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An Alleged Incompetent', reprinted in B. Steinbock (ed.), Killing and |
Letting Die (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1980). John Lorber describes his |
practice of passive euthanasia for selected cases of spina bifida in 'Early |
Results of Selective Treatment of Spina Bifida Cystica', British Medical |
Journal, 27 October 1973, pp. 201-4. The statistics for survival of untreated |
spina bifida infants come from the articles by Lorber and G. K. |
and E. D. Smith, cited above. Different doctors report different figures. |
For further discussion of the treatment of infants with spina bifida, see |
Helga Kuhse and Peter Singer, Should the Baby Live?, chap. 3. |
Lorber's objection to active euthanasia quoted at the start of the |
section 'The Slippery Slope' is from p. 204 of his British Medical Journal |
article cited above. The argument that Nazi crimes developed out of |
the euthanasia programme is quoted from Leo Alexander, 'Medical |
Science under Dictatorship', New England Journal of Medicine, vo1.241 |
(14 July 1949): 39-47. Gitta Sereny, Into That Darkness: From Mercy |
Killing to Mass Murder (London, 1974) makes a similar claim in tracing |
371 |
Notes and References |
the career of Franz Stangl from the euthanasia centres to the death |
camp at Treblinka; but in so doing she reveals how different the Nazi |
'euthanasia' programme was from what is now advocated (see especially |
pp. 51-5). For an example of a survey showing that people |
regularly evaluate some health states as worse than death, see G. W. |
Torrance, 'Utility Approach to Measuring Health-Related Quality of |
Life', Journal of Chronic Diseases, vol. 40 (1987): 6. |
On euthanasia among the Eskimo (and the rarity of homicide outside |
such special circumstances), see E. Westermarck, The Origin and |
Development of Moral Ideas, vol. 1, pp. 329-34, 387, n.l, and 392, nn. |
1-3. |
Chapter 8: Rich and poor |
The summary of world poverty was compiled from a number of sources, |
including Alan B. Durning, 'Ending Poverty' in the Worldwatch Institute |
report edited by Lester Brown et aI., State of the World 1990 |
(Washington D.C., 1990); the United Nations Development Programme's |
Human Development Report 1991; and the report of the World |
Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future |
(Oxford, 1987). The first quotation from Robert McNamara in the |
section 'Some Facts about Poverty' is from the Summary Proceedings of |
the 1976 Annual Meeting of the World BankiIFCIIDA, p. 14; the following |
quotation is from the World Bank's World Development Report, |
1978 (New York 1978), p. iii. |
For the wastage involved in feeding crops to animals instead of |
directly to humans, see Francis Moore Lappe, Diet for a Small Planet |
(New York, 1971; 10th anniversary ed., 1982); A. Durning and H. |
Brough, Taking Stock, Worldwatch Paper 103 (Washington, D.C. 1991); |
and J. Rifkin, Beyond Beef (New York, 1991), chap. 23. |
On the difference - or lack of it - between killing and allowing to |
die, see (in addition to the previous references to active and passive |
euthanasia) Jonathan Glover, Causing Death and Saving Lives, chap. 7; |
Richard Trammel, 'Saving Life and Taking Life', Journal of Philosophy, |
vol. 72 (1975); John Harris, 'The Marxist Conception of Violence', |
Philosophy and Public Affairs, vol. 3 (1974); John Harris, Violence and |
Responsibility (London, 1980); and S. Kagan, The Limits of Morality |
(Oxford, 1989). |
John Locke's view of rights is developed in his Second Treatise on Civil |
Government, and Robert Nozick's in Anarchy, State and Utopia (New |
372 |
Notes and References |
York, 1974). Thomas Aquinas's quite different view is quoted from |
Summa Theologica, 2, ii, Question 66, article 7. |
Garrett Hardin proposed his 'lifeboat ethic' in 'Living on a Lifeboat', |
Bioscience, October 1974, another version of which has been reprinted |
in W. Aiken and H. La Follette (eds.), World Hunger and Moral Obligation |
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1977). Hardin elaborates on the argument in |
The Limits of Altruism (Bloomington, Indiana, 1977). An earlier argument |
against aid was voiced by W. and P. Paddock in their mistitled |
Famine 19751 (Boston 1967) but pride of place in the history of this |
view must go to Thomas Malthus for An Essay on the Principle of Population |
(London, 1798). |
Opposition to the view that the world is over-populated comes from |
Susan George, How the Other Half Dies, rev. ed. (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, |
1977), chap. 2. See also T. Hayter The Creation of World Poverty |
(London, 1981). The estimates of population in various countries by the |
year 2000 are taken from the Human Development Report, 1991. For evidence |
that more equal distribution of income, better education, and better |
health facilities can reduce population growth, see John W. Ratcliffe, |
'Poverty, Politics and Fertility: The Anomaly of Kerala', Hastings Center |
Report, vol. 7 (1977); for a more general discussion of the idea of demographic |
transition, see William Rich, Smaller Families through Social and |
Economic Progress, Overseas Development Council Monograph no. 7 |
(1973); and Julian Simon, The Effects of Income on Fertility, Carolina Population |
Center Monograph (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1974). On ethical issues |
relating to population control, see Robert Young, 'Population Policies, |
Coercion and Morality', in D. Mannison, R. Routley, and M. McRobbie |
(eds.), Environmental Philosophy (Canberra, 1979). |
The objection that a position such as mine poses too high a standard |
is put by Susan Wolf, 'Moral Saints', Journal of Philosophy, vol. 79 |
(1982): 419-39. See also the 'Symposium on Impartiality and Ethical |
Theory', Ethics, vol. 10 1 (July 1991): 4. For a forceful defence of impartialist |
ethics see S. Kagan, The Limits of Morality (Oxford, 1989). |
For a summary of the issues, see Nigel Dower, 'World Poverty', in |
P. Singer (ed.), A Companion to Ethics. A fuller account by the same |
author is World Poverty: Challenge and Response (York, 1983). For a |
rights approach, see H. Shue, Basic Rights: Subsistence, Affluence and U.S. |
Policy (Princeton, 1980); and for a Kantian approach, Onora O'Neill, |
Faces of Hunger (London, 1986). A useful general collection is W. Aiken |
and H. La Follette (eds.), World Hunger and MoralObligation (Englewood |
Cliffs, N.J., 1977). On the efficacy of overseas aid, see R. Riddell, Foreign |
Aid Reconsidered (Baltimore, 1987). |
373 |