition, with arthropods also responding to the
structural effects, and potentially the abiotic conditions, on
allochthonous nutrients. Thus,~vegetation structure can help predict the
ecosystem and community responses to spatial subsidies, because taller
plants can intercept more aerial insects, ensuring the capture of
critical nutrients within the recipient ecosystem. Because spatial
subsidies are ubiquitous across terrestrial ecosystems (Polis et al.
1997), changing vegetation structure via habitat disturbances (e.g.,
grazing, climate change, or plant invasions) could have implications for
ecosystem functions that depend on allochthonous resources. Future
research should investigate how environmental and management alterations
to vegetation structure can influence recipient ecosystem function.
\textbf{ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS}
This research was funded by National Science Foundation grants
DEB-LTREB-1556208 and DEB-1611638. We thank Arni Einarsson and the
Myvatn Research Station for facilitating this research. We also thank
all the many people who helped collect and process the samples
associated with this study: J. Phillips, A. McCormick, J. Botsch, A.
Ward, K.R. Book, A. Lewis, K. Chen, K. Jorgenson, and J. Harris. Access
to all data and accompanying analysis scripts are available on GitHub:
https://github.com/mmccar26/KAL\_Iceland\_2020\_Manuscript.
\textbf{FIGURE LEGENDS}
\textbf{Figure 1.} Conceptual diagram of the two competing hypotheses by
which vegetation structure can influence ecosystem effects of insect
subsidies. (a) Subsidy Consumption Hypotheses: (a1) Tall vegetation
structure creates more habitat for arthropod predators such as
web-building spiders, which in turn consume most of the incoming insect
allochthony (flying chironomid midges in this case) that are intercepted
by the grassland vegetation and limits midge nutrients from entering the
detrital pool. (a2) Shows that in Short vegetation, midges can more
easily enter the detrital pool because of less structure, thereby having
a more direct effect on soil communities and processes such as
decomposition. (b) Subsidy Percolation Hypothesis: (b1) Tall, complex
vegetation intercepts most midge nutrients without enough predators to
capture them, which then percolate down into the detrital pool. (b2)
Because of reduced vegetation structure, midges fly by short vegetation
areas until they encounter tall vegetation. This pattern will ultimately
lead to reduced midge nutrients in Short vegetation plots.
\textbf{Figure 2.} Line plots showing midge deposition (mean +- SE,
points jittered to facilitate visualization) over the course of the
2-year experiment. Midge infall was successfully manipulated by the
exclusion cages, which reduced midge density on average by 81\% in the 1
x 1-m plots across the experiments. We used follow-up Tukey's HSD
post-hoc tests to examine treatment effects on each collection date.
Data are means and standard errors. (***) \emph{P} \textless{} 0.001;
(**) \emph{P}\textless{} 0.01; (*) \emph{P} \textless{} 0.05.
\textbf{Figure 3.} Line plots showing (a) leaf area index {[}LAI{]} and
(b) vegetation height over the course of the experiment. Gray panels
indicate the days in which the vegetation was cut (i.e., 2017-06-30 and
2018-05-20). Follow-up Tukey's HSD post-hoc tests were conducted to
examine treatment effects on each collection date. Data are means and
standard errors. (***) \emph{P} \textless{} 0.001; (**)
\emph{P}\textless{} 0.01; (*) \emph{P} \textless{} 0.05.
\textbf{Figure 4.} Bar plots showing the impact of vegetation structure
and midge exclusion on litter decomposition for litter bags harvested on
(a) 24 June 2018 and (b) 17 August 2018. Data are means and standard
errors; different letters denote \emph{P} \textless{} 0.05 using
post-hoc Tukey's HSD comparisons.
\textbf{Figure 5.} The impact of vegetation structure and midge
exclusion on arthropod composition in (a) 2017 and (b) 2018. Ordination
bi-plots show arthropod data that are based on a Euclidean dissimilarity
matrix. Each symbol on the ordination plot represents communities for
one of the 24 experimental plots in that year of the experiment. The
direction and length of vector overlays indicate the strength of the
association (multiple partial correlation coefficient) between the
ordination axes and the associated labeled taxon.
\textbf{Figure 6.} Bar plots showing the effect of vegetation structure
and midge exclusion on arthropod functional densities in 2018 for (a)
detritivores, (b) herbivores, and (c) predators. Data are means and
standard errors.\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image1/image1}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\textbf{Figure 1.}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image2/image2}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\textbf{Figure 2.}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image3/image3}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\textbf{Figure 3.}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image4/image4}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\textbf{Figure 4.}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image5/image5}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\textbf{Figure 5.}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image6/image6}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\textbf{Figure 6.}
\textbf{REFERENCES}
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\selectlanguage{english}
\FloatBarrier
\end{document}
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http://cr.yp.to/bib/1983/brassard.tex | yp.to | CC-MAIN-2022-05 | text/plain | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320305341.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20220128013529-20220128043529-00312.warc.gz | 13,734,721 | 686 | \bib{1983/brassard}
\yr 1983
\by Gilles Brassard
\paper On computationally secure authentication tags requiring short secret shared keys
\inbook \cite{1983/chaum}
\pages 79--86
\url http://cr.yp.to/\allowbreak bib/\allowbreak entries.html#\allowbreak 1983/\allowbreak brassard
\endref
|
http://www.math.unl.edu/~sdunbar1/MathematicalFinance/Tests/2003Fall/496f03t1_soln.tex | unl.edu | CC-MAIN-2017-51 | application/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-51/segments/1512948619804.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20171218180731-20171218202731-00500.warc.gz | 400,744,989 | 3,308 | %&latex
\documentclass[12pt]{article}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage{epsfig}
\addtolength{\topmargin}{-1.1in}
\addtolength{\textheight}{2.2in}
\addtolength{\evensidemargin}{-0.75in}
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\begin{document}
\noindent{\bf Math 496/889 \hfill Exam 1 \hfill Name:\rule{5.cm}{.25mm}} \\
\noindent{\bf Friday, November 7, 2003 \hfill SSN:\rule{5.cm}{.25mm}}\\
\bigskip
\begin{tabular}{||l|c|c|c|c|c|c|c||}
\hline
Problem & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 &Total\\
\hline
Possible& 20 & 10 & 15 & 10 & 15 & 20 & 90 \\
\hline
Points & & & & & & & \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\begin{enumerate}
\item (20 points)
Consider a two-time-stage binomial-outcome model for pricing an
financial derivative. Each time stage is a
year. A stock starts at 100.
In each year, the stock can go up by 8\% or down by
4\%. The continously compounded interest rate on a \$1 bond
is constant at 4\% each year. Find the
price of a \emph{put option} with exercise price 105, with
exercise date at the end of the second year. Also, find the
replicating portfolio at each node.
\begin{verbatim}
At node (1,1) At node (2,2)
phi = -0.11085 V = 0
psi = 11.414 S = 116.64
V = 0.414
S = 108
At node (0,0) At node (2,1)
phi = -0.372 V = 1.32
psi = 39.042 S = 103.68
V = 1.80
S = 100
At node (1,0) At node (2,0)
phi = -1 V = 12.84
\psi = 100.883 S = 92.16
V = 4.883
S = 96
Pi = 0.67342, 1 - pi = 0.32657
\end{verbatim}
\item (10 points) James Bond is determined to ruin the casino at Monte Carlo
by betting \$1 on Red at the roulette wheel. The
probability of Bond winning at one turn in this game
is $18/38 \approx 0.474$. James Bond, being Agent 007, is backed by
the full financial might of the British Empire, and so can be
considered to have unlimited funds. Approximately how
much money should the casino have to start with so that Bond has
only a ``one-in-a-million'' chance of ruining the casino?
\textbf{Solution:}
Here the casino is the ``gambler'', with probability of success at
any trial being $p = 0.526$ and the probability of failure at any
trial is $q = 1- p = 0.474$. The probability of ultimate ruin of a
gambler playing against an infinitely rich adversary is is (if $p >
q$), $ (q/p)^S_0$ and we wish to make this $10^(-6)$.
Solve $(0.474/0.526)^S_0 = 10^(-6)$ for $S_0 = 132.72$. So if the
casino has \$133 it has less than a 1-in-a-million chance of being
ruined.
\item (15 points)
Make a convincing argument that the net fortune $S_n$
coin-flipping game must be $0$ infinitely many times.
( That is, we consider the sum $S_n$
where the independent, identically
distributed random variables in the sum
$S_n = X_1 + ... + X_n$ are the Bernoulli random variables $X_i =
+1$ with probability $p = 1/2$ and $X_i = -1$ with probability $q =
1-p = 1/2$.) \emph{Suggestion:} Consider using the results of
the Law of the Iterated Logarithm.
\textbf{Solution:} Take $\lambda_{-1} = 1 - 1/2 < 1$.
The Law of the iterated logarithm says that that there is a sequence
times going to infinity when the fortune is greater than $(1 - 1/2)*
\sqrt{2 t \log(\log(t))}$ hence positive, and a sequence of times
going
to infinity when the fortune is less than $-(1 - 1/2)*
\sqrt{2 t \log(\log(t))}$ hence negative. By inter-leaving the
selection of times (possible because both sequences of times are going to
infinity) we can find a sequence of inerediate times when the value
must be zero.
This problem can also be done more rigorously and simply
with the Borel-Cantelli lemma.
\item (10 points) For two random variables $X$ and $Y$, statisticians call
$$
\operatorname{Cov}(X, Y) = E[ (X - E[X])(Y-E[Y]) ]
$$
the \emph{covariance} of $X$ and $Y$. If $X$ and $Y$ are
independent, then $\operatorname{Cov}(X,Y) = 0$. A positive
value of $\operatorname{Cov}(X,Y)$ indicates that $Y$ tends to
increase as $X$ increases, while a negative value indicates that $Y$
tends to decrease when $X$ increases. Thus,
$\operatorname{Cov}(X,Y)$ is an indication of the mutual
dependence of $X$ and $Y$. Show that
$$
\operatorname{Cov}(W(s),W(t)) = E[W(s) W(t)] = s
$$
for $0 < s < t$.
% Adapted from Karlin and Taylor, page 383, problem 3
\textbf{Solution:} Write
\begin{eqnarray*}
\operatorname{Cov}(W(s),W(t)) &=& E[W(s) W(t)] \\
&=& E[ W(s) \cdot(( W(t) - W(s)) + (W(s))] \\
&=& E[ W(s) \cdot(( W(t) - W(s))] + E[W(s) \cdot W(s))] \\
&=& 0 + s = s.
\end{eqnarray*}
\item (15 points)
Let $Z$ be a normally distributed random variable, with mean
$0$ and variance $1$, that is, $Z \sim N(0,1)$. Then consider the continuous
time stochastic process $X(t) = \sqrt{t} Z$. Show that the distribution of
$X(t)$ is normal with mean $0$ with variance $t$. Is $X(t)$ a
Brownian motion? Explain why or why not.
\textbf{Solution:}
No because $X(s) = \sqrt{s} Z$ is not independent of $X(t) - X(s) =
(\sqrt{t} - \sqrt{s}) Z$ Furthermore, the increments have
variance $( \sqrt{t} - \sqrt{s})^2 = t - 2 \sqrt{ts} + s \ne t- s$.
\item (20 points)
Simulate the solution of the stochastic differential equation
$$
dY(t) = Y(t) dt + Y(t) dW, \qquad Y(0) = 1
$$
on the interval $[0,1]$ with a step size $dt = 1/5$. Use
$W_{25}(t)$ with increments of $1/5$ to approximate Brownian Motion.
%% \begin{tabular}{||c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c||}
%% \hline
%% j & t_j & Y_j & Y_j \,dt & dW & Y_j dW & Y_j + Y_j dW & Y_j + Y_j\,dt + Y_j dW \\
%% \hline
%% 0 & 0 & 1 & 0.2 & 0 & & & \\
%% 1 & 0.2 & & & 0. & & & \\
%% 2 & 0.4 & & & 0. & & & \\
%% 3 & 0.6 & & & 0. & & & \\
%% 4 & 0.8 & & & 0. & & & \\
%% 5 & 1.0 & & & 0 & & & \\
%% \end{tabular}
\end{enumerate}
\end{document}
|
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\title{Democratic Left’s disposable radicalism}
\date{1995}
\author{Workers Solidarity Movement}
\subtitle{De Rossa \& Rabbitte join Bruton’s cabinet}
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\begin{center}
{\usekomafont{title}{\huge Democratic Left’s disposable radicalism\par}}%
\vskip 1em
{\usekomafont{subtitle}{De Rossa \& Rabbitte join Bruton’s cabinet\par}}%
\vskip 2em
{\usekomafont{author}{Workers Solidarity Movement\par}}%
\vskip 1.5em
{\usekomafont{date}{1995\par}}%
\end{center}
\vskip 3em
\par
\textbf{WHO REMEMBERS when Democratic Left was formed? It was only two and a half years ago when they arrived on the scene trying to convince us that they were like an anti-coalition Labour Party. Their founding policy statement said “we see no role for our party as a partner of a right wing government”. And some were convinced, like the Labour members who uprooted themselves and joined DL, thinking it more left wing.}
Now they are sitting in government with the former blueshirts of Fine Gael (the people who gave us a ‘state of emergency’ in the 1970’s) and their rivals in Labour (who contributed Conor Cruise O’Brien to Liam Cosgrave’s paranoid administration). Still, no point in raking over old coals. They will be far too busy having a go at workers in the ESB and Telecom, presiding over a run down health service, keeping social welfare payments at a pitifully low level, and all the other ‘responsibilities of government’.
It was easy to predict that DL would jump into bed with almost anyone who would give them a ministerial car. After all they believe in the division of society into rulers and ruled, you won’t catch Rabitte or Gilmore calling for the workplaces to be turned over to the workers. And if you believe rulers are ok, you won’t have a moral problem with being one.
The excuse will be that if it wasn’t DL it would have been the PDs. As if DL were doing us a favour by riding around in state cars, getting big salaries and implementing laws like the Industrial Relations Act and giving tax amnesties to millionaires. It was harder to predict that John Bruton would need them so badly that he would have to give cabinet jobs to four of their six TD’s!
Trusting a politician to stick by his\Slash{}her policies is as naive as expecting a four year old child to guard a box of chocolates without eating half of them. To win reforms (apart from ones that have little financial cost or risk of unpopularity) we need the ‘muscle’ of strikes, demonstrations and civil disobedience to win concessions. That is what gets us the bigger changes, not appeals to well meaning or ‘left’ TDs.
And if we want to change the way society is run we can’t rely on professional politicians. Anarchists want to end the rule of the rich and see power in the hands of all — not a small group of industrialists, ranchers or politicians.
% begin final page
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\begin{center}
The Anarchist Library
\smallskip
Anti-Copyright
\bigskip
\includegraphics[width=0.25\textwidth]{logo-en}
\bigskip
\end{center}
\strut
\vfill
\begin{center}
Workers Solidarity Movement
Democratic Left’s disposable radicalism
De Rossa \& Rabbitte join Bruton’s cabinet
1995
\bigskip
Retrieved on 24\textsuperscript{th} November 2021 from \href{http://struggle.ws/ws95/dem\_left44.html}{struggle.ws}
Published in \emph{Workers Solidarity} No. 44 — Spring 1995.
\bigskip
\textbf{theanarchistlibrary.org}
\end{center}
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\end{document}
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https://pof.tnw.utwente.nl/ictw/AbstractTemplate.tex | utwente.nl | CC-MAIN-2021-17 | text/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-17/segments/1618038878326.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20210419045820-20210419075820-00570.warc.gz | 539,325,155 | 1,297 | \documentclass[10pt]{article}
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https://math.dartmouth.edu/archive/m128s14/public_html/homework/Exercise2.tex | dartmouth.edu | CC-MAIN-2019-26 | text/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560628000609.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20190626234958-20190627020958-00423.warc.gz | 504,626,956 | 1,625 | \include{preamble}
\begin{document}
\thispagestyle{empty}
\paragraph{\bf Exercise 2:} Some things about $\fsl_2$.\\
Recall, $L(d)$ is the irreducible $\fsl_2$-module with dimension $d+1$.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Calculate (give the matrices for) the adjoint representation of $\fsl_2$ and decompose it into irreducible summands.
\item Let $V=\{u,v\}$ be the standard representation of $\fsl_2$, given by
$$x = \begin{pmatrix} 0&1\\0&0\end{pmatrix}, \qquad
y = \begin{pmatrix} 0&0\\1&0\end{pmatrix}, \qquad
h = \begin{pmatrix} 1&0\\0&-1\end{pmatrix}.$$
\begin{enumerate}
\item Classify $V$ as an $\fsl_2$-module (as sums of $L(d)$'s).
\item Give a basis for $V \otimes V$ and calculate the matrices for the action of $x, y,$ and $h$ on that basis (For $g \in \fsl_2$, $g$ acts on $a\otimes b$ by\dots).
\item Classify $V \otimes V$ and $V^{\otimes 3}$ as $\fsl_2$-modules.
\item (Bonus) Provide a general formula for the decomposition of $V^{\otimes k}$.
\end{enumerate}
\item With $V$ as in the previous part, define the $k$th symmetric sum of $V$
as
$$\Sym^k(V) = V^{\otimes k} / \<a\otimes b - b \otimes a\> \cong \CC\{u^k, u^{k-1}v, \dots, v^k\} $$
(since $\Sym^k(V)$ is isomorphic to the degree-$k$ homogeneous elements of $\CC[u,v]$).
\begin{enumerate}
\item Generally describe the action of $\fsl_2$ on $\Sym^k(V)$. (For $g \in \fsl_2$, $g$ acts on $u^\ell v^{k-\ell}$ by\dots)
\item How does $\Sym^k(V)$ decompose into irreducible summands?
\item Show that for $a \geq b$,
$$\Sym^a(V) \otimes \Sym^b(V) \cong \bigoplus_{i=0}^{b} \Sym^{a+b-2i}(V).$$
\end{enumerate}
\end{enumerate}
\end{document} |
http://git.dwarfstd.org/?p=dwarf-doc.git;a=blob_plain;f=dwarf5/latexdoc/datarepresentation.tex;hb=86874251b3fe2c5a6cdf5f5c8abad87950d1d3b2 | dwarfstd.org | CC-MAIN-2022-40 | text/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030337504.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20221004121345-20221004151345-00351.warc.gz | 21,776,161 | 34,110 | \chapter{Data Representation}
\label{datarep:datarepresentation}
This section describes the binary representation of the
debugging information entry itself, of the attribute types
and of other fundamental elements described above.
\section{Vendor Extensibility}
\label{datarep:vendorextensibility}
\addtoindexx{vendor extensibility}
\addtoindexx{vendor specific extensions|see{vendor extensibility}}
To
\addtoindexx{extensibility|see{vendor extensibility}}
reserve a portion of the DWARF name space and ranges of
enumeration values for use for vendor specific extensions,
special labels are reserved for tag names, attribute names,
base type encodings, location operations, language names,
calling conventions and call frame instructions.
The labels denoting the beginning and end of the reserved
\hypertarget{chap:DWXXXlohiuser}{}
value range for vendor specific extensions consist of the
appropriate prefix
(\DWATlouserMARK{}\DWAThiuserMARK{} DW\_AT,
\DWATElouserMARK{}\DWATEhiuserMARK{} DW\_ATE,
\DWCClouserMARK{}\DWCChiuserMARK{} DW\_CC,
\DWCFAlouserMARK{}\DWCFAhiuserMARK{} DW\_CFA
\DWENDlouserMARK{}\DWENDhiuserMARK{} DW\_END,
\DWLANGlouserMARK{}\DWLANGhiuserMARK{} DW\_LANG,
\DWLNElouserMARK{}\DWLNEhiuserMARK{} DW\_LNE,
\DWMACROlouserMARK{}\DWMACROhiuserMARK{}DW\_MACRO,
\DWOPlouserMARK{}\DWOPhiuserMARK{} DW\_OP or
\DWTAGlouserMARK{}\DWTAGhiuserMARK{} DW\_TAG,
respectively) followed by
\_lo\_user or \_hi\_user.
Values in the range between \textit{prefix}\_lo\_user
and \textit{prefix}\_hi\_user inclusive,
are reserved for vendor specific extensions. Vendors may
use values in this range without conflicting with current or
future system\dash defined values. All other values are reserved
for use by the system.
\textit{For example, for DIE tags, the special
labels are \DWTAGlouserNAME{} and \DWTAGhiuserNAME.}
\textit{There may also be codes for vendor specific extensions
between the number of standard line number opcodes and
the first special line number opcode. However, since the
number of standard opcodes varies with the DWARF version,
the range for extensions is also version dependent. Thus,
\DWLNSlouserTARG{} and
\DWLNShiuserTARG{} symbols are not defined.
}
Vendor defined tags, attributes, base type encodings, location
atoms, language names, line number actions, calling conventions
and call frame instructions, conventionally use the form
\text{prefix\_vendor\_id\_name}, where
\textit{vendor\_id}\addtoindexx{vendor id} is some identifying
character sequence chosen so as to avoid conflicts with
other vendors.
To ensure that extensions added by one vendor may be safely
ignored by consumers that do not understand those extensions,
the following rules must be followed:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item New attributes are added in such a way that a
debugger may recognize the format of a new attribute value
without knowing the content of that attribute value.
\item The semantics of any new attributes do not alter
the semantics of previously existing attributes.
\item The semantics of any new tags do not conflict with
the semantics of previously existing tags.
\item New forms of attribute value are not added.
\end{enumerate}
\section{Reserved Values}
\label{datarep:reservedvalues}
\subsection{Error Values}
\label{datarep:errorvalues}
\addtoindexx{reserved values!error}
As
\addtoindexx{error value}
a convenience for consumers of DWARF information, the value
0 is reserved in the encodings for attribute names, attribute
forms, base type encodings, location operations, languages,
line number program opcodes, macro information entries and tag
names to represent an error condition or unknown value. DWARF
does not specify names for these reserved values, because they
do not represent valid encodings for the given type and do
not appear in DWARF debugging information.
\subsection{Initial Length Values}
\label{datarep:initiallengthvalues}
\addtoindexx{reserved values!initial length}
An \livetarg{datarep:initiallengthvalues}{initial length} field
\addtoindexx{initial length field|see{initial length}}
is one of the fields that occur at the beginning
of those DWARF sections that have a header
(\dotdebugaranges{},
\dotdebuginfo{},
\dotdebugline{} and
\dotdebugnames{}) or the length field
that occurs at the beginning of the CIE and FDE structures
in the \dotdebugframe{} section.
\needlines{4}
In an \addtoindex{initial length} field, the values \wfffffffzero through
\wffffffff are reserved by DWARF to indicate some form of
extension relative to \DWARFVersionII; such values must not
be interpreted as a length field. The use of one such value,
\xffffffff, is defined below
(see Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats});
the use of
the other values is reserved for possible future extensions.
\section{Relocatable, Split, Executable, Shared and Package Object Files}
\label{datarep:executableobjectsandsharedobjects}
\subsection{Relocatable Object Files}
\label{datarep:relocatableobjectfiles}
A DWARF producer (for example, a compiler) typically generates its
debugging information as part of a relocatable object file.
Relocatable object files are then combined by a linker to form an
executable file. During the linking process, the linker resolves
(binds) symbolic references between the various object files, and
relocates the contents of each object file into a combined virtual
address space.
The DWARF debugging information is placed in several sections (see
Appendix \refersec{app:debugsectionrelationshipsinformative}), and
requires an object file format capable of
representing these separate sections. There are symbolic references
between these sections, and also between the debugging information
sections and the other sections that contain the text and data of the
program itself. Many of these references require relocation, and the
producer must emit the relocation information appropriate to the
object file format and the target processor architecture. These
references include the following:
\begin{itemize}
\item The compilation unit header (see Section
\refersec{datarep:unitheaders}) in the \dotdebuginfo{}
section contains a reference to the \dotdebugabbrev{} table. This
reference requires a relocation so that after linking, it refers to
that contribution to the combined \dotdebugabbrev{} section in the
executable file.
\item Debugging information entries may have attributes with the form
\DWFORMaddr{} (see Section \refersec{datarep:attributeencodings}).
These attributes represent locations
within the virtual address space of the program, and require
relocation.
\item A DWARF expression may contain a \DWOPaddr{} (see Section
\refersec{chap:literalencodings}) which contains a location within
the virtual address space of the program, and require relocation.
\needlines{4}
\item Debugging information entries may have attributes with the form
\DWFORMsecoffset{} (see Section \refersec{datarep:attributeencodings}).
These attributes refer to
debugging information in other debugging information sections within
the object file, and must be relocated during the linking process.
\par
However, if a \DWATrangesbase{} attribute is present, the offset in
a \DWATranges{} attribute (which uses form \DWFORMsecoffset) is
relative to the given base offset--no relocation is involved.
\item Debugging information entries may have attributes with the form
\DWFORMrefaddr{} (see Section \refersec{datarep:attributeencodings}).
These attributes refer to
debugging information entries that may be outside the current
compilation unit. These values require both symbolic binding and
relocation.
\item Debugging information entries may have attributes with the form
\DWFORMstrp{} (see Section \refersec{datarep:attributeencodings}).
These attributes refer to strings in
the \dotdebugstr{} section. These values require relocation.
\item Entries in the \dotdebugaddr, \dotdebugloc{}, \dotdebugranges{}
and \dotdebugaranges{}
sections contain references to locations within the virtual address
space of the program, and require relocation.
\item In the \dotdebugline{} section, the operand of the \DWLNEsetaddress{}
opcode is a reference to a location within the virtual address space
of the program, and requires relocation.
\item The \dotdebugstroffsets{} section contains a list of string offsets,
each of which is an offset of a string in the \dotdebugstr{} section. Each
of these offsets requires relocation. Depending on the implementation,
these relocations may be implicit (that is, the producer may not need to
emit any explicit relocation information for these offsets).
\item The \HFNdebuginfooffset{} field in the \dotdebugaranges header and
the list of compilation units following the \dotdebugnames{} header contain
references to the \dotdebuginfo{} section. These references require relocation
so that after linking they refer to the correct contribution in the combined
\dotdebuginfo{} section in the executable file.
\item Frame descriptor entries in the \dotdebugframe{} section
(see Section \refersec{chap:structureofcallframeinformation}) contain an
\HFNinitiallocation{} field value within the virtual address
space of the program and require relocation.
\end{itemize}
\textit{Note that operands of classes \CLASSblock, \CLASSconstant{} and
\CLASSflag{} do not require relocation. Attribute operands that use
form \DWFORMstring{} also do not require relocation. Further,
attribute operands that use form
\DWFORMrefone, \DWFORMreftwo, \DWFORMreffour, \DWFORMrefeight, or
\DWFORMrefudata{} do not need relocation.}
\subsection{Split DWARF Object Files}
\label{datarep:splitdwarfobjectfiles}
\addtoindexx{split DWARF object file}
A DWARF producer may partition the debugging
information such that the majority of the debugging
information can remain in individual object files without
being processed by the linker.
\needlines{6}
\subsubsection{First Partition (with Skeleton Unit)}
The first partition contains
debugging information that must still be processed by the linker,
and includes the following:
\begin{itemize}
\item
The line number tables, range tables, frame tables, and
accelerated access tables, in the usual sections:
\dotdebugline, \dotdebuglinestr, \dotdebugranges, \dotdebugframe,
\dotdebugnames{} and \dotdebugaranges,
respectively.
\needlines{4}
\item
An address table, in the \dotdebugaddr{} section. This table
contains all addresses and constants that require
link-time relocation, and items in the table can be
referenced indirectly from the debugging information via
the \DWFORMaddrx{} form, and by the \DWOPaddrx{} and
\DWOPconstx{} operators.
\item
A skeleton compilation unit, as described in Section
\refersec{chap:skeletoncompilationunitentries},
in the \dotdebuginfo{} section.
\item
An abbreviations table for the skeleton compilation unit,
in the \dotdebugabbrev{} section.
\item
A string table, in the \dotdebugstr{} section. The string
table is necessary only if the skeleton compilation unit
uses either indirect string form, \DWFORMstrp{} or
\DWFORMstrx.
\item
A string offsets table, in the \dotdebugstroffsets{}
section. The string offsets table is necessary only if
the skeleton compilation unit uses the \DWFORMstrx{} form.
\end{itemize}
The attributes contained in the skeleton compilation
unit can be used by a DWARF consumer to find the object file
or DWARF object file that contains the second partition.
\subsubsection{Second Partition (Unlinked or In \texttt{.dwo} File)}
The second partition contains the debugging information that
does not need to be processed by the linker. These sections
may be left in the object files and ignored by the linker
(that is, not combined and copied to the executable object file), or
they may be placed by the producer in a separate DWARF object
file. This partition includes the following:
\begin{itemize}
\item
The full compilation unit, in the \dotdebuginfodwo{} section.
\begin{itemize}
\item
The full compilation unit entry includes a \DWATdwoid{}
attribute whose form and value is the same as that of the \DWATdwoid{}
attribute of the associated skeleton unit.
\needlines{4}
\item
Attributes contained in the full compilation unit
may refer to machine addresses indirectly using the \DWFORMaddrx{}
form, which accesses the table of addresses specified by the
\DWATaddrbase{} attribute in the associated skeleton unit.
Location expressions may similarly do so using the \DWOPaddrx{} and
\DWOPconstx{} operations.
\item
\DWATranges{} attributes contained in the full compilation unit
may refer to range table entries with a \DWFORMsecoffset{} offset
relative to the base offset specified by the \DWATrangesbase{}
attribute in the associated skeleton unit.
\end{itemize}
\item Separate type units, in the \dotdebuginfodwo{} section.
\item
Abbreviations table(s) for the compilation unit and type
units, in the \dotdebugabbrevdwo{} section.
\item Location lists, in the \dotdebuglocdwo{} section.
\item
A \addtoindex{specialized line number table} (for the type units),
in the \dotdebuglinedwo{} section. This table
contains only the directory and filename lists needed to
interpret \DWATdeclfile{} attributes in the debugging
information entries.
\item Macro information, in the \dotdebugmacrodwo{} section.
\item A string table, in the \dotdebugstrdwo{} section.
\item A string offsets table, in the \dotdebugstroffsetsdwo{}
section.
\end{itemize}
Except where noted otherwise, all references in this document
to a debugging information section (for example, \dotdebuginfo),
applies also to the corresponding split DWARF section (for example,
\dotdebuginfodwo).
Split DWARF object files do not get linked with any other files,
therefore references between sections must not make use of
normal object file relocation information. As a result, symbolic
references within or between sections are not possible.
\subsection{Executable Objects}
\label{chap:executableobjects}
The relocated addresses in the debugging information for an
executable object are virtual addresses.
\needlines{6}
\subsection{Shared Object Files}
\label{datarep:sharedobjectfiles}
The relocated
addresses in the debugging information for a shared object file
are offsets relative to the start of the lowest region of
memory loaded from that shared object file.
\needlines{4}
\textit{This requirement makes the debugging information for
shared object files position independent. Virtual addresses in a
shared object file may be calculated by adding the offset to the
base address at which the object file was attached. This offset
is available in the run\dash time linker\textquoteright s data structures.}
\subsection{DWARF Package Files}
\label{datarep:dwarfpackagefiles}
\textit{Using \splitDWARFobjectfile{s} allows the developer to compile,
link, and debug an application quickly with less link-time overhead,
but a more convenient format is needed for saving the debug
information for later debugging of a deployed application. A
DWARF package file can be used to collect the debugging
information from the object (or separate DWARF object) files
produced during the compilation of an application.}
\textit{The package file is typically placed in the same directory as the
application, and is given the same name with a \doublequote{\texttt{.dwp}}
extension.\addtoindexx{\texttt{.dwp} file extension}}
A DWARF package file is itself an object file, using the
\addtoindexx{package files}
\addtoindexx{DWARF package files}
same object file format (including \byteorder) as the
corresponding application binary. It consists only of a file
header, a section table, a number of DWARF debug information
sections, and two index sections.
\needlines{5}
Each DWARF package file contains no more than one of each of the
following sections, copied from a set of object or DWARF object
files, and combined, section by section:
\begin{alltt}
\dotdebuginfodwo
\dotdebugabbrevdwo
\dotdebuglinedwo
\dotdebuglocdwo
\dotdebugstroffsetsdwo
\dotdebugstrdwo
\dotdebugmacrodwo
\end{alltt}
The string table section in \dotdebugstrdwo{} contains all the
strings referenced from DWARF attributes using the form
\DWFORMstrx. Any attribute in a compilation unit or a type
unit using this form refers to an entry in that unit's
contribution to the \dotdebugstroffsetsdwo{} section, which in turn
provides the offset of a string in the \dotdebugstrdwo{}
section.
The DWARF package file also contains two index sections that
provide a fast way to locate debug information by compilation
unit signature (\DWATdwoid) for compilation units, or by type
signature for type units:
\begin{alltt}
\dotdebugcuindex
\dotdebugtuindex
\end{alltt}
\subsubsection{The Compilation Unit (CU) Index Section}
The \dotdebugcuindex{} section is a hashed lookup table that maps a
compilation unit signature to a set of contributions in the
various debug information sections. Each contribution is stored
as an offset within its corresponding section and a size.
Each \compunitset{} may contain contributions from the
following sections:
\begin{alltt}
\dotdebuginfodwo{} (required)
\dotdebugabbrevdwo{} (required)
\dotdebuglinedwo
\dotdebuglocdwo
\dotdebugstroffsetsdwo
\dotdebugmacrodwo
\end{alltt}
\textit{Note that a \compunitset{} is not able to represent \dotdebugmacinfo{}
information from \DWARFVersionIV{} or earlier formats.}
\subsubsection{The Type Unit (TU) Index Section}
The \dotdebugtuindex{} section is a hashed lookup table that maps a
type signature to a set of offsets into the various debug
information sections. Each contribution is stored as an offset
within its corresponding section and a size.
Each \typeunitset{} may contain contributions from the following
sections:
\begin{alltt}
\dotdebuginfodwo{} (required)
\dotdebugabbrevdwo{} (required)
\dotdebuglinedwo
\dotdebugstroffsetsdwo
\end{alltt}
\textit{Merging of type units with the same type signature
across \texttt{.dwo} files when creating a \texttt{.dwp} file
can be achieved using COMDAT-based techniques similar to those
described in Appendix
\refersec{app:dwarfcompressionandduplicateeliminationinformative}.
In fact, this is necessary in order to combine all \dotdebuginfodwo{}
section contributions into a single \dotdebuginfodwo{} section in a
\texttt{.dwp} file.}
\subsubsection{Format of the CU and TU Index Sections}
Both index sections have the same format, and serve to map a
64-bit signature to a set of contributions to the debug sections.
Each index section begins with a header, followed by a hash table of
signatures, a parallel table of indexes, a table of offsets, and
a table of sizes. The index sections are aligned at 8-byte
boundaries in the DWARF package file.
\needlines{6}
The index section header contains the following fields:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item \texttt{version} (\HFTuhalf) \\
A version number
\addtoindexx{version number!CU index information}
\addtoindexx{version number!TU index information}
(see Appendix \refersec{app:dwarfsectionversionnumbersinformative}).
This number is specific to the CU and TU index information
and is independent of the DWARF version number.
The version number is \versiondotdebugcuindex.
\item \textit{padding} (\HFTuhalf) \\
Reserved to DWARF (must be zero).
\item \texttt{column\_count} (\HFTuword) \\
The number of columns in the table of section counts that follows.
For brevity, the contents of this field is referred to as $C$ below.
\item \texttt{unit\_count} (\HFTuword) \\
The number of compilation units or type units in the index.
For brevity, the contents of this field is referred to as $U$ below.
\item \texttt{slot\_count} (\HFTuword) \\
The number of slots in the hash table.
For brevity, the contents of this field is referred to as $S$ below.
\end{enumerate}
\textit{We assume that $U$ and $S$ do not exceed $2^{32}$.}
The size of the hash table, $S$, must be $2^k$ such that:
\hspace{0.3cm}$2^k\ \ >\ \ 3*U/2$
The hash table begins at offset 16 in the section, and consists
of an array of $S$ 8-byte slots. Each slot contains a 64-bit
signature.
% (using the \byteorder{} of the application binary).
The parallel table of indices begins immediately after the hash table
(at offset \mbox{$16 + 8 * S$} from the beginning of the section), and
consists of an array of $S$ 4-byte slots,
% (using the byte order of the application binary),
corresponding 1-1 with slots in the hash
table. Each entry in the parallel table contains a row index into
the tables of offsets and sizes.
Unused slots in the hash table have 0 in both the hash table
entry and the parallel table entry. While 0 is a valid hash
value, the row index in a used slot will always be non-zero.
Given a 64-bit compilation unit signature or a type signature $X$,
an entry in the hash table is located as follows:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item Calculate a primary hash $H = X\ \&\ MASK(k)$, where $MASK(k)$ is a
mask with the low-order $k$ bits all set to 1.
\item Calculate a secondary hash $H' = (((X>>32)\ \&\ MASK(k))\ |\ 1)$.
\item If the hash table entry at index $H$ matches the signature, use
that entry. If the hash table entry at index $H$ is unused (all
zeroes), terminate the search: the signature is not present
in the table.
\item Let $H = (H + H')\ modulo\ S$. Repeat at Step 3.
\end{enumerate}
Because $S > U$, and $H'$ and $S$ are relatively prime, the search is
guaranteed to stop at an unused slot or find the match.
\needlines{4}
The table of offsets begins immediately following the parallel
table (at offset \mbox{$16 + 12 * S$} from the beginning of the section).
The table is a two-dimensional array of 4-byte words,
%(using the byte order of the application binary),
with $C$ columns and $U + 1$
rows, in row-major order. Each row in the array is indexed
starting from 0. The first row provides a key to the columns:
each column in this row provides a section identifier for a debug
section, and the offsets in the same column of subsequent rows
refer to that section. The section identifiers are shown in
Table \referfol{tab:dwarfpackagefilesectionidentifierencodings}.
\needlines{12}
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c|l}
\caption{DWARF package file section identifier \mbox{encodings}}
\label{tab:dwarfpackagefilesectionidentifierencodings}
\addtoindexx{DWARF package files!section identifier encodings} \\
\hline \bfseries Section identifier &\bfseries Value &\bfseries Section \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Section identifier &\bfseries Value &\bfseries Section\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\DWSECTINFOTARG & 1 & \dotdebuginfodwo \\
\textit{Reserved} & 2 & \\
\DWSECTABBREVTARG & 3 & \dotdebugabbrevdwo \\
\DWSECTLINETARG & 4 & \dotdebuglinedwo \\
\DWSECTLOCTARG & 5 & \dotdebuglocdwo \\
\DWSECTSTROFFSETSTARG & 6 & \dotdebugstroffsetsdwo \\
%DWSECTMACINFO & & \dotdebugmacinfodwo \\
\DWSECTMACROTARG & 7 & \dotdebugmacrodwo \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
The offsets provided by the CU and TU index sections are the
base offsets for the contributions made by each CU or TU to the
corresponding section in the package file. Each CU and TU header
contains a \HFNdebugabbrevoffset{} field, used to find the abbreviations
table for that CU or TU within the contribution to the
\dotdebugabbrevdwo{} section for that CU or TU, and are
interpreted as relative to the base offset given in the index
section. Likewise, offsets into \dotdebuglinedwo{} from
\DWATstmtlist{} attributes are interpreted as relative to
the base offset for \dotdebuglinedwo{}, and offsets into other debug
sections obtained from DWARF attributes are also
interpreted as relative to the corresponding base offset.
The table of sizes begins immediately following the table of
offsets, and provides the sizes of the contributions made by each
CU or TU to the corresponding section in the package file. Like
the table of offsets, it is a two-dimensional array of 4-byte
words, with $C$ columns and $U$ rows, in row-major order. Each row in
the array is indexed starting from 1 (row 0 of the table of
offsets also serves as the key for the table of sizes).
\subsection{DWARF Supplementary Object Files}
\label{datarep:dwarfsupplemetaryobjectfiles}
In order to minimize the size of debugging information, it is possible
to move duplicate debug information entries, strings and macro entries from
several executables or shared object files into a separate
\addtoindexi{\textit{supplementary object file}}{supplementary object file} by some
post-linking utility; the moved entries and strings can be then referenced
from the debugging information of each of those executable or shared object files.
\needlines{4}
A DWARF \addtoindex{supplementary object file} is itself an object file,
using the same object
file format, \byteorder{}, and size as the corresponding application executables
or shared libraries. It consists only of a file header, section table, and
a number of DWARF debug information sections. Both the
\addtoindex{supplementary object file}
and all the executable or shared object files that reference entries or strings in that
file must contain a \dotdebugsup{} section that establishes the relationship.
The \dotdebugsup{} section contains:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item \texttt{version} (\HFTuhalf) \\
\addttindexx{version}
A 2-byte unsigned integer representing the version of the DWARF
information for the compilation unit (see Appendix G). The
value in this field is \versiondotdebugsup.
\item \texttt{is\_supplementary} (\HFTubyte) \\
\addttindexx{is\_supplementary}
A 1-byte unsigned integer, which contains the value 1 if it is
in the \addtoindex{supplementary object file} that other executable or
shared object files refer to, or 0 if it is an executable or shared object
referring to a \addtoindex{supplementary object file}.
\needlines{4}
\item \texttt{sup\_filename} (null terminated filename string) \\
\addttindexx{sup\_filename}
If \addttindex{is\_supplementary} is 0, this contains either an absolute
filename for the \addtoindex{supplementary object file}, or a filename
relative to the object file containing the \dotdebugsup{} section.
If \addttindex{is\_supplementary} is 1, then \addttindex{sup\_filename}
is not needed and must be an empty string (a single null byte).
\needlines{4}
\item \texttt{sup\_checksum\_len} (unsigned LEB128) \\
\addttindexx{sup\_checksum\_len}
Length of the following \addttindex{sup\_checksum} field;
his value can be 0 if no checksum is provided.
\item \texttt{sup\_checksum} (array of \HFTubyte) \\
\addttindexx{sup\_checksum}
Some checksum or cryptographic hash function of the \dotdebuginfo{},
\dotdebugstr{} and \dotdebugmacro{} sections of the
\addtoindex{supplementary object file}, or some unique identifier
which the implementation can choose to verify that the supplementary
section object file matches what the debug information in the executable
or shared object file expects.
\end{enumerate}
Debug information entries that refer to an executable's or shared
object's addresses must \emph{not} be moved to supplementary files (the
addesses will likely not be the same). Similarly,
entries referenced from within location expressions or using loclistptr
form attributes must not be moved to a \addtoindex{supplementary object file}.
Executable or shared object file compilation units can use
\DWTAGimportedunit{} with \DWFORMrefsup{} form \DWATimport{} attribute
to import entries from the \addtoindex{supplementary object file}, other \DWFORMrefsup{}
attributes to refer to them and \DWFORMstrpsup{} form attributes to
refer to strings that are used by debug information of multiple
executables or shared object files. Within the \addtoindex{supplementary object file}'s
debugging sections, form \DWFORMrefsup{} or \DWFORMstrpsup{} are
not used, and all reference forms referring to some other sections
refer to the local sections in the \addtoindex{supplementary object file}.
In macro information, \DWMACROdefinesup{} or
\DWMACROundefsup{} opcodes can refer to strings in the
\dotdebugstr{} section of the \addtoindex{supplementary object file},
or \DWMACROimportsup{}
can refer to \dotdebugmacro{} section entries. Within the
\dotdebugmacro{} section of a \addtoindex{supplementary object file},
\DWMACROdefinestrp{} and \DWMACROundefstrp{}
opcodes refer to the local \dotdebugstr{} section in that
supplementary file, not the one in
the executable or shared object file.
\needlines{6}
\section{32-Bit and 64-Bit DWARF Formats}
\label{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}
\hypertarget{datarep:xxbitdwffmt}{}
\addtoindexx{32-bit DWARF format}
\addtoindexx{64-bit DWARF format}
There are two closely related file formats. In the 32-bit DWARF
format, all values that represent lengths of DWARF sections
and offsets relative to the beginning of DWARF sections are
represented using four bytes. In the 64-bit DWARF format, all
values that represent lengths of DWARF sections and offsets
relative to the beginning of DWARF sections are represented
using eight bytes. A special convention applies to the initial
length field of certain DWARF sections, as well as the CIE and
FDE structures, so that the 32-bit and 64-bit DWARF formats
can coexist and be distinguished within a single linked object.
The differences between the 32- and 64-bit DWARF formats are
detailed in the following:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item In the 32-bit DWARF format, an
\addtoindex{initial length} field (see
\addtoindexx{initial length!encoding}
Section \ref{datarep:initiallengthvalues} on page \pageref{datarep:initiallengthvalues})
is an unsigned 4-byte integer (which
must be less than \xfffffffzero); in the 64-bit DWARF format,
an \addtoindex{initial length} field is 12 bytes in size,
and has two parts:
\begin{itemize}
\item The first four bytes have the value \xffffffff.
\item The following eight bytes contain the actual length
represented as an unsigned 8-byte integer.
\end{itemize}
\textit{This representation allows a DWARF consumer to dynamically
detect that a DWARF section contribution is using the 64-bit
format and to adapt its processing accordingly.}
\needlines{4}
\item Section offset and section length
\hypertarget{datarep:sectionoffsetlength}{}
\addtoindexx{section length!use in headers}
fields that occur
\addtoindexx{section offset!use in headers}
in the headers of DWARF sections (other than initial length
\addtoindexx{initial length}
fields) are listed following. In the 32-bit DWARF format these
are 4-byte unsigned integer values; in the 64-bit DWARF format,
they are 8-byte unsigned integer values.
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{lll}
Section &Name & Role \\ \hline
\dotdebugaranges{} & \addttindex{debug\_info\_offset} & offset in \dotdebuginfo{} \\
\dotdebugframe{}/CIE & \addttindex{CIE\_id} & CIE distinguished value \\
\dotdebugframe{}/FDE & \addttindex{CIE\_pointer} & offset in \dotdebugframe{} \\
\dotdebuginfo{} & \addttindex{debug\_abbrev\_offset} & offset in \dotdebugabbrev{} \\
\dotdebugline{} & \addttindex{header\_length} & length of header itself \\
\dotdebugnames{} & entry in array of CUs & offset in \dotdebuginfo{} \\
& or local TUs & \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\needlines{4}
The \texttt{CIE\_id} field in a CIE structure must be 64 bits because
it overlays the \texttt{CIE\_pointer} in a FDE structure; this implicit
union must be accessed to distinguish whether a CIE or FDE is
present, consequently, these two fields must exactly overlay
each other (both offset and size).
\item Within the body of the \dotdebuginfo{}
section, certain forms of attribute value depend on the choice
of DWARF format as follows. For the 32-bit DWARF format,
the value is a 4-byte unsigned integer; for the 64-bit DWARF
format, the value is an 8-byte unsigned integer.
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{lp{6cm}}
Form & Role \\ \hline
\DWFORMlinestrp & offset in \dotdebuglinestr \\
\DWFORMrefaddr & offset in \dotdebuginfo{} \\
\DWFORMrefsup & offset in \dotdebuginfo{} section of a \mbox{supplementary} object file \\
\addtoindexx{supplementary object file}
\DWFORMsecoffset & offset in a section other than \\
& \dotdebuginfo{} or \dotdebugstr{} \\
\DWFORMstrp & offset in \dotdebugstr{} \\
\DWFORMstrpsup & offset in \dotdebugstr{} section of a \mbox{supplementary} object file \\
\DWOPcallref & offset in \dotdebuginfo{} \\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\needlines{5}
\item Within the body of the \dotdebugline{} section, certain forms of content
description depend on the choice of DWARF format as follows: for the
32-bit DWARF format, the value is a 4-byte unsigned integer; for the
64-bit DWARF format, the value is a 8-byte unsigned integer.
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{lp{6cm}}
Form & Role \\ \hline
\DWFORMlinestrp & offset in \dotdebuglinestr
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\item Within the body of the \dotdebugnames{}
sections, the representation of each entry in the array of
compilation units (CUs) and the array of local type units
(TUs), which represents an offset in the
\dotdebuginfo{}
section, depends on the DWARF format as follows: in the
32-bit DWARF format, each entry is a 4-byte unsigned integer;
in the 64-bit DWARF format, it is a 8-byte unsigned integer.
\needlines{4}
\item In the body of the \dotdebugstroffsets{} and \dotdebugstroffsetsdwo{}
sections, the size of entries in the body depend on the DWARF
format as follows: in the 32-bit DWARF format, entries are 4-byte
unsigned integer values; in the 64-bit DWARF format, they are
8-byte unsigned integers.
\item In the body of the \dotdebugaddr{}, \dotdebugloc{} and \dotdebugranges{}
sections, the contents of the address size fields depends on the
DWARF format as follows: in the 32-bit DWARF format, these fields
contain 4; in the 64-bit DWARF format these fields contain 8.
\end{enumerate}
The 32-bit and 64-bit DWARF format conventions must \emph{not} be
intermixed within a single compilation unit.
\textit{Attribute values and section header fields that represent
addresses in the target program are not affected by these
rules.}
A DWARF consumer that supports the 64-bit DWARF format must
support executables in which some compilation units use the
32-bit format and others use the 64-bit format provided that
the combination links correctly (that is, provided that there
are no link\dash time errors due to truncation or overflow). (An
implementation is not required to guarantee detection and
reporting of all such errors.)
\textit{It is expected that DWARF producing compilers will \emph{not} use
the 64-bit format \emph{by default}. In most cases, the division of
even very large applications into a number of executable and
shared object files will suffice to assure that the DWARF sections
within each individual linked object are less than 4 GBytes
in size. However, for those cases where needed, the 64-bit
format allows the unusual case to be handled as well. Even
in this case, it is expected that only application supplied
objects will need to be compiled using the 64-bit format;
separate 32-bit format versions of system supplied shared
executable libraries can still be used.}
\section{Format of Debugging Information}
\label{datarep:formatofdebugginginformation}
For each compilation unit compiled with a DWARF producer,
a contribution is made to the \dotdebuginfo{} section of
the object file. Each such contribution consists of a
compilation unit header
(see Section \refersec{datarep:compilationunitheader})
followed by a
single \DWTAGcompileunit{} or
\DWTAGpartialunit{} debugging
information entry, together with its children.
For each type defined in a compilation unit, a separate
contribution may also be made to the
\dotdebuginfo{}
section of the object file. Each
such contribution consists of a
\addtoindex{type unit} header
(see Section \refersec{datarep:typeunitheader})
followed by a \DWTAGtypeunit{} entry, together with
its children.
Each debugging information entry begins with a code that
represents an entry in a separate
\addtoindex{abbreviations table}. This
code is followed directly by a series of attribute values.
The appropriate entry in the
\addtoindex{abbreviations table} guides the
interpretation of the information contained directly in the
\dotdebuginfo{} section.
\needlines{4}
Multiple debugging information entries may share the same
abbreviation table entry. Each compilation unit is associated
with a particular abbreviation table, but multiple compilation
units may share the same table.
\subsection{Unit Headers}
\label{datarep:unitheaders}
Unit headers contain a field, \addttindex{unit\_type}, whose value indicates the kind of
compilation unit that follows. The encodings for the unit type
enumeration are shown in Table \refersec{tab:unitheaderunitkindencodings}.
\needlines{6}
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Unit header unit type encodings}
\label{tab:unitheaderunitkindencodings}
\addtoindexx{unit header unit type encodings} \\
\hline \bfseries Unit header unit type encodings&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Unit header unit type encodings&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline \ddag\ \textit{New in DWARF Version 5}
\endlastfoot
\DWUTcompileTARG~\ddag &0x01 \\
\DWUTtypeTARG~\ddag &0x02 \\
\DWUTpartialTARG~\ddag &0x03 \\ \hline
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\needlines{5}
\subsubsection{Compilation Unit Header}
\label{datarep:compilationunitheader}
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item \texttt{unit\_length} (\livelink{datarep:initiallengthvalues}{initial length}) \\
\addttindexx{unit\_length}
A 4-byte or 12-byte
\addtoindexx{initial length}
unsigned integer representing the length
of the \dotdebuginfo{}
contribution for that compilation unit,
not including the length field itself. In the \thirtytwobitdwarfformat,
this is a 4-byte unsigned integer (which must be less
than \xfffffffzero); in the \sixtyfourbitdwarfformat, this consists
of the 4-byte value \wffffffff followed by an 8-byte unsigned
integer that gives the actual length
(see Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\item \texttt{version} (\HFTuhalf) \\
\addttindexx{version}
A 2-byte unsigned integer representing the version of the
DWARF information for the compilation unit \addtoindexx{version number!compilation unit}
(see Appendix \refersec{app:dwarfsectionversionnumbersinformative}).
The value in this field is \versiondotdebuginfo.
\needlines{4}
\item \texttt{unit\_type} (\HFTubyte) \\
\addttindexx{unit\_type}
A 1-byte unsigned integer identifying this unit as a compilation unit.
The value of this field is
\DWUTcompile{} for a {normal compilation} unit or
\DWUTpartial{} for a {partial compilation} unit
(see Section \refersec{chap:normalandpartialcompilationunitentries}).
\textit{This field is new in \DWARFVersionV.}
\needlines{4}
\item \HFNdebugabbrevoffset{} (\livelink{datarep:sectionoffsetlength}{section offset}) \\
A
\addtoindexx{section offset!in .debug\_info header}
4-byte or 8-byte unsigned offset into the
\dotdebugabbrev{}
section. This offset associates the compilation unit with a
particular set of debugging information entry abbreviations. In
the \thirtytwobitdwarfformat, this is a 4-byte unsigned length;
in the \sixtyfourbitdwarfformat, this is an 8-byte unsigned length
(see Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\item \texttt{address\_size} (\HFTubyte) \\
\addttindexx{address\_size}
A 1-byte unsigned integer representing the size in bytes of
an address on the target architecture. If the system uses
\addtoindexx{address space!segmented}
segmented addressing, this value represents the size of the
offset portion of an address.
\end{enumerate}
\subsubsection{Type Unit Header}
\label{datarep:typeunitheader}
The header for the series of debugging information entries
contributing to the description of a type that has been
placed in its own \addtoindex{type unit}, within the
\dotdebuginfo{} section,
consists of the following information:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item \texttt{unit\_length} (\livelink{datarep:initiallengthvalues}{initial length}) \\
\addttindexx{unit\_length}
A 4-byte or 12-byte unsigned integer
\addtoindexx{initial length}
representing the length
of the \dotdebuginfo{} contribution for that type unit,
not including the length field itself. In the \thirtytwobitdwarfformat,
this is a 4-byte unsigned integer (which must be
less than \xfffffffzero); in the \sixtyfourbitdwarfformat, this
consists of the 4-byte value \wffffffff followed by an
8-byte unsigned integer that gives the actual length
(see Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\needlines{4}
\item \texttt{version} (\HFTuhalf) \\
\addttindexx{version}
A 2-byte unsigned integer representing the version of the
DWARF information for the
type unit\addtoindexx{version number!type unit}
(see Appendix \refersec{app:dwarfsectionversionnumbersinformative}).
The value in this field is \versiondotdebuginfo.
\item \texttt{unit\_type} (\HFTubyte) \\
\addttindexx{unit\_type}
A 1-byte unsigned integer identifying this unit as a type unit.
The value of this field is \DWUTtype{} for a type unit
(see Section \refersec{chap:typeunitentries}).
\textit{This field is new in \DWARFVersionV.}
\needlines{4}
\item \HFNdebugabbrevoffset{} (\livelink{datarep:sectionoffsetlength}{section offset}) \\
A
\addtoindexx{section offset!in .debug\_info header}
4-byte or 8-byte unsigned offset into the
\dotdebugabbrev{}
section. This offset associates the type unit with a
particular set of debugging information entry abbreviations. In
the \thirtytwobitdwarfformat, this is a 4-byte unsigned length;
in the \sixtyfourbitdwarfformat, this is an 8-byte unsigned length
(see Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\needlines{4}
\item \texttt{address\_size} (\HFTubyte) \\
\addttindexx{address\_size}
A 1-byte unsigned integer representing the size
\addtoindexx{size of an address}
in bytes of
an address on the target architecture. If the system uses
\addtoindexx{address space!segmented}
segmented addressing, this value represents the size of the
offset portion of an address.
\item \texttt{type\_signature} (8-byte unsigned integer) \\
\addttindexx{type\_signature}
\addtoindexx{type signature}
A unique 64-bit signature (see Section
\refersec{datarep:typesignaturecomputation})
of the type described in this type
unit.
\textit{An attribute that refers (using
\DWFORMrefsigeight{}) to
the primary type contained in this
\addtoindex{type unit} uses this value.}
\item \texttt{type\_offset} (\livelink{datarep:sectionoffsetlength}{section offset}) \\
\addttindexx{type\_offset}
A 4-byte or 8-byte unsigned offset
\addtoindexx{section offset!in .debug\_info header}
relative to the beginning
of the \addtoindex{type unit} header.
This offset refers to the debugging
information entry that describes the type. Because the type
may be nested inside a namespace or other structures, and may
contain references to other types that have not been placed in
separate type units, it is not necessarily either the first or
the only entry in the type unit. In the \thirtytwobitdwarfformat,
this is a 4-byte unsigned length; in the \sixtyfourbitdwarfformat,
this is an 8-byte unsigned length
(see Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Debugging Information Entry}
\label{datarep:debugginginformationentry}
Each debugging information entry begins with an
unsigned LEB128\addtoindexx{LEB128!unsigned}
number containing the abbreviation code for the entry. This
code represents an entry within the abbreviations table
associated with the compilation unit containing this entry. The
abbreviation code is followed by a series of attribute values.
On some architectures, there are alignment constraints on
section boundaries. To make it easier to pad debugging
information sections to satisfy such constraints, the
abbreviation code 0 is reserved. Debugging information entries
consisting of only the abbreviation code 0 are considered
null entries.
\subsection{Abbreviations Tables}
\label{datarep:abbreviationstables}
The abbreviations tables for all compilation units
are contained in a separate object file section called
\dotdebugabbrev{}.
As mentioned before, multiple compilation
units may share the same abbreviations table.
The abbreviations table for a single compilation unit consists
of a series of abbreviation declarations. Each declaration
specifies the tag and attributes for a particular form of
debugging information entry. Each declaration begins with
an unsigned LEB128\addtoindexx{LEB128!unsigned}
number representing the abbreviation
code itself. It is this code that appears at the beginning
of a debugging information entry in the
\dotdebuginfo{}
section. As described above, the abbreviation
code 0 is reserved for null debugging information entries. The
abbreviation code is followed by another unsigned LEB128\addtoindexx{LEB128!unsigned}
number that encodes the entry\textquoteright s tag. The encodings for the
tag names are given in
Table \referfol{tab:tagencodings}.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Tag encodings} \label{tab:tagencodings} \\
\hline \bfseries Tag name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Tag name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline \ddag\ \textit{New in DWARF Version 5}
\endlastfoot
\DWTAGarraytype{} &0x01 \\
\DWTAGclasstype&0x02 \\
\DWTAGentrypoint&0x03 \\
\DWTAGenumerationtype&0x04 \\
\DWTAGformalparameter&0x05 \\
\DWTAGimporteddeclaration&0x08 \\
\DWTAGlabel&0x0a \\
\DWTAGlexicalblock&0x0b \\
\DWTAGmember&0x0d \\
\DWTAGpointertype&0x0f \\
\DWTAGreferencetype&0x10 \\
\DWTAGcompileunit&0x11 \\
\DWTAGstringtype&0x12 \\
\DWTAGstructuretype&0x13 \\
\DWTAGsubroutinetype&0x15 \\
\DWTAGtypedef&0x16 \\
\DWTAGuniontype&0x17 \\
\DWTAGunspecifiedparameters&0x18 \\
\DWTAGvariant&0x19 \\
\DWTAGcommonblock&0x1a \\
\DWTAGcommoninclusion&0x1b \\
\DWTAGinheritance&0x1c \\
\DWTAGinlinedsubroutine&0x1d \\
\DWTAGmodule&0x1e \\
\DWTAGptrtomembertype&0x1f \\
\DWTAGsettype&0x20 \\
\DWTAGsubrangetype&0x21 \\
\DWTAGwithstmt&0x22 \\
\DWTAGaccessdeclaration&0x23 \\
\DWTAGbasetype&0x24 \\
\DWTAGcatchblock&0x25 \\
\DWTAGconsttype&0x26 \\
\DWTAGconstant&0x27 \\
\DWTAGenumerator&0x28 \\
\DWTAGfiletype&0x29 \\
\DWTAGfriend&0x2a \\
\DWTAGnamelist&0x2b \\
\DWTAGnamelistitem&0x2c \\
\DWTAGpackedtype&0x2d \\
\DWTAGsubprogram&0x2e \\
\DWTAGtemplatetypeparameter&0x2f \\
\DWTAGtemplatevalueparameter&0x30 \\
\DWTAGthrowntype&0x31 \\
\DWTAGtryblock&0x32 \\
\DWTAGvariantpart&0x33 \\
\DWTAGvariable&0x34 \\
\DWTAGvolatiletype&0x35 \\
\DWTAGdwarfprocedure&0x36 \\
\DWTAGrestricttype&0x37 \\
\DWTAGinterfacetype&0x38 \\
\DWTAGnamespace&0x39 \\
\DWTAGimportedmodule&0x3a \\
\DWTAGunspecifiedtype&0x3b \\
\DWTAGpartialunit&0x3c \\
\DWTAGimportedunit&0x3d \\
\DWTAGcondition&\xiiif \\
\DWTAGsharedtype&0x40 \\
\DWTAGtypeunit & 0x41 \\
\DWTAGrvaluereferencetype & 0x42 \\
\DWTAGtemplatealias & 0x43 \\
\DWTAGcoarraytype~\ddag & 0x44 \\
\DWTAGgenericsubrange~\ddag & 0x45 \\
\DWTAGdynamictype~\ddag & 0x46 \\
\DWTAGatomictype~\ddag & 0x47 \\
\DWTAGcallsite~\ddag & 0x48 \\
\DWTAGcallsiteparameter~\ddag & 0x49 \\
\DWTAGlouser&0x4080 \\
\DWTAGhiuser&\xffff \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
Following the tag encoding is a 1-byte value that determines
whether a debugging information entry using this abbreviation
has child entries or not. If the value is
\DWCHILDRENyesTARG,
the next physically succeeding entry of any debugging
information entry using this abbreviation is the first
child of that entry. If the 1-byte value following the
abbreviation\textquoteright s tag encoding is
\DWCHILDRENnoTARG, the next
physically succeeding entry of any debugging information entry
using this abbreviation is a sibling of that entry. (Either
the first child or sibling entries may be null entries). The
encodings for the child determination byte are given in
Table \refersec{tab:childdeterminationencodings}
(As mentioned in
Section \refersec{chap:relationshipofdebugginginformationentries},
each chain of sibling entries is terminated by a null entry.)
\needlines{6}
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Child determination encodings}
\label{tab:childdeterminationencodings}
\addtoindexx{Child determination encodings} \\
\hline \bfseries Children determination name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Children determination name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\DWCHILDRENno&0x00 \\
\DWCHILDRENyes&0x01 \\ \hline
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\needlines{4}
Finally, the child encoding is followed by a series of
attribute specifications. Each attribute specification
consists of two parts. The first part is an
unsigned LEB128\addtoindexx{LEB128!unsigned}
number representing the attribute\textquoteright s name.
The second part is an
unsigned LEB128\addtoindexx{LEB128!unsigned}
number representing the attribute\textquoteright s form.
The series of attribute specifications ends with an
entry containing 0 for the name and 0 for the form.
The attribute form
\DWFORMindirectTARG{} is a special case. For
attributes with this form, the attribute value itself in the
\dotdebuginfo{}
section begins with an unsigned
LEB128 number that represents its form. This allows producers
to choose forms for particular attributes
\addtoindexx{abbreviations table!dynamic forms in}
dynamically,
without having to add a new entry to the abbreviations table.
The attribute form \DWFORMimplicitconstTARG{} is another special case.
For attributes with this form, the attribute specification contains
a third part, which is a signed LEB128\addtoindexx{LEB128!signed}
number. The value of this number is used as the value of the
attribute, and no value is stored in the \dotdebuginfo{} section.
The abbreviations for a given compilation unit end with an
entry consisting of a 0 byte for the abbreviation code.
\textit{See
Appendix \refersec{app:compilationunitsandabbreviationstableexample}
for a depiction of the organization of the
debugging information.}
\needlines{12}
\subsection{Attribute Encodings}
\label{datarep:attributeencodings}
The encodings for the attribute names are given in
Table \referfol{tab:attributeencodings}.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c|l}
\caption{Attribute encodings}
\label{tab:attributeencodings}
\addtoindexx{attribute encodings} \\
\hline \bfseries Attribute name&\bfseries Value &\bfseries Classes \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Attribute name&\bfseries Value &\bfseries Classes\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline \ddag\ \textit{New in DWARF Version 5}
\endlastfoot
\DWATsibling&0x01&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{sibling attribute} \\
\DWATlocation&0x02&\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classloclistptr}{loclistptr}
\addtoindexx{location attribute} \\
\DWATname&0x03&\livelink{chap:classstring}{string}
\addtoindexx{name attribute} \\
\DWATordering&0x09&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{ordering attribute} \\
\DWATbytesize&0x0b&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant},
\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{byte size attribute} \\
\textit{Reserved}&0x0c\footnote{Code 0x0c is reserved to allow backward compatible support of the
DW\_AT\_bit\_offset \mbox{attribute} which was
defined in \DWARFVersionIII{} and earlier.}
&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant},
\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{bit offset attribute (Version 3)}
\addtoindexx{DW\_AT\_bit\_offset (deprecated)} \\
\DWATbitsize&0x0d&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant},
\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{bit size attribute} \\
\DWATstmtlist&0x10&\livelink{chap:classlineptr}{lineptr}
\addtoindexx{statement list attribute} \\
\DWATlowpc&0x11&\livelink{chap:classaddress}{address}
\addtoindexx{low PC attribute} \\
\DWAThighpc&0x12&\livelink{chap:classaddress}{address},
\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{high PC attribute} \\
\DWATlanguage&0x13&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{language attribute} \\
\DWATdiscr&0x15&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{discriminant attribute} \\
\DWATdiscrvalue&0x16&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{discriminant value attribute} \\
\DWATvisibility&0x17&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{visibility attribute} \\
\DWATimport&0x18&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{import attribute} \\
\DWATstringlength&0x19&\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classloclistptr}{loclistptr}
\addtoindexx{string length attribute} \\
\DWATcommonreference&0x1a&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{common reference attribute} \\
\DWATcompdir&0x1b&\livelink{chap:classstring}{string}
\addtoindexx{compilation directory attribute} \\
\DWATconstvalue&0x1c&\livelink{chap:classblock}{block},
\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant},
\livelink{chap:classstring}{string}
\addtoindexx{constant value attribute} \\
\DWATcontainingtype&0x1d&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{containing type attribute} \\
\DWATdefaultvalue&0x1e&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant},
\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference},
\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{default value attribute} \\
\DWATinline&0x20&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{inline attribute} \\
\DWATisoptional&0x21&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{is optional attribute} \\
\DWATlowerbound&0x22&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant},
\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{lower bound attribute} \\
\DWATproducer&0x25&\livelink{chap:classstring}{string}
\addtoindexx{producer attribute} \\
\DWATprototyped&0x27&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{prototyped attribute} \\
\DWATreturnaddr&0x2a&\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classloclistptr}{loclistptr}
\addtoindexx{return address attribute} \\
\DWATstartscope&0x2c&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant},
\livelink{chap:classrangelistptr}{rangelistptr}
\addtoindexx{start scope attribute} \\
\DWATbitstride&0x2e&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant},
\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{bit stride attribute} \\
\DWATupperbound&0x2f&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant},
\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{upper bound attribute} \\
\DWATabstractorigin&0x31&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{abstract origin attribute} \\
\DWATaccessibility&0x32&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{accessibility attribute} \\
\DWATaddressclass&0x33&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{address class attribute} \\
\DWATartificial&0x34&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{artificial attribute} \\
\DWATbasetypes&0x35&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{base types attribute} \\
\DWATcallingconvention&0x36&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{calling convention attribute} \\
\DWATcount&0x37&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant},
\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{count attribute} \\
\DWATdatamemberlocation&0x38&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant},
\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classloclistptr}{loclistptr}
\addtoindexx{data member attribute} \\
\DWATdeclcolumn&0x39&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{declaration column attribute} \\
\DWATdeclfile&0x3a&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{declaration file attribute} \\
\DWATdeclline&0x3b&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{declaration line attribute} \\
\DWATdeclaration&0x3c&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{declaration attribute} \\
\DWATdiscrlist&0x3d&\livelink{chap:classblock}{block}
\addtoindexx{discriminant list attribute} \\
\DWATencoding&0x3e&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{encoding attribute} \\
\DWATexternal&\xiiif&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{external attribute} \\
\DWATframebase&0x40&\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classloclistptr}{loclistptr}
\addtoindexx{frame base attribute} \\
\DWATfriend&0x41&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{friend attribute} \\
\DWATidentifiercase&0x42&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{identifier case attribute} \\
\DWATmacroinfo\footnote{\raggedright Not used in \DWARFVersionV.
Reserved for compatibility and coexistence
with prior DWARF versions.}
&0x43&\livelink{chap:classmacptr}{macptr}
\addtoindexx{macro information attribute (legacy)!encoding} \\
\DWATnamelistitem&0x44&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{name list item attribute} \\
\DWATpriority&0x45&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{priority attribute} \\
\DWATsegment&0x46&\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classloclistptr}{loclistptr}
\addtoindexx{segment attribute} \\
\DWATspecification&0x47&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{specification attribute} \\
\DWATstaticlink&0x48&\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classloclistptr}{loclistptr}
\addtoindexx{static link attribute} \\
\DWATtype&0x49&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{type attribute} \\
\DWATuselocation&0x4a&\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classloclistptr}{loclistptr}
\addtoindexx{location list attribute} \\
\DWATvariableparameter&0x4b&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{variable parameter attribute} \\
\DWATvirtuality&0x4c&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{virtuality attribute} \\
\DWATvtableelemlocation&0x4d&\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classloclistptr}{loclistptr}
\addtoindexx{vtable element location attribute} \\
\DWATallocated&0x4e&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant},
\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{allocated attribute} \\
\DWATassociated&0x4f&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant},
\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{associated attribute} \\
\DWATdatalocation&0x50&\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc}
\addtoindexx{data location attribute} \\
\DWATbytestride&0x51&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant},
\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc},
\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{byte stride attribute} \\
\DWATentrypc&0x52&\livelink{chap:classaddress}{address},
\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{entry PC attribute} \\
\DWATuseUTFeight&0x53&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{use UTF8 attribute}\addtoindexx{UTF-8} \\
\DWATextension&0x54&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{extension attribute} \\
\DWATranges&0x55&\livelink{chap:classrangelistptr}{rangelistptr}
\addtoindexx{ranges attribute} \\
\DWATtrampoline&0x56&\livelink{chap:classaddress}{address},
\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag},
\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference},
\livelink{chap:classstring}{string}
\addtoindexx{trampoline attribute} \\
\DWATcallcolumn&0x57&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{call column attribute} \\
\DWATcallfile&0x58&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{call file attribute} \\
\DWATcallline&0x59&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{call line attribute} \\
\DWATdescription&0x5a&\livelink{chap:classstring}{string}
\addtoindexx{description attribute} \\
\DWATbinaryscale&0x5b&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{binary scale attribute} \\
\DWATdecimalscale&0x5c&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{decimal scale attribute} \\
\DWATsmall{} &0x5d&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{small attribute} \\
\DWATdecimalsign&0x5e&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{decimal scale attribute} \\
\DWATdigitcount&0x5f&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{digit count attribute} \\
\DWATpicturestring&0x60&\livelink{chap:classstring}{string}
\addtoindexx{picture string attribute} \\
\DWATmutable&0x61&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{mutable attribute} \\
\DWATthreadsscaled&0x62&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{thread scaled attribute} \\
\DWATexplicit&0x63&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{explicit attribute} \\
\DWATobjectpointer&0x64&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{object pointer attribute} \\
\DWATendianity&0x65&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{endianity attribute} \\
\DWATelemental&0x66&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{elemental attribute} \\
\DWATpure&0x67&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{pure attribute} \\
\DWATrecursive&0x68&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{recursive attribute} \\
\DWATsignature{} &0x69&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference}
\addtoindexx{signature attribute} \\
\DWATmainsubprogram{} &0x6a&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{main subprogram attribute} \\
\DWATdatabitoffset{} &0x6b&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{data bit offset attribute} \\
\DWATconstexpr{} &0x6c&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{constant expression attribute} \\
\DWATenumclass{} &0x6d&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag}
\addtoindexx{enumeration class attribute} \\
\DWATlinkagename{} &0x6e&\livelink{chap:classstring}{string}
\addtoindexx{linkage name attribute} \\
\DWATstringlengthbitsize{}~\ddag&0x6f&
\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{string length attribute!size of length} \\
\DWATstringlengthbytesize{}~\ddag&0x70&
\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{string length attribute!size of length} \\
\DWATrank~\ddag&0x71&
\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant},
\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc}
\addtoindexx{rank attribute} \\
\DWATstroffsetsbase~\ddag&0x72&
\livelinki{chap:classstroffsetsptr}{stroffsetsptr}{stroffsetsptr class}
\addtoindexx{string offsets base!encoding} \\
\DWATaddrbase~\ddag &0x73&
\livelinki{chap:classaddrptr}{addrptr}{addrptr class}
\addtoindexx{address table base!encoding} \\
\DWATrangesbase~\ddag&0x74&
\livelinki{chap:classrangelistptr}{rangelistptr}{rangelistptr class}
\addtoindexx{ranges base!encoding} \\
\DWATdwoid~\ddag &0x75&
\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant}
\addtoindexx{split DWARF object file id!encoding} \\
\DWATdwoname~\ddag &0x76&
\livelink{chap:classstring}{string}
\addtoindexx{split DWARF object file name!encoding} \\
\DWATreference~\ddag &0x77&
\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag} \\
\DWATrvaluereference~\ddag &0x78&
\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag} \\
\DWATmacros~\ddag &0x79&\livelink{chap:classmacptr}{macptr}
\addtoindexx{macro information attribute} \\
\DWATcallallcalls~\ddag &0x7a&\CLASSflag
\addtoindexx{all calls summary attribute} \\
\DWATcallallsourcecalls~\ddag &0x7b &\CLASSflag
\addtoindexx{all source calls summary attribute} \\
\DWATcallalltailcalls~\ddag &0x7c&\CLASSflag
\addtoindexx{all tail calls summary attribute} \\
\DWATcallreturnpc~\ddag &0x7d &\CLASSaddress
\addtoindexx{call return PC attribute} \\
\DWATcallvalue~\ddag &0x7e &\CLASSexprloc
\addtoindexx{call value attribute} \\
\DWATcallorigin~\ddag &0x7f &\CLASSexprloc
\addtoindexx{call origin attribute} \\
\DWATcallparameter~\ddag &0x80 &\CLASSreference
\addtoindexx{call parameter attribute} \\
\DWATcallpc~\ddag &0x81 &\CLASSaddress
\addtoindexx{call PC attribute} \\
\DWATcalltailcall~\ddag &0x82 &\CLASSflag
\addtoindexx{call tail call attribute} \\
\DWATcalltarget~\ddag &0x83 &\CLASSexprloc
\addtoindexx{call target attribute} \\
\DWATcalltargetclobbered~\ddag &0x84 &\CLASSexprloc
\addtoindexx{call target clobbered attribute} \\
\DWATcalldatalocation~\ddag &0x85 &\CLASSexprloc
\addtoindexx{call data location attribute} \\
\DWATcalldatavalue~\ddag &0x86 &\CLASSexprloc
\addtoindexx{call data value attribute} \\
\DWATnoreturn~\ddag &0x87 &\CLASSflag
\addtoindexx{noreturn attribute} \\
\DWATalignment~\ddag &0x88 &\CLASSconstant
\addtoindexx{alignment attribute} \\
\DWATexportsymbols~\ddag &0x89 &\CLASSflag
\addtoindexx{export symbols attribute} \\
\DWATdeleted~\ddag &0x8a &\CLASSflag \addtoindexx{deleted attribute} \\
\DWATdefaulted~\ddag &0x8b &\CLASSconstant \addtoindexx{defaulted attribute} \\
\DWATlouser&0x2000 & --- \addtoindexx{low user attribute encoding} \\
\DWAThiuser&\xiiifff& --- \addtoindexx{high user attribute encoding} \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
The attribute form governs how the value of the attribute is
encoded. There are nine classes of form, listed below. Each
class is a set of forms which have related representations
and which are given a common interpretation according to the
attribute in which the form is used.
Form \DWFORMsecoffsetTARG{}
is a member of more
\addtoindexx{rangelistptr class}
than
\addtoindexx{macptr class}
one
\addtoindexx{loclistptr class}
class,
\addtoindexx{lineptr class}
namely
\CLASSaddrptr,
\CLASSlineptr,
\CLASSloclistptr,
\CLASSmacptr,
\CLASSrangelistptr{} or
\CLASSstroffsetsptr;
the list of classes allowed by the applicable attribute in
Table \refersec{tab:attributeencodings}
determines the class of the form.
\needlines{4}
In the form descriptions that follow, some forms are said
to depend in part on the value of an attribute of the
\definition{\associatedcompilationunit}:
\begin{itemize}
\item
In the case of a \splitDWARFobjectfile{}, the associated
compilation unit is the skeleton compilation unit corresponding
to the containing unit.
\item Otherwise, the associated compilation unit
is the containing unit.
\end{itemize}
\needlines{4}
Each possible form belongs to one or more of the following classes
(see Table \refersec{tab:classesofattributevalue} for a summary of
the purpose and general usage of each class):
\begin{itemize}
\item \livelinki{chap:classaddress}{address}{address class} \\
\livetarg{datarep:classaddress}{}
Represented as either:
\begin{itemize}
\item An object of appropriate size to hold an
address on the target machine
(\DWFORMaddrTARG).
The size is encoded in the compilation unit header
(see Section \refersec{datarep:compilationunitheader}).
This address is relocatable in a relocatable object file and
is relocated in an executable file or shared object file.
\item An indirect index into a table of addresses (as
described in the previous bullet) in the
\dotdebugaddr{} section (\DWFORMaddrxTARG).
The representation of a \DWFORMaddrxNAME{} value is an unsigned
\addtoindex{LEB128} value, which is interpreted as a zero-based
index into an array of addresses in the \dotdebugaddr{} section.
The index is relative to the value of the \DWATaddrbase{} attribute
of the associated compilation unit.
\end{itemize}
\needlines{5}
\item \livelink{chap:classaddrptr}{addrptr} \\
\livetarg{datarep:classaddrptr}{}
This is an offset into the \dotdebugaddr{} section (\DWFORMsecoffset). It
consists of an offset from the beginning of the \dotdebugaddr{} section to the
beginning of the list of machine addresses information for the
referencing entity. It is relocatable in
a relocatable object file, and relocated in an executable or
shared object file. In the \thirtytwobitdwarfformat, this offset
is a 4-byte unsigned value; in the 64-bit DWARF
format, it is an 8-byte unsigned value (see Section
\refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\textit{This class is new in \DWARFVersionV.}
\needlines{4}
\item \livelink{chap:classblock}{block} \\
\livetarg{datarep:classblock}{}
Blocks come in four forms:
\begin{itemize}
\item
A 1-byte length followed by 0 to 255 contiguous information
bytes (\DWFORMblockoneTARG).
\item
A 2-byte length followed by 0 to 65,535 contiguous information
bytes (\DWFORMblocktwoTARG).
\item
A 4-byte length followed by 0 to 4,294,967,295 contiguous
information bytes (\DWFORMblockfourTARG).
\item
An unsigned LEB128\addtoindexx{LEB128!unsigned}
length followed by the number of bytes
specified by the length (\DWFORMblockTARG).
\end{itemize}
In all forms, the length is the number of information bytes
that follow. The information bytes may contain any mixture
of relocated (or relocatable) addresses, references to other
debugging information entries or data bytes.
\item \livelinki{chap:classconstant}{constant}{constant class} \\
\livetarg{datarep:classconstant}{}
There are eight forms of constants. There are fixed length
constant data forms for one-, two-, four-, eight- and sixteen-byte values
(respectively,
\DWFORMdataoneTARG,
\DWFORMdatatwoTARG,
\DWFORMdatafourTARG,
\DWFORMdataeightTARG{} and
\DWFORMdatasixteenTARG).
There are also variable length constant
data forms encoded using LEB128 numbers (see below).
Both signed (\DWFORMsdataTARG) and unsigned
(\DWFORMudataTARG) variable length constants are available.
There is also an implicit constant (\DWFORMimplicitconst),
whose value is provided as part of the abbreviation
declaration.
\needlines{4}
The data in \DWFORMdataone,
\DWFORMdatatwo,
\DWFORMdatafour{},
\DWFORMdataeight{} and
\DWFORMdatasixteen{}
can be anything. Depending on context, it may
be a signed integer, an unsigned integer, a floating\dash point
constant, or anything else. A consumer must use context to
know how to interpret the bits, which if they are target
machine data (such as an integer or floating-point constant)
will be in target machine \byteorder.
\textit{If one of the \DWFORMdataTARG\textless n\textgreater
forms is used to represent a
signed or unsigned integer, it can be hard for a consumer
to discover the context necessary to determine which
interpretation is intended. Producers are therefore strongly
encouraged to use \DWFORMsdata{} or
\DWFORMudata{} for signed and
unsigned integers respectively, rather than
\DWFORMdata\textless n\textgreater.}
\needlines{4}
\item \livelinki{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc}{exprloc class} \\
\livetarg{datarep:classexprloc}{}
This is an unsigned LEB128\addtoindexx{LEB128!unsigned} length followed by the
number of information bytes specified by the length
(\DWFORMexprlocTARG).
The information bytes contain a DWARF expression
(see Section \refersec{chap:dwarfexpressions})
or location description
(see Section \refersec{chap:locationdescriptions}).
\needlines{4}
\item \livelinki{chap:classflag}{flag}{flag class} \\
\livetarg{datarep:classflag}{}
A flag \addtoindexx{flag class}
is represented explicitly as a single byte of data
(\DWFORMflagTARG) or
implicitly (\DWFORMflagpresentTARG).
In the
first case, if the \nolink{flag} has value zero, it indicates the
absence of the attribute; if the \nolink{flag} has a non\dash zero value,
it indicates the presence of the attribute. In the second
case, the attribute is implicitly indicated as present, and
no value is encoded in the debugging information entry itself.
\item \livelinki{chap:classlineptr}{lineptr}{lineptr class} \\
\livetarg{datarep:classlineptr}{}
This is an offset into
\addtoindexx{section offset!in class lineptr value}
the
\dotdebugline{} or \dotdebuglinedwo{} section
(\DWFORMsecoffset).
It consists of an offset from the beginning of the
\dotdebugline{}
section to the first byte of
the data making up the line number list for the compilation
unit.
It is relocatable in a relocatable object file, and
relocated in an executable or shared object file. In the
\thirtytwobitdwarfformat, this offset is a 4-byte unsigned value;
in the \sixtyfourbitdwarfformat, it is an 8-byte unsigned value
(see Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\item \livelinki{chap:classloclistptr}{loclistptr}{loclistptr class} \\
\livetarg{datarep:classloclistptr}{}
This is an offset into the
\dotdebugloc{}
section
(\DWFORMsecoffset).
It consists of an offset from the
\addtoindexx{section offset!in class loclistptr value}
beginning of the
\dotdebugloc{}
section to the first byte of
the data making up the
\addtoindex{location list} for the compilation unit.
It is relocatable in a relocatable object file, and
relocated in an executable or shared object file. In the
\thirtytwobitdwarfformat, this offset is a 4-byte unsigned value;
in the \sixtyfourbitdwarfformat, it is an 8-byte unsigned value
(see Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\item \livelinki{chap:classmacptr}{macptr}{macptr class} \\
\livetarg{datarep:classmacptr}{}
This is an
\addtoindexx{section offset!in class macptr value}
offset into the
\dotdebugmacro{} or \dotdebugmacrodwo{} section
(\DWFORMsecoffset).
It consists of an offset from the beginning of the
\dotdebugmacro{} or \dotdebugmacrodwo{}
section to the the header making up the
macro information list for the compilation unit.
It is relocatable in a relocatable object file, and
relocated in an executable or shared object file. In the
\thirtytwobitdwarfformat, this offset is a 4-byte unsigned value;
in the \sixtyfourbitdwarfformat, it is an 8-byte unsigned value
(see Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\needlines{4}
\item \livelinki{chap:classrangelistptr}{rangelistptr}{rangelistptr class} \\
\livetarg{datarep:classrangelistptr}{}
This is an
\addtoindexx{section offset!in class rangelistptr value}
offset into the \dotdebugranges{} section
(\DWFORMsecoffset).
It consists of an
offset from the beginning of the
\dotdebugranges{} section
to the beginning of the non\dash contiguous address ranges
information for the referencing entity.
It is relocatable in
a relocatable object file, and relocated in an executable or
shared object file.
However, if a \DWATrangesbase{} attribute applies, the offset
is relative to the base offset given by \DWATrangesbase.
In the \thirtytwobitdwarfformat, this offset
is a 4-byte unsigned value; in the 64-bit DWARF
format, it is an 8-byte unsigned value (see Section
\refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\end{itemize}
\textit{Because classes
\CLASSaddrptr,
\CLASSlineptr,
\CLASSloclistptr,
\CLASSmacptr,
\CLASSrangelistptr{} and
\CLASSstroffsetsptr{}
share a common representation, it is not possible for an
attribute to allow more than one of these classes}
\begin{itemize}
\item \livelinki{chap:classreference}{reference}{reference class} \\
\livetarg{datarep:classreference}{}
There are four types of reference.
The
\addtoindexx{reference class}
first type of reference can identify any debugging
information entry within the containing unit.
This type of
reference is an
\addtoindexx{section offset!in class reference value}
offset from the first byte of the compilation
header for the compilation unit containing the reference. There
are five forms for this type of reference. There are fixed
length forms for one, two, four and eight byte offsets
(respectively,
\DWFORMrefnMARK
\DWFORMrefoneTARG,
\DWFORMreftwoTARG,
\DWFORMreffourTARG,
and \DWFORMrefeightTARG).
There is also an unsigned variable
length offset encoded form that uses
unsigned LEB128\addtoindexx{LEB128!unsigned} numbers
(\DWFORMrefudataTARG).
Because this type of reference is within
the containing compilation unit no relocation of the value
is required.
The second type of reference can identify any debugging
information entry within a
\dotdebuginfo{} section; in particular,
it may refer to an entry in a different compilation unit
from the unit containing the reference, and may refer to an
entry in a different shared object file. This type of reference
(\DWFORMrefaddrTARG)
is an offset from the beginning of the
\dotdebuginfo{}
section of the target executable or shared object file, or, for
references within a \addtoindex{supplementary object file},
an offset from the beginning of the local \dotdebuginfo{} section;
it is relocatable in a relocatable object file and frequently
relocated in an executable or shared object file. For
references from one shared object or static executable file
to another, the relocation and identification of the target
object must be performed by the consumer. In the
\thirtytwobitdwarfformat, this offset is a 4-byte unsigned value;
in the \sixtyfourbitdwarfformat, it is an 8-byte
unsigned value
(see Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\textit{A debugging information entry that may be referenced by
another compilation unit using
\DWFORMrefaddr{} must have a global symbolic name.}
\textit{For a reference from one executable or shared object file to
another, the reference is resolved by the debugger to identify
the executable or shared object file and the offset into that
file\textquoteright s \dotdebuginfo{}
section in the same fashion as the run
time loader, either when the debug information is first read,
or when the reference is used.}
The third type of reference can identify any debugging
information type entry that has been placed in its own
\addtoindex{type unit}. This type of
reference (\DWFORMrefsigeightTARG) is the
\addtoindexx{type signature}
64-bit type signature
(see Section \refersec{datarep:typesignaturecomputation})
that was computed for the type.
The fourth type of reference is a reference from within the
\dotdebuginfo{} section of the executable or shared object file to
a debugging information entry in the \dotdebuginfo{} section of
a \addtoindex{supplementary object file}.
This type of reference (\DWFORMrefsupTARG) is an offset from the
beginning of the \dotdebuginfo{} section in the
\addtoindex{supplementary object file}.
\textit{The use of compilation unit relative references will reduce the
number of link\dash time relocations and so speed up linking. The
use of the second, third and fourth type of reference allows for the
sharing of information, such as types, across compilation
units, while the fourth type further allows for sharing of information
across compilation units from different executables or shared object files.}
\textit{A reference to any kind of compilation unit identifies the
debugging information entry for that unit, not the preceding
header.}
\needlines{4}
\item \livelinki{chap:classstring}{string}{string class} \\
\livetarg{datarep:classstring}{}
A string is a sequence of contiguous non\dash null bytes followed by
one null byte.
\addtoindexx{string class}
A string may be represented:
\begin{itemize}
\setlength{\itemsep}{0em}
\item immediately in the debugging information entry itself
(\DWFORMstringTARG),
\item as an
\addtoindexx{section offset!in class string value}
offset into a string table contained in
the \dotdebugstr{} section of the object file (\DWFORMstrpTARG),
the \dotdebuglinestr{} section of the object file (\DWFORMlinestrpTARG),
or as an offset into a string table contained in the
\dotdebugstr{} section of a \addtoindex{supplementary object file}
(\DWFORMstrpsupTARG). \DWFORMstrpsupNAME{} offsets from the \dotdebuginfo{}
section of a \addtoindex{supplementary object file}
refer to the local \dotdebugstr{} section of that same file.
In the \thirtytwobitdwarfformat, the representation of a
\DWFORMstrpNAME{}, \DWFORMstrpNAME{} or \DWFORMstrpsupNAME{}
value is a 4-byte unsigned offset; in the \sixtyfourbitdwarfformat,
it is an 8-byte unsigned offset
(see Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\needlines{6}
\item as an indirect offset into the string table using an
index into a table of offsets contained in the
\dotdebugstroffsets{} section of the object file (\DWFORMstrxTARG).
The representation of a \DWFORMstrxNAME{} value is an unsigned
\addtoindex{LEB128} value, which is interpreted as a zero-based
index into an array of offsets in the \dotdebugstroffsets{} section.
The offset entries in the \dotdebugstroffsets{} section have the
same representation as \DWFORMstrp{} values.
\end{itemize}
Any combination of these three forms may be used within a single compilation.
If the \DWATuseUTFeight{}
\addtoindexx{use UTF8 attribute}\addtoindexx{UTF-8} attribute is specified for the
compilation, partial, skeleton or type unit entry, string values are encoded using the
UTF\dash 8 (\addtoindex{Unicode} Transformation Format\dash 8) from the Universal
Character Set standard (ISO/IEC 10646\dash 1:1993).
\addtoindexx{ISO 10646 character set standard}
Otherwise, the string representation is unspecified.
\textit{The \addtoindex{Unicode} Standard Version 3 is fully compatible with
ISO/IEC 10646\dash 1:1993.
\addtoindexx{ISO 10646 character set standard}
It contains all the same characters
and encoding points as ISO/IEC 10646, as well as additional
information about the characters and their use.}
\textit{Earlier versions of DWARF did not specify the representation
of strings; for compatibility, this version also does
not. However, the UTF\dash 8 representation is strongly recommended.}
\needlines{4}
\item \livelinki{chap:classstroffsetsptr}{stroffsetsptr}{stroffsetsptr class} \\
\livetarg{datarep:classstroffsetsptr}{}
This is an offset into the \dotdebugstroffsets{} section
(\DWFORMsecoffset). It consists of an offset from the beginning of the
\dotdebugstroffsets{} section to the
beginning of the string offsets information for the
referencing entity. It is relocatable in
a relocatable object file, and relocated in an executable or
shared object file. In the \thirtytwobitdwarfformat, this offset
is a 4-byte unsigned value; in the \sixtyfourbitdwarfformat,
it is an 8-byte unsigned value (see Section
\refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\textit{This class is new in \DWARFVersionV.}
\end{itemize}
In no case does an attribute use one of the classes
\CLASSaddrptr,
\CLASSlineptr,
\CLASSloclistptr,
\CLASSmacptr,
\CLASSrangelistptr{} or
\CLASSstroffsetsptr{}
to point into either the
\dotdebuginfo{} or \dotdebugstr{} section.
The form encodings are listed in
Table \referfol{tab:attributeformencodings}.
\needlines{8}
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c|l}
\caption{Attribute form encodings} \label{tab:attributeformencodings} \\
\hline \bfseries Form name&\bfseries Value &\bfseries Classes \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Form name&\bfseries Value &\bfseries Classes\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline \ddag\ \textit{New in DWARF Version 5}
\endlastfoot
\DWFORMaddr &0x01&\livelink{chap:classaddress}{address} \\
\textit{Reserved} &0x02& \\
\DWFORMblocktwo &0x03&\livelink{chap:classblock}{block} \\
\DWFORMblockfour &0x04&\livelink{chap:classblock}{block} \\
\DWFORMdatatwo &0x05&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant} \\
\DWFORMdatafour &0x06&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant} \\
\DWFORMdataeight &0x07&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant} \\
\DWFORMstring&0x08&\livelink{chap:classstring}{string} \\
\DWFORMblock&0x09&\livelink{chap:classblock}{block} \\
\DWFORMblockone &0x0a&\livelink{chap:classblock}{block} \\
\DWFORMdataone &0x0b&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant} \\
\DWFORMflag&0x0c&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag} \\
\DWFORMsdata&0x0d&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant} \\
\DWFORMstrp&0x0e&\livelink{chap:classstring}{string} \\
\DWFORMudata&0x0f&\livelink{chap:classconstant}{constant} \\
\DWFORMrefaddr&0x10&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference} \\
\DWFORMrefone&0x11&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference} \\
\DWFORMreftwo&0x12&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference} \\
\DWFORMreffour&0x13&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference} \\
\DWFORMrefeight&0x14&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference} \\
\DWFORMrefudata&0x15&\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference} \\
\DWFORMindirect&0x16&(see Section \refersec{datarep:abbreviationstables}) \\
\DWFORMsecoffset{} &0x17& \CLASSaddrptr, \CLASSlineptr, \CLASSloclistptr, \\
& & \CLASSmacptr, \CLASSrangelistptr, \CLASSstroffsetsptr \\
\DWFORMexprloc{} &0x18&\livelink{chap:classexprloc}{exprloc} \\
\DWFORMflagpresent{} &0x19&\livelink{chap:classflag}{flag} \\
\DWFORMstrx{} \ddag &0x1a&\livelink{chap:classstring}{string} \\
\DWFORMaddrx{} \ddag &0x1b&\livelink{chap:classaddress}{address} \\
\DWFORMrefsup{}~\ddag &0x1c &\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference} \\
\DWFORMstrpsup{}~\ddag &0x1d &\livelink{chap:classstring}{string} \\
\DWFORMdatasixteen~\ddag &0x1e &\CLASSconstant \\
\DWFORMlinestrp~\ddag &0x1f &\CLASSstring \\
\DWFORMrefsigeight &0x20 &\livelink{chap:classreference}{reference} \\
\DWFORMimplicitconst~\ddag &0x21 &\CLASSconstant \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\needlines{6}
\section{Variable Length Data}
\label{datarep:variablelengthdata}
\addtoindexx{variable length data|see {LEB128}}
Integers may be
\addtoindexx{Little Endian Base 128|see{LEB128}}
encoded using \doublequote{Little Endian Base 128}
\addtoindexx{little-endian encoding|see{endian attribute}}
(LEB128) numbers.
\addtoindexx{LEB128}
LEB128 is a scheme for encoding integers
densely that exploits the assumption that most integers are
small in magnitude.
\textit{This encoding is equally suitable whether the target machine
architecture represents data in big\dash\ endian or little\dash endian
\byteorder. It is \doublequote{little\dash endian} only in the sense that it
avoids using space to represent the \doublequote{big} end of an
unsigned integer, when the big end is all zeroes or sign
extension bits.}
Unsigned LEB128\addtoindexx{LEB128!unsigned} (\addtoindex{ULEB128})
numbers are encoded as follows:
\addtoindexx{LEB128!unsigned, encoding as}
start at the low order end of an unsigned integer and chop
it into 7-bit chunks. Place each chunk into the low order 7
bits of a byte. Typically, several of the high order bytes
will be zero; discard them. Emit the remaining bytes in a
stream, starting with the low order byte; set the high order
bit on each byte except the last emitted byte. The high bit
of zero on the last byte indicates to the decoder that it
has encountered the last byte.
The integer zero is a special case, consisting of a single
zero byte.
Table \refersec{tab:examplesofunsignedleb128encodings}
gives some examples of unsigned LEB128\addtoindexx{LEB128!unsigned}
numbers. The
0x80 in each case is the high order bit of the byte, indicating
that an additional byte follows.
The encoding for signed, two\textquoteright{s} complement LEB128
(\addtoindex{SLEB128}) \addtoindexx{LEB128!signed, encoding as}
numbers is similar, except that the criterion for discarding
high order bytes is not whether they are zero, but whether
they consist entirely of sign extension bits. Consider the
4-byte integer -2. The three high level bytes of the number
are sign extension, thus LEB128 would represent it as a single
byte containing the low order 7 bits, with the high order
bit cleared to indicate the end of the byte stream. Note
that there is nothing within the LEB128 representation that
indicates whether an encoded number is signed or unsigned. The
decoder must know what type of number to expect.
Table \refersec{tab:examplesofunsignedleb128encodings}
gives some examples of unsigned LEB128\addtoindexx{LEB128!unsigned}
numbers and Table \refersec{tab:examplesofsignedleb128encodings}
gives some examples of signed LEB128\addtoindexx{LEB128!signed}
numbers.
\textit{Appendix \refersec{app:variablelengthdataencodingdecodinginformative}
\addtoindexx{LEB128!examples}
gives algorithms for encoding and decoding these forms.}
\needlines{8}
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{c|c|c}
\caption{Examples of unsigned LEB128 encodings}
\label{tab:examplesofunsignedleb128encodings}
\addtoindexx{LEB128 encoding!examples}\addtoindexx{LEB128!unsigned} \\
\hline \bfseries Number&\bfseries First byte &\bfseries Second byte \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Number&\bfseries First Byte &\bfseries Second byte\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
2&2& --- \\
127&127& ---\\
128& 0 + 0x80 & 1 \\
129& 1 + 0x80 & 1 \\
%130& 2 + 0x80 & 1 \\
12857& 57 + 0x80 & 100 \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{c|c|c}
\caption{Examples of signed LEB128 encodings}
\label{tab:examplesofsignedleb128encodings}
\addtoindexx{LEB128!signed} \\
\hline \bfseries Number&\bfseries First byte &\bfseries Second byte \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Number&\bfseries First Byte &\bfseries Second byte\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
2&2& --- \\
-2&0x7e& ---\\
127& 127 + 0x80 & 0 \\
-127& 1 + 0x80 & 0x7f \\
128& 0 + 0x80 & 1 \\
-128& 0 + 0x80 & 0x7f \\
129& 1 + 0x80 & 1 \\
-129& 0x7f + 0x80 & 0x7e \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\section{DWARF Expressions and Location Descriptions}
\label{datarep:dwarfexpressionsandlocationdescriptions}
\subsection{DWARF Expressions}
\label{datarep:dwarfexpressions}
A
\addtoindexx{DWARF expression!operator encoding}
DWARF expression is stored in a \nolink{block} of contiguous
bytes. The bytes form a sequence of operations. Each operation
is a 1-byte code that identifies that operation, followed by
zero or more bytes of additional data. The encodings for the
operations are described in
Table \refersec{tab:dwarfoperationencodings}.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c|c|l}
\caption{DWARF operation encodings} \label{tab:dwarfoperationencodings} \\
\hline & &\bfseries No. of &\\
\bfseries Operation&\bfseries Code &\bfseries Operands &\bfseries Notes\\ \hline
\endfirsthead
& &\bfseries No. of &\\
\bfseries Operation&\bfseries Code &\bfseries Operands &\bfseries Notes\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline \ddag\ \textit{New in DWARF Version 5}
\endlastfoot
\DWOPaddr&0x03&1 & constant address \\
& & &(size is target specific) \\
\DWOPderef&0x06&0 & \\
\DWOPconstoneu&0x08&1&1-byte constant \\
\DWOPconstones&0x09&1&1-byte constant \\
\DWOPconsttwou&0x0a&1&2-byte constant \\
\DWOPconsttwos&0x0b&1&2-byte constant \\
\DWOPconstfouru&0x0c&1&4-byte constant \\
\DWOPconstfours&0x0d&1&4-byte constant \\
\DWOPconsteightu&0x0e&1&8-byte constant \\
\DWOPconsteights&0x0f&1&8-byte constant \\
\DWOPconstu&0x10&1&ULEB128 constant \\
\DWOPconsts&0x11&1&SLEB128 constant \\
\DWOPdup&0x12&0 & \\
\DWOPdrop&0x13&0 & \\
\DWOPover&0x14&0 & \\
\DWOPpick&0x15&1&1-byte stack index \\
\DWOPswap&0x16&0 & \\
\DWOProt&0x17&0 & \\
\DWOPxderef&0x18&0 & \\
\DWOPabs&0x19&0 & \\
\DWOPand&0x1a&0 & \\
\DWOPdiv&0x1b&0 & \\
\DWOPminus&0x1c&0 & \\
\DWOPmod&0x1d&0 & \\
\DWOPmul&0x1e&0 & \\
\DWOPneg&0x1f&0 & \\
\DWOPnot&0x20&0 & \\
\DWOPor&0x21&0 & \\
\DWOPplus&0x22&0 & \\
\DWOPplusuconst&0x23&1&ULEB128 addend \\
\DWOPshl&0x24&0 & \\
\DWOPshr&0x25&0 & \\
\DWOPshra&0x26&0 & \\
\DWOPxor&0x27&0 & \\
\DWOPbra&0x28&1 & signed 2-byte constant \\
\DWOPeq&0x29&0 & \\
\DWOPge&0x2a&0 & \\
\DWOPgt&0x2b&0 & \\
\DWOPle&0x2c&0 & \\
\DWOPlt&0x2d&0 & \\
\DWOPne&0x2e&0 & \\
\DWOPskip&0x2f&1&signed 2-byte constant \\ \hline
\DWOPlitzero & 0x30 & 0 & \\
\DWOPlitone & 0x31 & 0& literals 0 .. 31 = \\
\ldots & & &\hspace{0.3cm}(\DWOPlitzero{} + literal) \\
\DWOPlitthirtyone & 0x4f & 0 & \\ \hline
\DWOPregzero & 0x50 & 0 & \\*
\DWOPregone & 0x51 & 0® 0 .. 31 = \\*
\ldots & & &\hspace{0.3cm}(\DWOPregzero{} + regnum) \\*
\DWOPregthirtyone & 0x6f & 0 & \\ \hline
\DWOPbregzero & 0x70 &1 & SLEB128 offset \\*
\DWOPbregone & 0x71 & 1 &base register 0 .. 31 = \\*
... & & &\hspace{0.3cm}(\DWOPbregzero{} + regnum) \\*
\DWOPbregthirtyone & 0x8f & 1 & \\ \hline
\DWOPregx{} & 0x90 &1&ULEB128 register \\
\DWOPfbreg{} & 0x91&1&SLEB128 offset \\
\DWOPbregx{} & 0x92&2 &ULEB128 register, \\*
& & &SLEB128 offset \\
\DWOPpiece{} & 0x93 &1& ULEB128 size of piece \\
\DWOPderefsize{} & 0x94 &1& 1-byte size of data retrieved \\
\DWOPxderefsize{} & 0x95&1&1-byte size of data retrieved \\
\DWOPnop{} & 0x96 &0& \\
\DWOPpushobjectaddress&0x97&0 & \\
\DWOPcalltwo&0x98&1& 2-byte offset of DIE \\
\DWOPcallfour&0x99&1& 4-byte offset of DIE \\
\DWOPcallref&0x9a&1& 4\dash\ or 8-byte offset of DIE \\
\DWOPformtlsaddress&0x9b &0& \\
\DWOPcallframecfa{} &0x9c &0& \\
\DWOPbitpiece&0x9d &2&ULEB128 size, \\*
&&&ULEB128 offset\\
\DWOPimplicitvalue{} &0x9e &2&ULEB128 size, \\*
&&&\nolink{block} of that size\\
\DWOPstackvalue{} &0x9f &0& \\
\DWOPimplicitpointer{}~\ddag &0xa0& 2 &4- or 8-byte offset of DIE, \\*
&&&SLEB128 constant offset \\
\DWOPaddrx~\ddag&0xa1&1&ULEB128 indirect address \\
\DWOPconstx~\ddag&0xa2&1&ULEB128 indirect constant \\
\DWOPentryvalue~\ddag&0xa3&2&ULEB128 size, \\*
&&&\nolink{block} of that size\\
\DWOPconsttype~\ddag & 0xa4 & 3 & ULEB128 type entry offset,\\*
& & & 1-byte size, \\*
& & & constant value \\
\DWOPregvaltype~\ddag & 0xa5 & 2 & ULEB128 register number, \\*
&&& ULEB128 constant offset \\
\DWOPdereftype~\ddag & 0xa6 & 2 & 1-byte size, \\*
&&& ULEB128 type entry offset \\
\DWOPxdereftype~\ddag & 0xa7 & 2 & 1-byte size, \\*
&&& ULEB128 type entry offset \\
\DWOPconvert~\ddag & 0xa8 & 1 & ULEB128 type entry offset \\
\DWOPreinterpret~\ddag & 0xa9 & 1 & ULEB128 type entry offset \\
\DWOPlouser{} &0xe0 && \\
\DWOPhiuser{} &\xff && \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\subsection{Location Descriptions}
\label{datarep:locationdescriptions}
A location description is used to compute the
location of a variable or other entity.
\subsection{Location Lists}
\label{datarep:locationlists}
Each entry in a \addtoindex{location list} is either a location list entry,
a base address selection entry, or an
\addtoindexx{end-of-list entry!in location list}
end-of-list entry.
\needlines{6}
\subsubsection{Location List Entries in Non-Split Objects}
A \addtoindex{location list} entry consists of two address offsets followed
by an unsigned 2-byte length, followed by a block of contiguous bytes
that contains a DWARF location description. The length
specifies the number of bytes in that block. The two offsets
are the same size as an address on the target machine.
\needlines{5}
A base address selection entry and an
\addtoindexx{end-of-list entry!in location list}
end-of-list entry each
consist of two (constant or relocated) address offsets. The two
offsets are the same size as an address on the target machine.
For a \addtoindex{location list} to be specified, the base address of
\addtoindexx{base address selection entry!in location list}
the corresponding compilation unit must be defined
(see Section \refersec{chap:normalandpartialcompilationunitentries}).
\subsubsection{Location List Entries in Split Objects}
\label{datarep:locationlistentriesinsplitobjects}
An alternate form for location list entries is used in split objects.
Each entry begins with an unsigned 1-byte code that indicates the kind of entry
that follows. The encodings for these constants are given in
Table \refersec{tab:locationlistentryencodingvalues}.
\needlines{10}
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Location list entry encoding values} \label{tab:locationlistentryencodingvalues} \\
\hline \bfseries Location list entry encoding name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Location list entry encoding name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\DWLLEendoflistentry & 0x0 \\
\DWLLEbaseaddressselectionentry & 0x01 \\
\DWLLEstartendentry & 0x02 \\
\DWLLEstartlengthentry & 0x03 \\
\DWLLEoffsetpairentry & 0x04 \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\section{Base Type Attribute Encodings}
\label{datarep:basetypeattributeencodings}
The encodings of the
\hypertarget{chap:DWATencodingencodingofbasetype}{}
constants used in the
\DWATencodingDEFN{} attribute\addtoindexx{encoding attribute}
are given in
Table \refersec{tab:basetypeencodingvalues}
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Base type encoding values} \label{tab:basetypeencodingvalues} \\
\hline \bfseries Base type encoding name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Base type encoding name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\ddag \ \textit{New in \DWARFVersionV}
\endlastfoot
\DWATEaddress&0x01 \\
\DWATEboolean&0x02 \\
\DWATEcomplexfloat&0x03 \\
\DWATEfloat&0x04 \\
\DWATEsigned&0x05 \\
\DWATEsignedchar&0x06 \\
\DWATEunsigned&0x07 \\
\DWATEunsignedchar&0x08 \\
\DWATEimaginaryfloat&0x09 \\
\DWATEpackeddecimal&0x0a \\
\DWATEnumericstring&0x0b \\
\DWATEedited&0x0c \\
\DWATEsignedfixed&0x0d \\
\DWATEunsignedfixed&0x0e \\
\DWATEdecimalfloat & 0x0f \\
\DWATEUTF{} & 0x10 \\
\DWATEUCS~\ddag & 0x11 \\
\DWATEASCII~\ddag & 0x12 \\
\DWATElouser{} & 0x80 \\
\DWATEhiuser{} & \xff \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\needlines{4}
The encodings of the constants used in the
\DWATdecimalsign{} attribute
are given in
Table \refersec{tab:decimalsignencodings}.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Decimal sign encodings} \label{tab:decimalsignencodings} \\
\hline \bfseries Decimal sign code name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Decimal sign code name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\DWDSunsigned{} & 0x01 \\
\DWDSleadingoverpunch{} & 0x02 \\
\DWDStrailingoverpunch{} & 0x03 \\
\DWDSleadingseparate{} & 0x04 \\
\DWDStrailingseparate{} & 0x05 \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\needlines{9}
The encodings of the constants used in the
\DWATendianity{} attribute are given in
Table \refersec{tab:endianityencodings}.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Endianity encodings} \label{tab:endianityencodings}\\
\hline \bfseries Endian code name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Endian code name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\DWENDdefault{} & 0x00 \\
\DWENDbig{} & 0x01 \\
\DWENDlittle{} & 0x02 \\
\DWENDlouser{} & 0x40 \\
\DWENDhiuser{} & \xff \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\needlines{10}
\section{Accessibility Codes}
\label{datarep:accessibilitycodes}
The encodings of the constants used in the
\DWATaccessibility{}
attribute
\addtoindexx{accessibility attribute}
are given in
Table \refersec{tab:accessibilityencodings}.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Accessibility encodings} \label{tab:accessibilityencodings}\\
\hline \bfseries Accessibility code name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Accessibility code name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\DWACCESSpublic&0x01 \\
\DWACCESSprotected&0x02 \\
\DWACCESSprivate&0x03 \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\section{Visibility Codes}
\label{datarep:visibilitycodes}
The encodings of the constants used in the
\DWATvisibility{} attribute are given in
Table \refersec{tab:visibilityencodings}.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Visibility encodings} \label{tab:visibilityencodings}\\
\hline \bfseries Visibility code name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Visibility code name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\DWVISlocal&0x01 \\
\DWVISexported&0x02 \\
\DWVISqualified&0x03 \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\section{Virtuality Codes}
\label{datarep:vitualitycodes}
The encodings of the constants used in the
\DWATvirtuality{} attribute are given in
Table \refersec{tab:virtualityencodings}.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Virtuality encodings} \label{tab:virtualityencodings}\\
\hline \bfseries Virtuality code name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Virtuality code name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\DWVIRTUALITYnone&0x00 \\
\DWVIRTUALITYvirtual&0x01 \\
\DWVIRTUALITYpurevirtual&0x02 \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\needlines{4}
The value
\DWVIRTUALITYnone{} is equivalent to the absence of the
\DWATvirtuality{}
attribute.
\section{Source Languages}
\label{datarep:sourcelanguages}
The encodings of the constants used
\addtoindexx{language attribute, encoding}
in
\addtoindexx{language name encoding}
the
\DWATlanguage{}
attribute are given in
Table \refersec{tab:languageencodings}.
Names marked with
% If we don't force a following space it looks odd
\dag \
and their associated values are reserved, but the
languages they represent are not well supported.
Table \refersec{tab:languageencodings}
also shows the
\addtoindexx{lower bound attribute!default}
default lower bound, if any, assumed for
an omitted \DWATlowerbound{} attribute in the context of a
\DWTAGsubrangetype{} debugging information entry for each
defined language.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c|c}
\caption{Language encodings} \label{tab:languageencodings}\\
\hline \bfseries Language name&\bfseries Value &\bfseries Default Lower Bound \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Language name&\bfseries Value &\bfseries Default Lower Bound\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\dag \ \textit{See text} \\ \ddag \ \textit{New in \DWARFVersionV}
\endlastfoot
\addtoindexx{ISO-defined language names}
\DWLANGCeightynine &0x0001 &0 \addtoindexx{C:1989 (ISO)} \\
\DWLANGC{} &0x0002 &0 \addtoindexx{C!non-standard} \\
\DWLANGAdaeightythree{} \dag &0x0003 &1 \addtoindexx{Ada:1983 (ISO)} \\
\DWLANGCplusplus{} &0x0004 &0 \addtoindexx{C++:1998 (ISO)} \\
\DWLANGCobolseventyfour{} \dag &0x0005 &1 \addtoindexx{COBOL:1974 (ISO)} \\
\DWLANGCoboleightyfive{} \dag &0x0006 &1 \addtoindexx{COBOL:1985 (ISO)} \\
\DWLANGFortranseventyseven &0x0007 &1 \addtoindexx{FORTRAN:1977 (ISO)} \\
\DWLANGFortranninety &0x0008 &1 \addtoindexx{Fortran:1990 (ISO)} \\
\DWLANGPascaleightythree &0x0009 &1 \addtoindexx{Pascal:1983 (ISO)} \\
\DWLANGModulatwo &0x000a &1 \addtoindexx{Modula-2:1996 (ISO)} \\
\DWLANGJava &0x000b &0 \addtoindexx{Java} \\
\DWLANGCninetynine &0x000c &0 \addtoindexx{C:1999 (ISO)} \\
\DWLANGAdaninetyfive{} \dag &0x000d &1 \addtoindexx{Ada:1995 (ISO)} \\
\DWLANGFortranninetyfive &0x000e &1 \addtoindexx{Fortran:1995 (ISO)} \\
\DWLANGPLI{} \dag &0x000f &1 \addtoindexx{PL/I:1976 (ANSI)}\\
\DWLANGObjC{} &0x0010 &0 \addtoindexx{Objective C}\\
\DWLANGObjCplusplus{} &0x0011 &0 \addtoindexx{Objective C++}\\
\DWLANGUPC{} &0x0012 &0 \addtoindexx{UPC}\\
\DWLANGD{} &0x0013 &0 \addtoindexx{D language}\\
\DWLANGPython{} \dag &0x0014 &0 \addtoindexx{Python}\\
\DWLANGOpenCL{} \dag \ddag &0x0015 &0 \addtoindexx{OpenCL}\\
\DWLANGGo{} \dag \ddag &0x0016 &0 \addtoindexx{Go}\\
\DWLANGModulathree{} \dag \ddag &0x0017 &1 \addtoindexx{Modula-3}\\
\DWLANGHaskell{} \dag \ddag &0x0018 &0 \addtoindexx{Haskell}\\
\DWLANGCpluspluszerothree{} \ddag &0x0019 &0 \addtoindexx{C++:2003 (ISO)}\\
\DWLANGCpluspluseleven{} \ddag &0x001a &0 \addtoindexx{C++:2011 (ISO)}\\
\DWLANGOCaml{} \ddag &0x001b &0 \addtoindexx{OCaml}\\
\DWLANGRust{} \ddag &0x001c &0 \addtoindexx{Rust}\\
\DWLANGCeleven{} \ddag &0x001d &0 \addtoindexx{C:2011 (ISO)}\\
\DWLANGSwift{} \ddag &0x001e &0 \addtoindexx{Swift} \\
\DWLANGJulia{} \ddag &0x001f &1 \addtoindexx{Julia} \\
\DWLANGDylan{} \ddag &0x0020 &0 \addtoindexx{Dylan} \\
\DWLANGCplusplusfourteen{}~\ddag &0x0021 &0 \addtoindexx{C++:2014 (ISO)} \\
\DWLANGFortranzerothree{}~\ddag &0x0022 &1 \addtoindexx{Fortran:2004 (ISO)} \\
\DWLANGFortranzeroeight{}~\ddag &0x0023 &1 \addtoindexx{Fortran:2010 (ISO)} \\
\DWLANGlouser{} &0x8000 & \\
\DWLANGhiuser{} &\xffff & \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\section{Address Class Encodings}
\label{datarep:addressclassencodings}
The value of the common
\addtoindex{address class} encoding
\DWADDRnone{} is 0.
\needlines{16}
\section{Identifier Case}
\label{datarep:identifiercase}
The encodings of the constants used in the
\DWATidentifiercase{} attribute are given in
Table \refersec{tab:identifiercaseencodings}.
\needlines{8}
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Identifier case encodings} \label{tab:identifiercaseencodings}\\
\hline \bfseries Identifier case name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Identifier case name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\DWIDcasesensitive&0x00 \\
\DWIDupcase&0x01 \\
\DWIDdowncase&0x02 \\
\DWIDcaseinsensitive&0x03 \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\section{Calling Convention Encodings}
\label{datarep:callingconventionencodings}
The encodings of the constants used in the
\DWATcallingconvention{} attribute are given in
Table \refersec{tab:callingconventionencodings}.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Calling convention encodings} \label{tab:callingconventionencodings}\\
\hline \bfseries Calling convention name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Calling convention name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline \ddag\ \textit{New in DWARF Version 5}
\endlastfoot
\DWCCnormal &0x01 \\
\DWCCprogram&0x02 \\
\DWCCnocall &0x03 \\
\DWCCpassbyreference~\ddag &0x04 \\
\DWCCpassbyvalue~\ddag &0x05 \\
\DWCClouser &0x40 \\
\DWCChiuser&\xff \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\needlines{12}
\section{Inline Codes}
\label{datarep:inlinecodes}
The encodings of the constants used in
\addtoindexx{inline attribute}
the
\DWATinline{} attribute are given in
Table \refersec{tab:inlineencodings}.
\needlines{8}
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Inline encodings} \label{tab:inlineencodings}\\
\hline \bfseries Inline code name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Inline Code name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\DWINLnotinlined&0x00 \\
\DWINLinlined&0x01 \\
\DWINLdeclarednotinlined&0x02 \\
\DWINLdeclaredinlined&0x03 \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
% this clearpage is ugly, but the following table came
% out oddly without it.
\section{Array Ordering}
\label{datarep:arrayordering}
The encodings of the constants used in the
\DWATordering{} attribute are given in
Table \refersec{tab:orderingencodings}.
\needlines{8}
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Ordering encodings} \label{tab:orderingencodings}\\
\hline \bfseries Ordering name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Ordering name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\DWORDrowmajor&0x00 \\
\DWORDcolmajor&0x01 \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\section{Discriminant Lists}
\label{datarep:discriminantlists}
The descriptors used in
\addtoindexx{discriminant list attribute}
the
\DWATdiscrlist{} attribute are
encoded as 1-byte constants. The
defined values are given in
Table \refersec{tab:discriminantdescriptorencodings}.
% Odd that the 'Name' field capitalized here, it is not caps elsewhere.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Discriminant descriptor encodings} \label{tab:discriminantdescriptorencodings}\\
\hline \bfseries Descriptor name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Descriptor name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\DWDSClabel&0x00 \\
\DWDSCrange&0x01 \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\needlines{6}
\section{Name Index Table}
\label{datarep:nameindextable}
Each name index table in the \dotdebugnames{} section
begins with a header consisting of:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item \texttt{unit\_length} (\livelink{datarep:initiallengthvalues}{initial length}) \\
\addttindexx{unit\_length}
A 4-byte or 12-byte initial length field that
contains the size in bytes of this contribution to the \dotdebugnames{}
section, not including the length field itself
(see Section \refersec{datarep:initiallengthvalues}).
\item \texttt{version} (\HFTuhalf) \\
A 2-byte version number\addtoindexx{version number!name index table}
(see Appendix \refersec{app:dwarfsectionversionnumbersinformative}).
This number is specific to the name index table and is
independent of the DWARF version number.
The value in this field is \versiondotdebugnames.
\item padding (\HFTuhalf) \\
\item \texttt{comp\_unit\_count} (\HFTuword) \\
The number of CUs in the CU list.
\item \texttt{local\_type\_unit\_count} (\HFTuword) \\
The number of TUs in the first TU list.
\item \texttt{foreign\_type\_unit\_count} (\HFTuword) \\
The number of TUs in the second TU list.
\item \texttt{bucket\_count} (\HFTuword) \\
The number of hash buckets in the hash lookup table.
If there is no hash lookup table, this field contains 0.
\item \texttt{name\_count} (\HFTuword) \\
The number of unique names in the index.
\item \texttt{abbrev\_table\_size} (\HFTuword) \\
The size in bytes of the abbreviations table.
\item \texttt{augmentation\_string\_size} (\HFTuword) \\
The size in bytes of the augmentation string. This value is
rounded up to a multiple of 4.
\item \texttt{augmentation\_string} (\HFTaugstring) \\
A vendor-specific augmentation string, which provides additional
information about the contents of this index. If provided, the string
begins with a 4-character vendor ID. The remainder of the
string is meant to be read by a cooperating consumer, and its
contents and interpretation are not specified here. The
string is padded with null characters to a multiple of
four bytes in length.
\end{enumerate}
The name index attributes and their encodings are listed in Table \referfol{datarep:indexattributeencodings}.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c|l}
\caption{Name index attribute encodings} \label{datarep:indexattributeencodings}\\
\hline \bfseries Attribute name &\bfseries Value &\bfseries Form/Class \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Attribute name &\bfseries Value &\bfseries Form/Class \\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\ddag~\textit{New in \DWARFVersionV}
\endlastfoot
\DWIDXcompileunit~\ddag & 1 & \CLASSconstant \\
\DWIDXtypeunit~\ddag & 2 & \CLASSconstant \\
\DWIDXdieoffset~\ddag & 3 & \CLASSreference \\
\DWIDXparent~\ddag & 4 & \CLASSconstant \\
\DWIDXtypehash~\ddag & 5 & \DWFORMdataeight \\
\DWIDXlouser~\ddag & 0x2000 & \\
\DWIDXhiuser~\ddag & \xiiifff & \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
The abbreviations table ends with an entry consisting of a single 0
byte for the abbreviation code. The size of the table given by
\texttt{abbrev\_table\_size} may include optional padding following the
terminating 0 byte.
\section{Defaulted Member Encodings}
\hypertarget{datarep:defaultedmemberencodings}{}
The encodings of the constants used in the \DWATdefaulted{} attribute
are given in Table \referfol{datarep:defaultedattributeencodings}.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Defaulted attribute encodings} \label{datarep:defaultedattributeencodings} \\
\hline \bfseries Defaulted name &\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Defaulted name &\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\ddag~\textit{New in \DWARFVersionV}
\endlastfoot
\DWDEFAULTEDno~\ddag & 0x00 \\
\DWDEFAULTEDinclass~\ddag & 0x01 \\
\DWDEFAULTEDoutofclass~\ddag & 0x02 \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\needlines{10}
\section{Address Range Table}
\label{datarep:addrssrangetable}
Each set of entries in the table of address ranges contained
in the \dotdebugaranges{}
section begins with a header containing:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
% FIXME The unit length text is not fully consistent across
% these tables.
\item \texttt{unit\_length} (\livelink{datarep:initiallengthvalues}{initial length}) \\
\addttindexx{unit\_length}
A 4-byte or 12-byte length containing the length of the
\addtoindexx{initial length}
set of entries for this compilation unit, not including the
length field itself. In the \thirtytwobitdwarfformat, this is a
4-byte unsigned integer (which must be less than \xfffffffzero);
in the \sixtyfourbitdwarfformat, this consists of the 4-byte value
\wffffffff followed by an 8-byte unsigned integer that gives
the actual length
(see Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\item version (\HFTuhalf) \\
A 2-byte version identifier representing the version of the
DWARF information for the address range table
(see Appendix \refersec{app:dwarfsectionversionnumbersinformative}).
This value in this field \addtoindexx{version number!address range table} is 2.
\item debug\_info\_offset (\livelink{datarep:sectionoffsetlength}{section offset}) \\
A
\addtoindexx{section offset!in .debug\_aranges header}
4-byte or 8-byte offset into the
\dotdebuginfo{} section of
the compilation unit header. In the \thirtytwobitdwarfformat,
this is a 4-byte unsigned offset; in the \sixtyfourbitdwarfformat,
this is an 8-byte unsigned offset
(see Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\item \texttt{address\_size} (\HFTubyte) \\
A 1-byte unsigned integer containing the size in bytes of an
\addttindexx{address\_size}
address
\addtoindexx{size of an address}
(or the offset portion of an address for segmented
\addtoindexx{address space!segmented}
addressing) on the target system.
\item \HFNsegmentselectorsize{} (\HFTubyte) \\
A 1-byte unsigned integer containing the size in bytes of a
segment selector on the target system.
\end{enumerate}
This header is followed by a series of tuples. Each tuple
consists of a segment, an address and a length.
The segment selector
size is given by the \HFNsegmentselectorsize{} field of the header; the
address and length size are each given by the \addttindex{address\_size}
field of the header.
The first tuple following the header in
each set begins at an offset that is a multiple of the size
of a single tuple (that is, the size of a segment selector
plus twice the \addtoindex{size of an address}).
The header is padded, if
necessary, to that boundary. Each set of tuples is terminated
by a 0 for the segment, a 0 for the address and 0 for the
length. If the \HFNsegmentselectorsize{} field in the header is zero,
the segment selectors are omitted from all tuples, including
the terminating tuple.
\section{Line Number Information}
\label{datarep:linenumberinformation}
The \addtoindexi{version number}{version number!line number information}
in the line number program header is \versiondotdebugline{}
(see Appendix \refersec{app:dwarfsectionversionnumbersinformative}).
The boolean values \doublequote{true} and \doublequote{false}
used by the line number information program are encoded
as a single byte containing the value 0
for \doublequote{false,} and a non-zero value for \doublequote{true.}
\needlines{10}
The encodings for the standard opcodes are given in
\addtoindexx{line number opcodes!standard opcode encoding}
Table \refersec{tab:linenumberstandardopcodeencodings}.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Line number standard opcode encodings} \label{tab:linenumberstandardopcodeencodings}\\
\hline \bfseries Opcode name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Opcode name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\DWLNScopy&0x01 \\
\DWLNSadvancepc&0x02 \\
\DWLNSadvanceline&0x03 \\
\DWLNSsetfile&0x04 \\
\DWLNSsetcolumn&0x05 \\
\DWLNSnegatestmt&0x06 \\
\DWLNSsetbasicblock&0x07 \\
\DWLNSconstaddpc&0x08 \\
\DWLNSfixedadvancepc&0x09 \\
\DWLNSsetprologueend&0x0a \\*
\DWLNSsetepiloguebegin&0x0b \\*
\DWLNSsetisa&0x0c \\*
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\clearpage
\needlines{12}
The encodings for the extended opcodes are given in
\addtoindexx{line number opcodes!extended opcode encoding}
Table \refersec{tab:linenumberextendedopcodeencodings}.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Line number extended opcode encodings} \label{tab:linenumberextendedopcodeencodings}\\
\hline \bfseries Opcode name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Opcode name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline %\ddag~\textit{New in DWARF Version 5}
\endlastfoot
\DWLNEendsequence &0x01 \\
\DWLNEsetaddress &0x02 \\
\textit{Reserved} &0x03\footnote{Code 0x03 is reserved to allow backward compatible support of the
DW\_LNE\_define\_file operation which was defined in \DWARFVersionIV{}
and earlier.} \\
\DWLNEsetdiscriminator &0x04 \\
\DWLNElouser &0x80 \\
\DWLNEhiuser &\xff \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\needlines{6}
The encodings for the line number header entry formats are given in
\addtoindexx{line number opcodes!file entry format encoding}
Table \refersec{tab:linenumberheaderentryformatencodings}.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Line number header entry format \mbox{encodings}} \label{tab:linenumberheaderentryformatencodings}\\
\hline \bfseries Line number header entry format name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Line number header entry format name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline \ddag~\textit{New in DWARF Version 5}
\endlastfoot
\DWLNCTpath~\ddag & 0x1 \\
\DWLNCTdirectoryindex~\ddag & 0x2 \\
\DWLNCTtimestamp~\ddag & 0x3 \\
\DWLNCTsize~\ddag & 0x4 \\
\DWLNCTMDfive~\ddag & 0x5 \\
\DWLNCTlouser~\ddag & 0x2000 \\
\DWLNCThiuser~\ddag & \xiiifff \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\needlines{6}
\section{Macro Information}
\label{datarep:macroinformation}
The \addtoindexi{version number}{version number!macro information}
in the macro information header is \versiondotdebugmacro{}
(see Appendix \refersec{app:dwarfsectionversionnumbersinformative}).
The source line numbers and source file indices encoded in the
macro information section are represented as
unsigned LEB128\addtoindexx{LEB128!unsigned} numbers.
\needlines{4}
The macro information entry type is encoded as a single unsigned byte.
The encodings
\addtoindexx{macro information entry types!encoding}
are given in
Table \refersec{tab:macroinfoentrytypeencodings}.
\needlines{10}
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c}
\caption{Macro information entry type encodings} \label{tab:macroinfoentrytypeencodings}\\
\hline \bfseries Macro information entry type name&\bfseries Value \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Macro information entry type name&\bfseries Value\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline \ddag~\textit{New in DWARF Version 5}
\endlastfoot
\DWMACROdefine~\ddag &0x01 \\
\DWMACROundef~\ddag &0x02 \\
\DWMACROstartfile~\ddag &0x03 \\
\DWMACROendfile~\ddag &0x04 \\
\DWMACROdefinestrp~\ddag &0x05 \\
\DWMACROundefstrp~\ddag &0x06 \\
\DWMACROimport~\ddag &0x07 \\
\DWMACROdefinesup~\ddag &0x08 \\
\DWMACROundefsup~\ddag &0x09 \\
\DWMACROimportsup~\ddag &0x0a \\
\DWMACROdefinestrx~\ddag &0x0b \\
\DWMACROundefstrx~\ddag &0x0c \\
\DWMACROlouser~\ddag &0xe0 \\
\DWMACROhiuser~\ddag &\xff \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\needlines{7}
\section{Call Frame Information}
\label{datarep:callframeinformation}
In the \thirtytwobitdwarfformat, the value of the CIE id in the
CIE header is \xffffffff; in the \sixtyfourbitdwarfformat, the
value is \xffffffffffffffff.
The value of the CIE \addtoindexi{version number}{version number!call frame information}
is 4 (see Appendix \refersec{app:dwarfsectionversionnumbersinformative}).
Call frame instructions are encoded in one or more bytes. The
primary opcode is encoded in the high order two bits of
the first byte (that is, opcode = byte $\gg$ 6). An operand
or extended opcode may be encoded in the low order 6
bits. Additional operands are encoded in subsequent bytes.
The instructions and their encodings are presented in
Table \refersec{tab:callframeinstructionencodings}.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|c|c|l|l}
\caption{Call frame instruction encodings} \label{tab:callframeinstructionencodings} \\
\hline &\bfseries High 2 &\bfseries Low 6 & & \\
\bfseries Instruction&\bfseries Bits &\bfseries Bits &\bfseries Operand 1 &\bfseries Operand 2\\ \hline
\endfirsthead
& \bfseries High 2 &\bfseries Low 6 & &\\
\bfseries Instruction&\bfseries Bits &\bfseries Bits &\bfseries Operand 1 &\bfseries Operand 2\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\DWCFAadvanceloc&0x1&delta & \\
\DWCFAoffset&0x2®ister&ULEB128 offset \\
\DWCFArestore&0x3®ister & & \\
\DWCFAnop&0&0 & & \\
\DWCFAsetloc&0&0x01&address & \\
\DWCFAadvancelocone&0&0x02&1-byte delta & \\
\DWCFAadvanceloctwo&0&0x03&2-byte delta & \\
\DWCFAadvancelocfour&0&0x04&4-byte delta & \\
\DWCFAoffsetextended&0&0x05&ULEB128 register&ULEB128 offset \\
\DWCFArestoreextended&0&0x06&ULEB128 register & \\
\DWCFAundefined&0&0x07&ULEB128 register & \\
\DWCFAsamevalue&0&0x08 &ULEB128 register & \\
\DWCFAregister&0&0x09&ULEB128 register &ULEB128 offset \\
\DWCFArememberstate&0&0x0a & & \\
\DWCFArestorestate&0&0x0b & & \\
\DWCFAdefcfa&0&0x0c &ULEB128 register&ULEB128 offset \\
\DWCFAdefcfaregister&0&0x0d&ULEB128 register & \\
\DWCFAdefcfaoffset&0&0x0e &ULEB128 offset & \\
\DWCFAdefcfaexpression&0&0x0f &BLOCK \\
\DWCFAexpression&0&0x10&ULEB128 register & BLOCK \\
\DWCFAoffsetextendedsf&0&0x11&ULEB128 register&SLEB128 offset \\
\DWCFAdefcfasf&0&0x12&ULEB128 register&SLEB128 offset \\
\DWCFAdefcfaoffsetsf&0&0x13&SLEB128 offset & \\
\DWCFAvaloffset&0&0x14&ULEB128&ULEB128 \\
\DWCFAvaloffsetsf&0&0x15&ULEB128&SLEB128 \\
\DWCFAvalexpression&0&0x16&ULEB128&BLOCK \\
\DWCFAlouser&0&0x1c & & \\
\DWCFAhiuser&0&\xiiif & & \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\section{Non-contiguous Address Ranges}
\label{datarep:noncontiguousaddressranges}
Each entry in a \addtoindex{range list}
(see Section \refersec{chap:noncontiguousaddressranges})
is either a
\addtoindexx{base address selection entry!in range list}
range list entry,
\addtoindexx{range list}
a base address selection entry, or an end-of-list entry.
A \addtoindex{range list} entry consists of two relative addresses. The
addresses are the same size as addresses on the target machine.
\needlines{4}
A base address selection entry and an
\addtoindexx{end-of-list entry!in range list}
end-of-list entry each
\addtoindexx{base address selection entry!in range list}
consist of two (constant or relocated) addresses. The two
addresses are the same size as addresses on the target machine.
For a \addtoindex{range list} to be specified, the base address of the
\addtoindexx{base address selection entry!in range list}
corresponding compilation unit must be defined
(see Section \refersec{chap:normalandpartialcompilationunitentries}).
\needlines{6}
\section{String Offsets Table}
\label{chap:stringoffsetstable}
Each set of entries in the string offsets table contained in the
\dotdebugstroffsets{} or \dotdebugstroffsetsdwo{}
section begins with a header containing:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item \texttt{unit\_length} (\livelink{datarep:initiallengthvalues}{initial length}) \\
\addttindexx{unit\_length}
A 4-byte or 12-byte length containing the length of
the set of entries for this compilation unit, not
including the length field itself. In the 32-bit
DWARF format, this is a 4-byte unsigned integer
(which must be less than \xfffffffzero); in the 64-bit
DWARF format, this consists of the 4-byte value
\wffffffff followed by an 8-byte unsigned integer
that gives the actual length (see
Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
%\needlines{4}
\item \texttt{version} (\HFTuhalf) \\
A 2-byte version identifier containing the value
\versiondotdebugstroffsets{}
(see Appendix \refersec{app:dwarfsectionversionnumbersinformative}).
\item \texttt{padding} (\HFTuhalf) \\
\end{enumerate}
This header is followed by a series of string table offsets
that have the same representation as \DWFORMstrp.
For the 32-bit DWARF format, each offset is 4 bytes long; for
the 64-bit DWARF format, each offset is 8 bytes long.
The \DWATstroffsetsbase{} attribute points to the first
entry following the header. The entries are indexed
sequentially from this base entry, starting from 0.
\section{Address Table}
\label{chap:addresstable}
Each set of entries in the address table contained in the
\dotdebugaddr{} section begins with a header containing:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item \texttt{unit\_length} (\livelink{datarep:initiallengthvalues}{initial length}) \\
\addttindexx{unit\_length}
A 4-byte or 12-byte length containing the length of
the set of entries for this compilation unit, not
including the length field itself. In the 32-bit
DWARF format, this is a 4-byte unsigned integer
(which must be less than \xfffffffzero); in the 64-bit
DWARF format, this consists of the 4-byte value
\wffffffff followed by an 8-byte unsigned integer
that gives the actual length (see
Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\needlines{4}
\item \texttt{version} (\HFTuhalf) \\
A 2-byte version identifier containing the value
\versiondotdebugaddr{}
(see Appendix \refersec{app:dwarfsectionversionnumbersinformative}).
\needlines{4}
\item \texttt{address\_size} (\HFTubyte) \\
A 1-byte unsigned integer containing the size in
bytes of an address (or the offset portion of an
address for segmented addressing) on the target
system.
\needlines{4}
\item \HFNsegmentselectorsize{} (\HFTubyte) \\
A 1-byte unsigned integer containing the size in
bytes of a segment selector on the target system.
\end{enumerate}
This header is followed by a series of segment/address pairs.
The segment size is given by the \HFNsegmentselectorsize{} field of the
header, and the address size is given by the \addttindex{address\_size}
field of the header. If the \HFNsegmentselectorsize{} field in the header
is zero, the entries consist only of an addresses.
The \DWATaddrbase{} attribute points to the first entry
following the header. The entries are indexed sequentially
from this base entry, starting from 0.
\needlines{10}
\section{Range List Table}
\label{app:rangelisttable}
Each set of entries in the range list table contained in the
\dotdebugranges{} section begins with a header containing:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item \texttt{unit\_length} (\livelink{datarep:initiallengthvalues}{initial length}) \\
\addttindexx{unit\_length}
A 4-byte or 12-byte length containing the length of
the set of entries for this compilation unit, not
including the length field itself. In the 32-bit
DWARF format, this is a 4-byte unsigned integer
(which must be less than \xfffffffzero); in the 64-bit
DWARF format, this consists of the 4-byte value
\wffffffff followed by an 8-byte unsigned integer
that gives the actual length (see
Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\needlines{4}
\item \texttt{version} (\HFTuhalf) \\
A 2-byte version identifier containing the value
\versiondotdebugranges{}
(see Appendix \refersec{app:dwarfsectionversionnumbersinformative}).
\needlines{4}
\item \texttt{address\_size} (\HFTubyte) \\
A 1-byte unsigned integer containing the size in
bytes of an address (or the offset portion of an
address for segmented addressing) on the target
system.
\needlines{4}
\item \HFNsegmentselectorsize{} (\HFTubyte) \\
A 1-byte unsigned integer containing the size in
bytes of a segment selector on the target system.
\end{enumerate}
This header is followed by a series of range list entries as
described in Section \refersec{chap:noncontiguousaddressranges}.
The segment size is given by the
\HFNsegmentselectorsize{} field of the header, and the address size is
given by the \addttindex{address\_size} field of the header. If the
\HFNsegmentselectorsize{} field in the header is zero, the segment
selector is omitted from the range list entries.
The \DWATrangesbase{} attribute points to the first entry
following the header. The entries are referenced by a byte
offset relative to this base address.
\needlines{12}
\section{Location List Table}
\label{datarep:locationlisttable}
Each set of entries in the location list table contained in the
\dotdebugloc{} or \dotdebuglocdwo{} sections begins with a header containing:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item \texttt{unit\_length} (\livelink{datarep:initiallengthvalues}{initial length}) \\
\addttindexx{unit\_length}
A 4-byte or 12-byte length containing the length of
the set of entries for this compilation unit, not
including the length field itself. In the 32-bit
DWARF format, this is a 4-byte unsigned integer
(which must be less than \xfffffffzero); in the 64-bit
DWARF format, this consists of the 4-byte value
\wffffffff followed by an 8-byte unsigned integer
that gives the actual length (see
Section \refersec{datarep:32bitand64bitdwarfformats}).
\needlines{4}
\item \texttt{version} (\HFTuhalf) \\
A 2-byte version identifier containing the value
\versiondotdebugloc{}
(see Appendix \refersec{app:dwarfsectionversionnumbersinformative}).
\needlines{5}
\item \texttt{address\_size} (\HFTubyte) \\
A 1-byte unsigned integer containing the size in
bytes of an address (or the offset portion of an
address for segmented addressing) on the target
system.
\needlines{4}
\item \HFNsegmentselectorsize{} (\HFTubyte) \\
A 1-byte unsigned integer containing the size in
bytes of a segment selector on the target system.
\end{enumerate}
This header is followed by a series of location list entries as
described in Section \refersec{chap:locationlists}.
The segment size is given by the
\HFNsegmentselectorsize{} field of the header, and the address size is
given by the \HFNaddresssize{} field of the header. If the
\HFNsegmentselectorsize{} field in the header is zero, the segment
selector is omitted from range list entries.
The entries are referenced by a byte offset relative to the first
location list following this header.
\needlines{6}
\section{Dependencies and Constraints}
\label{datarep:dependenciesandconstraints}
The debugging information in this format is intended to
exist in sections of an object file, or an equivalent
separate file or database, having names beginning with
the prefix ".debug\_" (see Appendix
\refersec{app:dwarfsectionversionnumbersinformative}
for a complete list of such names).
Except as specifically specified, this information is not
aligned on 2-, 4- or 8-byte boundaries. Consequently:
\begin{itemize}
\item For the \thirtytwobitdwarfformat{} and a target architecture with
32-bit addresses, an assembler or compiler must provide a way
to produce 2-byte and 4-byte quantities without alignment
restrictions, and the linker must be able to relocate a
4-byte address or
\addtoindexx{section offset!alignment of}
section offset that occurs at an arbitrary
alignment.
\item For the \thirtytwobitdwarfformat{} and a target architecture with
64-bit addresses, an assembler or compiler must provide a
way to produce 2-byte, 4-byte and 8-byte quantities without
alignment restrictions, and the linker must be able to relocate
an 8-byte address or 4-byte
\addtoindexx{section offset!alignment of}
section offset that occurs at an
arbitrary alignment.
\item For the \sixtyfourbitdwarfformat{} and a target architecture with
32-bit addresses, an assembler or compiler must provide a
way to produce 2-byte, 4-byte and 8-byte quantities without
alignment restrictions, and the linker must be able to relocate
a 4-byte address or 8-byte
\addtoindexx{section offset!alignment of}
section offset that occurs at an
arbitrary alignment.
\textit{It is expected that this will be required only for very large
32-bit programs or by those architectures which support
a mix of 32-bit and 64-bit code and data within the same
executable object.}
\item For the \sixtyfourbitdwarfformat{} and a target architecture with
64-bit addresses, an assembler or compiler must provide a
way to produce 2-byte, 4-byte and 8-byte quantities without
alignment restrictions, and the linker must be able to
relocate an 8-byte address or
\addtoindexx{section offset!alignment of}
section offset that occurs at
an arbitrary alignment.
\end{itemize}
\needlines{10}
\section{Integer Representation Names}
\label{datarep:integerrepresentationnames}
The sizes of the integers used in the lookup by name, lookup
by address, line number, call frame information and other sections
are given in
Table \ref{tab:integerrepresentationnames}.
\needlines{12}
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{c|l}
\caption{Integer representation names} \label{tab:integerrepresentationnames}\\
\hline \bfseries Representation name&\bfseries Representation \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Representation name&\bfseries Representation\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\HFTsbyte& signed, 1-byte integer \\
\HFTubyte&unsigned, 1-byte integer \\
\HFTuhalf&unsigned, 2-byte integer \\
\HFTuword&unsigned, 4-byte integer \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\needlines{6}
\section{Type Signature Computation}
\label{datarep:typesignaturecomputation}
A \addtoindex{type signature} is used by a DWARF consumer
to resolve type references to the type definitions that
are contained in \addtoindex{type unit}s (see Section
\refersec{chap:typeunitentries}).
\textit{A type signature is computed only by a DWARF producer;
\addtoindexx{type signature!computation} a consumer need
compare two type signatures to check for equality.}
\needlines{4}
The type signature for a type T0 is formed from the
\MDfive{}\footnote{\livetarg{def:MDfive}{MD5} Message Digest Algorithm,
R.L. Rivest, RFC 1321, April 1992}
hash of a flattened description of the type. The flattened
description of the type is a byte sequence derived from the
DWARF encoding of the type as follows:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item Start with an empty sequence S and a list V of visited
types, where V is initialized to a list containing the type
T0 as its single element. Elements in V are indexed from 1,
so that V[1] is T0.
\item If the debugging information entry represents a type that
is nested inside another type or a namespace, append to S
the type\textquoteright s context as follows: For each surrounding type
or namespace, beginning with the outermost such construct,
append the letter 'C', the DWARF tag of the construct, and
the name (taken from
\addtoindexx{name attribute}
the \DWATname{} attribute) of the type
\addtoindexx{name attribute}
or namespace (including its trailing null byte).
\item Append to S the letter 'D', followed by the DWARF tag of
the debugging information entry.
\item For each of the attributes in
Table \refersec{tab:attributesusedintypesignaturecomputation}
that are present in
the debugging information entry, in the order listed,
append to S a marker letter (see below), the DWARF attribute
code, and the attribute value.
\begin{table}[ht]
\caption{Attributes used in type signature computation}
\label{tab:attributesusedintypesignaturecomputation}
\simplerule[\textwidth]
\begin{center}
\autocols[0pt]{c}{2}{l}{
\DWATname,
\DWATaccessibility,
\DWATaddressclass,
\DWATalignment,
\DWATallocated,
\DWATartificial,
\DWATassociated,
\DWATbinaryscale,
%\DWATbitoffset,
\DWATbitsize,
\DWATbitstride,
\DWATbytesize,
\DWATbytestride,
\DWATconstexpr,
\DWATconstvalue,
\DWATcontainingtype,
\DWATcount,
\DWATdatabitoffset,
\DWATdatalocation,
\DWATdatamemberlocation,
\DWATdecimalscale,
\DWATdecimalsign,
\DWATdefaultvalue,
\DWATdigitcount,
\DWATdiscr,
\DWATdiscrlist,
\DWATdiscrvalue,
\DWATencoding,
\DWATendianity,
\DWATenumclass,
\DWATexplicit,
\DWATisoptional,
\DWATlocation,
\DWATlowerbound,
\DWATmutable,
\DWATordering,
\DWATpicturestring,
\DWATprototyped,
\DWATrank,
\DWATreference,
\DWATrvaluereference,
\DWATsmall,
\DWATsegment,
\DWATstringlength,
\DWATstringlengthbitsize,
\DWATstringlengthbytesize,
\DWATthreadsscaled,
\DWATupperbound,
\DWATuselocation,
\DWATuseUTFeight,
\DWATvariableparameter,
\DWATvirtuality,
\DWATvisibility,
\DWATvtableelemlocation
}
\end{center}
\simplerule[\textwidth]
\end{table}
Note that except for the initial
\DWATname{} attribute,
\addtoindexx{name attribute}
attributes are appended in order according to the alphabetical
spelling of their identifier.
If an implementation defines any vendor-specific attributes,
any such attributes that are essential to the definition of
the type are also included at the end of the above list,
in their own alphabetical suborder.
An attribute that refers to another type entry T is processed
as follows: (a) If T is in the list V at some V[x], use the
letter 'R' as the marker and use the unsigned LEB128\addtoindexx{LEB128!unsigned}
encoding of x as the attribute value; otherwise, (b) use the letter 'T'
as the marker, process the type T recursively by performing
Steps 2 through 7, and use the result as the attribute value.
\needlines{4}
Other attribute values use the letter 'A' as the marker, and
the value consists of the form code (encoded as an unsigned
LEB128 value) followed by the encoding of the value according
to the form code. To ensure reproducibility of the signature,
the set of forms used in the signature computation is limited
to the following:
\DWFORMsdata,
\DWFORMflag,
\DWFORMstring,
\DWFORMexprloc,
and \DWFORMblock.
\needlines{4}
\item If the tag in Step 3 is one of \DWTAGpointertype,
\DWTAGreferencetype,
\DWTAGrvaluereferencetype,
\DWTAGptrtomembertype,
or \DWTAGfriend, and the referenced
type (via the \DWATtype{} or
\DWATfriend{} attribute) has a
\DWATname{} attribute, append to S the letter 'N', the DWARF
attribute code (\DWATtype{} or
\DWATfriend), the context of
the type (according to the method in Step 2), the letter 'E',
and the name of the type. For \DWTAGfriend, if the referenced
entry is a \DWTAGsubprogram, the context is omitted and the
name to be used is the ABI-specific name of the subprogram
(for example, the mangled linker name).
\item If the tag in Step 3 is not one of \DWTAGpointertype,
\DWTAGreferencetype,
\DWTAGrvaluereferencetype,
\DWTAGptrtomembertype, or
\DWTAGfriend, but has
a \DWATtype{} attribute, or if the referenced type (via
the \DWATtype{} or
\DWATfriend{} attribute) does not have a
\DWATname{} attribute, the attribute is processed according to
the method in Step 4 for an attribute that refers to another
type entry.
\item Visit each child C of the debugging information
entry as follows: If C is a nested type entry or a member
function entry, and has
a \DWATname{} attribute, append to
\addtoindexx{name attribute}
S the letter 'S', the tag of C, and its name; otherwise,
process C recursively by performing Steps 3 through 7,
appending the result to S. Following the last child (or if
there are no children), append a zero byte.
\end{enumerate}
For the purposes of this algorithm, if a debugging information
entry S has a
\DWATspecification{}
attribute that refers to
another entry D (which has a
\DWATdeclaration{}
attribute),
then S inherits the attributes and children of D, and S is
processed as if those attributes and children were present in
the entry S. Exception: if a particular attribute is found in
both S and D, the attribute in S is used and the corresponding
one in D is ignored.
\needlines{4}
DWARF tag and attribute codes are appended to the sequence
as unsigned LEB128\addtoindexx{LEB128!unsigned} values,
using the values defined earlier in this chapter.
\textit{A grammar describing this computation may be found in
Appendix \refersec{app:typesignaturecomputationgrammar}.
}
\textit{An attribute that refers to another type entry is
recursively processed or replaced with the name of the
referent (in Step 4, 5 or 6). If neither treatment applies to
an attribute that references another type entry, the entry
that contains that attribute is not suitable for a
separate \addtoindex{type unit}.}
\textit{If a debugging information entry contains an attribute from
the list above that would require an unsupported form, that
entry is not suitable for a separate
\addtoindex{type unit}.}
\textit{A type is suitable for a separate
\addtoindex{type unit} only
if all of the type entries that it contains or refers to in
Steps 6 and 7 are themselves suitable for a separate
\addtoindex{type unit}.}
\needlines{4}
Where the DWARF producer may reasonably choose two or more
different forms for a given attribute, it should choose
the simplest possible form in computing the signature. (For
example, a constant value should be preferred to a location
expression when possible.)
Once the string S has been formed from the DWARF encoding,
an \MDfive{} hash is computed for the string and the
least significant 64 bits are taken as the type signature.
\textit{The string S is intended to be a flattened representation of
the type that uniquely identifies that type (that is, a different
type is highly unlikely to produce the same string).}
\needlines{6}
\textit{A debugging information entry is not be placed in a
separate \addtoindex{type unit}
if any of the following apply:}
\begin{itemize}
\item \textit{The entry has an attribute whose value is a location
expression, and the location expression contains a reference to
another debugging information entry (for example, a \DWOPcallref{}
operator), as it is unlikely that the entry will remain
identical across compilation units.}
\item \textit{The entry has an attribute whose value refers
to a code location or a \addtoindex{location list}.}
\item \textit{The entry has an attribute whose value refers
to another debugging information entry that does not represent
a type.}
\end{itemize}
\needlines{4}
\textit{Certain attributes are not included in the type signature:}
\begin{itemize}
\item \textit{The \DWATdeclaration{} attribute is not included because it
indicates that the debugging information entry represents an
incomplete declaration, and incomplete declarations should
not be placed in
\addtoindexx{type unit}
separate type units.}
\item \textit{The \DWATdescription{} attribute is not included because
it does not provide any information unique to the defining
declaration of the type.}
\item \textit{The \DWATdeclfile,
\DWATdeclline, and
\DWATdeclcolumn{} attributes are not included because they
may vary from one source file to the next, and would prevent
two otherwise identical type declarations from producing the
same \MDfive{} hash.}
\item \textit{The \DWATobjectpointer{} attribute is not included
because the information it provides is not necessary for the
computation of a unique type signature.}
\end{itemize}
\textit{Nested types and some types referred to by a debugging
information entry are encoded by name rather than by recursively
encoding the type to allow for cases where a complete definition
of the type might not be available in all compilation units.}
\needlines{4}
\textit{If a type definition contains the definition of a member function,
it cannot be moved as is into a type unit, because the member function
contains attributes that are unique to that compilation unit.
Such a type definition can be moved to a type unit by rewriting the DIE tree,
moving the member function declaration into a separate declaration tree,
and replacing the function definition in the type with a non-defining
declaration of the function (as if the function had been defined out of
line).}
An example that illustrates the computation of an \MDfive{} hash may be found in
Appendix \refersec{app:usingtypeunits}.
\section{Name Table Hash Function}
\label{datarep:nametablehashfunction}
The hash function used for hashing name strings in the accelerated
access name index table (see Section \refersec{chap:acceleratedaccess})
is defined in \addtoindex{C} as shown in
Figure \referfol{fig:nametablehashfunctiondefinition}.\footnote{
This hash function is sometimes informally known as the
"\addtoindex{DJB hash function}" or the "\addtoindex{Berstein hash function}"
(see, for example,
\hrefself{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List\_of\_hash\_functions} or
\hrefself{http://stackoverflow.com/questions/10696223/reason-for-5381-number-in-djb-hash-function)}.}
\begin{figure}[here]
\begin{lstlisting}
unsigned long \* must be a 32-bit integer type *\
hash(unsigned char *str)
{
unsigned long hash = 5381;
int c;
while (c = *str++)
hash = hash * 33 + c;
return hash;
}
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{Name Table Hash Function Definition}
\label{fig:nametablehashfunctiondefinition}
\end{figure}
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\title{O obliku borbe „štrajk glađu”}
\date{06.2015.}
\author{RadioAzione[Italia]}
\subtitle{}
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\section{O Obliku borbe "štrajk glađu"}
S tekstom Spyosa Mandylasa o završetku štrajka glađu, RadioAzione definitivno zatvara vrata novom obliku prosvjeda „štrajk glađu do smrti”, trulom plodu doba brze komunikacije. Da, zato jer će sada uslijediti brojni štrajkovi glađu do smrti zahvaljujući web informacijama.
Uvijek sam odbijao štrajk glađu kao metodu borbe, ali uvijek sam poštivao one koji su prethodnih godina osjetili potrebu da ga usvoje iz nekog „x” razloga.
U odnosu na štrajk glađu, u kojem se izlaže riziku vlastiti život, preferiram „kamikazu” koji će se dignuti u zrak u nekoj stanici.
Ne samo da nas bace u logore države, već i pomažemo toj istoj državi da nas eliminira fizički. Onda bolje pokušati ubiti jednog stražara ako se već želi izložiti riziku vlastiti život u zatvoru, umjesto to činiti kroz „ucjenjivanje\Slash{}milostinju” države.
Ucjena je: što bi se moglo desiti ako se vlastito zdravlje pogorša zbog štrajka. Kao reći: „\emph{Državo,gledaj, ako ja odapnem tamo vani će izbiti kaos\dots{}}”. Milostinja nosi masku zahtjeva s ucjenom.
Iz tog razloga ne mislim da „štrajk glađu”, a nadasve onaj u kojem se traži od države da bude blaža, nije dostojanstvena metoda za anarhiste.
Shvaćam da se radi o jednoj od malobrojnih metoda na raspolaganju u zatvoru, ali ako smo odlučili da „ukrademo čokoladu”, dobro znamo da će ishod toga možda biti kazna. Nema smisla poslije da se poslije žalimo\dots{}
Čak i u slučaju da nas optuže da smo ukrali čokoladu, a nismo to učinili, moramo krenuti od pretpostavke da ionako pripadamo onima koji bi tu čokoladu bili željeli ukrasti.
Kratko rečeno, mi smo anarhisti, i osim ako ne odlučimo provesti naš život u knjižnicama čitajući knjige i slažući se s različitim teorijama, zatvor će nas prije ili poslije ugostiti.
Desit će se to jer ili će nas uhvatiti na djelu ili zbog namještaljke, ali u ratu neprijatelji se eliminariju na bilo koji način, a u tome je država doslijednija od anarhista.
Svjestan sam da u trenutku dok pišem ovih par redaka, nekoliko drugova u Čileu štrajka glađu zbog njihove izolacije, zatvora itd. Što je vrlo različito od štrajka glađu kojeg su sproveli i okončali anarhistički zatvorenici u Grčkoj (uz pritisak na nove vladaoce i na „prijateljsku” vladu Syrize kako bi im ukinula par zakona). No, taj isti oblik specifične borbe vodi se zato jer se zahtjeva nešto od države, i kao što sam rekao prije, u obliku ucjene. A to nije odraz anarhističke ideje.
Trebam šutjeti naspram svega toga?
Trebaju postojati samo potvrde neuke solidarnosti, a ne i drugačiji stavovi? No, koliko sam mogao vidjeti, kritika nije stigla samo sa naše strane, nego i od mnogih drugih drugova čije su ideje završile (a i dalje ostaju) u ladici anarhističkog morala.
Moja su „neka vrsta” razmatranja, a ona od nekog drugog su razmatranja „bez vrste”, prava razmatranja\dots{}
Da moje ideje ne bi bile samo „neka vrsta” razmatranja trebao bih ih pisati u zatvorskoj ćeliji; tamo bi zaista mogle postati razmatranja „bez vrste”.
Da, jer štogod izašlo iz zatvora je čisto zlato, a ono što dolazi iz vana vrlo često je, ako se ne slaže s uniformiranošću, sranje.
Teorija kaže da su kritičke analize, pogotovo kada dolaze od „politički nekorektnog” i kada nisu dovoljno duboke, na internetu neuvjerljive.
Tko ima časopis može pisati svoja razmatranja bez da to budu „neka vrsta razmatranja”, i zar ja ne bih smio pisati moja iz jednostavnog razloga zato jer se putujući internetom nazivaju „neka vrsta razmatranja”?
Moram dokazati „diplomu” ili „dozvolu” da bih rekao to što mislim?
To jako podsjeća na metodu sastanaka, gdje oni koji nisu „brzi na jeziku” šute i nikada se ne uključuju, a kada bi se i uključili svojim jednostavnim i prostim načinom izražavanja, odmah bi ih ušutkao nakon par trenutaka jednim dugim govorm neki sposobni „govornik”.
Nemam novaca da štampam časopis, a kada sam to i radio u prošlosti mnogi se nisu pobrinuli ni da ostave neki doprinos, mada su bile (kada se oduzmu troškovi štampe) benefit za drugove u zatvoru. Međutim, distribuirao sam po tristo primjeraka, na moj trošak naravno (naravno?).
Zato sam odlučio da prenesem tu moju „neku vrstu razmatranja” na website, s „gotovo” nula troškova. I zato, pošto nemam nikakve namjere da postanem novinska agencija, moja mišljenja zapisujem ovdje. Imajući na umu da je interntet pod nadzorom, ali neka časopisi ne pomišljaju da su zaštićeni od indiskretnih očiju. Iz toga se zakljujučuje da su moja razmatranja pod nadzorom koliko i ona na papiru.
Još jedna stvar koju ne podnosim, i zaista me ljuti, je kada čujem „sada nije pravi trenutak za to”.
Na osnovu kojeg kršćanskog duha se tvrdi takva glupost?
Zato što je netko odlučio da pretvori svoj život u „ucjenu-milostinju”, i moga bi biti na izdisaju, ja ne bih smio reći ono što mislim?
Zašto bi se mogao izraziti samo onaj tko podržava, a ne i onaj tko je protiv?
Trebao bih šutjeti, čekati da umre i onda poslati buket cvijeća na sanduk i izraziti saučešće obitelji?
Ne, žao mi je, ja sam sve ono što se može smatrati lucidnim bolesnim i ciničnim umom, i radije kažem: „\emph{jadni nesvjesni druže, ti koji si na izdisaju a nisi jedan kurac shvatio da samo činiš uslugu državi\dots{}”}
Nisam protiv samoubojstva, ne pripada mi ta potreba da budem jedan broj nedostojne faune na ovom usranom planetu, a nisam ni katolik da bih mislio kako ću samoubojstvom počiniti grijeh. Samoubojstvo je trenutak, možda mnogo puta je bilo samo nekoliko sekundi od misli do dijela, ali kada bih imao dvije minute da pomislim na to, radije bih sa sobom pod zemlju povukao i nekog mojeg neprijatelja.
Mnogo puta sam čuo „nije pravi trenutak”.
Jednom nije na prosvjedu, drugi put nije za napad, jednom nije za kritiku a drugi put zato jer nekog boli stomak.
Netko je prije par godina rekao: „Krećemo i vraćamo se zajedno”. Mnogima se ta rečenica nije dopala i, po meni pravedno, je kritizirana i pretvorena u „ja\Slash{}mi ne čekam\Slash{}o nikoga!”.
„Krećemo i vraćamo se zajedno” znači da bi trebao postojati jedan određeni trenutak za polazak i određeni trenutak za povratak, uvijek svi zajedno. Trebali bi, dakle, postojati određeni „trenuci”.
Ali tko zna kada su ti pravi trenuci? Obično ih određuju vođe\dots{} ili bolje reći, neće nikada ni postojati\dots{}
Što znači da su mnogi kritizirali „krećemo i vraćamo se zajedno”, ali istovremeno ti kažu „\emph{to je bolje ne reći i ne učiniti, zato što sada nije pravi trenutak\dots{}}”
Ajmo sada igrati „Pronađi razlike”.
Po meni, onaj tko kaže „nije pravi trenutak”, neuptino, pati od autoritarizma.
I ova „neka vrsta razmatranja”, o upotrebi metode borbe „štrajk glađu, i nadasve do smrti”, završit će u ladici anarhističkog morala.
Kako zatvoreni drugovi anarhisti u štrajku glađu ne bi znali da postoje anarhisti koji misle na drugačiji način, kako bi mislili da svi anarhisti podupiru njihov izbor.
Kao da nisu dovoljni zidovi od armiranog betona, bodljikava žica i rešetke da izoliraju zatvorenika od svega što se zbiva s druge strane logora, čak i drugovi vani iskrivljuju stvarnost.
A, tko zna, možda netko, čak, priželjkuje da drug u štrajku glađu odapne kao bi mogao izaći na prosvjed i razbijati izloge.
Napomena: Nitko nije primoran da čita moja razmatranja, i ako vam smetaju promjenite „program” i sigurno ćete pronaći „društveni mir”.
\textbf{\emph{RadioAzione, 8. maj 2015.}}
\section{About the method of struggle “hunger strike”}
With the Spyros Mandylas’ text about the end of his hunger strike, RadioAzione definitely closes the door to the new method of protest – “hunger strike until death”, rotten fruit of the age of fast communication. Yes, because there will be many hunger strikes until death thanks to the web information.
I’ve always rejected the hunger strike as a method of struggle, but I’ve always respected those who in the past years needed to adopt it for some “x” reason”. Instead of the hunger strike, in which one exposes its own life to risk, I prefer the “kamikaze” who will blow himself up in some barracks.
Like it’s not enough that we are thrown in the dungeons of the State, moreover we help exactly the same State to eliminate us physically.
Therefore, it’s better to try to kill a guard if you want put your life on risk in prison instead of doing the same thing blackmailing the State and asking charity from it.
The blackmail is: what could happen if our own health get worse due to the hunger strike?
In a way it’s like saying: \emph{“State, attention! If I die, there will be a mess outside \dots{}”}. The charity wears the mask of demand with blackmail.
For that reason I don’t think that the“hunger strike”, especially the one which asks the State to be more gentle, is a proper method of struggle for an anarchist.
I understand that is one of the few methods of struggle that can be used in prison but, if we decided to “steal a
candy”, we know very well that the result would be punishment. It doesn’t make sense to complain later.
Even if we’re accused for the stolen candy, but we didn’t do that, we have to assume that we belong to those who would, anyway, like to steal that candy.
In short, we are anarchists and if we don’t decide to spend our life behind the doors of a library, reading books and more or less agree with various theories, the prison will accommodate us, sooner or later.
This will happen because we could be caught in the act or we could be set up. In war the enemies have to be eliminated in any possible way, and in that regard the State is more coherent than anarchists.
I am aware that in this moment, when I’m writing these lines, some comrades in Chile are on hunger strike for several reasons related to their situation, such as isolation, imprisonment etc. But this one is very different from the hunger strike carried out and ended by detained anarchist in Greece (with the pressure on the new rulers and “friendly” SYRIZA government, to abolish some laws for anarchists).
Like I said before, that is the same method of “struggle”, carried out for asking
something from the State, in the form of blackmail which doesn’t reflect the anarchist ideas.
Should I stay in silence in front of all this?
Should there exist only statements of ignorant solidarity an no different positions?
As I could see, the criticism hasn’t come only from myself, but from many other comrades too, whose ideas are put (and continue to stay) in the drawer of anarchist respectability.
Mine reflections are just some kind of “reflections”, while those coming from the others are reflections in the true sense\dots{}
For my reflections not to be just some kind of reflections, I should write them in a prison cell; and there, yeah, they could become reflections in the “true sense”\dots{}
Yes, because whatever comes out of prison is consider truthful, and often whatever comes from outside it’s crap if it disagrees with the uniformity.
The theory says that the critical analysis, especially when it comes from a “non politically correct” side and when isn’t deep enough, it doesn’t hold on the Internet.
One who has a magazine, in paper form, can write his reflections without them to be “some kind of reflections”. So therefore I shouldn’t write my own for the simple reason that because circulating on the Web they are considered “some kind of reflections”?
Must I have a “diploma” or “license” to say what I think?
This reminds me a lot of the method of assembly, where one who isn’t a good “orator” stays silent and never intervenes, and if he would intervene, with his simple and genuine way of speaking, he would be immediately shushed by a long speech from some good orator.
I don’t have money to print a magazine, and when I used to print it in the past, many didn’t care to leave a donation, despite the fact that it was (minus printing costs) benefit for the anarchist prisoners. However, hundreds of copies were distributed on my own expense, obviously (obviously?).
Because of that I decided to move my “kind of reflections” on the website, at “almost” zero cost. Therefore, since I don’t have any intention to become “news agency”, I put down my thoughts here.
I keep in mind that Internet is under surveillance, but the papers shouldn’t think they are safe from indiscreet eyes.
Consequently, my considerations are under surveillance as much as those on the paper.
One more thing that I don’t tolerate and that really pisses me off is when I hear, “it’s not the right moment”.
On the basis of which Christian spirit you claim this bullshit?
Only because one decided to transform his own life in a “blackmail-charity” and could be dying, I shouldn’t say everything I think?
Why those who support him may express their thoughts but not the other ones who do not?
Should I stay in silence, waiting him to die, and then send flowers on the coffin and a note of condolences to the family?
No, sorry, I’m all that what can be considered a lucid sick and cynical mind, and I rather say: \emph{“Poor comrade, unaware, you who are dying and didn’t understand a shit that you’re doing a favour to the State\dots{}”}
I’m not against the suicide, it don’t have the need to be a part of worthless fauna on this shitty planet. I’m not catholic either, to think that committing suicide is a sin.
Suicide is a moment, and many times maybe it passes just a few seconds from thinking to committing it. If I had two minutes to think about it, I would rather drag with me under the ground one of my enemies.
I’ve heard so many times “it’s not the right moment”.
One time it’s not for the demo, next time it’s not for the attack, then it’s not for the critic, and another time it’s not because someone has a stomach ache.
Couple of years ago someone said: “we go and we come back together”. Many didn’t like this statement and, rightly (from my point of view), it was criticized and transformed into: “I\Slash{}we don’t wait anyone!”.
“Go and come back together” means that there should be a specific moment for leaving and a specific moment for returning, always united. Therefore, there should exist “specific” moments.
But, who knows which are those right moments?
Usually, they are determined by the leaders\dots{} or it’s better to say that they will never exist\dots{}
Which means that many have criticized the “go and come back together”, but in fact they are saying \emph{“it’s better not say anything and do nothing because it’s not the right moment\dots{}”.}
Let’s play: “Find the differences”.
From my point of view, one who says “it’s not the right moment”, he suffers, unquestionably, from authoritarianism.
Even this “kind of reflections” about using the “hunger strike” as method of struggle, and especially in its form “until death”, will end up in the drawer of anarchist respectability.
Because the detained anarchist comrades on hunger strike mustn’t know that there are anarchists who think differently; they have to know that all anarchists support them.
As if there are not enough concrete walls, barbed wires and bars to isolate prisoners from what’s happening outside, so even comrades from outside distort the reality.
And, who knows, maybe someone even hopes the comrade on hunger strike dies, so to make a demo and smash the shop windows.
Note: No one is forced to read my reflections, and if they bother you, change the “channel” and you will find the “social peace” for sure.
\textbf{\emph{RadioAzione, May 8th 2015}}
\emph{Translation: RadioAzione[Croatia]}
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Anarhija.info
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\begin{center}
RadioAzione[Italia]
O obliku borbe „štrajk glađu”
06.2015.
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\textbf{anarhija.info}
\end{center}
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\end{document}
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https://melusine.eu.org/syracuse/B/BaseCollege/Troisieme/pbgeo/exo29.tex?enregistrement=ok | eu.org | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | application/x-tex | text/x-matlab | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662534773.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20220521014358-20220521044358-00291.warc.gz | 469,802,832 | 2,160 | %@P:exocorcp
%@metapost:3pbgeoexo2c.mp
On considère un triangle $ABC$ tel que $AB=5,6$~cm ; $BC=4,2$~cm et
$AC=7$~cm.
\begin{myenumerate}
\item Fais la figure sur une feuille séparée. On complétera cette
figure au fur et à mesure des questions.
\item Démontre que le triangle $ABC$ est rectangle en $B$.
\item
\begin{enumerate}
\item Calcule l'aire du triangle $ABC$.
\item Dans le triangle $ABC$, la hauteur issue de $B$ coupe la droite
$(AC)$ en $H$.
\par Exprime l'aire du triangle $ABC$ en fonction de $BH$.
\item Montre que $BH=3,36$~cm.
\end{enumerate}
\item Calcule la longueur $HC$.
\item Place le point $D$ symétrique de $B$ par rapport à $H$. Trace la
droite qui passe par $D$ et qui est perpendiculaire à la droite
$(BD)$. Cette droite coupe la droite $(BC)$ en $E$.
\\Montre que $C$ est le milieu du segment $[BE]$.
\item Place le point $K$, symétrique du point $H$ par rapport au point $C$.
\\Quelle est la nature du quadrilatère $BHEK$ ? Justifie la réponse.
\item Démontre que $DEKH$ est un rectangle.
\item On appelle $(\cal C)$ le cercle circonscrit au quadrilatère
$DEKH$.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Trace le cercle $(\cal C)$ en justifiant la construction.
\item On considère le cône de hauteur 5~cm ayant pour base le
cercle $(\cal C)$.
\\Calcule le volume du cône au cm$^3$ près.
\end{enumerate}
\end{myenumerate}
%@Correction:
\begin{myenumerate}
\item\[\includegraphics{3pbgeoexo2c.1}\]
\item\Recipytha ABC{7}{5,6}{4,2}
\item
\begin{enumerate}
\item $\mathscr{A}_{ABC}=\dfrac{AB\times AC}2=\dfrac{5,6\times4,2}2=\opmul*{5,6}{4,2}{a}\opdiv*{a}{2}{a}{b}\opprint{a}$~cm$^2$.
\item $\mathscr{A}_{ABC}=\dfrac{BH\times AC}2=\dfrac{BH\times
7}2=3,5\times BH$.
\item \[\Eqalign{
\mathscr{A}_{ABC}&\rnode{A}{=}\opprint{a}&&&\mathscr{A}_{ABC}&\rnode{B}{=}3,5\times BH\cr
\cr
&&\opprint{a}&\rnode{C}{=}3,5\times BH\cr
&&\dfrac{\opprint{a}}{3,5}&=BH\cr
&&\opdiv*{a}{3,5}{a}{b}\opprint{a}&=BH\cr
}\]
\nccurve[angleA=-30,angleB=90,nodesepB=3mm]{->}{A}{C}\nccurve[angleA=-120,angleB=90,nodesepB=3mm]{->}{B}{C}
\end{enumerate}
\item \pythadroit CHB{4,2}{a}
\item Comme $D$ est le symétrique de $B$ par rapport à $H$ alors $H$
est le milieu du segment $[BD]$.\\Comme les droites $(HC)$ et
$(DE)$ sont toutes deux perpendiculaires à la même droite $(BD)$
alors les droites $(HC)$ et $(DE)$ sont parallèles.
\par Dans le triangle $BDE$, la parallèle à la droite $(DE)$
passant par $H$, milieu du segment $[BD]$, coupe le segment $[BE]$
en $C$. Donc $C$ est le milieu du segment $[BE]$.
\item Comme $K$ est le symétrique de $H$ par rapport à $C$ alors $C$
est le milieu du segment $[HK]$.\\Or, $C$ est également le milieu
du segment $[BE]$.\par Donc le quadrilatère $BHEK$ a ses
diagonales qui ont le même milieu : $BHEK$ est alors un
parallélogramme.
\item Comme $BHEK$ est un parallélogramme alors les droites $(BH)$
et $(EK)$ sont parallèles.\\Comme les droites $(BH)$ et $(EK)$
sont parallèles et comme les droites $(BH)$ et $(HK)$ sont
perpendiculaires alors les droites $(EK)$ et $(HK)$ sont
perpendiculaires.\par Comme le quadrilatère $DEKH$ a trois angles
droits alors $DEKH$ est un rectangle.
\item
\begin{enumerate}
\item Comme $DEKH$ est un rectangle alors le centre de son cercle
circonscrit est le point d'intersection des diagonales.
\item Comme $BKEH$ est un parallélogramme alors $EH=BK$.
\par Comme $C$ est le milieu de $[HK]$ alors $HK=2\times
HC=2\times2,52=\opmul*{2,52}{2}{a}\opprint{a}$~cm.
\\\pythahypo BHK{3,36}{a}
\[\includegraphics{3pbgeoexo2c.2}\]
Le volume du cône est donc
\[\Eqalign{
\mathscr{V}&=\frac13\times\pi\times\left(\frac{BK}2\right)^2\times5\cr
\mathscr{V}&=\frac13\times\pi\times\frac{BK^2}4\times5\cr
\mathscr{V}&=\frac13\times\pi\times\frac{36,6912}4\times5
\mathscr{V}&=15,288\pi~\mbox{cm}^3\cr
}\]
\end{enumerate}
\end{myenumerate} |
https://fifthestate.anarchistlibraries.net/library/275-august-1976-letters-to-the-fifth-estate.tex | anarchistlibraries.net | CC-MAIN-2021-31 | application/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-31/segments/1627046153474.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20210727170836-20210727200836-00457.warc.gz | 263,387,578 | 6,193 | \documentclass[DIV=12,%
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\title{Letters to the Fifth Estate}
\date{}
\author{Various Authors}
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\section{FEer Kidnapped?}
[In response to \href{http://www.fifthestate.org/archive/274-july-1976/rich-take-non-aspirin-over-fe-ad/}{Rich Take Non-Aspirin Over FE Ad}, \#274, July 1976]
Dear Sirs (sic):
We have kidnapped your staff member, E.B. Maple. If you do not deliver \$300,000 in one dollar bills or the Chairman of the Board of General Motors, whichever weighs more, to a site known only to us, we will be forced to release him.
We hope you do not find our demands unreasonable. We did not have much time to think them up. If you have any comments or suggestions concerning our terrorist rhetoric or actions, we would be most grateful to hear them.
Thank you for your time, consideration and kindness. And please, drive safely.
The (“Big”) Alliance
(Names withheld in the interest of anonymity)
Flint
\section{IRS Secret Files}
\begin{quote}
\emph{Staff note:} The following letter was received from the U.S. Internal’ Revenue Service announcing it had kept a special file on this paper under the Nixon administration’s program to combat radicals through the use of government agencies. The \emph{Fifth Estate} (and individual staffers) has already gained access to its secret dossiers kept by the Detroit and Michigan Police subversive squads and one can only speculate how many other agencies keep\Slash{} kept records on us and other radical projects. We have requested inspection of our IRS file as indicated in the letter and will pass on any relevant material to the readers in future issues.
\end{quote}
To the Fifth Estate:
During the period July 2, 1969 through August 9, 1973, an organizational component known as the Special Service Staff existed within the Internal Revenue Service. Shortly after assuming office, Commissioner Donald C. Alexander ordered the abolishment of the Staff. Although this order was given on August 9, 1973, the files of this organization are currently being retained by the Service at the request of the Congress of the United States.
We have reviewed the Special Service Staff files and determined that they contain material relating to you or your organization. In addition, on the basis of the material in these files, a referral was made with respect to you, your spouse, or your organization to a field office for evaluation or investigation of matters relating to your tax status under the laws of the United States.
This letter is to notify you that under applicable statutes you may have access to the files of the former Special Service Staff as they pertain to you or your organization. However, in accordance with those statutes, limited portions of the records may not be available to you. Disclosure laws specifically, exclude data such as that which would identify confidential sources; tax information related to third parties; that which would constitute an invasion of privacy; and records generated by another agency from which permission to disclose has not been received.
If you desire access to these records, please complete and return the enclosed form letter.
Charles A. Gibb
Acting Director, Disclosure Division, IRS
Washington DC 20224
\section{Support \& Criticism}
Dear Fifth Estate:
I’m glad to add my support to the paper—hope you keep at it!
One criticism—sometimes your super-rhetoric seems to conceal ideas, rather than clarify or communicate. Our language needs improvement and growth not burial under dogmatic phrases.
Hope no one got kidnapped.
Love,
Z.
Somerville, Mass.
\emph{Staff Reply:} Dear Z: Thanks for both your contribution and your criticism. From time to time readers will chide us for over use of “rhetoric,” but we have never been quite sure in what instances they mean.
We are obviously interested in communicating with as much clarity as possible and would like to know what type of language you find either difficult or rhetorical. Often we tell ourselves that it is problems with what we are saying more than with how, but we are always open to finding better ways to express ourselves. We invite other readers to suggest any ways we can “clean up our act.
\section{Support Needed}
To the Fifth Estate:
Sometime around 2 am on March 9, 1976, a bomb exploded in the grounds of the Toulouse-Rangueil Science Faculty in Paris killing two anarchists: Robert Touati, 24, and Juan Durran Escribano, 23. It was not until 2 pm on March 10 that a gardener at the university discovered the corpses. Immediately the French press began to scream about an attempt against the French Minister of the Interior, Poniatowski, by the “GARI” group.
As the press and police did not know what had happened they fell back on invention. Poiniatowski had attended the funeral of a local CRS (riot police) colonel, killed a few days earlier in a clash with wine-growers at a CRS barracks adjoining the campus later in the morning of the explosion. According to the press reports, Touati and Escribano had planned to lower their device over the wall of the CRS barracks and detonate it during the funeral service. Somehow, while apparently setting the timer, it had exploded prematurely killing both comrades.
According to the French police, Touati was a member of the GARI and they attributed a whole series of explosions and attacks on public buildings to him that had occurred in the Toulouse area. Later the papers had to admit that it was more likely that Touati and Escribano had acted alone on their own initiative—though not discounting that others may have been involved and managed to escape.
In raids throughout the area, 23 people were arrested for questioning regarding the incident, but later released. Although failing to construct a conspiracy against the GARI group, the police arrested Sylvie Porte, a friend of Touati in Paris in the hope that they could widen the net to implicate more people and make more arrests. Sylvie was held in Paris for seven days of questioning, then transferred to Toulouse.
She is at the time of this writing still in jail in the Prison St. Michel Toulouse awaiting the whims of the French police and Examining Judge Bensoussan. So far all visits—even from members of her own family—have been refused.
For the “crime” of losing a friend Sylvie Porte has been imprisoned and is being used as a political hostage by the French authorities. It is up to all of us to see that she does not remain in prison.
Write letters of solidarity to her at:
Sylvie Porte, No. 25–72
Prison St. Michel
32000 Toulouse
France
and protest to your local representative of the French government and to Judge Bensoussan, Palais de Justice de Toulouse, France.
An English Comrade
London
\section{No Workers’ Councils}
Dear Fifth Estate People:
Your article in the \href{http://www.fifthestate.org/archive/274-july-1976/self-management-and-the-spanish-revolution/}{July 1976 FE} on the Spanish Revolution which condemned politicians of all varieties (even anarchists) was good as far as it went. However, what we are left with is the adulation of workers’ councils and their ability to administer every aspect of capitalist daily life and without a boss.
The article states that “the (Spanish) proletariat proved capable of administering and improving a modern urban economy, increasing productivity while maintaining necessary services” (emphasis added). This all amounts to a self-managed capitalism. A “modern urban economy” is capitalism no matter who administers it and “increased productivity” is always its demand no matter who is in control.
Workers’ councils could very well be the last counter-revolution (although one can never be sure what capital will come up with next). An authentic revolution would probably see the complete abandonment of the industrial means of production, if not their complete destruction, by those who have worked there under the coercion of the wage system.
Does anyone (other than those “revolutionaries” who think their role will be to plan production for others!) really believe someone would willfully return to those ghastly places where our lives are stolen from us each day—workers’ councils or not?
If we are serious about a revolution—an event which turns everything over—we have to look beyond the alternatives which capital has chosen for us.
Ned Ludd
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Various Authors
Letters to the Fifth Estate
\bigskip
\href{https://www.fifthestate.org/archive/275-august-1976/letters-to-the-fifth-estate}{\texttt{https://www.fifthestate.org/archive/275-august-1976/letters-to-the-fifth-estate}}
Fifth Estate \#275, August, 1976
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\textbf{fifthestate.anarchistlibraries.net}
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\bibitem{Hedwig2017} Hedwig, K. (2017). {\textquotedblleft}Vetulae incendiariae sunt{\textquotedblright}. La vetula caminando a la teolog{\'\i}a moral. En \textit{Due{\~n}as, cortesanas y alcahuetas: {\textquotedblleft}Libro de buen amor{\textquotedblright}, {\textquotedblleft}La Celestina{\textquotedblright} y {\textquotedblleft}La lozana andaluza{\textquotedblright}} (pp. 137--146).
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\title{Anarquismo: lo que realmente significa}
\date{1910}
\author{Emma Goldman}
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\emph{Siempre despreciado, maldecido, nunca comprendido}\forcelinebreak
\emph{Eres el terror espantoso de nuestra era.}\forcelinebreak
\emph{«Naufragio de todo orden», grita la multitud,}\forcelinebreak
\emph{«Eres tú y la guerra y el infinito coraje del asesinato».}\forcelinebreak
\emph{Oh, deja que lloren. Para esos que nunca han buscado}\forcelinebreak
\emph{La Verdad que yace detrás de la palabra,}\forcelinebreak
\emph{A ellos la definición correcta de la palabra no les fue dada.}\forcelinebreak
\emph{continuarán ciegos entre los ciegos.}\forcelinebreak
\emph{Pero tú, Oh palabra, tan clara, tan fuerte, tan pura,}\forcelinebreak
\emph{Vos dices todo lo que yo, por meta he tomado.}\forcelinebreak
\emph{¡Te entrego al futuro! Tú eres segura.}\forcelinebreak
\emph{Cuando uno, por lo menos despertará por sí mismo.}\forcelinebreak
\emph{¿Viene en la solana del atardecer? ¿En la emoción de la tempestad?}\forcelinebreak
\emph{¡No puedo decirlo — pero ella la tierra podrá ver!}\forcelinebreak
\emph{¡Soy un anarquista! Por lo que no reinaré,}\forcelinebreak
\emph{¡y tampoco reinado seré!}
\end{verse}
\begin{flushright}
John Henry Mackay
\end{flushright}
La historia del desarrollo y crecimiento humano es, a la vez, la historia de la lucha terrible de cada nueva idea anunciando la llegada de un muy brillante amanecer. En su agarre persistente de la tradición, lo Viejo con sus medios más crueles y repugnantes pretende detener el advenimiento de lo Nuevo, cualesquiera sean la forma y el período en que aquel se manifieste. Tampoco necesitamos recaminar nuestros pasos hacia el pasado para darnos cuenta de la enormidad de la oposición, las dificultades y adversidades puestas en el camino de cada idea progresista. La rueca, la tuerca y el azote permanecen con nosotros; al igual que el ajuar del convicto y el coraje social, todos conspirando en contra del espíritu que va marchando serenamente.
El anarquismo no podía tener la esperanza de escapar el destino de todas las demás ideas innovadoras. Por supuesto, como el innovador de espíritu más revolucionario, el Anarquismo necesariamente debe topar con la ignorancia y el envenenado rechazo del mundo que pretende reconstruir.
Para rebatir, aún de manera escueta, con todo lo que se está diciendo y haciendo contra el Anarquismo, sería necesario un volumen entero. Por lo tanto, solamente rebatiré dos de las objeciones principales. Al así hacerlo, trataré de aclarar lo que verdaderamente quiere decir Anarquismo.
El extraño fenómeno de la oposición al Anarquismo es el que trae a la luz la relación entre la llamada inteligencia y la ignorancia. Y aún esto no es tan extraño, cuando consideramos la relatividad de las cosas. La masa ignorante tiene a su favor que no pretende simular conocimiento o tolerancia. Actuando, como hace siempre, por puro impulso, sus razonamientos son como los de los niños. «¿Por qué?» «Porque sí». Aún así, la oposición del no educado hacia el Anarquismo merece la misma consideración que la del hombre inteligente.
¿Cuáles son, pues, las objeciones? Primero, el Anarquismo no es práctico, aunque sea una idea muy atrayente. En segundo lugar, el Anarquismo equivale a violencia y destrucción, por lo que debe ser rechazado por vil y peligroso. Tanto el hombre inteligente como la masa ignorante juzgan no a partir de un conocimiento profundo del tema, sino de rumores o falsas interpretaciones.
Un esquema práctico, dice Oscar Wilde, es uno que ya tiene existencia, o una forma que podría llevarse a cabo bajo las condiciones existentes; pero son exactamente esas condiciones que uno objeta y cualquier propósito que pudiese aceptarlas necesariamente es incorrecto y una locura. El verdadero criterio de lo práctico, por lo tanto, no es si puede mantener intacto lo incorrecto e imprudente; hasta cierto punto consiste en averiguar si el esquema tiene la vitalidad suficiente para abandonar, dejar atrás las aguas estancadas de lo viejo y edificar, al igual que mantener, una nueva vida. A la luz de esta concepción, el Anarquismo es definitivamente práctico. Más que ninguna otra idea, es de ayuda acabar con lo equívoco e irracional; más que ninguna otra idea, está edificando y manteniendo nueva vida.
Las emociones del hombre ignorante se ven contínuamente aplacadas por las historias sangrientas del Anarquismo. Nada hay demasiado ofensivo para ser aplicado en contra de esta filosofía y sus oponentes. Por lo tanto el Anarquismo representa para el no-pensante, lo que el proverbial malvado, hace al niño, un monstruo oscuro empeñado en tragarlo todo; en pocas palabras, destrucción y violencia.
¡Destrucción y violencia! ¿Cómo va a saber el hombre ordinario, que el elemento más violento en la sociedad es la ignorancia; que su poder de destrucción es justamente lo que el Anarquismo está combatiendo? Tampoco, no está al tanto de que el Anarquismo; cuyas raíces, como fuesen, son parte de las fuerzas naturales, destruyen, no células saludables, sino el crecimiento parasítico, que se nutre de la misma esencia de la vida social. Está meramente librando el suelo de yerbajos y arbustos para eventualmente producir fruta saludable. Alguien ha dicho que se requiere menos esfuerzo mental para condenar, que lo que se requiere, para pensar. La indolencia mental esparcida mundialmente, tan prevaleciente en la sociedad nos prueba una vez más que este hecho es demasiado cierto. En vez de ir al significado de cualquier idea dada, para examinar su origen y razón de ser; la mayoría de las personas, la condenarán enteramente, o dependerán de definiciones de aspectos no esenciales superficiales o llenas de prejuicios.
El Anarquismo reta al hombre a pensar, a investigar, a analizar cada proposición; pero para no abrumar al lector medio también comenzaré con una definición y luego elaboraré sobre lo último.
\textbf{Anarquismo}: la filosofía de un nuevo orden social basado en la libertad sin restricción, hecha de la ley del hombre; la teoría que todos los gobiernos descansan sobre la violencia y por lo tanto son equívocos y peligrosos, al igual que innecesarios.
El nuevo orden social descansa, por supuesto, en la base materialista de la vida, pero mientras todos los Anarquistas concuerdan en que el mal actual es uno económico; mantienen que la solución a esa maldad puede conseguirse solamente bajo la consideración de \emph{cada fase} de la vida, individual, al igual que colectiva; la interna, al igual que la fase externa.
Un escrutinio a fondo de la historia del desarrollo humano descubrirá dos elementos en un agrio conflicto el uno contra el otro, elementos que ahora comienzan a ser entendidos, no como extranjeros entre sí, pero estrechamente relacionados y verdaderamente armoniosos, si son colocados en ambientes propios: de los instintos individuales y los sociales. El individuo y la sociedad han mantenido una guerra persistente y sangrienta por la supremacía, porque cada uno estaba ciego ante el valor y la importancia del otro. Los instintos individuales y sociales; el primero, el factor más poderoso para la iniciativa individual, su crecimiento, sus aspiraciones y auto-realización; el segundo, un factor igualmente importante para la ayuda mutua y el bienestar social.
No se está lejos de encontrar explicación a la tormenta desatada dentro del individuo, y entre este y su entorno. El hombre primitivo, incapaz de entender su ser, menos aún la unidad de toda la vida, se siente absolutamente dependiente de fuerzas ciegas y escondidas, siempre listas para burlarse y ridiculizarle. De esas actitudes crecieron los conceptos religiosos del hombre, como una mera partícula de polvo, dependiente en los poderes supremos elevados que solo pueden se aplacados a través de la sumisión a su voluntad. Todas las sagas tempranas sobre esa idea, que continúan siendo el \emph{Leitmotiv} de las historias bíblicas, bregando con la relación del hombre con Dios, con el Estado y con la sociedad. Otra vez el mismo motivo, el hombre es nada, los poderes son todo. Entonces, Jehová solamente tolerará al hombre que manifiesta la condición de entrega completa. El hombre puede tener todas las glorias de la tierra. El Estado, la Sociedad, y las Leyes Morales, todas cantan el mismo refrán: El hombre puede tener todas las glorias de la tierra, pero no podrá ser consciente de sí mismo.
El Anarquismo es la única filosofía que devuelve al hombre la consciencia de sí mismo, la cual mantiene que Dios, el Estado y la Sociedad no existen, que sus promesas son vacías y sin valor, ya que pueden ser logradas solo a través de la subordinación del hombre. El Anarquismo, por lo tanto, es el maestro de la unidad de la vida, no meramente en la naturaleza, sino también en el hombre. No hay conflicto entre los instintos sociales e individuales, no más de los que existen entre el corazón y los pulmones: el uno, el receptáculo de la esencia de la preciosa vida; y el otro, el almacén del elemento que mantiene la esencia pura y fuerte. El individuo es el corazón de la sociedad, conservando la esencia de la vida social; la sociedad es el pulmón que está distribuyendo el elemento para mantener la esencia de vida —es decir, al individuo— puro y fuerte.
«La única cosa de valor en el mundo», dice Emerson, «es el alma activa; a la cual todo hombre tiene dentro de sí. El alma activa ve la verdad absoluta y la proclama y la crea». «En otras palabras, el instinto individual es la cosa de valor en el mundo. Es el alma verdadera la que visualiza y crea la vida de la verdad, del cual saldrá una mayor verdad, el alma social renacida.
El Anaquirsmo es el gran libertador del hombre, sin coma de los fantasmas que lo han tenido cautivo; es el árbitro y pacificador de las dos fuerzas para la armonía individual y social. Para lograr esa unidad, el Anarquismo le ha declarado la guerra a las influencias perniciosas, las cuales, hasta ahora, han impedido la armoniosa unidad de los instintos individuales y sociales.
La Religión, el dominio de la mente humana; la Propiedad, el dominio de las necesidades humanas; el Gobierno, el dominio de la conducta humana, representan el baluarte de la esclavitud del hombre y los horrores que le exige. ¡La Religión! Cómo domina la mente humana, cómo humilla y degrada el alma. Dios es el todo, el hombre es nada dice la religión. Pero, de esa nada, Dios ha creado un reino tan déspota, tan tirano, tan cruel, tan terrible, que nada que no sea desastre, lágrimas y sangre han reinado el mundo desde que los dioses comenzaron. El Anarquismo impulsa al hombre a la rebelión en contra de este monstruo negro. Rompe tus cadenas mentales; le dice el Anarquismo al hombre, porque, no va a ser hasta que tu pienses y juzgues por ti mismo, que saldrás del dominio de la oscuridad, el mayor obstáculo para todo progreso.
La Propiedad, el dominio de las necesidades del hombre, la negación del derecho de satisfacer sus necesidades. El Tiempo nació cuando la propiedad reclamó su derecho divino, cuando vino hacia el hombre con el mismo refrán, igual que la religión, «¡Sacrifícate! ¡Abnégate! ¡Entrégate!» El espíritu del Anarquismo ha elevado al hombre de su posición postrada. Ahora está de pie, su faz hacia la luz. Ha aprendido a ver la insaciable, devoradora y devastadora naturaleza de la propiedad y está preparándose para darle el golpe de muerte al monstruo.
«La propiedad privada es un robo», dijo el gran anarquista francés Proudhon. Sí, pero sin riesgo y peligro para el ladrón. Monopolizando los esfuerzos acumulados por el hombre, la propiedad le ha desposeído de su derecho de nacimiento tornándole en un indigente y un paria. La propiedad ni siquiera posee la excusa tan gastada de que el hombre no crea lo suficiente para satisfacer sus necesidades. Apenas aprendido el ABC de la economía, los estudiantes ya saben que la productividad del trabajo, durante las últimas décadas, excede por mucho la demanda normal. Pero, ¿qué son demandas normales para una institución anormal? La única demanda que la propiedad reconoce es su propio apetito glotónico para mayor riqueza, porque riqueza significa poder, el poder de someter, de aplastar, de explotar, el poder de esclavizar, de ultrajar y degradar. América se muestra particularmente jactanciosa de su gran poder, su enorme riqueza nacional. Pobre América, ¿de qué vale toda su riqueza, si los individuos que la componen son miserablemente pobres? Viviendo en la asquerosidad, en la suciedad y el crimen; perdida la esperanza y la alegría, deambula un ejército desterrado de presas humanas sin hogar.
Generalmente se considera que, a menos que las ganancias de cualquier negocio excedan su costo, la bancarrota es inevitable. Pero, aquellos comprometidos en el negocio de producir riqueza no han aprendido ni esta simple lección. Cada año el costo de la producción en la vida humana está creciendo más (50.000 asesinados, 100.000 heridos en América el año pasado); las ganancias para las masas, que ayudan a crear la riqueza, se se están reduciendo aún más. Todavía América continúa ciega a la bancarrota inevitable de nuestro negocio de producción. Ni es este el único crimen de estos. Todavía más fatal aún es el crimen de convertir al productor en un mero engranaje de una máquina, con menos deseo y decisión que su organizador de acero y hierro. Al hombre no solo le están robando los productos de su labor, sino también el poder de la libre iniciativa, de la originalidad y el interés en o el deseo por las cosas que está haciendo.
La verdadera riqueza consiste en objetos de utilidad y belleza, en cosas que ayuden a crear cuerpos fuertes y preciosos y alrededores que inspiren a la vida. Pero si el hombre está condenado a enrolar algodón alrededor de la rueca, o cavar carbón durante toda su vida, no puede hablarse en ningún caso de riqueza. Lo que da al mundo son solo cosas grises y asquerosas, reflejo de su aburrida y odiosa existencia, muy débil para vivir, muy cobarde para morir. Suena extraño el decirlo, pero hay personas que ensalzan el mortal método de la producción centralizada es el logro de más orgullo de nuestra era. Estos fallan absolutamente, al no enterarse, de que si continuamos con esta docilidad mecánica, nuestra esclavitud será más completa que lo que fue nuestra unión al Rey. Ellos no quieren saber, que la centralización no es solo el toque de muertos de la libertad, pero también de la salud y la belleza, del arte y la ciencia, todas estas siendo imposibles en una atmósfera mecánica parecida a un reloj.
El Anarquismo no puede sino repudiar tal método de producción: su meta es la expresión más libre posible de todos los talentos del individuo. Oscar Wilde define una personalidad perfecta como «una que se desarrolla bajo condiciones perfectas, que no ha sido herida, mutilada ni ha estado en peligro». Una personalidad perfecta, entonces, solo es posible en un estado de la sociedad, donde el hombre sea libre de escoger el modo de trabajo, las condiciones de trabajo y la libertad para trabajar.
Una, para quien la fabricación de una mesa, o la preparación de la tierra, es como la pintura para el artista y el descubrimiento para el científico, el resultado de inspiración, de intenso deseo y un interés profundo en el trabajo como una fuerza creativa. Siendo ese el ideal del Anarquismo, la organización económica debe consistir en la producción voluntaria y asociaciones distributivas, gradualmente desarrollándose en comunismo libre, como el mejor medio de producción, con el menor de energía humana. Aunque el Anarquismo también reconoce el derecho del individuo, o números de individuos, para acomodar todo el tiempo otras formas de trabajo, en armonía con sus gustos y deseos.
Tal exhibición libre de energía humana es posible solo bajo la libertad completa, individual y social. El Anarquismo dirige sus fuerzas en contra del tercer y mayor enemigo de toda equidad social, esto es, el Estado, la autoridad organizada o ley estatuaria, el dominio de la conducta humana.
Igual que la religión ha encadenado la mente humana y como la propiedad, o el monopolio de las cosas, ha conquistado y ahogado las necesidades humanas, el Estado ha esclavizado su espíritu, dictando cada fase de conducta. «Todo el gobierno en esencia», dice Emerson, «es tiranía». Sin importar si es gobierno por derecho divino o regla de mayoría. En cada instancia su meta es la subordinación absoluta del individuo.
Refiriédose al gobierno Norteaméricano, el gran Anarquista americano, Henry David Thoreau, dijo: «el Gobierno, qué es sino tradición, aunque una reciente, tentando para transmitirse intacto a la posteridad, pero cada instante perdiendo su integridad; este no tiene la vitalidad y fuerza de un sencillo hombre viviente. La Ley nunca hizo al hombre ni un poco más justo y por su medio de respeto hacia ésa, hasta los bien dispuestos son diariamente convertidos en agentes de la injusticia».
Ciertamente, lo crucial del gobierno es la injusticia. Con la arrogancia y suficiencia propia del Rey, el cual no podía hacer el mal, los gobiernos ordenan, juzgan, condenan y castigan las ofensas más insignificantes, mientras, manteniéndose gracias a la más grande de las ofensas, la erradicación de la libertad individual. Por lo tanto, Ouida está en lo cierto, cuando ella mantiene que «el Estado solo busca inculcar las cualidades necesarias en el público por las cuales sus demandas sean obedecidas y sus arcas se vean repletas. Su mayor logro es la reducción del ser humano a un mero mecanismo de relojería».
En su atmósfera, todas esas libertades finas y más delicadas, que requieren tratamiento y una expansión espaciosa, inevitablemente se secan y mueren. El Estado requiere una máquina paga impuestos, en la cual no hay marcha atrás, un fisco sin déficit; un público monótono, obediente, sin color, sin espíritu, moviéndose humildemente, como un rebaño de ovejas en un camino alto y recto entre dos paredes».
Pero, hasta un rebaño de ovejas resistiría la vana sutileza del Estado, sino fuera por los métodos opresivos, tiránicos y corruptos que utiliza para servirse de sus propósitos. Por lo tanto, Bakunin repudia el Estado, le ve como sinónimo de la entrega de la libertad del individuo o de las pequeñas minorías, la destrucción de la relación social, la restricción, o hasta la completa negación, de la vida misma, para su engrandecimiento. El Estado es el altar de la libertad política y como el altar religioso, es mantenido para el propósito del sacrificio humano.
De hecho, no hay casi ningún pensador moderno que no concuerde que el gobierno, la autoridad organizada, o el Estado son únicamente necesarios para mantener o proteger la propiedad y el monopolio. Solo se ha mostrado eficiente en esa función.
Hasta George Bernard Shaw, quien aún cree en un posible milagro del Estado bajo el Fabianismo, aunque admite que «este es al presente, una inmensa máquina para robar y esclavizar al pobre con la fuerza bruta». Siendo este el caso es difícil entender, porqué el inteligente introductor desea mantener el Estado después que la pobreza cese de existir.
Desafortunadamente, todavía hay un número de personas que continúan con la fatal creencia de que el gobierno descansa sobre leyes naturales, que estas mantienen el orden social y la armonía, que disminuye el crimen y que previene que el hombre vago engañe a sus semejantes. Por lo tanto, examinaré este argumento.
Una ley natural es ese factor en el hombre, el cual se afirma a sí mismo libremente y espontáneamente, sin alguna fuerza externa, en armonía con los requisitos de la naturaleza. Por ejemplo, la demanda de nutrición, de gratificación sexual, de luz, de aire y ejercicio es una ley natural. Pero, su expresión no necesita la maquinaria del gobierno, ni tampoco del club, la pistola, las esposas o la prisión. Obedecer tales leyes, si podemos llamarle obediencia, requiere solamente espontaniedad y una oportunidad libre. Que los gobiernos no se mantienen a sí mismos a través de tales factores armoniosos, se prueba con las terribles demostraciones de violencia, fuerza y coerción que usan todos los gobiernos para poder vivir. Por lo tanto, Blackstone está correcto cuando dice, «las leyes humanas son inválidas, porque estas son contrarias a las leyes de la naturaleza».
A menos que sea el orden que se produjo en Varsovia luego de la matanza de miles de personas, es difícil atribuir a los gobiernos la capacidad para el orden o la armonía social. El orden derivado de la sumisión y mantenido con terror poca seguridad garantiza, aunque ese es el único «orden» que los gobiernos han mantenido. La verdadera armonía social crece naturalmente de la solidaridad de intereses. En una sociedad donde esos que siempre trabajan nunca disponen de nada, mientras esos que nunca trabajan disfrutan de todo, la solidadridad de los intereses no existe, de aquí que la armonía social sea un mito. La única forma en que la autoridad organizada enfrenta esta situación grave es extendiendo todavía más los privilegios a esos que han monopolizado la tierra y esclavizando aún más a las masas desheredadas. De esta manera, el arsenal entero del gobierno —leyes, policía, soldados, las cortes, legisladuras, prisiones— está acérrimamente involucrado en «armonizar» los elementos más antagónicos de la sociedad.
La más absurda excusa para la autoridad y la ley es que sirven para disminuir el crimen. Aparte del hecho de que el Estado es en sí mismo el más grande criminal, rompiendo toda ley escrita y natural, robando en la forma de impuestos, asesinando en la forma de guerra y pena capital, ha llegado a verse completamente superado en su lucha contra el crimen. Ha fallado totalmente en destruir o tan siquiera minimizar el terrible azote de su propia creación.
El Crimen no es nada más que energía mal dirigida. Mientras cada institución de hoy día, económica, política, social y moral, conspire para dirigir errádamente la energía humana por canales equívocos; mientras la mayoría de las personas estén fuera de lugar, haciendo las cosas que odian hacer, viviendo una vida que aborrecen vivir, el crimen será inevitable y todas las leyes en los estatutos solamente pueden aumentar, pero nunca terminar con el crimen. Qué sabe la sociedad, como existe hoy día, del proceso de la desesperación, de la pobreza, de los horrores, de la pusilánime lucha que pasa el alma hhumana en su camino hacia el crimen y la corrupción. Quien conoce este proceso terrible no puede dejar de ver la verdad en estas palabras de Piotr Kropotkin:
\begin{quote}
«Esos que calcularán el balance entre los beneficios atribuídos a la ley y el castigo y el efecto degradante de este sobre la humanidad; que estimarán el torrente de ruindad derramado sobre la sociedad humana por el informante, favorecido hasta por el Juez y pagado en moneda resonante por gobiernos, bajo el pretexto de ayuda a desemascarar el crimen; esos que irán dentro de las paredes de la prisión y allí ver en lo que se han convertido los seres humanos cuando se les priva de su libertad, cuando son sujetos al cuidado de guardianes brutales, con groserías, con palabras crueles, enfrentándose a mil humillaciones punzantes y agudas, concordarán con nosotros que el aparato entero de la prisión y su castigo es una abominación que debe terminar».
\end{quote}
La influencia disuasiva de la ley sobre el hombre ocioso es demasiado absurda para merecer alguna consideración. Solamente con liberar a la sociedad del gasto y de los desperdicios que causa mantener a una clase ociosa y del igualmente gran gasto de la parafernalia de protección que esta clase de haraganes requiere, en la sociedad existiría abundancia para todos, incluyendo hasta el individuo ocioso ocasional. Además, está bien considerar que la vagancia resulta o de los privilegios especiales o de las anormalidades físicas y mentales. Nuestro demente sistema de producción patrocina ambos y el fenómeno más sorprendente es que la gente desee trabajar, aún ahora. El Anarquismo aspira desgarrar al trabajo de su aspecto estéril y aburrido, de su brillo y compulsión. Intenta hacer del trabajo un instrumento de gozo, de fuerza, de armonía real, para que aún el más pobre de los hombres, pueda encontrar en el trabajo recreación y esperanza.
Para lograr tal arreglo de la vida, del gobierno, sus medidas injustas, arbitrarias y represivas deben ser acabadas. Lo mejor que ha hecho es imponer un solo modo de vida, sin importar las variaciones individuales y sociales, además de sus necesidades. Al destruir el gobierno y las leyes estatutarias, el Anarquismo propone rescatar el respeto propio y la independencia del individuo de toda prohibición e invasión por la autoridad. Solo en la libertad puede el hombre alcanzar su completo desarrollo. Solamente en la libertad aprenderá a pensar y a moverse y a dar lo mejor de sí. Solo en libertad realizará la verdadera fuerza de los lazos sociales,que atan al hombre entre sí y los cuales son la verdadera base de una vida social normal.
Pero, ¿qué hay sobre la naturaleza humana? ¿Puede ser cambiada? Y si no, ¿sobrevivirá bajo el Anarquismo?
Pobre naturaleza humana, ¡qué crímenes horribles han sido cometidos en tu nombre! Todo tonto, desde el rey hasta el policía, desde la persona más cabezota, hasta el ignorante sin visión de la ciencia, presume hablar con autoridad de la naturaleza humana. Mientras mayor sea el charlatán mental, más definitiva será su insistencia en la iniquidad y debilidad de la naturaleza humana. Pero, ¿cómo puede cualquiera hablar de eso hoy, con todas las almas en prisión, con cada corazón encadenado, herido y mutilado?
Juan Burroughs ha dicho que el estudio experimental de los animales en cautiverio es absolutamente inútil. Su carácter, sus hábitos, sus apetitos pasan por una transformación completa, cuando son arrancados de su suelo en el campo y en el bosque. Con la naturaleza humana enjaulada en un estrecho espacio, batida diariamente hasta la sumisión, ¿cómo podemos hablar de sus potencialidades?
La libertad, la expansión, la oportunidad y sobre todo, la paz y el descanso, solos, pueden enseñarnos los factores dominantes reales de la naturaleza humana y todas sus magníficas posibilidades.
El Anarquismo, entonces, verdaderamente favorece la liberación de la mente humana del dominio de la religión la liberación del cuerpo humano del dominio de la propiedad, la liberación de las cadenas y prohibiciones del gobierno. El Anarquismo representa un orden social basado en la agrupación libre de los individuos, con el propósito de producir verdadera riqueza social, un orden que garantizará a cada humano un acceso libre a la tierra y un gozo completo de las necesidades de la vida, de acuerdo a los deseos individuales, gustos e inclinaciones.
Esto no es una idea salvaje o una aberración mental. Han llegado a tal conclusión multitud de hombres y mujeres inteligentes de todo el mundo, una conclusión resultante de la observación cercana y estudiosa de las tendencias de la sociedad moderna; la libertad individual y la equidad económica, las fuerzas gemelas para el nacimiento de lo que es transparente y verdadero en el hombre.
En cuanto a los métodos. El Anarquismo no es, como muchos pueden suponer, una teoría del futuro a ser logrado a través de la inspiración divina. Es una fuerza de vida en los asuntos de nuestra vida, constantemente creando nuevas condiciones. Los métodos del Anarquismo por lo tanto no contienen un programa, armado de hierro para llevarse a cabo bajo toda circunstancia. Los métodos deben salir de las necesidades económicas de cada lugar y clima y de los requisitos intelectuales y temperamentales del individuo. El carácter calmado y sereno de un Tolstói desearán diferentes métodos para la reconstrucción social, que la intensa, desbordante personalidad de Mijaíl Bakunin o de un Piotr Kropotkin. Igualmente también debe ser aparente que las necesidades económicas y políticas de Rusia dictarán medidas más drásticas que las de Inglaterra o América. El Anarquismo no representa ejercicios militares y uniformidad pero, sí defiende el espíritu revolucionario, en cualquier forma, en contra de todo lo que impida el crecimiento humano. Todos los Anarquistas concuerdan en eso, al igual que están de acuerdo en su oposición a la maquinaria política como un medio de traer el gran cambio social.
«Toda votación», dice Thoreau, «es como jugando, como damas, o backgammon, el juego con el bien y el mal, su obligación nunca excede su conveniencia. Hasta votando por lo correcto es hacer nada por ello. Un hombre sabio no dejará el derecho a la clemencia de la oportunidad, ni deseará que prevalezca a través del poder de la mayoría». Un examen cercano de la maquinaria política y sus logros nos llevarán a la lógica de Thoreau.
¿Qué nos demuestra la historia del parlamentarismo? Nada, excepto la omisión y la derrota, ni hasta una sencilla reforma para mejorar la tensión económica y social de la gente. Se han aprobado leyes y han hecho estatutos para el mejoramiento y protección del trabajo. Así, de este modo, el año pasado se probó en Illinois, con las leyes más rígidas para la protección minera, tuvo los desastres mineros mayores. En Estados donde las leyes del trabajo de los niños prevalecen, la explotación infantil está en unos niveles altísimos y aunque con nosotros los trabajadores disfrutan de oportunidades políticas completas, el capitalismo ha llegado a su momento cumbre más desvergonzado.
Hasta si los trabajadores pudiesen tener sus propios representantes, qué es, lo que nuestros buenos políticos socialistas están clamando, ¿qué oportunidades hay para su honestidad y buena fe? Una tiene que tener en mente el proceso de la política, para darse cuenta que su camino de buenas intenciones está repleto de peligro latente: maquinaciones secretas, intrigas, adulaciones, mentiras, trampas; de hecho, sofistería de toda índole, donde el aspirante político puede lograr el éxito. Añadido a eso está la desmoralización completa del carácter y las convicciones, hasta que no queda nada, que haría que una tuviese esperanza de tal desamparo humano. Una y otra vez las personas fueron lo suficientemente tontas en confiar, creer y apoyar hasta su último penique, a los aspirantes políticos, para verse al final traicionados y engañados.
Se puede decir que los hombres íntegros no se convertirían en corruptos en el molino pulverizante político. Quizás no, pero esos hombres estarán absolutamente desamparados para ejercer la más ínfima influencia en nombre de los trabajadores, como ha sido demostrado en numerosos ejemplos. El Estado es el amo económico de sus sirvientes. Los buenos hombres, si los hubiere, o permanecerían fieles a su fe política y perderían su apoyo económico, o se agarrarían de su amo económico mostrándose del todo incapaces de hacer el mínimo bien. La arena política nos deja sin alternativa, una debe ser un burro o un pícaro.
La superstición política todavía domina los corazones y las mentes de las masas, pero los verdaderos amantes de la libertad no tendrán nada que ver con esto. Al contrario, estos creen con Stirner que el hombre tiene tanta libertad como la que quiera tomarse. El Anarquismo, por lo tanto, mantiene la acción directa, el desafío abierto y la resistencia hacia todas las leyes y restricciones económicas, sociales y morales. Pero el desafío y la resistencia son ilegales. Ahí yace la salvación del hombre. Todo lo ilegal necesita integridad, seguridad propia y coraje. Busca espíritus libres e independientes, a «hombres que son hombres y que tienen un hueso en sus espaldas, el cual no puede atravesarse con la mano».
El sufragio universal mismo debe su existencia a la acción directa. De no ser por el espíritu de rebelión, del desafío por parte de los padres revolucionarios americanos, sus descendientes todavía estarían bajo el cobijo del Rey. Si no fuera por la acción directa de un Juan Brown y sus camaradas, América todavía estaría canjeando la piel del hombre negro. Cierto, el canje de la piel blanca todavía existe, pero, también, tendrá que ser abolido por la acción directa. El sindicalismo, la arena económica del gladiador moderno, le debe su existencia a la acción directa. No fue hasta fechas recientes que la ley y el gobierno han tratado de aplastar el movimiento sindical y condenado a prisión por conspiradores, a los exponentes del derecho del hombre a organizarse. De haber tratado de lograr su causa rogando, alegando y pactando, los sindicatos serían hoy muy pocos. En Francia, en España, en Italia, en Rusia, hasta Inglaterra testimonia la creciente rebelión de las uniones laborales, la acción directa, revolucionaria, económica se ha convertido una fuerza tan poderosa en la lucha por la libertad industrial que ha conseguido que el mundo se de cuenta de la tremenda importancia del poder del trabajo. La huelga general, la expresión suprema de la conciencia económica de los trabajadores, fue ridiculizada en América hace poco. Hoy toda gran huelga, para ganar, debe darse cuenta de la importancia de la protesta general solidaria. La acción directa, habiendo probado su efectividad en las líneas económicas, es igualmente potente en el ambiente individual. Allí cientos de fuerzas avanzan sobre su ser y solo la resistencia persistente frente a ellas finalmente lo libertará. La acción directa en contra de la autoridad en la tienda, acción directa en contra de la autoridad de la ley, acción directa en contra de la autoridad entrometida, invasiva de nuestro código moral, es el método lógico y consistente del Anarquismo. ¿Nos guiará este a una revolución? Por supuesto, lo hará. Ningún cambio social ha venido sin una revolución. Las personas o no están familiarizadas con su historia, o todavía no han aprendido, que la revolución es el pensamiento llevado a la acción.
El Anarquismo, la gran fermentación del pensamiento, está hoy imbricado en cada una de las fases del empeño humano. La Ciencia, el Arte, la Literatura, el Drama, el esfuerzo para un mejoramiento económico, de hecho toda oposición individual y social al desorden existente de las cosas, es iluminado por la luz espiritual del Anarquismo. Es la filosofía de la soberanía del individuo. Es la teoría de la armonía social. Es el gran resurgimiento de la verdad viva que está reconstruyendo el mundo y nos anunciará el Amanecer.
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\begin{center}
Biblioteca anarquista
\smallskip
Anti-Copyright
\bigskip
\includegraphics[width=0.25\textwidth]{logo-en}
\bigskip
\end{center}
\strut
\vfill
\begin{center}
Emma Goldman
Anarquismo: lo que realmente significa
1910
\bigskip
Recuperado el 2 de febrero de 2013 desde \href{http://www.inventati.org/ingobernables/textos/anarquistas/ANARQUISMO\%20LO\%20QUE\%20SIGNIFICA\%20REALMENTE\%20-EMMA\%20GOLDMAN-.htm}{inventati.org\Slash{}ingobernables}
\bigskip
\textbf{es.theanarchistlibrary.org}
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https://www2.math.kyushu-u.ac.jp/~iwase/Archives/sample2.tex | kyushu-u.ac.jp | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | application/x-tex | application/postscript | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710534.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20221128171516-20221128201516-00532.warc.gz | 1,143,236,533 | 2,555 | %!TEX TS-program = XeLaTeX
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稗貫郡亀ヶ森小学校内 柳原昌悦様
\bigskip
八月廿九日附お手紙ありがたく拝誦いたしました。
あなたはいよいよご元気なやうで実に何よりです。
私もお蔭で大分癒っては居りますが、どうも今度は前とちがってラッセル音容易に除こらず、咳がはじまると仕事も何も手につかずまる二時間も続いたり、或は夜中胸がぴうぴう鳴って眠られなかったり、仲々もう全い健康は得られさうもありません。
けれども咳のないときはとにかく人並に机に座って切れ切れながら七八時間は何かしてゐられるやうなりました。
あなたがいろいろ想ひ出して書かれたやうなことは最早二度と出来さうもありませんがそれに代ることはきっとやる積りで毎日やっきとなって居ります。
しかも心持ばかり焦ってつまづいてばかりゐるやうな訳です。
私のかういふ惨めな失敗はたゞもう今日の時代一般の巨きな病、「慢」といふものの一支流に過って身を加へたことに原因します。
僅かばかりの才能とか、器量とか、身分とか財産とかいふものが何かじぶんのからだについたものででもあるかと思ひ、じぶんの仕事を卑しみ、同輩を嘲り、いまにどこからかじぶんを所謂社会の高みへ引き上げに来るものがあるやうに思ひ、空想をのみ生活して却って完全な現在の生活をば味ふこともせず、幾年かゞ空しく過ぎて漸く自分の築いてゐた蜃気楼の消えるのを見ては、たゞもう人を怒り世間を憤り従って師友を失ひ憂悶病を得るといったやうな順序です。
あなたは賢いしかういふ過りはなさらないでせうが、しかし何といっても時代が時代ですから充分にご戒心下さい。
風のなかを自由にあるけるとか、はっきりした声で何時間も話ができるとか、自分の兄弟のために何円かを手伝へるとかいふやうなことはできないものから見れば神の業にも均しいものです。
そんなことはもう人間の当然の権利だなどといふやうな考では、本気に観察した世界の実際と余り遠いものです。
どうか今のご生活を大切にお護り下さい。
上のそらでなしに、しっかり落ちついて、一時の感激や興奮を避け、楽しめるものは楽しみ、苦しまなければならないものは苦しんで生きて行きませう。
いろいろ生意気なことを書きました。
病苦に免じて赦して下さい。
それでも今年は心配したやうでなしに作もよくて実にお互心強いではありませんか。
また書きます。
\bigskip
九月十一日 花巻町 宮沢賢治
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https://pr19.event.univ-lorraine.fr/data/pages/LaTeX_PR19_Six_digit_paper_number_First_author_name.tex | univ-lorraine.fr | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | text/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882570879.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20220808213349-20220809003349-00515.warc.gz | 424,809,360 | 1,956 | \documentclass[11pt]{article}
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\author
{Jane Doe,$^{1}$ Claire Monnom,$^{2}$ Peter Name$^{3}$\\
\\
\normalsize{$^{1}$Department of Physics, Univ. of Wherever,}\\
\normalsize{Science Street 1, Wherever, ST 12345, USA}\\
\normalsize{$^{2}$Laboratoire de Physique, Rue de la D\'{e}couverte, 57999 Labas, France}\\
\normalsize{$^{3}$Institut f\"{u}r Photonik, Lichtstrasse 42, 98765 Photonenburg, Germany}\\
\\
}
\begin{document}
\date{}
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\baselineskip14pt
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\thispagestyle{empty}
\section*{Introduction}
This document is a template for the summary submission to the conference PR'19 using LaTeX. You should not modify the settings in this file, the present submission must not exceed the length of two pages. The final file for the submission should be in Portable Document Format (PDF) and should be sent via the conference website at the address https://pr19.event.univ-lorraine.fr/ after login into your SciencesConf account.
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\section*{Conclusions}
The deadline for submitting the summary is April 30th, 2019. Please name your file in the following way, \textbf{PR19-Six digit paper number-First author name}, for instance PR19-252423-Doe.pdf
In alternative to the present .tex template you may prepare your summary also using Microsoft Word for Windows or Microsoft Word for Mac. Please consult the instructions on the web page in this case.
\begin{thebibliography}{5}
\small
\setlength\itemsep{-0.4em}
\bibitem{FirstReference}
P. Name and C. Monnom, Phys. Rev. Lett.
{\bf{58}}, 12059 (2019)
\bibitem{SecondReference}
C. Monnom and P. Name, Nature
{\bf{45}}, 1443 (2018)
\bibitem{ThirdReference}
C. Monnom and P. Name, Science
{\bf{5}}, 146 (2016)
\end{thebibliography}
\end{document}
|
https://www.zentralblatt-math.org/matheduc/en/?id=779&type=tex | zentralblatt-math.org | CC-MAIN-2019-26 | text/plain | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998813.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20190618183446-20190618205446-00470.warc.gz | 975,865,242 | 1,454 | \input zb-basic
\input zb-matheduc
\iteman{ZMATH 2016f.00195}
\itemau{Triantafyllou, Evangelia; Misfeldt, Morten; Timcenko, Olga}
\itemti{Attitudes towards mathematics as a subject, and mathematics learning and instruction in a transdisciplinary engineering study.}
\itemso{Nord. Mat.didakt. 21, No. 3, 29-49 (2016).}
\itemab
Summary: This article explores student attitudes and preferences in learning and teaching of mathematics in engineering studies that transcend the division between technical, scientific and artistic disciplines. For observing such attitudes, we have developed a model that relates the attitude towards mathematics as a subject with the attitude towards mathematics learning and instruction. Data comes from a study at the Media technology educational program of Aalborg University. The study used attitude and preference questionnaires, and observations and interviews with students. The results show that media technology students are not confident in mathematics and consider mathematics to be a difficult subject. Nevertheless, they recognize the importance of mathematics both in their studies and in general. Moreover, students favour learning on their own or together with their peers over learning supported by a teacher. We propose that these findings inspire reforming mathematical education for such engineering students.
\itemrv{~}
\itemcc{C25 C35}
\itemut{attitudes; learning preferences; teaching; engineering students}
\itemli{}
\end |
https://excalibur.et-inf.fho-emden.de/latex/Kauer/Pathological_Histology_of_Vertebrates__Pathologische_Histologie_der_Vertebraten_.tex | fho-emden.de | CC-MAIN-2021-21 | application/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243988725.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20210506023918-20210506053918-00060.warc.gz | 237,561,481 | 2,066 | \documentclass[11pt]{article}
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\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{WPM Pathological Histology of Vertebrates (Pathologische Histologie der Vertebraten)}
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\hline
%\textbf{Studiengang} & DEL\\ \hline
\textbf{Modulbezeichnung} & \textbf{Pathological Histology of Vertebrates (Pathologische Histologie der Vertebraten)}\\ \hline
\textbf{Semester} & WPF\\ \hline
\textbf{Dauer} & 1 Semester\\ \hline
\textbf{Art} & Wahlpflichtmodul\\ \hline
\textbf{ECTS-Punkte} & 5,10\\ \hline
%\textbf{Studentische Arbeitsbelastung} & 30, 270\\ \hline
\textbf{Studentische Arbeitsbelastung} & 30 h Kontaktzeit + 270 h Selbststudium\\ \hline
\textbf{Voraussetzungen (laut BPO)} & \\ \hline
\textbf{Empf.\ Voraussetzungen} & \\ \hline
\textbf{Verwendbarkeit} & DEL\\ \hline
\textbf{Prüfungsform und -dauer} & Predominantly independend project thesis: oral examination and written documentation\\ \hline
\textbf{Lehr- und Lernmethoden} & Projekt\\ \hline
\textbf{Modulverantwortlicher} & G. Kauer\\ \hline
%\textbf{ModulverantwortlicherLang} & G. Kauer\\ \hline
\textbf{Qualifikationsziele} & By predominantly independend project thesis, the student is therefore held to work autonomously in scientific questions. He not only exercises good labory practice but will furthermore gain knowledge and skill for his masterthesis and scientific publications. Thorough knowledge in anatomy, histology, biotechnical resp. medical meaning of pathological vertebral (primary mammalia) tissues, being investigated, is achieved. The student applies methods of differential diagnosis as well as appropriate procedures in analysis, documentation and annotation (image processing and analysis)\\ \hline
\textbf{Lehrinhalte} & With self-chosen subjects on current topics in the area of main research and/or technological focus, the student works, under scientific guidance, on predomindantly self chosen issues in the fields of pathological anatomy and histology of vertebrates preferrably mammalian tissues. The offered projects may be upon consultation and depend on availability of biological material and time resources of the supervising professor.\\ \hline
\textbf{Literatur} & Welsch, Histologie, Elsevier Urban\&Fischer, 5. Auflage (und Folgende)
Eder, Allgemeine Pathologie und Pathologische Anatomie, Springer, 33. Auflage
Curran et Crocker, Atlas der Histopathologie, Springer, 5. Auflage\\ \hline
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G. Kauer & Project Pathological Histology of Vertebrates (Projekt Pathologische Histologie der Vertebraten) & 4\\ \hline
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http://www-networking.eecs.berkeley.edu/EE290Q/lecture1/lecture1.tex | berkeley.edu | CC-MAIN-2017-39 | application/x-tex | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-39/segments/1505818687834.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20170921172227-20170921192227-00358.warc.gz | 378,309,018 | 2,731 | \documentstyle[11pt,amssymbols]{article}
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\title{EE 290Q Topics in Communication Networks\\
Lecture Notes: 1}
\author{Karl Petty}
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\begin{document}
\maketitle
\section*{Motivation}
We will discuss three different types of networks: 1) Telephones, 2)
the Internet, and 3) ATM. This will provide us with an overview of the
various problems that we will be studying during the course of the
class.
\subsection*{Features of the different networks:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Telephone
\begin{itemize}
\item Circuit switched. The connection is setup at the beginning of
the call. The route is
fixed in the network for the duration of the call.
\item Fixed rate (bandwidth) circuits (64 Kbps).
\item Excellent quality of service quarantee. QOS is usually
defined in terms of delay and data loss.
\item Network has a blocking characteristic/admission control.
It needs a resource reservation scheme.
\end{itemize}
\item Internet
\begin{itemize}
\item Packet switched - data sent in sequences of packets. Routing
is done at the switches.
\item Datagram - enough information in packet header to
route completely.
\item Network itself is unreliable (packets could be dropped,
delays may be huge).
\item Intelligence is at the endpoints in the network. This
intelligence makes up for the fact that the network is
unreliable. For example, in
TCP there is end-to-end error control and congestion
feedback.
\item There is no admission control (everybody is allow in).
\item Very little quality of service - only best effort. The
nice thing is that most applications on the internet don't
have restrictive QOS requirements (eg: email).
\end{itemize}
\item ATM
\begin{itemize}
\item Packet switched network (with a fixed packet size of 53 bytes).
\item Virtual circuit. This is virtual in the sense that it's
not like in telephone network: there is no dedicated channel
through the network. This circuit is
just a path through the network.
\item Different types of service in ATM networks:
\begin{itemize}
\item Constant bit-rate service (CBR)
\item Available bit-rate service (ABR)
\item Variable bit-rate service (VBR)
\end{itemize}
\item ATM allows for the statistical multiplexing of data.
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}
\subsection*{Challenges:}
\begin{itemize}
\item Integrated service network. Different traffic classes have
different QOS requirements and attributes.
\item How do we deal with bursty/variable bit rate traffic.
\end{itemize}
\subsection*{Techniques:}
The basic technique is to do resource reservation and admission control.
To do this we need a couple of things in place:
\begin{itemize}
\item Source policing. This regulates the traffic coming from the user.
\item Scheduling at switches. At the switch you can give priorities to
packets with a higher quality of service.
\item Routing.
\end{itemize}
\section*{Course Outline:}
There are three main areas of networking research that we will cover in
class. They are:
\begin{itemize}
\item QOS Guarantee via Scheduling and Policing. The various issues
involved in scheduling are:
\begin{itemize}
\item Performance quarantees in terms of delay and buffer loss.
\item Protection from other greedy users.
\item Flexibility.
\item Implementation complexity.
\item Types of scheduling policies:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Generalized Processor Sharing. This is a work
conserving policy.
\item Rate-controlled policies. These are not work
conserving policies. We use these when it is
important to look at the delay downstream of a
switch (we might not want to send queued packets
if they will over congest the links downstream).
\end{enumerate}
\end{itemize}
\item Statistical Multiplexing and Admission Control. The various issues
involved are:
\begin{itemize}
\item Large deviation techniques (take EE 226B).
\item Effective bandwidths of the source (peak vs average rate).
\item Multiple time scales in traffic.
\item RCBR.
\item Measurement based admission control.
\end{itemize}
\item Circuit Routing and Blocking
\begin{itemize}
\item Blocking analysis (fixed point approximations).
\item Route optimization via shadow prices. Characterize the
revenue of a network as a function of the routing. Trying
to maximize profits.
\item Dynamic routing. Routing based on load.
\item Performance bounds.
\item Competitive analytic approach to routing.
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}
\subsection*{Special topic: Networking in Wireless CDMA}
We will talk about the different networking issues that show up in
wireless CDMA networking. Including power control and handoff.
\vspace{0.02in}
\end{document}
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\title{Anarchie et organisation}
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L’organisation n’est que la pratique de la coopération et de la solidarité ; elle est une condition naturelle, nécessaire de la vie sociale ; un fait inéluctable qui s’impose à tous, soit dans la société humaine en général, soit dans quelconque association de gens qui ont un but commun à atteindre.
L'homme ne veut et ne peut vivre isolé, il ne peut même pas devenir véritablement homme et satisfaire ses besoins matériels et moraux autrement qu'en société et avec la coopération de ses semblables. Il est donc fatal que tous ceux qui ne s'organisent pas librement, soit qu'ils ne le puissent, soit qu'ils n'en sentent pas la pressante nécessité, aient à subir l'organisation établie par d'autres individus ordinairement constitués en classes ou groupes dirigeants dans le but d' exploiter à leur propre avantage le travail d'autrui.
Et l'oppression, millénaire des masses par un petit nombre de privilégiés a toujours été la conséquence de l'incapacité de la plupart des individus à s'accorder, à s'organiser sur la base de la communauté d'intérêts et de sentiments, avec les autres travailleurs pour produire, pour jouir et pour, éventuellement, se défendre des exploiteurs et oppresseurs.
L'anarchisme vient de remédier à cet état de choses avec son principe fondamental d’organisation libre, formée et gardée par la libre volonté des associés sans aucune trace d’un pouvoir dominant, c’est-à-dire sans que quiconque ne s’attribue le droit d’imposer sa volonté aux autres. Il est donc naturel que les anarchistes cherchent à appliquer à leur vie privée et à la vie de leur parti ce même principe sur lequel, d’après eux, devrait être fondée toute la société humaine.
Certaines polémiques laisseraient supposer qu'il y a des anarchistes réfractaires à toute organisation; mais, en réalité, les nombreuses, trop nombreuses discussions que nous avons sur ce sujet, même quand elles sont obscurcies par des questions de mots ou envenimées par des questions de personnes, ne concernent, au fond, que le mode et non le principe d'organisation.
C'est ainsi que des camarades, en paroles les plus opposés à l'organisation, s'organisent comme les autres et souvent mieux que les autres, quand ils veulent sérieusement faire quelque chose. La question, je le répète, est toute dans l'application.
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***
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Je crois surtout nécessaire et urgent que les anarchistes s'organisent pour influer sur la marche que suivent les masses dans leur lutte pour les améliorations et l'émancipation. Aujourd'hui, la plus grande force de transformation sociale est le mouvement ouvrier (mouvement syndical) et de sa direction dépend, en grande partie, le cours que prendront les événements et le but auquel arrivera la prochaine révolution. Par leurs organisations, fondées pour la défense de leurs intérêts, les travailleurs acquièrent la conscience de l'oppression sous laquelle ils ploient et de l'antagonisme qui les sépare de leurs patrons, ils commencent à aspirer à une vie supérieure, ils s'habituent à la lutte, collective et à la solidarité et peuvent réussir à conquérir toutes les améliorations compatibles avec le régime capitaliste et étatiste. Ensuite, c'est ou la révolution ou la réaction.
Les anarchistes doivent reconnaître l'utilité et l'importance du mouvement syndical, ils doivent en favoriser le développement et en faire un des leviers de leur action, s'efforçant de faire aboutir la coopération du syndicalisme et des autres forces de progrès à une révolution sociale qui comporte la suppression des classes, la liberté totale, l’égalité, la paix et la solidarité entre tous les êtres humains.
Mais ce serait une illusion funeste que de croire, comme beaucoup le font, que le mouvement ouvrier aboutira de lui-même, en vertu de sa nature même, à une telle révolution. Bien au contraire: dans tous les mouvements fondés sur des intérêts matériels et immédiats (et l’on ne peut établir sur d’autres fondements un vaste mouvement ouvrier), il faut le ferment, la poussée, l'œuvre concertée des hommes d'idées qui combattent et se sacrifient en vue d'un idéal à venir. Sans ce levier, tout mouvement tend fatalement à s'adapter aux circonstances, il engendre l'esprit conservateur, la crainte des changements chez ceux qui réussissent à obtenir des conditions meilleures. Souvent de nouvelles classes privilégiées sont créées, qui s'efforcent de faire supporter, de consolider l’état de choses que l'on voudrait abattre.
D'où la pressante nécessité d'organisations proprement anarchistes qui, à l'intérieur comme en dehors des syndicats, luttent pour l'intégrale réalisation de l'anarchisme et cherchent à stériliser tous les germes de corruption et de réaction.
Mais il est évident que pour atteindre leur but, les organisations anarchistes doivent, dans leur constitution et dans leur fonctionnement, être en harmonie avec les principes de l'anarchie. Il faut donc qu'elles ne soient en rien imprégnées d'esprit autoritaire, qu'elles sachent concilier la libre action des individus avec la nécessité et le plaisir de la coopération, qu'elles servent à développer la conscience et la capacité d’initiative de leurs membres et soient un moyen éducatif dans le milieu où elles opèrent et une préparation morale et matérielle à l'avenir désiré.
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***
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Une organisation anarchiste doit, selon moi, être établie sur [les] bases [suivantes]. Pleine autonomie, pleine indépendance et, par conséquent, pleine responsabilité des individus et des groupes; libre accord entre ceux qui croient utile de s'unir pour coopérer à une œuvre commune, devoir moral de maintenir les engagements pris et de ne rien faire qui soit en contradiction avec le programme accepté. Sur ces bases, s'adaptent les formes pratiques, les instruments aptes à donner une vie réelle à l'organisation: groupes, fédérations de groupes, fédérations de fédérations, réunions, congrès, comités chargés de la correspondance ou d'autres fonctions. Mais tout cela doit être fait librement, de manière à ne pas entraver la pensée et l'initiative des individus et seulement pour donner plus de portée à des effets qui seraient impossibles ou à peu près inefficaces s'ils étaient isolés.
De cette manière, les Congrès, dans une organisation anarchiste, tout en souffrant, en tant que corps représentatifs, de toutes les imperfections que j'ai signalées, sont exempts de tout autoritarisme parce qu'ils ne font pas la loi, n'imposent pas aux autres leurs propres délibérations. Ils servent à maintenir et à étendre les rapports personnels entre les camarades les plus actifs, à résumer et provoquer l’étude de programmes sur les voies et moyens d'action, à faire connaître à tous la situation des diverses régions et l'action la plus urgente en chacune d'elles, à formuler les diverses opinions ayant cours parmi les anarchistes et à en faire une sorte de statistique, et leurs décisions ne sont pas des règles obligatoires, mais des suggestions, des conseils, des propositions à soumettre à tous les intéressés, elles ne deviennent obligatoires et exécutives que pour ceux qui les acceptent et jusqu'au point où ils les acceptent.
Les organes administratifs qu'ils nomment - Commission de correspondance, etc. - n'ont aucun pouvoir de direction, ne prennent d'initiatives que pour le compte de ceux qui sollicitent et approuvent ces initiatives, n'ont aucune autorité pour imposer leur propres vues qu'ils peuvent assurément soutenir et propager en tant que groupes de camarades, mais qu’ils ne peuvent pas présenter comme opinion officielle de l'organisation. Ils publient les résolutions des Congrès, les opinions et les propositions que groupes et individus leur communiquent; ils sont utiles à qui veut s'en servir pour de plus faciles relations entre les groupes et pour la coopération entre ceux qui sont d'accord sur diverses initiatives, mais libre à chacun de correspondre directement avec qui bon lui semble ou de se servir d’autres comités nommés par des groupements spéciaux.
Dans une organisation anarchiste, chaque membre peut professer toutes les opinions et employer toutes les tactiques qui ne sont pas en contradiction avec les principes acceptés et ne nuisent pas à l’activité des autres. En tous les cas, une organisation donnée dure aussi longtemps que les raisons d'union sont plus fortes que les raisons de dissolution; dans le cas contraire elle se dissout et laisse place à d'autres groupements plus homogènes.
Certes la durée, la permanence d'une organisation est condition de succès dans la longue lutte que nous avons à soutenir et, d'autre part, il est naturel que toute institution aspire, par instinct, à durer indéfiniment. Mais la durée d'une organisation libertaire doit être la conséquence de l'affinité spirituelle de ses membres et des possibilités d'adaptation de sa constitution aux changements des circonstances; quand elle n'est plus capable d'une mission utile, le mieux est qu'elle meure.
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Bibliothèque Anarchiste
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Anti-copyright
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Errico Malatesta
Anarchie et organisation
1927
\bigskip
Consulté le 2 mai 2016 de http:\Slash{}\Slash{}www.panarchy.org\Slash{}malatesta\Slash{}organisation.1927.html
Publié dans «Il Risveglio», Genève, 1-15 octobre 1927.
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\title{Abolicionismo: vanguarda utópica ou futurista?}
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Desde que as primeiras civilizações vicejaram sobre a Terra, indivíduos, grupos, povos e até etnias inteiras são vítimas de agressões violentas, humilhações, explorações e escravizações. Pérsia, Grécia, Índia, China\dots{} Mesmo as aparentemente iluminadas civilizações antigas mantiveram, em algum momento, regimes escravocratas, divisão por castas e outros tipos de exploração sistemática de seres humanos. Até tribos indígenas rudimentares do Brasil pré-descobrimento tinham o costume de raptar e escravizar membros de tribos rivais, o que denota que o hábito sequer se restringe às chamadas grandes civilizações. Na época das grandes navegações e da expansão do mundo conhecido, a economia mundial era praticamente movida sobre as sangrentas rodas e engrenagens de regimes autoritários, monárquicos e escravocratas. Com o tempo – e o advento do capitalismo primitivo –, esses regimes entraram em declínio e, conseqüentemente, para evitar o colapso total do sistema, se viram obrigados a mudar as regras do jogo. Começaram, um a um, a abolir (ou seria abdicar?) o uso de trabalho escravo, entre outras medidas.
Embora muitos pensem que essas atitudes libertárias tenham sido desencadeadas pelos novos paradigmas iluministas e positivistas, ou por grandes levantes liderados por idealistas abolicionistas que forjaram, na marra, a libertação maciça de escravos, a nada romântica realidade é que os senhores de escravos vislumbraram promissoras vantagens econômicas em se desfazer daqueles trabalhadores – cuja subsistência dependia totalmente dos “donos” –, e substituí-los por outros bem mais baratos: assalariados, que davam o sangue com muito mais boa vontade e a custos muito menores.
Apesar disso, quase 150 anos depois da abolição, o Brasil continua sendo palco de notícias sobre trabalhadores encontrados em regime de escravidão ou semi-escravidão, nas barbas do poder público e às vistas da mídia onipresente, à taxa média, juram as estatísticas, de 25 mil novos escravos por ano!
No mundo todo, estima-se que existam 40 milhões de trabalhadores escravizados, 8 milhões de crianças tratadas como mercadoria e de 4 a 5 milhões de mulheres em situação de servidão sexual.
Também se fala em cerca de meio bilhão de pessoas maltratadas e impiedosamente exploradas em campos de mineração, estivas portuárias, latifúndios em áreas remotas, indústrias pesadas e etc, recebendo remunerações tão espantosamente baixas que chegam a soar improváveis quando trazidas à luz de reflexões sociológicas.
Sem contar a infinidade de mulheres acintosamente humilhadas – muitas das quais mutiladas! –, obrigadas a se submeter a tradições e leis machistas, preponderantes no oriente médio, na áfrica e em tantos outros lugares.
Os casos de violência doméstica, no mundo, contra crianças, mulheres, deficientes e idosos, são tão numerosos que carecem de estatísticas confiáveis. Podem beirar dois bilhões de ocorrências diárias!
O ser humano – assim parece –, por definição, explora. Pai explora filho, marido explora esposa, neto explora avô, irmão explora irmão, patrão explora funcionário, fortes exploram fracos, poucos exploram muitos, corporações exploram milhares, igrejas exploram milhões, tiranias e etnias exploram bilhões\dots{}
Daí o monumental obstáculo que emperra a eficiência do movimento pelo abolicionismo animal: agindo junto a uma sociedade de humanos que histórica, diária, sistemática e inevitavelmente exploram impiedosamente uns aos outros, torna-se humanamente impossível lhes inocular a noção de que não é razoável abusar dos outros animais.
Em outras palavras, como sugerir o uso do senso ético a uma sociedade que sequer veio com esse software instalado?
Assim sendo, como, em sã consciência, pode um ativista do direito animal pregar o abolicionismo total e irrestrito e não se abalar diante dos pálidos resultados dessa luta inglória? O desafio, hercúleo, é tamanho que se torna quase uma missão mítica, utópica, profética\dots{} Tende a virar questão de fé e acaba assumindo ares de religião, com direito inclusive a seus dogmas, tabus e estigmas.
Um dos maiores problemas que a dogmatização do abolicionismo acarreta, para a própria causa que defende, é a pressão contrária que muitos de seus adeptos freqüentemente exercem sobre uma corrente diversa de defesa dos direitos animais, que chamam – em geral, pejorativamente – de bem-estarismo. Para o pensamento abolicionista mais ortodoxo, o bem-estarismo traria prejuízos incalculáveis à “verdadeira” causa do direito animal, por lutar “apenas” por melhorias nas condições de criação, tratamento e abate dos bichos. “Ora”, afirma-se com fervor, “se o mundo todo adotar o bem-estarismo como meta, logo os animais estarão sendo tão ‘bem-tratados’ que será inútil qualquer iniciativa para tentar livrá-los definitivamente da sina da exploração comercial humana”.
O que tal pensamento não considera – ou reluta em admitir – é que, embora todas as premissas e justificativas do abolicionismo integral sejam coerentes do ponto de vista ético, a sociedade humana simplesmente ainda não se mostra pronta para aplicá-las na prática.
O abolicionismo é, por assim dizer, uma corrente de pensamento de ultra-vanguarda, muito à frente do seu tempo, apesar de já existir há mais de um século. É, porém, um movimento necessário e se faz premente que haja associações de pessoas dispostas a levá-lo adiante. Mas essas pessoas não deveriam perder de vista a perspectiva de que somente mudanças gerais e profundas nos paradigmas de funcionamento da sociedade moderna é que levarão ao cabo os últimos (primeiros?) objetivos abolicionistas. E que essas mudanças ainda podem levar muito tempo, em vista do atual padrão de consumo global e da ideologia vigente.
Suas ações podem e deverão ser fundamentais na aceleração do processo de mudança desses paradigmas, mas será muito mais crucial a influência do fator que sempre pesou sobre a humanidade: a conveniência econômica. Assim como os regimes escravocratas deram lugar ao regime assalariado por motivos econômicos, a exploração de animais só terá fim quando se provar inviável economicamente. E isso, não graças a fatores muito animadores, deverá obrigatoriamente acontecer dentro de mais algumas décadas.
Por sinal, eis a brecha por onde entram em ação as principais armas das correntes abolicionistas mais “produtivas” hoje: as frentes de libertação animal que visam à deterioração da indústria exploratória, como a ALF, impondo dificuldades ao funcionamento do sistema e causando prejuízos tanto materiais como morais às empresas e instituições que se aproveitam de animais. Essas organizações, em geral clandestinas ou “extra-oficiais”, têm logrado, a seu modo, conquistas importantes para a causa abolicionista. Além da liberação efetiva de muitos animais, conquistam exposição na mídia para o conjunto de pensamentos em favor da defesa dos direitos dos animais, levando o debate ao alcance de uma opinião pública historicamente privada de tais informações.
No âmbito das iniciativas menos agressivas e mais políticas do ativismo abolicionista, alguns avanços se fazem possíveis, mas também são confrontados com fatores de ordem econômica. As chances de sucesso de ações jurídicas, manifestações populares, campanhas informativas e pressões políticas contra as atividades de um circo, por exemplo, são bem maiores do que contra um festival de rodeio. Isso porque ações abolicionistas diretas surtem tanto mais efeitos positivos, quanto menos interesses econômicos e políticos estiverem em jogo. Como, de resto, tudo o mais na sociedade moderna.
Essa lógica nos obriga a constatar que as indústrias alimentícia e de pesquisa científica, que envolvem lobbies particularmente poderosos e cifras virtualmente inimagináveis, estão praticamente fora do alcance do ativismo abolicionista. Na atual conjuntura global, quase nada pode ser feito no sentido de obtenção de moratórias de exploração animal por esses setores. Podemos dizer que o mesmo ocorre, em menor escala, com a indústria da moda, que é alvo freqüente de ações e manifestações e, ainda assim, absorve facilmente os prejuízos causados e mantém o negócio de couro e peles funcionando a todo vapor.
Bem, se admitirmos que a sociedade moderna de consumo não está (ainda) pronta para absorver integralmente os ideais abolicionistas e que, por mais que o ativismo se incremente e avance na direção de dificultar as coisas para as indústrias exploratórias, ainda levará décadas até que seja factível aplicar na prática esses mesmos ideais com eficiência, não faz nenhum sentido se opor tão radicalmente ao chamado bem-estarismo animal. Não, ao menos, do ponto de vista da geração de animais que está sofrendo agora: hoje, no mundo todo, são cruelmente abatidos mais de 2 mil animais por segundo! E todos mortos depois de terem vivido sob as condições mais miseráveis que se possa imaginar.
Inevitavelmente, essas décadas, que podem ser cinco, seis ou mais, transcorrerão paralelamente ao sofrimento de trilhões de animais, que não terão outra alternativa senão a melhoria de suas condições de vida e abate, até que a revolução abolicionista se torne viável. Eis um paradoxo desconcertante e ardilosamente difícil de equacionar: a oposição ferrenha ao bem-estarismo não tem nos orientado rumo ao abolicionismo e ainda leva à divisão, em facções, um contingente de ativistas que, unidos, teriam muito mais influência e poder de fogo para acelerar o processo rumo ao abolicionismo integral.
É curioso notar que ambas correntes ideológicas criticam-se amiúde e mutuamente, mesmo quando é evidente que suas causas favorecem os mesmos sujeitos (os animais explorados) e seus objetivos são perfeitamente compatíveis (diminuição do sofrimento, de um lado e, do outro, fim da exploração).
Não se trata de sugerir que abolicionistas abram mão da legitimidade de seus ideais, nem de pedir para aderirem ao bem-estarismo. Mas, antes, de convidá-los a encarar as duas modalidades de defesa dos direitos dos animais como estratégias complementares, cada uma a seu tempo, com seu ritmo e em seu contexto. Trata-se, por fim, de dar vazão à razão concomitante a paixão, equilibrando-as numa receita que lhes permita enxergar, no que chamam de bem-estarismo, a solução para uma demanda imediata de bilhões de animais que, no curto prazo, não serão libertados em nenhuma hipótese, mas que têm chance real da conquista de condições de vida menos desfavoráveis. E de focalizar os esforços estritamente abolicionistas nas ações que visem à futura e definitiva eliminação, a médio e longo prazo, dos monstruosos “estoques vivos” mantidos pela indústria exploratória.
Para terminar, uma proposta de exercício imaginativo em que não há respostas, apenas perguntas.
Se houvesse tecnologia para entender o pensamento animal, e se com ela pudéssemos escutar o que diz um porco em sua baia minúscula, muito provavelmente ouviríamos “por favor, irmão, eu lhe imploro, trate de convencer os humanos de que não está certo o que fazem conosco”, numa súplica que nos indicaria claramente o caminho do abolicionismo.
Sendo honestos com o porco, teríamos que responder, “estamos fazendo todo o possível, mas os humanos não são fáceis de lidar, são séculos de hábitos arraigados para transcender. Continuaremos lutando pela abolição com todas nossas energias. Mas, por hora, o máximo que podemos fazer é aumentar o tamanho de seu cativeiro, melhorar suas condições de vida e amenizar os horrores da sua morte”.
Como será que ele reagiria? “Muito obrigado por seus esforços, todo alívio é bem-vindo! E tomara que consiga nos libertar no futuro”. Ou “muito obrigado, mas se não pode libertar a mim e aos meus, migalhas bem-estaristas jamais aceitaremos”.
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Biblioteca Anarquista
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Jean Pierre Verdaguer
Abolicionismo: vanguarda utópica ou futurista?
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\href{https://protopia.in/wiki/Abolicionismo:\_vanguarda\_ut\%C3\%B3pica\_ou\_futurista\%3F\%5BProtopia.in}{\texttt{https://protopia.in/wiki/Abolicionismo:\_vanguarda\_ut\%C3\%B3pica\_ou\_futurista\%3F[Protopia.in}}
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\textbf{bibliotecaanarquista.org}
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https://git.bettercrypto.org/ach-master.git/blobdiff_plain/3f6c7d24dbdc11d9e44a2ee146511cd65a2bc966..992b99dc7be1bdbc84d1c8a0e1e121eecfc11047:/src/practical_settings.tex | bettercrypto.org | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | text/plain | application/x-tex | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964363689.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20211209061259-20211209091259-00562.warc.gz | 360,478,460 | 4,919 | X-Git-Url: https://git.bettercrypto.org/ach-master.git/blobdiff_plain/3f6c7d24dbdc11d9e44a2ee146511cd65a2bc966..992b99dc7be1bdbc84d1c8a0e1e121eecfc11047:/src/practical_settings.tex
diff --git a/src/practical_settings.tex b/src/practical_settings.tex
index 6575c91..a275eb2 100644
--- a/src/practical_settings.tex
+++ b/src/practical_settings.tex
@@ -158,11 +158,11 @@ You should redirect everything to httpS:// if possible. In Nginx you can do this
\label{sec:ms-iis}
-\todo{screenshots? registry key settings? }
+\todo{Daniel: add screenshots and registry keys}
\begin{description}
-\item[Tested with Version:] \todo{version?}
+\item[Tested with Version:] \todo{Daniel: add tested version}
\item[Settings:] \mbox{}
@@ -209,7 +209,7 @@ tested using https://www.ssllabs.com.
Table~\ref{tab:MS_IIS_Client_Support} shows the algoriths from
strongest to weakest and why they need to be added in this order. For
-example insiting on SHA-2 algorithms (only first two lines) would
+example insisting on SHA-2 algorithms (only first two lines) would
eliminate all versions of Firefox, so the last line is needed to
support this browser, but should be placed at the bottom, so capable
browsers will choose the stronger SHA-2 algorithms.
@@ -297,7 +297,13 @@ If you still want to force strong encryption use
tls_cipher_list: <...recommended ciphersuite...>
\end{lstlisting}
-cyrus-imapd loads hardcoded 1024 bit DH parameters using get\_rfc2409\_prime\_1024() by default. If you want to load your own DH parameters add them PEM encoded to the certificate file given in tls\_cert\_file. Do not forget to re-add them after updating your certificate.
+cyrus-imapd loads hardcoded 1024 bit DH parameters using get\_rfc2409\_prime\_1024() by default. If you want to load your own DH parameters add them PEM encoded to the certificate file given in tls\_cert\_file. Do not forget to re-add them after updating your certificate.\\
+
+To prevent unencrypted connections on the STARTTLS ports you can set
+\begin{lstlisting}[breaklines]
+ allowplaintext: 0
+\end{lstlisting}
+This way MUAs can only authenticate after STARTTLS if you only provide plaintext and SASL PLAIN login methods. Therefore providing CRAM-MD5 or DIGEST-MD5 methods is not recommended.\\
\paragraph*{cyrus.conf}\mbox{}\\
@@ -314,6 +320,7 @@ To support POP3S/IMAPS on ports 995/993 add
pop3s cmd="pop3d -s" listen="pop3s" prefork=1
\end{lstlisting}
+
\paragraph*{Limitations}\mbox{}\\
cyrus-imapd currently (2.4.17, trunk) does not support elliptic curves. ECDHE will not work even if defined in your cipher list.\\
@@ -323,11 +330,6 @@ Currently there is no way to prefer server ciphers or to disable compression.\\
There is a working patch for all three features:
\url{https://bugzilla.cyrusimap.org/show_bug.cgi?id=3823}\\
-There is no way to prevent unencrypted connections on the STARTTLS ports. You can prevent usage of plaintext login by setting
-\begin{lstlisting}[breaklines]
- allowplaintext: 0
-\end{lstlisting}
-in imapd.conf. But note that SASL PLAIN/LOGIN is still available!\\
@@ -643,32 +645,35 @@ There already is a working patch to provide support:\\
% do we need to documment starttls in detail?
%\subsubsection{starttls?}
-\subsection{SSH}
-
+\subsection{OpenSSH}
+\paragraph*{sshd_config}
\begin{lstlisting}[breaklines]
+ # ...
+
Protocol 2
PermitEmptyPasswords no
PermitRootLogin no
StrictModes yes
HostKey /etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key
- Ciphers aes256-ctr
- MACs hmac-sha2-512,hmac-sha2-256,hmac-ripemd160
+ Ciphers [email protected] [email protected] aes256-ctr aes128-ctr
+ MACs [email protected],hmac-sha2-512,hmac-sha2-256,hmac-ripemd160
KexAlgorithms [email protected],diffie-hellman-group-exchange-sha256,diffie-hellman-group-exchange-sha1,diffie-hellman-group14-sha1
\end{lstlisting}
% XXX: [email protected] only available upstream(!)
-Note: older linux systems won't support SHA2, PuTTY does not support RIPE-MD160.
+Note: Older linux systems won't support SHA2. PuTTY (Windows) does not support RIPE-MD160. Curve25519, AES-GCM and UMAC are only available upstream (OpenSSH 6.1). DSA host keys have been removed on purpose, the DSS standard does not support for DSA keys stronger than 1024bit
+\footnote{\url{https://bugzilla.mindrot.org/show_bug.cgi?id=1647}}
+which is far below current standards (see section \ref{section:keylengths}). Legacy systems can use this configuration and simply omit unsupported ciphers, key exchange algorithms and MACs.
\\
\subsection{VPNs}
\todo{write this subsection}
-\subsubsection{IPSec in general}
+\subsubsection{IPSec}
\label{section:IPSECgeneral}
\todo{cm: check if there are downgrade attacks for checkpoint \& co} \\
-\todo{cm: change this to a table format: Variant ((A,B), (recommendations, recommendations))} \\
\begin{description}
@@ -868,37 +873,74 @@ Please note that these settings restrict the available algorithms for
\subsubsection{OpenVPN}
+
+\begin{description}
+
+\item[Tested with Version:] OpenVPN 2.3.2 from Debian backports linked against openssl (libssl.so.1.0.0)
+
\todo{cm: please write this subsubsection}
-\todo{We suppose user uses easy-rsa which is roughly used in all HOWTO\footnote{http://openvpn.net/index.php/open-source/documentation/howto.html}}
+\todo{We suppose user uses easy-rsa which is roughly used in all HOWTO\footnote{\url{http://openvpn.net/index.php/open-source/documentation/howto.html}}}
+
+
+\item[Additional settings:] \mbox{}
\paragraph{Fine tuning at installation level}
When installing an OpenVPN server instance, you are probably using {\it easy-rsa} tools to generate the crypto stuff needed.
-From the directory where you will run them, you can enhance you configuration by changing the following variables in {\it Vars}
+From the directory where you will run them, you can enhance you configuration by changing the following variables in \verb|vars|:
\begin{lstlisting}[breaklines]
export KEY_SIZE=2048
+export KEY_EXPIRE=365
+export CA_EXPIRE=1826
\end{lstlisting}
-This will enhance the security of the key exchange steps by using RSA keys with a length of 2048 bits.
-\todo{Shouldn't we need to reduce CA and certificate lifetime? Per default 10y!!}
+This will enhance the security of the key generation by using RSA keys
+with a length of 2048 bits, and set a lifetime of one year for the
+keys and five years for the CA certificate.
+
+In addition, edit the \verb|pkitool| script and replace all occurences
+of \verb|sha1| with \verb|sha256|, to sign the certificates with
+SHA256.
\paragraph{Server Configuration}
In the server configuration file, you can select the algorithm that will be used for traffic encryption.
Based on previous recommendation established in that document, select AES with a 256 bits key in CBC mode.
+Note that TLS is used only for negotiation bla bla bla...
+
+\todo{cm: explain how openvpn crypto works; make configA/B sections/tables}
+
+\item[Settings:] \mbox{}
+
+% openvpn --show-ciphers
+% --show-tls
+
+\todo{cm: changelog 2.3.1: ``Switch to IANA names for TLS ciphers'' --
+give both types of strings?}
+
\begin{lstlisting}[breaklines]
cipher AES-256-CBC # AES
# TLS Authentication
tls-auth ta.key
-tls-cipher TLS-DHE-RSA-WITH-AES-256-CBC-SHA
+tls-cipher EECDH+aRSA+AESGCM:EECDH+aRSA+SHA384:EECDH+aRSA+SHA256:EDH+CAMELLIA256:EECDH:EDH+aRSA:+SSLv3:!aNULL:!eNULL:!LOW:!3DES:!MD5:!EXP:!PSK:!SRP:!DSS:!RC4:!SEED:!AES128:!CAMELLIA128:!ECDSA:AES256-SHA
auth SHA512
+
+reneg-bytes XXX
+reneg-pkts XXX
+reneg-sec XXX
+
\end{lstlisting}
+% tls-cipher is a list, C&P the string!
+% what about: TLS-DHE-RSA-WITH-AES-256-CBC-SHA
+% DH params/DH key sizes
+
\todo{Explain a little bit tls-auth and auth directives + TEST}
+\todo{also test with network-damager?}
The following ciphers are avaible and recommended\footnote{You can retrieve the list of supported algorithm on your OpenVPN installation thanks to the command {\it openvpn --show-ciphers}}
\begin{lstlisting}[breaklines]
@@ -911,6 +953,7 @@ CAMELLIA-256-CBC
SEED-CBC
\end{lstlisting}
+
\paragraph{Client Configuration}
Client and server have to use identical configuration otherwise they can't communicate.
@@ -918,13 +961,36 @@ The {\it cipher} directive has then to be identical in both server and client co
\begin{lstlisting}[breaklines]
cipher AES-256-CBC # AES
+
+remote-cert-tls server # http://openvpn.net/index.php/open-source/documentation/howto.html#mitm
+
+tls-remote server.example.com
+
\end{lstlisting}
\todo{what about tls-auth keys/ta.key? }.
\todo{what about auth sha512 ?}
+\item[Justification for special settings (if needed):]
+
+\item[References:] \url{http://openvpn.net/index.php/open-source/documentation/security-overview.html}
+
+\item[How to test:]
+\todo{write me please}
+
+
+\end{description}
+
+
\subsubsection{PPTP}
-\todo{cm: please write this subsubsection}
+
+PPTP is considered insecure, Microsoft recommends to ``use a more secure VPN
+tunnel''\footnote{\url{http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/security/advisory/2743314}}.
+
+There is a cloud service that cracks the underlying MS-CHAPv2
+authentication protocol for the price of USD~200\footnote{\url{https://www.cloudcracker.com/blog/2012/07/29/cracking-ms-chap-v2/}},
+and given the resulting MD4 hash, all PPTP traffic for a user can
+be decrypted.
\subsubsection{Cisco IPSec}
\todo{write this subsubsection}
@@ -955,8 +1021,11 @@ seclayer-tcp 3495/tcp # securitylayer over tcp
\subsection{IPMI, ILO and other lights out management solutions}
-\todo{write this!! Recommendation. Empfehlung: nie ins Internet, nur in ein eigenes mgmt VLAN, das via VPN erreichbar ist!!
-Adi?? }
+
+
+We \textbf{strongly} recommend that any remote management system for servers such as ILO, IPMI and similar never be connected to a public IP address.
+Consider creating a management VLAN and access that only via a VPN.
+
\subsection{SIP}
\todo{AK: ask Klaus. Write this section, Klaus??? }
|
Subsets and Splits