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electrolysis_01 | Nano Energy 81 (2021) 105620 Available online 18 November 2020 2211-2855/© 2020 The Author(s). | [
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electrolysis_01 | This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). | [
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electrolysis_01 | Full paper | [
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electrolysis_01 | Keywords: Electrochromism Hydrogen evolution reaction Water splitting WO3 Site saturation | [
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electrolysis_01 | The solar-to-hydrogen (STH) efficiency of solar-driven water electrolysis was extracted using (Ag,Cu)InGaSe2 solar cell modules with a cell band gap varied in between 1.15 and 1.25 eV with WO3 on Ni foam-based electrolyzers and yielded up to 13% STH ef- ficiency. | [
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electrolysis_01 | The principle of PEM | [
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electrolysis_01 | Transition metal oxides such as WO3 can be promising alternatives and have previously mainly been used as photoanodic catalystst for oxygen evolution with modest solar- to-hydrogen (STH) efficiency but has recently also been highlighted as a cathodic electrocatalys that show promising stability with HER stability maintained after 2000 cycles [8]. | [
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electrolysis_01 | A typical smart win- dow, as shown in Fig. 1b, contains five layers between two transparent substrates where a transparent ion conductive layer lies at the center of the structure. | [
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electrolysis_01 | One side of the layer is in contact with a thin film of a cathodic electrochromic material. | [
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electrolysis_01 | This layer is colored by the insertion of ions and charge-balancing electrons into the film. | [
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electrolysis_01 | In current electro- chromic technology, the most common devices include thin films based on cathodically coloring WO3 and anodically coloring NiO. | [
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electrolysis_01 | The color- ation of WO3 is attributed to intervalence electron transfer between W6+ and W5+ valence states [26]. | [
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electrolysis_01 | The most accepted model for the coloration is that polarons formed by the localization of the injected electrons at W5+ sites are hopping between adjacent Wi and Wj sites when the light is absorbed [27]. | [
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electrolysis_01 | hν + W5+ i + W6+ j → W6+ i + W5+ j (4) | [
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electrolysis_01 | The electrochromic phenomenon in WO3 occurs with the intercala- tion of M+ cations such as H+, Li+, and Na+ from the electrolyte and the reaction mechanism is given as: WO3 + xM+ + xe− ↔ MxWO3 (5) | [
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electrolysis_01 | The expression for the time-dependent intercalation level is [28]. x(t) = (zedANW) − 1 ∫ t 0 dt′ I(t′) (6) where z is the valence of the intercalated ion, e is the elementary charge, d film thickness, A is the active area of the electrode, NW is the tungsten number density, and I is the current during the measurement. | [
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electrolysis_01 | Electrochromic properties are assessed by optical modulation which is the difference between the bleached (Tb) and colored transmission (TC) states; optical density is defined as OD(λ, x) = dα(λ, x)where α is the absorption coefficient at the specified optical wavelength λ and inter- calation level x; and differential coloration efficiency K(λ, x) given by [28]. | [
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electrolysis_01 | Fig. 1. Schematic picture of PEM electrolysis (a) and a window type electrochromic device (b), where M+ denotes the inserting ion. | [
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electrolysis_01 | İ. Bayrak Pehlivan et al Nano Energy 81 (2021) 105620 3 | [
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electrolysis_01 | Considering the relation of OD with total transmittance (Tt) and reflectance (Rt), the differential coloration efficiency K(λ, x) can be written as K(λ, x) = − 1 Tt(λ, x) dTt(λ, x) dq − 1 [1 − Rt(λ, x) ] dRt(λ, x) dq (8) | [
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electrolysis_01 | Therefore, there is a growing interest in multi-functional electrochromic devices, which can provide energy storage and energy production functionality together with control over light and/or heat [29,30]. | [
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electrolysis_01 | The energy need of the electrochromic devices can be supplied from the photovoltaic part and directly used for the optical modulation without any demand for external power. | [
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electrolysis_01 | The study consists of three main parts. | [
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electrolysis_01 | First, cathodic electrocatalytic properties of WO3 thin films deposited using a wide range of sputter conditions on Ni foam were investigated in the potential range of the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) in an acidic electrolyte and compared with a well-known NiMo electrocatalyst for the overall water splitting reaction. | [
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electrolysis_01 | Second, optimum STH efficiency was investigated for electrolyzers combining films pro- duced using different sputtering conditions of the WO3 (cathode) with Ni foam (anode) and A-CIGS solar cell modules with cell band gaps varying in-between 1.15 and 1.25 eV. | [
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electrolysis_01 | In addition, electrochromic and electrocatalytic properties of WO3 films coated on indium tin oxide (ITO) substrates were investigated in a potential range relevant for the HER, where the coloration efficiency was quantified. | [
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electrolysis_01 | Finally, we discuss H+ ion intercalation and the relation to the hydrogen evaluation process and possible applications of the reported effect. | [
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electrolysis_01 | 2. Experimental | [
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electrolysis_01 | 2.1. Sample preparation | [
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electrolysis_01 | WO3 films were deposited on 1.6 mm thick Ni foam (350 g/m2 sur- face density and sheet resistance of 0.1 Ω/□) and ITO coated glass (sheet resistance of 60 Ω/□) substrates by reactive DC magnetron sputtering using a Balzers UTT 400 unit. | [
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electrolysis_01 | The target consisted of a 5 cm diameter metallic W (99.99% purity, Plasmaterials) disc. | [
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electrolysis_01 | The target to substrate distance was 13 cm, and the system was evacuated to ~8 × 10–5 Pa. | [
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electrolysis_01 | Pre-sputtering was performed for 5 min in argon plasma in order to remove surface impurities. | [
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electrolysis_01 | The film thickness determined by a Veeco Dektak 150 surface profilometry instrument was 165 ± 10 and 300 ± 25 nm for films coated on Ni foam and ITO substrates, respectively. | [
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electrolysis_01 | The A-CIGS material and subsequent solar cell modules were fabri- cated on soda-lime glass substrates cut to a 5 × 5 cm2 sample size. | [
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