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environmental change

Environmental change is a change or disturbance of the environment most often caused by human influences and natural ecological processes. Environmental changes include various factors, such as natural disasters, human interferences, or animal interaction. Environmental change encompasses not only physical changes, but also factors like an infestation of invasive species. See also Climate change (general concept) Environmental degradation Global warming Human impact on the environment Acclimatization Atlas of Our Changing Environment Phenotypic plasticity Socioeconomics == References ==

holocene

The Holocene () is the current geological epoch. It began approximately 9,700 years before the Common Era (BCE) (11,650 cal years BP, or 300 HE). It follows the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene together form the Quaternary period. The Holocene has been identified with the current warm period, known as MIS 1. It is considered by some to be an interglacial period within the Pleistocene Epoch, called the Flandrian interglacial.The Holocene corresponds with the rapid proliferation, growth, and impacts of the human species worldwide, including all of its written history, technological revolutions, development of major civilizations, and overall significant transition towards urban living in the present. The human impact on modern-era Earth and its ecosystems may be considered of global significance for the future evolution of living species, including approximately synchronous lithospheric evidence, or more recently hydrospheric and atmospheric evidence of the human impact. In July 2018, the International Union of Geological Sciences split the Holocene Epoch into three distinct ages based on the climate, Greenlandian (11,700 years ago to 8,200 years ago), Northgrippian (8,200 years ago to 4,200 years ago) and Meghalayan (4,200 years ago to the present), as proposed by International Commission on Stratigraphy. The oldest age, the Greenlandian was characterized by a warming following the preceding ice age. The Northgrippian Age is known for vast cooling due to a disruption in ocean circulations that was caused by the melting of glaciers. The most recent age of the Holocene is the present Meghalayan, which began with extreme drought that lasted around 200 years. Etymology The word Holocene was formed from two Ancient Greek words. Hólos (ὅλος) is the Greek word for "whole". "Cene" comes from the Greek word kainós (καινός), meaning "new". The concept is that this epoch is "entirely new". The suffix '-cene' is used for all the seven epochs of the Cenozoic Era. Overview The International Commission on Stratigraphy has defined the Holocene as starting approximately 11,700 years before 2000 CE (11,650 cal years BP, or 9,700 BCE). The Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS) regards the term 'recent' as an incorrect way of referring to the Holocene, preferring the term 'modern' instead to describe current processes. It also observes that the term 'Flandrian' may be used as a synonym for Holocene, although it is becoming outdated. The International Commission on Stratigraphy, however, considers the Holocene to be an epoch following the Pleistocene and specifically following the last glacial period. Local names for the last glacial period include the Wisconsinan in North America, the Weichselian in Europe, the Devensian in Britain, the Llanquihue in Chile and the Otiran in New Zealand.The Holocene can be subdivided into five time intervals, or chronozones, based on climatic fluctuations: Preboreal (10 ka–9 ka BP), Boreal (9 ka–8 ka BP), Atlantic (8 ka–5 ka BP), Subboreal (5 ka–2.5 ka BP) and Subatlantic (2.5 ka BP–present).Note: "ka BP" means "kilo-annum Before Present", i.e. 1,000 years before 1950 (non-calibrated C14 dates)Geologists working in different regions are studying sea levels, peat bogs and ice-core samples, using a variety of methods, with a view toward further verifying and refining the Blytt–Sernander sequence. This is a classification of climatic periods initially defined by plant remains in peat mosses. Though the method was once thought to be of little interest, based on 14C dating of peats that was inconsistent with the claimed chronozones, investigators have found a general correspondence across Eurasia and North America. The scheme was defined for Northern Europe, but the climate changes were claimed to occur more widely. The periods of the scheme include a few of the final pre-Holocene oscillations of the last glacial period and then classify climates of more recent prehistory.Paleontologists have not defined any faunal stages for the Holocene. If subdivision is necessary, periods of human technological development, such as the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age, are usually used. However, the time periods referenced by these terms vary with the emergence of those technologies in different parts of the world.According to some scholars, a third epoch of the Quaternary, the Anthropocene, has now begun. This term is used to denote the present time-interval in which many geologically significant conditions and processes have been profoundly altered by human activities. The 'Anthropocene' (a term coined by Paul J. Crutzen and Eugene Stoermer in 2000) is not a formally defined geological unit. The Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy of the International Commission on Stratigraphy has a working group to determine whether it should be. In May 2019, members of the working group voted in favour of recognizing the Anthropocene as formal chrono-stratigraphic unit, with stratigraphic signals around the mid-twentieth century CE as its base. The exact criteria have still to be determined, after which the recommendation also has to be approved by the working group's parent bodies (ultimately the International Union of Geological Sciences). Geology The Holocene is a geologic epoch that follows directly after the Pleistocene. Continental motions due to plate tectonics are less than a kilometre over a span of only 10,000 years. However, ice melt caused world sea levels to rise about 35 m (115 ft) in the early part of the Holocene and another 30 m in the later part of the Holocene. In addition, many areas above about 40 degrees north latitude had been depressed by the weight of the Pleistocene glaciers and rose as much as 180 m (590 ft) due to post-glacial rebound over the late Pleistocene and Holocene, and are still rising today.The sea-level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from the sea. For example, marine fossils from the Holocene epoch have been found in locations such as Vermont and Michigan. Other than higher-latitude temporary marine incursions associated with glacial depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain, and cave deposits. Holocene marine deposits along low-latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during the period exceeds any likely tectonic uplift of non-glacial origin.Post-glacial rebound in the Scandinavia region resulted in a shrinking Baltic Sea. The region continues to rise, still causing weak earthquakes across Northern Europe. An equivalent event in North America was the rebound of Hudson Bay, as it shrank from its larger, immediate post-glacial Tyrrell Sea phase, to its present boundaries. Climate The climate throughout the Holocene has shown significant variability despite ice core records from Greenland suggesting a more stable climate following the preceding ice age. Marine chemical fluxes during the Holocene were lower than during the Younger Dryas, but were still considerable enough to imply notable changes in the climate. The temporal and spatial extent of climate change during the Holocene is an area of considerable uncertainty, with radiative forcing recently proposed to be the origin of cycles identified in the North Atlantic region. Climate cyclicity through the Holocene (Bond events) has been observed in or near marine settings and is strongly controlled by glacial input to the North Atlantic. Periodicities of ≈2500, ≈1500, and ≈1000 years are generally observed in the North Atlantic. At the same time spectral analyses of the continental record, which is remote from oceanic influence, reveal persistent periodicities of 1,000 and 500 years that may correspond to solar activity variations during the Holocene Epoch. A 1,500-year cycle corresponding to the North Atlantic oceanic circulation may have had widespread global distribution in the Late Holocene. From 8,500 BP to 6,700 BP, North Atlantic climate oscillations were highly irregular and erratic because of perturbations from substantial ice discharge into the ocean from the collapsing Laurentide Ice Sheet. The Greenland ice core records indicate that climate changes became more regional and had a larger effect on the mid-to-low latitudes and mid-to-high latitudes after ~5600 B.P.Human activity through land use changes was an important influence on Holocene climatic changes, and is believed to be why the Holocene is an atypical interglacial that has not experienced significant cooling over its course. From the start of the Industrial Revolution onwards, large-scale anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions caused the Earth to warm. Likewise, climatic changes have induced substantial changes in human civilisation over the course of the Holocene.During the transition from the last glacial to the Holocene, the Huelmo–Mascardi Cold Reversal in the Southern Hemisphere began before the Younger Dryas, and the maximum warmth flowed south to north from 11,000 to 7,000 years ago. It appears that this was influenced by the residual glacial ice remaining in the Northern Hemisphere until the later date. The first major phase of Holocene climate was the Preboreal. At the start of the Preboreal occurred the Preboreal Oscillation (PBO). The Holocene Climatic Optimum (HCO) was a period of warming throughout the globe but was not globally synchronous and uniform. Following the HCO, the global climate entered a broad trend of very gradual cooling known as Neoglaciation, which lasted from the end of the HCO to before the Industrial Revolution. From the 10th-14th century, the climate was similar to that of modern times during a period known as the Mediaeval Warm Period (MWP), also known as the Mediaeval Climatic Optimum (MCO). It was found that the warming that is taking place in current years is both more frequent and more spatially homogeneous than what was experienced during the MWP. A warming of +1 degree Celsius occurs 5–40 times more frequently in modern years than during the MWP. The major forcing during the MWP was due to greater solar activity, which led to heterogeneity compared to the greenhouse gas forcing of modern years that leads to more homogeneous warming. This was followed by the Little Ice Age (LIA) from the 13th or 14th century to the mid-19th century. The LIA was the coldest interval of time of the past two millennia. Following the Industrial Revolution, warm decadal intervals became more common relative to before as a consequence of anthropogenic greenhouse gases, resulting in progressive global warming. In the late 20th century, anthropogenic forcing superseded solar activity as the dominant driver of climate change, though solar activity has continued to play a role. Europe In Northern Germany, the Middle Holocene saw a drastic increase in the amount of raised bogs, most likely related to sea level rise. Although human activity affected geomorphology and landscape evolution in Northern Germany throughout the Holocene, it only became a dominant influence in the last four centuries. Africa North Africa, dominated by the Sahara Desert in the present, was instead a savanna dotted with large lakes during the Early and Middle Holocene, regionally known as the African Humid Period (AHP). The northward migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) produced increased monsoon rainfall over North Africa. The lush vegetation of the Sahara brought an increase in pastoralism. The AHP ended around 5,500 BP, after which the Sahara began to dry and become the desert it is today.A stronger East African Monsoon during the Middle Holocene increased precipitation in East Africa and raised lake levels.In the Kalahari Desert, Holocene climate was overall very stable and environmental change was of low amplitude. Relatively cool conditions have prevailed since 4,000 BP. Middle East During the Late Holocene, the coastline of the Levant receded westward, prompting a shift in human settlement patterns following this marine regression. Central Asia In Xinjiang, long-term Holocene warming increased meltwater supply during summers, creating large lakes and oases at low altitudes and inducing enhanced moisture recycling. In the Tien Shan, sedimentological evidence from Swan Lake suggests the period between 8,500 and 6,900 BP was relatively warm, with steppe meadow vegetation being predominant. An increase in Cyperaceae from 6,900 to 2,600 BP indicates cooling and humidification of the Tian Shan climate that was interrupted by a warm period between 5,500 and 4,500 BP. After 2,600 BP, an alpine steppe climate prevailed across the region. Sand dune evolution in the Bayanbulak Basin shows that the region was very dry from the Holocene's beginning until around 6,500 BP, when a wet interval began. In the Tibetan Plateau, the moisture optimum spanned from around 7,500 to 5,500 BP. South Asia After 11,800 BP, and especially between 10,800 and 9,200 BP, Ladakh experienced tremendous moisture increase most likely related to the strengthening of the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM). From 9,200 to 6,900 BP, relative aridity persisted in Ladakh. A second major humid phase occurred in Ladakh from 6,900 to 4,800 BP, after which the region was again arid.From 900 to 1,200 AD, during the MWP, the ISM was again strong as evidenced by low δ18O values from the Ganga Plain.The sediments of Lonar Lake in Maharashtra record dry conditions around 11,400 BP that transitioned into a much wetter climate from 11,400 to 11,100 BP due to intensification of the ISM. Over the Early Holocene, the region was very wet, but during the Middle Holocene from 6,200 to 3,900 BP, aridification occurred, with the subsequent Late Holocene being relatively arid as a whole.Coastal southwestern India experienced a stronger ISM from 9,690 to 7,560 BP, during the HCO. From 3,510 to 2,550 BP, during the Late Holocene, the ISM became weaker, although this weakening was interrupted by an interval of unusually high ISM strength from 3,400 to 3,200 BP. East Asia Northern China experienced an abrupt aridification event approximately 4,000 BP. From around 3,500 to 3,000 BP, northeastern China underwent a prolonged cooling, manifesting itself with the disruption of Bronze Age civilisations in the region. Eastern and southern China, the monsoonal regions of China, were wetter than present in the Early and Middle Holocene. Lake Huguangyan's TOC, δ13Cwax, δ13Corg, δ15N values suggest the period of peak moisture lasted from 9,200 to 1,800 BP and was attributable to a strong East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM). Late Holocene cooling events in the region were dominantly influenced by solar forcing, with many individual cold snaps linked to solar minima such as the Oort, Wolf, Spörer, and Maunder Minima. Monsoonal regions of China became more arid in the Late Holocene. Southeast Asia Before 7,500 BP, the Gulf of Thailand was exposed above sea level and was very arid. A marine transgression occurred from 7,500 to 6,200 BP amidst global warming. North America During the Middle Holocene, western North America was drier than present, with wetter winters and drier summers. After the end of the thermal maximum of the HCO around 4,500 BP, the East Greenland Current underwent strengthening. A massive megadrought occurred from 2,800 to 1,850 BP in the Great Basin.Eastern North America underwent abrupt warming and humidification around 10,500 BP and then declined from 9,300 to 9,100 BP. The region has undergone a long term wettening since 5,500 BP occasionally interrupted by intervals of high aridity. A major cool event lasting from 5,500 to 4,700 BP was coeval with a major humidification before being terminated by a major drought and warming at the end of that interval. South America During the Early Holocene, relative sea level rose in the Bahia region, causing a landward expansion of mangroves. During the Late Holocene, the mangroves declined as sea level dropped and freshwater supply increased. In the Santa Catarina region, the maximum sea level highstand was around 2.1 metres above present and occurred about 5,800 to 5,000 BP. Sea levels at Rocas Atoll were likewise higher than present for much of the Late Holocene. New Zealand Ice core measurements imply that the sea surface temperature (SST) gradient east of New Zealand, across the subtropical front (STF), was around 2 degrees Celsius during the HCO. This temperature gradient is significantly less than modern times, which is around 6 degrees Celsius. A study utilizing five SST proxies from 37°S to 60°S latitude confirmed that the strong temperature gradient was confined to the area immediately south of the STF, and is correlated with reduced westerly winds near New Zealand. Since 7,100 BP, New Zealand experienced 53 cyclones similar in magnitude to Cyclone Bola. Pacific Evidence from the Galápagos Islands shows that the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) was significantly weaker during the Middle Holocene, but that the strength of ENSO became moderate to high over the Late Holocene. Ecological developments Animal and plant life have not evolved much during the relatively short Holocene, but there have been major shifts in the richness and abundance of plants and animals. A number of large animals including mammoths and mastodons, saber-toothed cats like Smilodon and Homotherium, and giant sloths went extinct in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene. The extinction of some megafauna in America could be attributed to the Clovis people; this culture was known for "Clovis points" which were fashioned on spears for hunting animals. Shrubs, herbs, and mosses had also changed in relative abundance from the Pleistocene to Holocene, identified by permafrost core samples.Throughout the world, ecosystems in cooler climates that were previously regional have been isolated in higher altitude ecological "islands".The 8.2-ka event, an abrupt cold spell recorded as a negative excursion in the δ18O record lasting 400 years, is the most prominent climatic event occurring in the Holocene Epoch, and may have marked a resurgence of ice cover. It has been suggested that this event was caused by the final drainage of Lake Agassiz, which had been confined by the glaciers, disrupting the thermohaline circulation of the Atlantic. This disruption was the result of an ice dam over Hudson Bay collapsing sending cold lake Agassiz water into the North Atlantic ocean. Furthermore, studies show that the melting of Lake Agassiz led to sea-level rise which flooded the North American coastal landscape. The basal peat plant was then used to determine the resulting local sea-level rise of 0.20-0.56m in the Mississippi Delta. Subsequent research, however, suggested that the discharge was probably superimposed upon a longer episode of cooler climate lasting up to 600 years and observed that the extent of the area affected was unclear. Human developments The beginning of the Holocene corresponds with the beginning of the Mesolithic age in most of Europe. In regions such as the Middle East and Anatolia, the term Epipaleolithic is preferred in place of Mesolithic, as they refer to approximately the same time period. Cultures in this period include Hamburgian, Federmesser, and the Natufian culture, during which the oldest inhabited places still existing on Earth were first settled, such as Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) in the Middle East. There is also evolving archeological evidence of proto-religion at locations such as Göbekli Tepe, as long ago as the 9th millennium BC.The preceding period of the Late Pleistocene had already brought advancements such as the bow and arrow, creating more efficient forms of hunting and replacing spear throwers. In the Holocene, however, the domestication of plants and animals allowed humans to develop villages and towns in centralized locations. Archaeological data shows that between 10,000 to 7,000 BP rapid domestication of plants and animals took place in tropical and subtropical parts of Asia, Africa, and Central America. The development of farming allowed humans to transition away from hunter-gatherer nomadic cultures, which did not establish permanent settlements, to a more sustainable sedentary lifestyle. This form of lifestyle change allowed humans to develop towns and villages in centralized locations, which gave rise to the world known today. It is believed that the domestication of plants and animals began in the early part of the Holocene in the tropical areas of the planet. Because these areas had warm, moist temperatures, the climate was perfect for effective farming. Culture development and human population change, specifically in South America, has also been linked to spikes in hydroclimate resulting in climate variability in the mid-Holocene (8.2 - 4.2 k cal BP). Climate change on seasonality and available moisture also allowed for favorable agricultural conditions which promoted human development for Maya and Tiwanaku regions. Extinction event The Holocene extinction, otherwise referred to as the sixth mass extinction or Anthropocene extinction, is an ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch (with the more recent time sometimes called Anthropocene) as a result of human activity. The included extinctions span numerous families of bacteria, fungi, plants and animals, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish and invertebrates. With widespread degradation of highly biodiverse habitats such as coral reefs and rainforests, as well as other areas, the vast majority of these extinctions are thought to be undocumented, as the species are undiscovered at the time of their extinction, or no one has yet discovered their extinction. The current rate of extinction of species is estimated at 100 to 1,000 times higher than natural background extinction rates. Gallery See also Notes References Further reading Hunt, C.O.; Rabett, R.J. (2014). "Holocene landscape intervention and plant food production strategies in island and mainland Southeast Asia". Journal of Archaeological Science. 51: 22–33. Bibcode:2014JArSc..51...22H. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.12.011. Mackay, A. W.; Battarbee, R.W.; Birks, H.J.B.; et al., eds. (2003). Global change in the Holocene. London: Arnold. ISBN 978-0-340-76223-3. Roberts, Neil (2014). The Holocene: an environmental history (3rd ed.). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-5521-2. External links The Holocene epoch explained by the BBC ghK Classification History of Earth's Climate 7 – Cenozoic IV – Holocene

climate of myanmar

The climate of Myanmar varies depending on location and in the highlands, on elevation. The climate is subtropical/tropical and has three seasons, a "cool winter from November to February, a hot summer season in March and April and a rainy season from May to October, dominated by the southwest monsoon." A large portion of the country lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator and the entirety of the country lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (196.9 in) of rain annually. Annual rainfall in the delta region is approximately 2,500 mm (98.4 in), while average annual rainfall in the central dry zone is less than 1,000 mm (39.4 in). The higher elevations of the highlands are predisposed to heavy snowfall, especially in the North. The Northern regions of Myanmar are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Coastal and delta regions have an average maximum temperature of 32 °C (89.6 °F).The climate of Myanmar has a significant impact on tourist arrivals. Tourists tend to avoid the rainy season and travel in the dry season which runs between November and April with peak inflows occurring between December and February. Geography Myanmar has three agro-ecological zones and eight physiographic regions. Agro-ecological zones Coastal zone Central dry zone Hilly zone Physiographic regions Rakhine Coastal Ayeyarwadv Delta Yangon Deltaic Southern Myanmar Coastal Central Dry Zone Western Hilly Northern Hilly Eastern Hilly Examples Disasters Droughts Rising temperatures and increased drought in Myanmar have caused diminished village water sources across the country, destroyed agricultural yields of peas, sugar cane, tomatoes and rice, and are expected to continue having negative effects on agricultural production and food security by further destruction of cultivation and erosion on soils in the long term. There is a large dependence on rain fed agriculture, as over 70% percent of it people's livelihood dependent on natural capital, and 40% of GDP reliant on agriculture, livestock, fisheries, and forestry. In the dry zone, longer more extreme droughts and losses of natural ecosystem services which play a role in retaining sediment force those in more rural areas to travel miles for water where lakes have not dried posing considerable livelihood challenges. Monsoons In August 2015, extreme flooding caused by monsoon rains killed 27 people and affected over 150,000 in the Sagaing region and in July 2018 over 120,000 people over seven regions were displaced from their homes also due to heavy monsoon rains, with the death toll hitting at least 10. Climate change Some researchers and organizations have predicted that climate impacts could pose a hazard. To combat any potential hardships, the government of Myanmar has displayed interest in expanding its use of renewable energy and lowering its level of carbon emissions. Groups involved in helping Myanmar with the transition and move forward include the UN Environment Programme, Myanmar Climate Change Alliance (MCCA), and the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation. In April 2015, it was announced that the World Bank and Myanmar would enter a full partnership framework aimed to better access to electricity and other basic services for about six million people and expected to benefit three million pregnant woman and children through improved health services. Myanmar has also acquired funding and proper planning, which is intended to better prepare the country for the impacts of climate change by enacting programs which teach its people new farming methods, rebuild its infrastructure with materials resilient to natural disasters, and transition various sectors towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions.To this end the country has also entered the United Nation's Paris Agreement in 2016, created the Myanmar National Climate Change Policy in 2017, submitted its new climate action plan to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, and developed the Myanmar Climate Change Strategy & Action Plan. At the same time, Myanmar's state technical capacity to conduct international climate change negotiations and implement environmental agreements remains limited and the country requires external assistance in improving its technical capacities. Dry zone adjustments The government of Myanmar, the United Nations Development Programme, and the Adaptation Fund, are carrying out programs to provide farmers the resources, knowledge and tools needed to support good harvests, despite changing weather patterns. Anticipated to reduce food insecurity and losses from extreme climate events in 42,000 households, the "Addressing Climate Change Risks on Water Resources and Food Security in the Dry Zone of Myanmar" project provides specially developed climate resistant pulses and other crops, as well as special heat resistant breeds of pigs, goats, and poultry to farmers and laborers. In the past, poverty stricken communities cut down trees for fuels and timber, so now communities are being actively involved in establishing and managing forests in order to improve soil conditions, reduce surface runoff, and slow erosion. Nearly 30,000 households in the region have benefited from enhanced water capture and storage capacity in the forms of expanded community ponds, construction on diversion canals, and rehabilitation and protection of over 4,000 hectares of micro-watersheds. To help Myanmar meet its 2030 Water Sanitation and Hygiene Goals, Lien Aid also continues to partner with local governments and community leaders to improve safe water access in villages throughout Myanmar. == References ==

carbon tax

A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon emissions required to produce goods and services. Carbon taxes are intended to make visible the "hidden" social costs of carbon emissions, which are otherwise felt only in indirect ways like more severe weather events. In this way, they are designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by increasing prices of the fossil fuels that emit them when burned. This both decreases demand for goods and services that produce high emissions and incentivizes making them less carbon-intensive. In its simplest form, a carbon tax covers only CO2 emissions; however, it could also cover other greenhouse gases, such as methane or nitrous oxide, by taxing such emissions based on their CO2-equivalent global warming potential. When a hydrocarbon fuel such as coal, petroleum, or natural gas is burned, most or all of its carbon is converted to CO2. Greenhouse gas emissions cause climate change, which damages the environment and human health. This negative externality can be reduced by taxing carbon content at any point in the product cycle. Carbon taxes are thus a type of Pigovian tax.Research shows that carbon taxes effectively reduce emissions. Many economists argue that carbon taxes are the most efficient (lowest cost) way to tackle climate change. Seventy-seven countries and over 100 cities have committed to achieving net zero emissions by 2050. As of 2019, carbon taxes have been implemented or scheduled for implementation in 25 countries, while 46 countries put some form of price on carbon, either through carbon taxes or carbon emission trading schemes.On their own, carbon taxes are usually regressive, since lower-income households tend to spend a greater proportion of their income on emissions-heavy goods and services like transportation than higher-income households. As such, carbon taxes negatively affect the welfare of poorer people by making their consumption more expensive, even if the taxes are more progressive. To make them more progressive, policymakers can try to redistribute the revenue generated from carbon taxes to low-income groups by lowering income taxes or offering rebates, then as part of the politics of climate change, the overall policy initiative can be referred to as a carbon fee and dividend, rather than a tax. Carbon taxes can also increase electricity prices.A carbon tax as well as carbon emission trading is used within the carbon price concept. Two common economic alternatives to carbon taxes are tradable permits/credits and subsidies. A June to July 2021 poll conducted by GlobeScan on 31 countries and territories found that 62 percent on average are supportive of a carbon tax, while only 33 percent are opposed to a carbon tax. In 28 of the 31 countries and territories listed in the poll, a majority of their populations are supportive of a carbon tax. Purpose Carbon dioxide is one of several heat-trapping greenhouse gases (others include methane and water vapor) emitted as a result of human activities. The scientific consensus is that human-induced greenhouse gas emissions are the primary cause of global warming, and that carbon dioxide is the most important of the anthropogenic greenhouse gases. Worldwide, 27 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide are produced by human activity annually. The physical effect of CO2 in the atmosphere can be measured as a change in the Earth-atmosphere system's energy balance – the radiative forcing of CO2. Different greenhouse gases have different physical properties: the global warming potential is an internationally accepted scale of equivalence for other greenhouse gases in units of tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent. Carbon taxes are designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by increasing prices of the fossil fuels that emit them when burned. This both decreases demand for goods and services that produce high emissions and incentivizes making them less carbon-intensive. Economic theory History and Rationale A carbon tax is a form of pollution tax. David Gordon Wilson first proposed this type of tax in 1973. Unlike classic command and control regulations, which explicitly limit or prohibit emissions by each individual polluter, a carbon tax aims to allow market forces to determine the most efficient way to reduce pollution. A carbon tax is an indirect tax—a tax on a transaction—as opposed to a direct tax, which taxes income. Carbon taxes are price instruments since they set a price rather than an emission limit. In addition to creating incentives for energy conservation, a carbon tax puts renewable energy such as wind, solar and geothermal on a more competitive footing. In economic theory, pollution is considered a negative externality, a negative effect on a third party not directly involved in a transaction, and is a type of market failure. To confront the issue, economist Arthur Pigou proposed taxing the goods (in this case hydrocarbon fuels), that were the source of the externality (CO2) so as to accurately reflect the cost of the goods to society, thereby internalizing the production costs. A tax on a negative externality is called a Pigovian tax, which should equal the cost. Within Pigou's framework, the changes involved are marginal, and the size of the externality is assumed to be small enough not to distort the economy. Climate change is claimed to result in catastrophe (non-marginal) changes. "Non-marginal" means that the impact could significantly reduce the growth rate in income and welfare. The amount of resources that should be devoted to climate change mitigation is controversial. Policies designed to reduce carbon emissions could have a non-marginal impact, but are asserted to not be catastrophic. Design The design of a carbon tax involves two primary factors: the level of the tax, and the use of the revenue. The former is based on the social cost of carbon (SCC), which attempts to calculate the numeric cost of the externalities of carbon pollution. The precise number is the subject of debate in environmental and policy circles. A higher SCC corresponds with a higher evaluation of the costs of carbon pollution on society. Stanford University scientists have estimated the social cost of carbon to be upwards of $200 per ton. More conservative estimates pin the cost at around $50.The use of the revenue is another subject of debate in carbon tax proposals. A government may use revenue to increase its discretionary spending, or address deficits. However, such proposals often run the risk of being regressive, and sparking backlash among the public due to an increased cost of energy associated with such taxes. To avoid this and increase the popularity of a carbon tax, a government may make the carbon tax revenue-neutral. This can be done by reducing income tax proportionate to the level of the carbon tax, or by returning carbon tax revenues to citizens as a dividend. Carbon leakage Carbon leakage happens when the regulation of emissions in one country/sector pushes those emissions to other places that with less regulation. Leakage effects can be both negative (i.e., increasing the effectiveness of reducing overall emissions) and positive (reducing the effectiveness of reducing overall emissions). Negative leakages, which are desirable, can be referred to as "spill-over".According to one study, short-term leakage effects need to be judged against long-term effects.: 28  A policy that, for example, establishes carbon taxes only in developed countries might leak emissions to developing countries. However, a desirable negative leakage could occur due to reduced demand for coal, oil, and gas in developed countries, lowering prices. This could allow developing countries to substitute oil or gas for coal, lowering emissions. In the long-run, however, if less polluting technologies are delayed, this substitution might have no long-term benefit. Carbon leakage is central to climate policy, given the 2030 Energy and Climate Framework and the review of the European Union's third carbon leakage list. Border adjustments, tariffs and bans Policies have been suggested to address concerns over competitive losses experienced by countries that introduce a carbon tax versus countries that do not.: 5  Border tax adjustments, tariffs and trade bans have been proposed to encourage countries to introduce carbon taxes. Border tax adjustments compensate for emissions attributable to imports from nations without a carbon price. An alternative would be trade bans or tariffs applied to such countries. Such approaches could be inadmissible at the World Trade Organization. Case law there has not provided specific rulings on climate-related taxes. The administrative aspects of border tax adjustments have been discussed. Internal price on carbon Many corporations calculate an "internal price on carbon". Companies use this internal price to assess the risk of future projects into their investment decisions. Companies usually assess a higher internal price when the company a) emits large amounts of CO2, and b) projects further into the future. Oil company have assets (factories, refineries) with a long lifespan that can be affected by future energy policies. Impacts Positive impacts Research shows that carbon taxes effectively reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Most economists assert that carbon taxes are the most efficient and effective way to curb climate change, with the least adverse economic effects.One study found that Sweden's carbon tax successfully reduced carbon dioxide emissions from transport by 11%. A 2015 British Columbia study found that the taxes reduced greenhouse gas emissions by 5–15% while having negligible overall economic effects. A 2017 British Columbia study found that industries on the whole benefited from the tax and "small but statistically significant 0.74 percent annual increases in employment" but that carbon-intensive and trade-sensitive industries were adversely affected. A 2020 study of carbon taxes in wealthy democracies showed that carbon taxes had not limited economic growth.Carbon taxes appear to not adversely affect employment or GDP growth in Europe. Their economic impact ranges from zero to modest positive. Negative impacts and trade-offs A number of studies have found that in the absence of an increase in social benefits and tax credits, a carbon tax would hit poor households harder than rich households. Gilbert E. Metcalf disputed that carbon taxes would be regressive in the US.Carbon taxes can increase electricity prices. Support and Opposition Since carbon taxation was first proposed, numerous economists have described its strengths as a means of reducing CO2 pollution. This tax has been praised as “a far better way to control pollution than the present method of specific regulation.” It has also been lauded for its market based simplicity. This includes a description as “the most efficient way to guide the decisions of producers and consumers”, since “carbon emissions have an 'unpriced' societal cost in terms of their deleterious effects on the earth's climate.” However, carbon taxes have been opposed by a substantial proportion of the public. They have also been rejected in several elections, and in some cases reversed as opposition increased. One response has been to specifically allocate carbon tax revenues back to the public in order to garner support. Citizens' Climate Lobby is an international organization with over 500 chapters. It advocates for carbon tax legislation in the form of a progressive fee and dividend structure. NASA climatologist James E. Hansen has also spoken in favor of a revenue neutral carbon fee.Since 2019 over 3,500 U.S. economists have signed The Economists’ Statement on Carbon Dividends. This statement describes the benefits of a U.S. carbon tax along with suggestions for how it could be developed. One recommendation is to return revenues generated by a tax to the general public. The statement was originally signed by 45 Nobel Prize winning economists, former chairs of the Federal Reserve, former chairs of the CEA, and former secretaries of the Treasury Department. It has been recognized as a historic example of consensus amongst economists.In some instances knowledge about how carbon tax revenues are used can affect public support. Dedicating revenues to climate projects and compensating low income housing have been found to be popular uses of revenue. However, providing information about specific revenue uses in countries that have implemented carbon taxes has been shown to have limited effectiveness in increasing public support. Alternatives As of 2015, developing countries were responsible for 63% of carbon emissions. Various barriers stand in the way of developing countries from adopting plans to slow carbon emissions, including a carbon tax. Developing countries often prioritize economic growth over lower emissions. Nuclear power is under development in multiple countries as an emissions-free energy source.Wind energy and solar energy are other alternatives to fossil fuels. Wind turbines are a sustainable and renewable source of power. Ben Ho, professor of economics at Vassar College, has argued that "while carbon taxes are part of the optimal portfolio of policies to fight climate change, they are not the most important part." Carbon emission trading Cap and trade is another approach. Emission levels are limited and emission permits traded among emitters. The permits can be issued via government auctions or by offered without charge based on existing emissions (grandfathering). Auctions raise revenues that can be used to reduce other taxes or to fund government programs. Variations include setting price-floor and/or price-ceiling for permits. A carbon tax can combined with trading.A cap with grandfathered permits can have an efficiency advantage since it applies to all industries. Cap and trade provides an equal incentive for all producers at the margin to reduce their emissions. This is an advantage over a tax that exempts or has reduced rates for certain sectors.Both carbon taxes and trading systems aim to reduce emissions by creating a price for emitting CO2. In the absence of uncertainty both systems will result in the efficient market quantity and price of CO2. When the environmental damage and therefore the appropriate tax of each unit of CO2 cannot be accurately calculated, a permit system may be more advantageous. In the case of uncertainty regarding the costs of CO2 abatement for firms, a tax is preferable.Permit systems regulate total emissions. In practice the limit has often been set so high that permit prices are not significant. In the first phase of the European Union Emissions Trading System, firms reduced their emissions to their allotted quantity without the purchase of any additional permits. This drove permit prices to nearly zero two years later, crashing the system and requiring reforms that would eventually appear in EUETS Phase 3.The distinction between carbon taxes and permit systems can get blurred when hybrid systems are allowed. A hybrid sets limits on price movements, potentially softening the cap. When the price gets too high, the issuing authority issues additional permits at that price. A price floor may be breached when emissions are so low that no one needs to buy a permit. Economist Gilbert Metcalf has proposed such a system, the Emissions Assurance Mechanism, and the idea, in principle, has been adopted by the Climate Leadership Council.James E. Hansen argued in Storms of My Grandchildren and in an open letter to then President Barack Obama that emissions trading would only make money for banks and hedge funds and allow 'business-as-usual' for the chief carbon-emitting industries. Other types of taxes Two related taxes are emissions taxes and energy taxes. An emissions tax on greenhouse gas emissions requires individual emitters to pay a fee, charge, or tax for every tonne of greenhouse gas, while an energy tax is applied to the fuels themselves. In terms of climate change mitigation, a carbon tax is not a perfect substitute for an emissions tax. For example, a carbon tax encourages reduced fuel use, but it does not encourage emissions reduction such as carbon capture and storage. Energy taxes increase the price of energy regardless of emissions.: 416  An ad valorem energy tax is levied according to the energy content of a fuel or the value of an energy product, which may or may not be consistent with the emitted greenhouse gas amounts and their respective global warming potentials. Studies indicate that to reduce emissions by a certain amount, ad valorem energy taxes would be more costly than carbon taxes. However, although greenhouse gas emissions are an externality, using energy services may result in other negative externalities, e.g., air pollution not covered by the carbon tax (such as ammonia or fine particles). A combined carbon-energy tax may therefore be better at reducing air pollution than a carbon tax alone.Any of these taxes can be combined with a rebate, where the money collected by the tax is returned to qualifying parties, taxing heavy emitters and subsidizing those that emit less carbon. Because carbon taxes only target carbon dioxide, they do not target other greenhouse gasses, such as methane, which have a greater warming potential. Petroleum (gasoline, diesel, jet fuel) taxes Many countries tax fuel directly; for example, the UK imposes a hydrocarbon oil duty directly on vehicle hydrocarbon oils, including petrol and diesel fuel. While a direct tax sends a clear signal to the consumer, its efficiency at influencing consumers' fuel use has been challenged for reasons including: Possible delays of a decade or more as inefficient vehicles are replaced by newer models and the older models filter through the fleet. Political pressures that deter policymakers from increasing taxes. Limited relationship between consumer decisions on fuel economy and fuel prices. Other efforts, such as fuel efficiency standards, or changing income tax rules on taxable benefits, may be more effective. The historical use of fuel taxes as a source of general revenue, given fuel's low price elasticity, which allows higher rates without reducing fuel volumes. In these circumstances, the policy rational may be unclear.Vehicle fuel taxes may reduce the "rebound effect" that occurs when vehicle efficiency improves. Consumers may make additional journeys or purchase heavier and more powerful vehicles, offsetting the efficiency gains. Comparison of alternatives A 2018 survey of leading economists found that 58% of the surveyed economists agreed with the assertion, "Carbon taxes are a better way to implement climate policy than cap-and-trade," 31% stated that they had no opinion or that it was uncertain, but none of the respondents disagreed.In a review study in 1996 the authors concluded that the choice between an international quota (cap) system, or an international carbon tax, remained ambiguous.: 430  Another study in 2012 compared a carbon tax, emissions trading, and command-and-control regulation at the industry level, concluding that market-based mechanisms would perform better than emission standards in achieving emission targets without affecting industrial production. Implementation Both energy and carbon taxes have been implemented in response to commitments under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. In most cases the tax is implemented in combination with exemptions. Indirect carbon prices, such as fuel taxes, are much more common than carbon taxes. In 2021, OECD reported that 67 of the 71 countries it assessed had some form of fuel tax. Only 39 had carbon taxes or ETSs. However, the use of carbon taxes is growing more quickly. In addition, several countries plan to further strengthen existing carbon taxes in the coming years, including Singapore, Canada and South Africa.Current carbon price policies, including carbon taxes, are still considered insufficient to create the kinds of changes in emissions that would be consistent with Paris Agreement goals. The International Monetary Fund, OECD, and others have stated that current fossil fuel prices generally fail to reflect environmental impacts. Europe In Europe, many countries have imposed energy taxes or energy taxes based partly on carbon content. These include Denmark, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK. None of these countries has been able to introduce a uniform carbon tax for fuels in all sectors.During the 1990s, a carbon/energy tax was proposed at the EU level but failed due to industrial lobbying. In 2010, the European Commission considered implementing a pan-European minimum tax on pollution permits purchased under the European Union Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) in which the proposed new tax would be calculated in terms of carbon content. The suggested rate of €4 to €30 per tonne of CO2. Americas Costa Rica In 1997, Costa Rica imposed a 3.5 percent carbon tax on hydrocarbon fuels. A portion of the proceeds go to the "Payment for Environmental Services" (PSA) program which gives incentives to property owners to practice sustainable development and forest conservation. Approximately 11% of Costa Rica's national territory is protected by the plan. The program now pays out roughly $15 million a year to around 8,000 property owners. Canada In the 2008 Canadian federal election, a carbon tax proposed by Liberal Party leader Stéphane Dion, known as the Green Shift, became a central issue. It would have been revenue-neutral, balancing increased taxation on carbon with rebates. However, it proved to be unpopular and contributed to the Liberal Party's defeat, earning the lowest vote share since Confederation. The Conservative party won the election by promising to "develop and implement a North American-wide cap-and-trade system for greenhouse gases and air pollution, with implementation to occur between 2012 and 2015".In 2018, Canada enacted a revenue-neutral carbon levy starting in 2019, fulfilling Prime Minister Justin Trudeau's campaign pledge. The Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act applies only to provinces without provincial adequate carbon pricing.As of September 2020, seven of thirteen Canadian provinces and territories use the federal carbon tax while three have developed their own carbon tax programs.In December 2020, the Federal Government released an updated plan with a CA$15 per tonne per year increase in the carbon pricing, reaching CA$95 per tonne in 2025 and CA$170 per tonne in 2030.Quebec became the first province to introduce a carbon tax. The tax was to be imposed on energy producers starting 1 October 2007, with revenue collected used for energy-efficiency programs. The tax rate for gasoline is $CDN0.008 per liter, or about CA$3.50 per tonne of CO2 equivalent. United States A national carbon tax in the U.S. has been repeatedly proposed, but never enacted. For instance, on 23 July 2018, Representative Carlos Curbelo (R-FL) introduced H.R. 6463, the "MARKET CHOICE Act", a proposal for a carbon tax in which revenue is used to bolster American infrastructure and environmental solutions. The bill was introduced in the House of Representatives, but did not become law.A number of organizations are currently advancing national carbon tax proposals. To address concerns from conservatives that a carbon tax would grow government and increase cost of living, recent proposals have centered around revenue-neutrality. The Citizens' Climate Lobby (CCL), republicEn (formerly E&EI), the Climate Leadership Council (CLC), and Americans for Carbon Dividends (AFCD) support a revenue-neutral carbon tax with a border adjustment. The latter two organizations advocate for a specific framework called the Baker-Shultz Carbon Dividends Plan, which has gained national bipartisan traction since its announcement in 2017. The central principle is a gradually rising carbon tax in which all revenues are rebated as equal dividends to the American people. This plan is co-authored by (and named after) Republican elder-statesmen James Baker and George Shultz. It is also supported by companies including Microsoft, Pepsico, First Solar, American Wind Energy Association, Exxon Mobil, BP, and General Motors. See also == References ==

climate of peru

Climate of Peru describes the diverse climates of this large South American country with an area of 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi). Peru is located entirely in the tropics but features desert and mountain climates as well as tropical rainforests. Elevations above sea level in the country range from −37 to 6,778 m (−121 to 22,238 ft) and precipitation ranges from less than 20 mm (0.79 in) annually to more than 8,000 mm (310 in). There are three main climatic regions: the Pacific Ocean coast is one of the driest deserts in the world but with some unique features; the high Andes mountains have a variety of microclimates depending on elevation and exposure and with temperatures and precipitation from temperate to polar and wet to dry; and the Amazon basin has tropical climates, mostly with abundant precipitation, along with sub-tropical climates in elevations above 1,550 m (5,090 ft). Pacific coastal desert The coastal desert of Peru extends unbroken from near the northern border with Ecuador to the southern border with Chile, a north to south distance of 1,600 km (990 mi). Three names are sometimes applied to the desert in different parts of the coastline. The Sechura Desert is in northern Peru. Southward is the Peruvian coastal desert which becomes at an indefinite location the Atacama Desert which continues into Chile. The Sechura is warmer and less impacted by the cloud cover that characterizes the more southern parts of the coastal desert, but there is a uniformity in precipitation along the entire coastline with less than 30 mm (1.2 in) annually. The desert strip along the Pacific is narrow, at its widest about 120 km (75 mi) before the land climbs into the Andes and precipitation increases with elevation.The following table summarizes climatic statistics for cities in the north, central, and southern parts of the coastal desert A characteristic of the Peruvian coastal desert is low average temperatures despite its tropical latitudes. In the tropics the average annual temperature is usually at least 25 °C (77 °F) with little temperature variation among months. By contrast most of the Peruvian coastal desert has average annual temperatures of less than 20 °C (68 °F) and with temperatures falling to or near 10 °C (50 °F) during the Southern Hemisphere's winter. The relatively low temperatures of the Peruvian coastal desert are caused by the cold Humboldt Current. Ocean water temperatures in Lima in September, the coldest month, are as low as 14.4 °C (57.9 °F) similar to water temperatures near Los Angeles during its winter months.The cold waters of the Humboldt Current also create a moist fog called garúa in Peru. The cold water, especially in the Southern Hemisphere's winter from May to November, cause an inversion, the air near the ocean surface being cooler than the air above, contrary to most climatic situations. During the Southern Hemisphere's winter, the trade winds blow thick stratus clouds inland over coastal areas up to an elevation of 1,000 m (3,300 ft) and the dense fog coalesces into drizzle and mist. In the Southern Hemisphere's summer from December to April, the weather is mostly sunny. The moisturizing impact of the fog is increased by the high average humidity of the coastal deserts. For example, Lima has an average humidity of 84 percent, more than double the average humidity of most deserts. As a result of the fog, Lima gets only 1,230 hours of sunshine annually, and less than 50 hours each in the months of July, August, and September. By contrast, Seattle, not noted for its sunny weather, receives 2,170 hours of sunshine annually and "foggy London town" receives 1,618 hours.As elevation increases moving inland from Lima and other coastal locations, so also does precipitation. Chosica, 50 km (31 mi) inland from the Pacific at an elevation of 835 m (2,740 ft) gets 109 mm (4.3 in) annually of precipitation compared to Lima's precipitation of 16 mm (0.63 in). Matucana, 80 km (50 mi) inland at an elevation of 2,464 m (8,084 ft) gets 479 mm (18.9 in) of precipitation.Apart from the irrigated agriculture in 57 river valleys coming down from the Andes and passing through the desert en route to the ocean, the coastal desert is almost without vegetation. In a few favored locations, where mountains come close to the sea and the fog condenses on the mountain slopes, the garúa permits vegetation to thrive in "fog oases," called lomas in Peru. Lomas range in size from very small to more than 40,000 ha (99,000 acres) and their flora includes many endemic species. Scholars have described individual lomas as "an island of vegetation in a virtual ocean of desert." Peru has more than 40 lomas totalling in area less than 2,000 km2 (770 sq mi) out of a total coastal desert area of 144,000 km2 (56,000 sq mi). Andean highlands The chain of mountains called the Andes, comprising 28 percent of the national territory, runs the length of Peru, a narrow 80 km (50 mi) wide at the Ecuadorian border in the north and 350 km (220 mi) wide in the south along the border with Bolivia. The Andes, with elevations almost entirely above 2,000 m (6,600 ft) and mostly above 3,000 m (9,800 ft), rise above the desert to the west and the tropical rain forest to the east. The mountain climates are cool, often cold, with varied precipitation depending upon exposure. In general the western slopes of the Andres, facing the Pacific Ocean, are drier than the eastern slopes. Beginning at latitude 8.64° S and continuing southward are many snow-capped and glaciated peaks more that 5,000 m (16,000 ft) in elevation. Thirty-seven mountain peaks in Peru rise to more than 6,000 m (20,000 ft) in elevation.A general rule for mountainous areas is that temperature decreases by about 6.5 °C (11.7 °F) for each 1,000 m (3,300 ft) increase in elevation provided that the change in altitude takes place at the same latitude and other factors such as precipitation and cloud cover are similar. The temperature decline with increasing elevation is less than the average on the Pacific coast side of the Andes because of the unusually low temperature of the fog-bound coast. The steep slopes and the sharp changes in elevation result in a large number of microclimates in which a change of location of a few kilometres can result in major climatic changes. The common precipitation regime of the Andes is a rainy summer season from October to April and a dry winter from May to September. Snow is common at elevations of more than 3,800 m (12,500 ft). The city of Puno at that elevation has snow 14 days per year on average and it has snowed in every month of the year except November. Puno experiences freezing temperatures an average of 226 mornings annually, with freezes occurring in every month and the permanent snow line is at about 5,000 m (16,000 ft).The following table summarizes climatic statistics for cities in the Andes mountain region. The indigenous peoples of Peru have been farming in the Andes for thousands of years despite the severe climatic limitations. Compensating for the lack of a freeze-free growing season at elevations above 3,000 m (9,800 ft), indigenous farmers up until the 21st century have sought out microclimates and used techniques such as andenes (terraces) and Waru Waru (raised beds) to capture and store heat and permit hardy crops such as potatoes to grow up to 4,050 m (13,290 ft) in elevation. Llamas and alpacas are grazed on the sparse vegetation of the puna zone up to elevations of 4,770 m (15,650 ft). Amazon rainforest The Amazon rainforest region comprises about 60 percent of the total area of Peru and is characterized, as is the coast, by its climatic uniformity: hot average temperatures with little variation among the seasons and abundant precipitation. While there are locations that fit into all three of the Köppen tropical types of climate, Af, Am, and Aw, the differences among the three climates in Peru are small. The true tropical rainforest (Af) climate requires at least 60 mm (2.4 in) precipitation in all months of the year. Pucallpa (Am) has only one month that falls below that threshold; Puerto Esperanza (Aw) has three months below the Af threshold. The driest months are in the Southern Hemisphere's winter of June through August.The dividing line between the Amazon and Andean climates is uncertain, but depends mostly on elevation. Temperatures become cooler with elevation and around 1,550 m (5,090 ft) elevation the climate becomes sub-tropical rather than tropical, a climate often characterized as "eternal spring." In Oxapampa, Cfb under the Köppen classification, temperatures rarely fall below 11 °C (52 °F) or rise above 26 °C (79 °F) and rain is abundant year-round. A few locations at elevations similar to Oxapampa have a pronounced dry season and are classified as Cwb (sub-tropical highland with a dry winter), rather than Cfb.The following table summarizes climatic statistics for cities and towns in the Amazon rainforest region. While Quince Mil has the highest precipitation of places in Peru with a weather station, climatologists say that the slopes of low mountains northwest of Quince Mil in Manú National Park may receive more than 8,000 mm (310 in) of rain annually. El Niño El Niño (the "boy child") and La Niña (the "girl child") are the manifestations of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation which influences weather around the world, but especially near the coasts of northern Peru and southern Ecuador. The warm phase, El Niño, occurs every two to seven years. Ocean temperatures on the coast of Peru increase by as much as 3 °C (5.4 °F) during the Southern Hemisphere's summer, beginning about Christmas, the name El Niño referring to the birth of Jesus. El Niño brings warmer and sunnier weather to the coasts of Peru than normal. In especially impactful years, as occurred in 1982–1983, 1997–1998, and 2015–2017, El Niño causes heavy rainfall in coastal northern Peru in what is a desert that rarely receives any rain at all. Floods and landslides (huaycos) are the consequence; the warm water reduces fishing catches; and the southern Andes of Peru suffer reduced precipitation. Global warming Climatic statistics cited in this article are for the period 1982-2012 and may become inaccurate in the future because of climate change and global warming. Average annual temperatures rose by 1 °C (1.8 °F) from 1960 until 2016 and are predicted to increase by an additional 2 to 3 °C (3.6 to 5.4 °F) by 2065. Sea level is projected to rise by 50 cm (20 in) by 2100. Extreme weather events, including drought and flood, are anticipated to become more frequent.The most immediately visible problem of climatic change in Peru is the melting of glaciers in the Andes. Peru is home to 71 percent of the world's tropical glaciers and since 1970 glacial volume has decreased by 40 percent. Many areas of Peru depend upon glacial melt for water for consumption, irrigation, and industry. In the Cordillera Blanca, for example, glacial melt provides 80 percent of water in the rivers during the dry season and 4-8 percent during the rainy season. The consequence of increased glacial melt is floods during the wet season and less water in rivers during the dry season. The desert coast of Peru has 52 percent of Peru's population on 12 percent of its land area and is especially vulnerable to fluctuations in its water supply, nearly all of which comes from rivers originating in the Andes. Accelerated glacial melt and the eventual disappearance of glaciers will severely impact the quantity of water available in the coastal and mountain regions. == References ==

climate change adaptation in ghana

Ghana became a party to the UNFCCC in September 1995 and ratified the Paris Agreement in September 2016. As a party to the Paris Agreement, Ghana is expected to develop a National Adaptation Plan that outlines strategies the country is taking to adjust to the changing climatic conditions. Climate change adaptation involves adjusting or developing structure to help one live with the impacts of actual or expected future climate. The objective of adaptation is to reduce the impacts of the harmful effects of climate change (like sea-level rise, more intense extreme weather events, or food insecurity). It also includes making the most of any potential beneficial opportunities associated with climate change.It is estimated that climate change will add to the human and economic toll of floods and droughts in Ghana, which will have direct impacts on key development areas like food security, water resource management, health, and economic growth.Against this backdrop, the government of Ghana and other International Development Partners have set out approaches to determine vulnerability and adaptation priorities and to integrate these knowledge into development and sectoral planning. Key sector vulnerabilities Food security Ghana’s economy is heavily dependent on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, which makes the protection and preservation of the natural environment a necessary pre-condition for the creation of a robust food system. The agriculture and livestock sectors are the backbone of Ghana’s food security and economy, as they employ over half of the 32 million population of Ghana. Agriculture constitutes 33% of the country’s gross domestic product. The effects of climate change, as evident in rising temperatures and the extreme incidence of drought, are of particular concern, as they result in a range of direct and indirect impacts affecting the agriculture and livestock sectors. In 2016, about 5% of the Ghana population faced food insecurity and about 2 million people faced the threat of becoming food insecure. Water resources Water resources in Ghana are already affected by climate variability, and are highly vulnerable to climate change. Climate change may affect the quantity and quality of water available for human consumption at a given time as well as for agriculture, industry, and hydropower. Temperature increases may decrease river runoff, and changes in precipitation may affect both runoff and groundwater recharge. Furthermore, with an estimated 25% of the population currently lacking access to clean water, climate change will only make Ghana's water crisis worsen. The availability of fresh water is vital to Ghana's social and economic development, so it is important to understand the relationship between climate change and its affects on water resources in order to implement specific policies to combat it. Health Studies have indicated that more than half of the diseases in Ghana are linked to climate vulnerability and climate change. It is projected that climate change may lead to higher infection rates of diseases such as malaria and meningitis. As climatic conditions change, vectors of parasites that cause diseases such as malaria and yellow fever have been found in regions where they were not found originally. The sensitivity of different populations to climate change-related impacts on health may be exacerbated by poverty-related issues such as malnutrition and poor sanitation. In addition, the country’s adaptive capacity, or its ability to anticipate, be prepared for, and respond to these impacts, are limited as factors such as a low number of health facilities and medical personnel will result in limited access to health care. National strategies, plan and institutions National strategies and plans Initial National Communication (2001): Provides an inventory of greenhouse gas emissions, a vulnerability and adaptation assessment, a mitigation and abatement analysis, plans for education and public awareness, and potential adaptation and mitigation projects. National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (NCCAS): Utilizes a participatory approach and incorporates sectoral vulnerability and adaptation assessments carried out by national experts to develop priority adaptation programs National Adaption Plan (NAP): The NAP process was initiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2010 to address medium- and long-term climate adaptation needs in developing countries. Ghana’s Adaptation Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2021: Ghana’s first Adaptation Communication (AdCom) takes stock of what has been done and what has been achieved; it also looks at existing gaps and what else needs to be accomplished to consolidate Ghana’s adaptation gains going forward. Institutional framework The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is an independent environmental regulatory agency within the Government of Ghana with the responsibility of ensuring Ghana’s environmental quality through environmental regulation and enforcement, and mainstreaming environmental concerns within the development process at the national, regional, and district levels. The implementation of climate change adaptation projects and the mainstreaming of climate change adaptation throughout the government and private sector are carried out by the Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation (MESTI). == References ==

tropical rainforest

Tropical rainforests are rainforests that occur in areas of tropical rainforest climate in which there is no dry season – all months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm – and may also be referred to as lowland equatorial evergreen rainforest. True rainforests are typically found between 10 degrees north and south of the equator (see map); they are a sub-set of the tropical forest biome that occurs roughly within the 28-degree latitudes (in the equatorial zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn). Within the World Wildlife Fund's biome classification, tropical rainforests are a type of tropical moist broadleaf forest (or tropical wet forest) that also includes the more extensive seasonal tropical forests. Overview Tropical rainforests are characterized by two words: hot and wet. Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C (64 °F) during all months of the year. Average annual rainfall is no less than 1,680 mm (66 in) and can exceed 10 m (390 in) although it typically lies between 1,750 mm (69 in) and 3,000 mm (120 in). This high level of precipitation often results in poor soils due to leaching of soluble nutrients in the ground. Tropical rainforests exhibit high levels of biodiversity. Around 40% to 75% of all biotic species are indigenous to the rainforests. Rainforests are home to half of all the living animal and plant species on the planet. Two-thirds of all flowering plants can be found in rainforests. A single hectare of rainforest may contain 42,000 different species of insect, up to 807 trees of 313 species and 1,500 species of higher plants. Tropical rainforests have been called the "world's largest pharmacy", because over one quarter of natural medicines have been discovered within them. It is likely that there may be many millions of species of plants, insects and microorganisms still undiscovered in tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests are among the most threatened ecosystems globally due to large-scale fragmentation as a result of human activity. Habitat fragmentation caused by geological processes such as volcanism and climate change occurred in the past, and have been identified as important drivers of speciation. However, fast human driven habitat destruction is suspected to be one of the major causes of species extinction. Tropical rain forests have been subjected to heavy logging and agricultural clearance throughout the 20th century, and the area covered by rainforests around the world is rapidly shrinking. History Tropical rainforests have existed on earth for hundreds of millions of years. Most tropical rainforests today are on fragments of the Mesozoic era supercontinent of Gondwana. The separation of the landmass resulted in a great loss of amphibian diversity while at the same time the drier climate spurred the diversification of reptiles. The division left tropical rainforests located in five major regions of the world: tropical America, Africa, Southeast Asia, Madagascar, and New Guinea, with smaller outliers in Australia. However, the specifics of the origin of rainforests remain uncertain due to an incomplete fossil record. Other types of tropical forest Several biomes may appear similar-to, or merge via ecotones with, tropical rainforest: Moist seasonal tropical forest Moist seasonal tropical forests receive high overall rainfall with a warm summer wet season and a cooler winter dry season. Some trees in these forests drop some or all of their leaves during the winter dry season, thus they are sometimes called "tropical mixed forest". They are found in parts of South America, in Central America and around the Caribbean, in coastal West Africa, parts of the Indian subcontinent, and across much of Indochina. Montane rainforests These are found in cooler-climate mountainous areas, becoming known as cloud forests at higher elevations. Depending on latitude, the lower limit of montane rainforests on large mountains is generally between 1500 and 2500 m while the upper limit is usually from 2400 to 3300 m. Flooded rainforests Tropical freshwater swamp forests, or "flooded forests", are found in Amazon basin (the Várzea) and elsewhere. Forest structure Rainforests are divided into different strata, or layers, with vegetation organized into a vertical pattern from the top of the soil to the canopy. Each layer is a unique biotic community containing different plants and animals adapted for life in that particular strata. Only the emergent layer is unique to tropical rainforests, while the others are also found in temperate rainforests. Forest floor The forest floor, the bottom-most layer, receives only 2% of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region. Away from riverbanks, swamps and clearings, where dense undergrowth is found, the forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation because of the low sunlight penetration. This more open quality permits the easy movement of larger animals such as: ungulates like the okapi (Okapia johnstoni), tapir (Tapirus sp.), Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), and apes like the western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla), as well as many species of reptiles, amphibians, and insects. The forest floor also contains decaying plant and animal matter, which disappears quickly, because the warm, humid conditions promote rapid decay. Many forms of fungi growing here help decay the animal and plant waste. Understory layer The understory layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor. The understory is home to a number of birds, small mammals, insects, reptiles, and predators. Examples include leopard (Panthera pardus), poison dart frogs (Dendrobates sp.), ring-tailed coati (Nasua nasua), boa constrictor (Boa constrictor), and many species of Coleoptera. The vegetation at this layer generally consists of shade-tolerant shrubs, herbs, small trees, and large woody vines which climb into the trees to capture sunlight. Only about 5% of sunlight breaches the canopy to arrive at the understory causing true understory plants to seldom grow to 3 m (10 feet). As an adaptation to these low light levels, understory plants have often evolved much larger leaves. Many seedlings that will grow to the canopy level are in the understory. Canopy layer The canopy is the primary layer of the forest, forming a roof over the two remaining layers. It contains the majority of the largest trees, typically 30–45 m in height. Tall, broad-leaved evergreen trees are the dominant plants. The densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy, as it often supports a rich flora of epiphytes, including orchids, bromeliads, mosses and lichens. These epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on the supporting plants. The fauna is similar to that found in the emergent layer, but more diverse. It is suggested that the total arthropod species richness of the tropical canopy might be as high as 20 million. Other species inhabiting this layer include many avian species such as the yellow-casqued wattled hornbill (Ceratogymna elata), collared sunbird (Anthreptes collaris), grey parrot (Psitacus erithacus), keel-billed toucan (Ramphastos sulfuratus), scarlet macaw (Ara macao) as well as other animals like the spider monkey (Ateles sp.), African giant swallowtail (Papilio antimachus), three-toed sloth (Bradypus tridactylus), kinkajou (Potos flavus), and tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla). Emergent layer The emergent layer contains a small number of very large trees, called emergents, which grow above the general canopy, reaching heights of 45–55 m, although on occasion a few species will grow to 70–80 m tall. Some examples of emergents include: Hydrochorea elegans, Dipteryx panamensis, Hieronyma alchorneoides, Hymenolobium mesoamericanum, Lecythis ampla and Terminalia oblonga. These trees need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in some areas. Several unique faunal species inhabit this layer such as the crowned eagle (Stephanoaetus coronatus), the king colobus (Colobus polykomos), and the large flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus).However, stratification is not always clear. Rainforests are dynamic and many changes affect the structure of the forest. Emergent or canopy trees collapse, for example, causing gaps to form. Openings in the forest canopy are widely recognized as important for the establishment and growth of rainforest trees. It is estimated that perhaps 75% of the tree species at La Selva Biological Station, Costa Rica are dependent on canopy opening for seed germination or for growth beyond sapling size, for example. Ecology Climates Tropical rainforests are located around and near the equator, therefore having what is called an equatorial climate characterized by three major climatic parameters: temperature, rainfall, and dry season intensity. Other parameters that affect tropical rainforests are carbon dioxide concentrations, solar radiation, and nitrogen availability. In general, climatic patterns consist of warm temperatures and high annual rainfall. However, the abundance of rainfall changes throughout the year creating distinct moist and dry seasons. Tropical forests are classified by the amount of rainfall received each year, which has allowed ecologists to define differences in these forests that look so similar in structure. According to Holdridge's classification of tropical ecosystems, true tropical rainforests have an annual rainfall greater than 2 m and annual temperature greater than 24 degrees Celsius, with a potential evapotranspiration ratio (PET) value of <0.25. However, most lowland tropical forests can be classified as tropical moist or wet forests, which differ in regards to rainfall. Tropical forest ecology- dynamics, composition, and function- are sensitive to changes in climate especially changes in rainfall. Soils Soil types Soil types are highly variable in the tropics and are the result of a combination of several variables such as climate, vegetation, topographic position, parent material, and soil age. Most tropical soils are characterized by significant leaching and poor nutrients, however there are some areas that contain fertile soils. Soils throughout the tropical rainforests fall into two classifications which include the ultisols and oxisols. Ultisols are known as well weathered, acidic red clay soils, deficient in major nutrients such as calcium and potassium. Similarly, oxisols are acidic, old, typically reddish, highly weathered and leached, however are well drained compared to ultisols. The clay content of ultisols is high, making it difficult for water to penetrate and flow through. The reddish color of both soils is the result of heavy heat and moisture forming oxides of iron and aluminium, which are insoluble in water and not taken up readily by plants. Soil chemical and physical characteristics are strongly related to above ground productivity and forest structure and dynamics. The physical properties of soil control the tree turnover rates whereas chemical properties such as available nitrogen and phosphorus control forest growth rates. The soils of the eastern and central Amazon as well as the Southeast Asian Rainforest are old and mineral poor whereas the soils of the western Amazon (Ecuador and Peru) and volcanic areas of Costa Rica are young and mineral rich. Primary productivity or wood production is highest in western Amazon and lowest in eastern Amazon which contains heavily weathered soils classified as oxisols. Additionally, Amazonian soils are greatly weathered, making them devoid of minerals like phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, which come from rock sources. However, not all tropical rainforests occur on nutrient poor soils, but on nutrient rich floodplains and volcanic soils located in the Andean foothills, and volcanic areas of Southeast Asia, Africa, and Central America.Oxisols, infertile, deeply weathered and severely leached, have developed on the ancient Gondwanan shields. Rapid bacterial decay prevents the accumulation of humus. The concentration of iron and aluminium oxides by the laterization process gives the oxisols a bright red color and sometimes produces minable deposits (e.g., bauxite). On younger substrates, especially of volcanic origin, tropical soils may be quite fertile. Nutrient recycling File:Cogumelos brancos.jpg This high rate of decomposition is the result of phosphorus levels in the soils, precipitation, high temperatures and the extensive microorganism communities. In addition to the bacteria and other microorganisms, there are an abundance of other decomposers such as fungi and termites that aid in the process as well. Nutrient recycling is important because below ground resource availability controls the above ground biomass and community structure of tropical rainforests. These soils are typically phosphorus limited, which inhibits net primary productivity or the uptake of carbon. The soil contains microbial organisms such as bacteria, which break down leaf litter and other organic matter into inorganic forms of carbon usable by plants through a process called decomposition. During the decomposition process the microbial community is respiring, taking up oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide. The decomposition rate can be evaluated by measuring the uptake of oxygen. High temperatures and precipitation increase decomposition rate, which allows plant litter to rapidly decay in tropical regions, releasing nutrients that are immediately taken up by plants through surface or ground waters. The seasonal patterns in respiration are controlled by leaf litter fall and precipitation, the driving force moving the decomposable carbon from the litter to the soil. Respiration rates are highest early in the wet season because the recent dry season results in a large percentage of leaf litter and thus a higher percentage of organic matter being leached into the soil. Buttress roots A common feature of many tropical rainforests is the distinct buttress roots of trees. Instead of penetrating to deeper soil layers, buttress roots create a widespread root network at the surface for more efficient uptake of nutrients in a very nutrient poor and competitive environment. Most of the nutrients within the soil of a tropical rainforest occur near the surface because of the rapid turnover time and decomposition of organisms and leaves. Because of this, the buttress roots occur at the surface so the trees can maximize uptake and actively compete with the rapid uptake of other trees. These roots also aid in water uptake and storage, increase surface area for gas exchange, and collect leaf litter for added nutrition. Additionally, these roots reduce soil erosion and maximize nutrient acquisition during heavy rains by diverting nutrient rich water flowing down the trunk into several smaller flows while also acting as a barrier to ground flow. Also, the large surface areas these roots create provide support and stability to rainforests trees, which commonly grow to significant heights. This added stability allows these trees to withstand the impacts of severe storms, thus reducing the occurrence of fallen trees. Forest succession Succession is an ecological process that changes the biotic community structure over time towards a more stable, diverse community structure after an initial disturbance to the community. The initial disturbance is often a natural phenomenon or human caused event. Natural disturbances include hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, river movements or an event as small as a fallen tree that creates gaps in the forest. In tropical rainforests, these same natural disturbances have been well documented in the fossil record, and are credited with encouraging speciation and endemism. Human land use practices have led to large-scale deforestation. In many tropical countries such as Costa Rica these deforested lands have been abandoned and forests have been allowed to regenerate through ecological succession. These regenerating young successional forests are called secondary forests or second-growth forests. Biodiversity and speciation Tropical rainforests exhibit a vast diversity in plant and animal species. The root for this remarkable speciation has been a query of scientists and ecologists for years. A number of theories have been developed for why and how the tropics can be so diverse. Interspecific competition Interspecific competition results from a high density of species with similar niches in the tropics and limited resources available. Species which "lose" the competition may either become extinct or find a new niche. Direct competition will often lead to one species dominating another by some advantage, ultimately driving it to extinction. Niche partitioning is the other option for a species. This is the separation and rationing of necessary resources by utilizing different habitats, food sources, cover or general behavioral differences. A species with similar food items but different feeding times is an example of niche partitioning. Pleistocene refugia The theory of Pleistocene refugia was developed by Jürgen Haffer in 1969 with his article Speciation of Amazonian Forest Birds. Haffer proposed the explanation for speciation was the product of rainforest patches being separated by stretches of non-forest vegetation during the last glacial period. He called these patches of rainforest areas refuges and within these patches allopatric speciation occurred. With the end of the glacial period and increase in atmospheric humidity, rainforest began to expand and the refuges reconnected. This theory has been the subject of debate. Scientists are still skeptical of whether or not this theory is legitimate. Genetic evidence suggests speciation had occurred in certain taxa 1–2 million years ago, preceding the Pleistocene. Human dimensions Habitation Tropical rainforests have harboured human life for many millennia, with many Indian tribes in South- and Central America, who belong to the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Congo Pygmies in Central Africa, and several tribes in South-East Asia, like the Dayak people and the Penan people in Borneo. Food resources within the forest are extremely dispersed due to the high biological diversity and what food does exist is largely restricted to the canopy and requires considerable energy to obtain. Some groups of hunter-gatherers have exploited rainforest on a seasonal basis but dwelt primarily in adjacent savanna and open forest environments where food is much more abundant. Other people described as rainforest dwellers are hunter-gatherers who subsist in large part by trading high value forest products such as hides, feathers, and honey with agricultural people living outside the forest. Indigenous peoples A variety of indigenous people live within the rainforest as hunter-gatherers, or subsist as part-time small scale farmers supplemented in large part by trading high-value forest products such as hides, feathers, and honey with agricultural people living outside the forest. Peoples have inhabited the rainforests for tens of thousands of years and have remained so elusive that only recently have some tribes been discovered. These indigenous peoples are greatly threatened by loggers in search for old-growth tropical hardwoods like Ipe, Cumaru and Wenge, and by farmers who are looking to expand their land, for cattle(meat), and soybeans, which are used to feed cattle in Europe and China. On 18 January 2007, FUNAI reported also that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition, Brazil has now overtaken the island of New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted tribes. The province of Irian Jaya or West Papua in the island of New Guinea is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups. The pygmy peoples are hunter-gatherer groups living in equatorial rainforests characterized by their short height (below one and a half meters, or 59 inches, on average). Amongst this group are the Efe, Aka, Twa, Baka, and Mbuti people of Central Africa. However, the term pygmy is considered pejorative so many tribes prefer not to be labeled as such.Some notable indigenous peoples of the Americas, or Amerindians, include the Huaorani, Ya̧nomamö, and Kayapo people of the Amazon. The traditional agricultural system practiced by tribes in the Amazon is based on swidden cultivation (also known as slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation) and is considered a relatively benign disturbance. In fact, when looking at the level of individual swidden plots a number of traditional farming practices are considered beneficial. For example, the use of shade trees and fallowing all help preserve soil organic matter, which is a critical factor in the maintenance of soil fertility in the deeply weathered and leached soils common in the Amazon.There is a diversity of forest people in Asia, including the Lumad peoples of the Philippines and the Penan and Dayak people of Borneo. The Dayaks are a particularly interesting group as they are noted for their traditional headhunting culture. Fresh human heads were required to perform certain rituals such as the Iban "kenyalang" and the Kenyah "mamat". Pygmies who live in Southeast Asia are, amongst others, referred to as "Negrito". Resources Cultivated foods and spices Yam, coffee, chocolate, banana, mango, papaya, macadamia, avocado, and sugarcane all originally came from tropical rainforest and are still mostly grown on plantations in regions that were formerly primary forest. In the mid-1980s and 1990s, 40 million tons of bananas were consumed worldwide each year, along with 13 million tons of mango. Central American coffee exports were worth US$3 billion in 1970. Much of the genetic variation used in evading the damage caused by new pests is still derived from resistant wild stock. Tropical forests have supplied 250 cultivated kinds of fruit, compared to only 20 for temperate forests. Forests in New Guinea alone contain 251 tree species with edible fruits, of which only 43 had been established as cultivated crops by 1985. Ecosystem services In addition to extractive human uses, rain forests also have non-extractive uses that are frequently summarized as ecosystem services. Rain forests play an important role in maintaining biological diversity, sequestering and storing carbon, global climate regulation, disease control, and pollination. Half of the rainfall in the Amazon area is produced by the forests. The moisture from the forests is important to the rainfall in Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina Deforestation in the Amazon rainforest region was one of the main reason that cause the severe Drought of 2014–2015 in Brazil For the last three decades, the amount of carbon absorbed by the world's intact tropical forests has fallen, according to a study published in 2020 in the journal Nature. In 2019 they took up a third less carbon than they did in the 1990s, due to higher temperatures, droughts and deforestation. The typical tropical forest may become a carbon source by the 2060s. Tourism Despite the negative effects of tourism in the tropical rainforests, there are also several important positive effects. In recent years ecotourism in the tropics has increased. While rainforests are becoming increasingly rare, people are travelling to nations that still have this diverse habitat. Locals are benefiting from the additional income brought in by visitors, as well areas deemed interesting for visitors are often conserved. Ecotourism can be an incentive for conservation, especially when it triggers positive economic change. Ecotourism can include a variety of activities including animal viewing, scenic jungle tours and even viewing cultural sights and native villages. If these practices are performed appropriately this can be beneficial for both locals and the present flora and fauna. An increase in tourism has increased economic support, allowing more revenue to go into the protection of the habitat. Tourism can contribute directly to the conservation of sensitive areas and habitat. Revenue from park-entrance fees and similar sources can be utilised specifically to pay for the protection and management of environmentally sensitive areas. Revenue from taxation and tourism provides an additional incentive for governments to contribute revenue to the protection of the forest. Tourism also has the potential to increase public appreciation of the environment and to spread awareness of environmental problems when it brings people into closer contact with the environment. Such increased awareness can induce more environmentally conscious behavior. Tourism has had a positive effect on wildlife preservation and protection efforts, notably in Africa but also in South America, Asia, Australia, and the South Pacific. Conservation Threats Deforestation Mining and drilling Deposits of precious metals (gold, silver, coltan) and fossil fuels (oil and natural gas) occur underneath rainforests globally. These resources are important to developing nations and their extraction is often given priority to encourage economic growth. Mining and drilling can require large amounts of land development, directly causing deforestation. In Ghana, a West African nation, deforestation from decades of mining activity left about 12% of the country's original rainforest intact. Conversion to agricultural land With the invention of agriculture, humans were able to clear sections of rainforest to produce crops, converting it to open farmland. Such people, however, obtain their food primarily from farm plots cleared from the forest and hunt and forage within the forest to supplement this. The issue arising is between the independent farmer providing for his family and the needs and wants of the globe as a whole. This issue has seen little improvement because no plan has been established for all parties to be aided.Agriculture on formerly forested land is not without difficulties. Rainforest soils are often thin and leached of many minerals, and the heavy rainfall can quickly leach nutrients from area cleared for cultivation. People such as the Yanomamo of the Amazon, utilize slash-and-burn agriculture to overcome these limitations and enable them to push deep into what were previously rainforest environments. However, these are not rainforest dwellers, rather they are dwellers in cleared farmland that make forays into the rainforest. Up to 90% of the typical Yanamomo diet comes from farmed plants.Some action has been taken by suggesting fallow periods of the land allowing secondary forest to grow and replenish the soil. Beneficial practices like soil restoration and conservation can benefit the small farmer and allow better production on smaller parcels of land. Climate change The tropics take a major role in reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide. The tropics (most notably the Amazon rainforest) are called carbon sinks. As major carbon reducers and carbon and soil methane storages, their destruction contributes to increasing global energy trapping, atmospheric gases. Climate change has been significantly contributed to by the destruction of the rainforests. A simulation was performed in which all rainforest in Africa were removed. The simulation showed an increase in atmospheric temperature by 2.5 to 5 degrees Celsius. Declining populations Some species of fauna show a trend towards declining populations in rainforests, for example, reptiles that feed on amphibians and reptiles. This trend requires close monitoring. The seasonality of rainforests affects the reproductive patterns of amphibians, and this in turn can directly affect the species of reptiles that feed on these groups, particularly species with specialized feeding, since these are less likely to use alternative resources. Protection Efforts to protect and conserve tropical rainforest habitats are diverse and widespread. Tropical rainforest conservation ranges from strict preservation of habitat to finding sustainable management techniques for people living in tropical rainforests. International policy has also introduced a market incentive program called Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) for companies and governments to outset their carbon emissions through financial investments into rainforest conservation. See also References External links Rainforest Action Network Rain Forest Info from Blue Planet Biomes Passport to Knowledge Rainforests Tropical Forests, Project Regeneration, 2021.

world food day

World Food Day is an international day celebrated every year worldwide on October 16 to commemorate the date of the founding of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in 1945. The day is celebrated widely by many other organizations concerned with hunger and food security, including the World Food Programme, the World Health Organization and the International Fund for Agricultural Development. WFP received the Nobel Prize in Peace for 2020 for their efforts to combat hunger, contribute to peace in conflict areas, and for playing a leading role in stopping the use of hunger in the form of a weapon for war and conflict.The World Food Day theme for 2014 was Family Farming: "Feeding the world, caring for the earth"; in 2015 it was "Social Protection and Agriculture: Breaking the Cycle of Rural Poverty"; in 2016 it is Climate Change: "Climate is changing. Food and agriculture must too", which echoes the theme of 2008, and of 2002 and 1989 before that. The theme of 2020 was "Grow, nourish, sustain. Together. Our actions are our future." Origins World Food Day (WFD) was established by FAO's Member Countries at the Organization's 20th General Conference in November 1979. The Hungarian Delegation, led by the former Hungarian Minister of Agriculture and Food Dr. Pál Romány, played an active role at the 20th Session of the FAO Conference and suggested the idea of celebrating the WFD worldwide. It has since been observed every year in more than 150 countries, raising awareness of the issues behind poverty and hunger. Themes Since 1981, World Food Day has adopted a different theme each year in order to highlight areas needed for action and provide a common focus. FAO issued World Food Day medals each year to commemorate and promote the anniversary. Most of the themes revolve around agriculture because only investment in agriculture – together with support for education and health – will turn this situation around. The bulk of that investment will have to come from the private sector, with public investment playing a crucial role, especially in view of its facilitating and stimulating effect on private investment. In spite of the importance of agriculture as the driving force in the economies of many developing countries, this vital sector is frequently starved of investment. In particular, foreign aid to agriculture has shown marked declines over the past 20 years. 1981: Food comes first 1982: Food comes first 1983: Food security 1984: Women in agriculture 1985: Rural poverty 1986: Fishermen and fishing communities 1987: Small farmers 1988: Rural youth 1989: Food and the environment 1990: Food for the future 1991: Trees for life 1992: Food and nutrition 1993: Harvesting nature's diversity 1994: Water for life 1995: Food for all 1996: Fighting hunger and malnutrition 1997: Investing in food security 1998: Women feed the world 1999: Youth against hunger 2000: A millennium free from hunger 2001: Fight hunger to reduce poverty 2002: Water: source of food security 2003: Working together for an international alliance against hunger 2004: Biodiversity for food security 2005: Agriculture and intercultural dialogue 2006: Investing in agriculture for food security 2007: The right to food 2008: World food security: the challenges of climate change and bioenergy 2009: Achieving food security in times of crisis 2010: United against hunger 2011: Food prices - from crisis to stability 2012: Agricultural cooperatives – key to feeding the world 2013: Sustainable Food Systems for Food Security and Nutrition 2014: Family Farming: "Feeding the world, caring for the earth" 2015: "Social Protection and Agriculture: Breaking the Cycle of Rural Poverty" 2016: Climate change: "Climate is changing. Food and agriculture must too" 2017: Change the future of migration. Invest in food security and rural development. 2018: "Our Actions Are Our Future, Ending World Hunger by 2030 is Possible" 2019: "Our Actions Are Our Future, Healthy Diets for A # ZeroHunger World" 2020: "Grow, Nourish, Sustain. Together" 2021: “Safe food now for a healthy tomorrow”. 2022: "Leave NO ONE behind". 2023: "Water is life, water is food. Leave no one behind" Events In over 150 countries, events mark World Food Day. Examples of events held across the world are listed. India World Food Day is celebrated in honour of the date of the founding of the FAO of the United Nations in 1945. It is also followed in India. United States World Food Day has been a tradition in the United States since one year after the first World Food Day in 1981. In the United States the endeavor is sponsored by 450 national, private voluntary organizations. One example for World Food Day events is the World Food Day Sunday Dinners that Oxfam America sponsors in collaboration with several other non-profits. Emeritus Archbishop Desmond Tutu and author Francis Moore Lappe have teamed up with Oxfam America to promote World Food Day Sunday Dinners. The Iowa Hunger Summit has been held on or near World Food Day since 2007, and is organized by the World Food Prize in conjunction with their annual symposium in Des Moines, Iowa. Europe In Italy, ministries, universities, research agencies, international agencies, and NGOs have organized many conferences as well as exhibitions and symposia. The Italian Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Policies organized a meeting which focused on women's rights in rural areas in 2005. In Germany, the Federal Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture have all become involved via press conferences. Spanish television has been active in broadcasting events. FAO Goodwill Ambassador – Spanish soccer star Raul – has taken part in events and helped highlight food-security issues across his country. The UK Food Group has also been active through conferences and media broadcasts. In the emerging economies of Eastern Europe – i.e. Albania, Armenia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Georgia, Hungary, Moldova, North Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro, and Slovak Republic – a variety of activities have been held. In Hungary, renowned experts have given presentations in the Hungarian Agricultural Museum and FAO, and WFD medals have been awarded to well-known Hungarian experts by the FAO Sub-Regional Representative. On behalf of the Holy See, Popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI have sent an annual message for food producers and consumers on World Food Day. Africa Angola celebrated WFD in 2005 through the 4th Forum on Rural Women, while in Burundi the second Vice-President planted potatoes to provide a symbolic example about food production. In Central African Republic, the President of the Republic has inaugurated a bridge at Boda to coincide with World Food Day, making the agricultural production area more accessible. In Chad, thousands of people have attended debates, conferences and activities including theatre, films, folk dance, visits to project sites and visits by agricultural companies. In Ghana, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture has hosted a food security conference, while Namibia has run an awareness campaign through national media. In Botswana, the National Food technology research center recently exhibited its products and services at the World Food Day commemoration held at Kalakamati Farm on 19 October 2017. Egypt has hosted a Forum on nutrition issues. Morocco and Tunisia have held seminars and exhibitions. In Nigeria, organizations and individuals involved in feeding programs (e.g. Foodbank Nigeria) connect with other stakeholders in food production, agro-allied industries, wholesalers and community-based organizations to address food security challenges. For example, since 2009, Northern Nigeria is unstable. According to the humanitarian organisation Action Against Hunger (AAH), the ongoing and deepening humanitarian crisis in Northeast Nigeria has led to the displacement of over 1.5 million people, causing four million people to experience acute food insecurity and be in need of humanitarian assistance (Action Against Hunger). Since 2010, the AAH have been working with both "national agencies" and "local communities" to build capacity to treat deadly malnutrition caused by food insecurity (Action Against Hunger). Asia The Government of Bangladesh has been involved through organizing a food festival. In China in 2005, celebrations were organized in Qujing City, where numerous ethnic minorities live, by the Ministry of Agriculture and the Government of Qujing City, with the participation of a number of senior officials of the Government. In the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, seminars have been held and visits made to various project sites. The Ministry of Agriculture of Indonesia has in the past organized a major Food Expo in Bandung, West Java, while a Farmers' and Fishermen's Workshop of NGOs was held in Bali. In Armenia, staff from the Ministry of Agriculture, non-governmental organizations, Armenian State Agriculture University, the donor community, international organizations, and the mass media have participated in the World Food Day ceremony. In Afghanistan, representatives of Ministries, embassies, UN agencies, International Financial Organizations, National and International NGOs, and FAO staff have attended the World Food Day ceremony. In Cyprus, special ceremonies have been organized in primary and secondary schools, where teachers explained the significance of World Food Day. In Pakistan, a Society Named as MAPS (Mentor Amiable Professional Society) celebrates world food day by providing food packages to poor & née-dies and tells the importance of food to the people by organizing workshops. In the Philippines on 16 October 2015, writer and real estate entrepreneur Wilson Lee Flores started celebrating "World Pandesal Day" at the non-partisan Pandesal Forum of his Kamuning Bakery Cafe in Quezon City. He and celebrities like GMA Network, Inc. Chairman Felipe Gozon, Senator Sonny Angara and actor Dingdong Dantes gave away 30,000 "pugon" or wood-fired brick oven breads and other gifts to urban poor families. In 2016, he repeated this civic project with celebrities like Quezon City Vice-Mayor Joy Belmonte and business leader James Dy of the Philippine Chinese Charitable Association, plus undertaking free medical, dental and optical missions for urban poor families. In 2017, the celebration included 50,000 breads, sardines, hams, noodles, and juices from various companies, plus two dates for free medical, dental and optical clinics on 8 October and 29 October. Special guests at this third "World Pandesal Day" were led by Supreme Court Chief Justice Maria Lourdes Sereno, Vice-President Leni Robredo and Philippine National Police (PNP) chief General Ronald Dela Rosa accompanied by Quezon City senior superintendent Guillermo Eleazar. In Mongolia, for the World Food Day celebration in the country, it has become a tradition that the research conference "Food security" is annually organized by Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Light Industry and UN FAO representative office in Mongolia in cooperation with the Mongolian Food Industry Association. This event provides an opportunity to promote research work, to highlight the contributions of scholars and researchers to the country's food security, to strengthen the cooperation and collaboration between research institutions, NGOs and food related public organization, to transfer the technological research in the industry, and to develop research-based policy and regulations. Latin America In Chile, exhibitions of indigenous food products have been prepared by the local communities.In Argentina, senior officials of the Government, academics, international organizations and the press have participated in the main ceremony. In Mexico in 2005, a National Campaign for a "Mexico Without Hunger" was held, with the involvement and support of civil society and students.In Cuba, producers have been able to exchange views and experiences at an agricultural fair. The media strongly supports awareness campaigns on World Food Day.In Peru, during 2017, the Agriculture and Irrigation Ministry (Minagri) started a campaign to promote consumption of native, high-protein foods such as quinoa, kiwicha, and legumes, among others. In Venezuela, there has been national coverage of events. See also Food price crisis Food security World Food Prize List of food days References External links World Food Day

secretary of state for energy and climate change

The secretary of state for energy and climate change was a British Government cabinet position from 2008 to 2016. The Department of Energy and Climate Change was created on 3 October 2008 when then-Prime Minister Gordon Brown reshuffled his Cabinet. Between 1974 and 1992, the post was known as Secretary of State for Energy. The Energy and Climate Change Secretary revived the earlier post of the Secretary of State for Energy as head of the Department of Energy, existing from 1974 to 1992. After which, the Department of Energy was merged into the Department of Trade and Industry under the Conservative government of Sir John Major in 1992. Sixteen years later, immediately prior to the creation of the new department, energy policy was the responsibility of the Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (itself now a defunct government department, superseded by the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills). Former Labour Leader Ed Miliband was the inaugural Secretary of State at DECC. After Labour lost the 2010 general election and the Cameron–Clegg coalition was formed, Chris Huhne was appointed as his successor. On 3 February 2012, Huhne resigned from the post after it was announced that he would be prosecuted for perverting the course of justice, in relation to accusations that he passed on speeding penalties to his ex-wife to avoid losing his own licence. The post was taken over by Ed Davey on the same day, and served until the Liberal Democrats left government, and Davey lost his seat, in 2015.Amber Rudd was the final Secretary of State at DECC, until she became Home Secretary. The post was formed into the new Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy by new Prime Minister Theresa May in July 2016. The role is now part of the portfolio belonging to the Minister of State for Business, Energy and Clean Growth, Graham Stuart. List of secretaries of state Colour key Conservative Labour Liberal Democrats See also Minister of State at the Department of Energy and Climate Change Shadow Secretary of State for Climate Change and Net Zero Secretary of State for Energy Security and Net Zero == References ==

climate change in mozambique

Mozambique is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change. With a large proportion of the population living in low-lying areas, intensifying tropical cyclones, floods and storm surges are a significant threat. A 2015 study in Climatic Change estimated that climate change will contribute to the national economy being up to 13% smaller in 2050 compared to a fictional scenario without it, and that GDP is likely to shrink.The government of Mozambique and civil society have identified areas for mitigation and adaptation, such as early warning systems for storms, investment in flood defences, resettlement schemes for at-risk communities and rebuilding destroyed settlements with improved disaster-resilient standards. == References ==

carbon dioxide in earth's atmosphere

In Earth's atmosphere, carbon dioxide is a trace gas that plays an integral part in the greenhouse effect, carbon cycle, photosynthesis and oceanic carbon cycle. It is one of several greenhouse gases in the atmosphere of Earth. The current global average concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is 421 ppm as of May 2022 (0.04%). This is an increase of 50% since the start of the Industrial Revolution, up from 280 ppm during the 10,000 years prior to the mid-18th century. The increase is due to human activity. Burning fossil fuels is the main cause of these increased CO2 concentrations and also the main cause of climate change. Other large anthropogenic sources include cement production, deforestation, and biomass burning. While transparent to visible light, carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, absorbing and emitting infrared radiation at its two infrared-active vibrational frequencies. CO2 absorbs and emits infrared radiation at wavelengths of 4.26 μm (2,347 cm−1) (asymmetric stretching vibrational mode) and 14.99 μm (667 cm−1) (bending vibrational mode). It plays a significant role in influencing Earth's surface temperature through the greenhouse effect. Light emission from the Earth's surface is most intense in the infrared region between 200 and 2500 cm−1, as opposed to light emission from the much hotter Sun which is most intense in the visible region. Absorption of infrared light at the vibrational frequencies of atmospheric CO2 traps energy near the surface, warming the surface and the lower atmosphere. Less energy reaches the upper atmosphere, which is therefore cooler because of this absorption.Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone increase the absorption and emission of infrared radiation by the atmosphere, causing the observed rise in average global temperature and ocean acidification. Another direct effect is the CO2 fertilization effect. These changes cause a range of indirect effects of climate change on the physical environment, ecosystems and human societies. Carbon dioxide exerts a larger overall warming influence than all of the other greenhouse gases combined. It has an atmospheric lifetime that increases with the cumulative amount of fossil carbon extracted and burned, due to the imbalance that this activity has imposed on Earth's fast carbon cycle. This means that some fraction (a projected 20–35%) of the fossil carbon transferred thus far will persist in the atmosphere as elevated CO2 levels for many thousands of years after these carbon transfer activities begin to subside. The carbon cycle is a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth's oceans, soil, rocks and the biosphere. Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis. Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds. The present atmospheric concentration of CO2 is the highest for 14 million years. Concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere were as high as 4,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago, and as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years. Reconstructed temperature records for the last 420 million years indicate that atmospheric CO2 concentrations peaked at approximately 2,000 ppm during the Devonian (400 Ma) period, and again in the Triassic (220–200 Ma) period and was four times current levels during the Jurassic period (201–145 Ma). Current concentration and future trends Current situation Since the start of the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric CO2 concentration have been increasing, causing global warming and ocean acidification. As of May 2022, the average monthly level of CO2 in Earth's atmosphere reached 421 parts per million by volume (ppm). "Parts per million" refers to the number of carbon dioxide molecules per million molecules of dry air. Previously, the value was 280 ppm during the 10,000 years up to the mid-18th century.Each part per million of CO2 in the atmosphere represents approximately 2.13 gigatonnes of carbon, or 7.82 gigatonnes of CO2.It was pointed out in 2021 that "the current rates of increase of the concentration of the major greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide) are unprecedented over at least the last 800,000 years".: 515 Annual and regional fluctuations Atmospheric CO2 concentrations fluctuate slightly with the seasons, falling during the Northern Hemisphere spring and summer as plants consume the gas and rising during northern autumn and winter as plants go dormant or die and decay. The level drops by about 6 or 7 ppm (about 50 Gt) from May to September during the Northern Hemisphere's growing season, and then goes up by about 8 or 9 ppm. The Northern Hemisphere dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations reach a peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins, and decline to a minimum in October, near the end of the growing season.Concentrations also vary on a regional basis, most strongly near the ground with much smaller variations aloft. In urban areas concentrations are generally higher and indoors they can reach 10 times background levels. Measurements and predictions made in the recent past Estimates in 2001 found that the current carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere may be the highest in the last 20 million years. This figure has been corrected down since then, whereby the latest estimate is now 14 million years (estimate from 2013). Most recently, IPCC AR6 (see for example figure 2.34) reports similar levels 3-3.3 mya in the mid-Pliocene warm period. AR6 reports this period as a good proxy for likely climate outcomes with current levels of CO2. Data from 2009 found that the global mean CO2 concentration was rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating. The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 although this concentration had already been reached in the Arctic in June 2012. Data from 2013 showed that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is this high "for the first time in 55 years of measurement—and probably more than 3 million years of Earth history." As of 2018, CO2 concentrations were measured to be 410 ppm. Measurement techniques The concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are expressed as parts per million by volume (abbreviated as ppmv or just ppm). To convert from the usual ppmv units to ppm mass, multiply by the ratio of the molar weight of CO2 to that of air, i.e. times 1.52 (44.01 divided by 28.96). The first reproducibly accurate measurements of atmospheric CO2 were from flask sample measurements made by Dave Keeling at Caltech in the 1950s. Measurements at Mauna Loa have been ongoing since 1958. Additionally, measurements are also made at many other sites around the world. Many measurement sites are part of larger global networks. Global network data are often made publicly available. Data networks There are several surface measurement (including flasks and continuous in situ) networks including NOAA/ERSL, WDCGG, and RAMCES. The NOAA/ESRL Baseline Observatory Network, and the Scripps Institution of Oceanography Network data are hosted at the CDIAC at ORNL. The World Data Centre for Greenhouse Gases (WDCGG), part of GAW, data are hosted by the JMA. The Reseau Atmospherique de Mesure des Composes an Effet de Serre database (RAMCES) is part of IPSL. From these measurements, further products are made which integrate data from the various sources. These products also address issues such as data discontinuity and sparseness. GLOBALVIEW-CO2 is one of these products.Ongoing ground-based total column measurements began more recently. Column measurements typically refer to an averaged column amount denoted XCO2, rather than a surface only measurement. These measurements are made by the TCCON. These data are also hosted on the CDIAC, and made publicly available according to the data use policy. Satellite measurements Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are also a recent addition to atmospheric XCO2 measurements. SCIAMACHY aboard ESA's ENVISAT made global column XCO2 measurements from 2002 to 2012. AIRS aboard NASA's Aqua satellite makes global XCO2 measurements and was launched shortly after ENVISAT in 2012. More recent satellites have significantly improved the data density and precision of global measurements. Newer missions have higher spectral and spatial resolutions. JAXA's GOSAT was the first dedicated GHG monitoring satellite to successfully achieve orbit in 2009. NASA's OCO-2 launched in 2014 was the second. Various other satellites missions to measure atmospheric XCO2 are planned. Analytical methods to investigate sources of CO2 The burning of long-buried fossil fuels releases CO2 containing carbon of different isotopic ratios to those of living plants, enabling distinction between natural and human-caused contributions to CO2 concentration. There are higher atmospheric CO2 concentrations in the Northern Hemisphere, where most of the world's population lives (and emissions originate from), compared to the southern hemisphere. This difference has increased as anthropogenic emissions have increased. Atmospheric O2 levels are decreasing in Earth's atmosphere as it reacts with the carbon in fossil fuels to form CO2. Causes of the current increase Anthropogenic CO2 emissions While CO2 absorption and release is always happening as a result of natural processes, the recent rise in CO2 levels in the atmosphere is known to be mainly due to human (anthropogenic) activity. Anthropogenic carbon emissions exceed the amount that can be taken up or balanced out by natural sinks. Thus carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere and, as of May 2022, its concentration is 50% above pre-industrial levels.The extraction and burning of fossil fuels, releasing carbon that has been underground for many millions of years, has increased the atmospheric concentration of CO2. As of year 2019 the extraction and burning of geologic fossil carbon by humans releases over 30 gigatonnes of CO2 (9 billion tonnes carbon) each year. This larger disruption to the natural balance is responsible for recent growth in the atmospheric CO2 concentration. Currently about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans and remains in the atmosphere.Burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas is the leading cause of increased anthropogenic CO2; deforestation is the second major cause. In 2010, 9.14 gigatonnes of carbon (GtC, equivalent to 33.5 gigatonnes of CO2 or about 4.3 ppm in Earth's atmosphere) were released from fossil fuels and cement production worldwide, compared to 6.15 GtC in 1990. In addition, land use change contributed 0.87 GtC in 2010, compared to 1.45 GtC in 1990. In the period 1751 to 1900, about 12 GtC were released as CO2 to the atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels, whereas from 1901 to 2013 the figure was about 380 GtC.The International Energy Agency estimates that the top 1% of emitters globally each had carbon footprints of over 50 tonnes of CO2 in 2021, more than 1,000 times greater than those of the bottom 1% of emitters. The global average energy-related carbon footprint is around 4.7 tonnes of CO2 per person. Roles in natural processes on Earth Greenhouse effect Earth's natural greenhouse effect makes life as we know it possible and carbon dioxide plays a significant role in providing for the relatively high temperature on Earth. The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary atmosphere warms the planet's surface beyond the temperature it would have in the absence of its atmosphere. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's average surface temperature would be about −18 °C (−0.4 °F) compared to Earth's actual average surface temperature of approximately 14 °C (57.2 °F).Water is responsible for most (about 36–70%) of the total greenhouse effect, and the role of water vapor as a greenhouse gas depends on temperature. On Earth, carbon dioxide is the most relevant, direct anthropologically influenced greenhouse gas. Carbon dioxide is often mentioned in the context of its increased influence as a greenhouse gas since the pre-industrial (1750) era. In 2013, the increase in CO2 was estimated to be responsible for 1.82 W m−2 of the 2.63 W m−2 change in radiative forcing on Earth (about 70%).The concept of atmospheric CO2 increasing ground temperature was first published by Svante Arrhenius in 1896. The increased radiative forcing due to increased CO2 in the Earth's atmosphere is based on the physical properties of CO2 and the non-saturated absorption windows where CO2 absorbs outgoing long-wave energy. The increased forcing drives further changes in Earth's energy balance and, over the longer term, in Earth's climate. Carbon cycle Atmospheric carbon dioxide plays an integral role in the Earth's carbon cycle whereby CO2 is removed from the atmosphere by some natural processes such as photosynthesis and deposition of carbonates, to form limestones for example, and added back to the atmosphere by other natural processes such as respiration and the acid dissolution of carbonate deposits. There are two broad carbon cycles on Earth: the fast carbon cycle and the slow carbon cycle. The fast carbon cycle refers to movements of carbon between the environment and living things in the biosphere whereas the slow carbon cycle involves the movement of carbon between the atmosphere, oceans, soil, rocks, and volcanism. Both cycles are intrinsically interconnected and atmospheric CO2 facilitates the linkage. Natural sources of atmospheric CO2 include volcanic outgassing, the combustion of organic matter, wildfires and the respiration processes of living aerobic organisms. Man-made sources of CO2 include the burning of fossil fuels for heating, power generation and transport, as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various microorganisms from fermentation and cellular respiration. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria convert carbon dioxide to carbohydrates by a process called photosynthesis. They gain the energy needed for this reaction from absorption of sunlight by chlorophyll and other pigments. Oxygen, produced as a by-product of photosynthesis, is released into the atmosphere and subsequently used for respiration by heterotrophic organisms and other plants, forming a cycle with carbon. Most sources of CO2 emissions are natural, and are balanced to various degrees by similar CO2 sinks. For example, the decay of organic material in forests, grasslands, and other land vegetation - including forest fires - results in the release of about 436 gigatonnes of CO2 (containing 119 gigatonnes carbon) every year, while CO2 uptake by new growth on land counteracts these releases, absorbing 451 Gt (123 Gt C). Although much CO2 in the early atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by volcanic activity, modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 megatonnes of CO2 each year. Natural sources are more or less balanced by natural sinks, in the form of chemical and biological processes which remove CO2 from the atmosphere. Overall, there is a large natural flux of atmospheric CO2 into and out of the biosphere, both on land and in the oceans. In the pre-industrial era, each of these fluxes were in balance to such a degree that little net CO2 flowed between the land and ocean reservoirs of carbon, and little change resulted in the atmospheric concentration. From the human pre-industrial era to 1940, the terrestrial biosphere represented a net source of atmospheric CO2 (driven largely by land-use changes), but subsequently switched to a net sink with growing fossil carbon emissions. In 2012, about 57% of human-emitted CO2, mostly from the burning of fossil carbon, was taken up by land and ocean sinks.The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the airborne fraction. This ratio varies in the short-term and is typically about 45% over longer (5-year) periods. Estimated carbon in global terrestrial vegetation increased from approximately 740 gigatonnes in 1910 to 780 gigatonnes in 1990. Photosynthesis Carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere is essential to life and to most of the planetary biosphere. The average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts, which is about six times larger than the current power consumption of human civilization. Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100–115 billion metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year.Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from CO2 and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis, since photoheterotrophs use organic compounds, rather than CO2, as a source of carbon. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This is called oxygenic photosynthesis. Although there are some differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, the overall process is quite similar in these organisms. Some types of bacteria, however, carry out anoxygenic photosynthesis, which consumes CO2 but does not release oxygen.Carbon dioxide is converted into sugars in a process called carbon fixation. Carbon fixation is an endothermic redox reaction, so photosynthesis needs to supply both the source of energy to drive this process and the electrons needed to convert CO2 into a carbohydrate. This addition of the electrons is a reduction reaction. In general outline and in effect, photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration, in which glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce CO2 and water, and to release exothermic chemical energy to drive the organism's metabolism. The two processes take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions, however, and in different cellular compartments. Oceanic carbon cycle The Earth's oceans contain a large amount of CO2 in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions—much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate: CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O ⇌ Ca2+ + 2 HCO−3Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left side decreases the pH of seawater, a process which has been termed ocean acidification (pH of the ocean becomes more acidic although the pH value remains in the alkaline range). Reactions between CO2 and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years, this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks. From 1850 until 2022, the ocean has absorbed 26% of total anthropogenic emissions. However, the rate at which the ocean will take it up in the future is less certain. Even if equilibrium is reached, including dissolution of carbonate minerals, the increased concentration of bicarbonate and decreased or unchanged concentration of carbonate ion will give rise to a higher concentration of un-ionized carbonic acid and dissolved CO2. This higher concentration in the seas, along with higher temperatures, would mean a higher equilibrium concentration of CO2 in the air.Carbon moves between the atmosphere, vegetation (dead and alive), the soil, the surface layer of the ocean, and the deep ocean. Effects of current increase Direct effects Direct effects of increasing CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere include increasing global temperatures, ocean acidification and a CO2 fertilization effect on plants and crops. Temperature rise on land Temperature rise in oceans Ocean acidification CO2 fertilization effect Other direct effects CO2 emissions have also led to the stratosphere contracting by 400 meters since 1980, which could affect satellite operations, GPS systems and radio communications. Indirect effects and impacts Approaches for reducing CO2 concentrations Carbon dioxide has unique long-term effects on climate change that are nearly "irreversible" for a thousand years after emissions stop (zero further emissions). The greenhouse gases methane and nitrous oxide do not persist over time in the same way as carbon dioxide. Even if human carbon dioxide emissions were to completely cease, atmospheric temperatures are not expected to decrease significantly in the short term. This is because the air temperature is determined by a balance between heating, due to greenhouse gases, and cooling due to heat transfer to the ocean. If emissions were to stop, CO2 levels and the heating effect would slowly decrease, but simultaneously the cooling due to heat transfer would diminish (because sea temperatures would get closer to the air temperature), with the result that the air temperature would decrease only slowly. Sea temperatures would continue to rise, causing thermal expansion and some sea level rise. Lowering global temperatures more rapidly would require carbon sequestration or geoengineering. Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Concentrations in the geologic past Carbon dioxide is believed to have played an important effect in regulating Earth's temperature throughout its 4.7 billion year history. Early in the Earth's life, scientists have found evidence of liquid water indicating a warm world even though the Sun's output is believed to have only been 70% of what it is today. Higher carbon dioxide concentrations in the early Earth's atmosphere might help explain this faint young sun paradox. When Earth first formed, Earth's atmosphere may have contained more greenhouse gases and CO2 concentrations may have been higher, with estimated partial pressure as large as 1,000 kPa (10 bar), because there was no bacterial photosynthesis to reduce the gas to carbon compounds and oxygen. Methane, a very active greenhouse gas, may have been more prevalent as well.Carbon dioxide concentrations have shown several cycles of variation from about 180 parts per million during the deep glaciations of the Holocene and Pleistocene to 280 parts per million during the interglacial periods. Carbon dioxide concentrations have varied widely over the Earth's 4.54 billion year history. It is believed to have been present in Earth's first atmosphere, shortly after Earth's formation. The second atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen and CO2 was produced by outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids. A major part of carbon dioxide emissions were soon dissolved in water and incorporated in carbonate sediments. The production of free oxygen by cyanobacterial photosynthesis eventually led to the oxygen catastrophe that ended Earth's second atmosphere and brought about the Earth's third atmosphere (the modern atmosphere) 2.4 billion years before the present. Carbon dioxide concentrations dropped from 4,000 parts per million during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 parts per million during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years. Drivers of ancient-Earth CO2 concentration On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 concentration is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock weathering, and volcanic degassing. The net effect of slight imbalances in the carbon cycle over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. On a timescale of billions of years, such downward trend appears bound to continue indefinitely as occasional massive historical releases of buried carbon due to volcanism will become less frequent (as earth mantle cooling and progressive exhaustion of internal radioactive heat proceed further). The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of no relevance to the atmospheric CO2 concentration over the next hundreds or thousands of years. Photosynthesis in the geologic past Over the course of Earth's geologic history CO2 concentrations have played a role in biological evolution. The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water. Cyanobacteria appeared later, and the excess oxygen they produced contributed to the oxygen catastrophe, which rendered the evolution of complex life possible. In recent geologic times, low CO2 concentrations below 600 parts per million might have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of C4 plants which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 million years ago over plants that use the less efficient C3 metabolic pathway. At current atmospheric pressures photosynthesis shuts down when atmospheric CO2 concentrations fall below 150 ppm and 200 ppm although some microbes can extract carbon from the air at much lower concentrations. Measuring ancient-Earth CO2 concentration The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before instrumental sampling is to measure bubbles of air (fluid or gas inclusions) trapped in the Antarctic or Greenland ice sheets. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 concentrations were about 260–280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years. The longest ice core record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800,000 years. During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied between 180 and 210 ppm during ice ages, increasing to 280–300 ppm during warmer interglacials. The beginning of human agriculture during the current Holocene epoch may have been strongly connected to the atmospheric CO2 increase after the last ice age ended, a fertilization effect raising plant biomass growth and reducing stomatal conductance requirements for CO2 intake, consequently reducing transpiration water losses and increasing water usage efficiency.Various proxy measurements have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations millions of years in the past. These include boron and carbon isotope ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of stomata observed on fossil plant leaves.Phytane is a type of diterpenoid alkane. It is a breakdown product of chlorophyll and is now used to estimate ancient CO2 levels. Phytane gives both a continuous record of CO2 concentrations but it also can overlap a break in the CO2 record of over 500 million years. 600 to 400 Ma There is evidence for high CO2 concentrations of over 3,000 ppm between 200 and 150 million years ago, and of over 6,000 ppm between 600 and 400 million years ago. 60 to 5 Ma In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 million years ago. About 34 million years ago, the time of the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event and when the Antarctic ice sheet started to take its current form, CO2 was about 760 ppm, and there is geochemical evidence that concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 million years ago. Decreasing CO2 concentration, with a tipping point of 600 ppm, was the primary agent forcing Antarctic glaciation. Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of C4 plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 million years ago. See also Carbon budget Global temperature record References External links Current global map of carbon dioxide concentrations. Global Carbon Dioxide Circulation (NASA; 13 December 2016) Video (03:10) – A Year in the Life of Earth's CO2 (NASA; 17 November 2014)

ecological grief

Ecological grief (or eco-grief), or in particular climate grief, refers to the sense of loss that arises from experiencing or learning about environmental destruction or climate change. Environmental grief can be defined as "the grief reaction stemming from the environmental loss of ecosystems by natural and man-made events." Another definition is "the grief felt in relation to experienced or anticipated ecological losses, including the loss of species, ecosystems, and meaningful landscapes due to acute or chronic environmental change." For example, scientists witnessing the decline of Australia's Great Barrier Reef report experiences of anxiety, hopelessness, and despair. Groups impacted heavily also include young people feeling betrayal from lack of environmental action by governments and Indigenous communities loosing their livelihoods.Environmental disruption, such as the loss of biodiversity, or even the loss of inanimate environmental features like sea ice, cultural landscapes, or historic heritage can also cause negative psychological responses, such as ecological grief or solastalgia. Background and characteristics Usage of "ecological grief" dates back to at least 1940, where Aldo Leopold used the term to refer to the pain of environmental loss. In A Sand County Almanac, Leopold wrote that "One of the penalties of an ecological education is to live alone in a world of wounds". The phenomena of ecological grief became more widespread in the 21st century along with the worsening climate crisis.In 2018, Cunsolo and Ellis wrote that "grief is a natural and legitimate response to ecological loss, and one that may become more common as climate impacts worsen."Australian philosopher Glenn Albrecht coined the term solastalgia, publishing the first academic paper on the idea in 2005. The term is derived from word root solacium (meaning "comfort") and the suffix -algia (meaning "pain"), suggesting a loss of comfort, and akin to the terms climate grief, ecological grief, and environmental melancholia. A 2022 article in The Atlantic described solastalgia as a response to "losing your home while staying in one place". The article said the word "seemed to tap into a kind of angst about life on a warming planet", the word inspiring an instrumental music track in the U.K., an album in Slovenia, and a porcelain representation.A survey was conducted to measure the eco-guilt, anxiety and grief on mental health and its effect on the likeliness of pro-environmental behavior based on sociodemographic characteristics. Participants were asked a series of pro-environmental questions and asked to rate on a 5 point scale - 1 being almost never and 5 being always/almost always. The results indicated that women had higher overall score in each parameter of the study. Individuals living in rural areas displayed a greater sense of ecological grief compared to those living in suburban areas, which were allotted to the idea that those individuals experienced higher levels of first-hand loss.Climate communicators may focus initially on communicating climate impacts and adaptation rather than the aspects of grief. Communicators such as the Yale Program on Climate Change Communication have often addressed the question of grief by stressing the importance of describing solutions. Attempting to channel climate anxiety into action for solutions is consistent with the approach described by Sherman H. Dryer, Director of Radio Productions at The University of Chicago, in his manual for World War II propaganda, in which radio communications about the war always end with a message on how the listener can support the war effort.However, it is not clear that encouragement to channel anxiety and despair into action is an adequate response for people who have experienced concrete personal losses, such as Greenlanders who have had to euthanize sled dogs. Cunsolo, an ecologist active in Nunatsiavut, in Canada's Far North, described grappling with this question in an article titled, "To Grieve or Not to Grieve?".Some discussions in the media have focused on the question of whether presenting the negative aspects of climate change is making people despair and give up. A 2016 Scientific American article posed the question, "Is a traumatic sense of loss freezing action against climate change?" In 2019, journalist Mike Pearl asserted that "people are suffering from what could be called 'climate despair', a sense that climate change is an unstoppable force that will render humanity extinct and renders life in the meantime futile." More recently, research has indicated that emotional responses to crisis and disaster are inherently adaptive, and with appropriate support in reflecting on and processing the experiences, these emotions can lead to resilience.Climate changes impact on mental health can range from acute to chronic forms of distress. Common feelings were listed as a sense of powerlessness, despair, and grief. Three main have been attributed to ecological grief. 1) Past physical losses like firsthand extreme weather events, species extinction and habitat loss. 2) From the disruption of ones own cultural identity in relation to their surrounding environment. 3) The anticipation of future loss and climate anxiety. Symptoms Some symptoms of ecological grief are not limited to but can include eco-anxiety, eco-guilt , and eco-paralysis. Research related to solastalgia is being recorded on an environmental distress scale by accessing grief that is associated with environmental loss and anxiety tied to anticipation of future losses. Eco-anxiety A 2020 survey by the American Psychological Association found that more than two-thirds of American adults said they had experienced "eco-anxiety". Habitual eco-anxiety is related to a strong emotional response to the environmental uncertainties of the future as well as related to the anger felt in response to others behavior towards the environment. A study was conducted measuring the coping mechanisms used in relation to class of eco-anxiety induced by ecological grief. A small sample size of 17 people living in central Europe who were considered to have increased sensitive values related to climate change were included. Individuals were selected based on their professions, studies, passions or effects from climate change they've had first-hand experience with. The results classified 6 classes of eco-anxiety including worry, empathy, conflicts related to frustration and anger, disturbance, mental health, and helplessness. Although this particular study targeted individuals interested in climate change effects, the majority of coping mechanisms were problem focused and were most adaptive in leading into social support. The emerging model of climate grief suggests that people may process climate despair, or climate anxiety, through the stages of grief, and that forming social support networks is a part of this process. Eco paralysis is an emotional response triggered by the shock of environmental events and the inability to give a physical response due to an overwhelming feeling of conflict.The negative consequences of eco-anxiety are the physical, emotional and behavioral responses that are not able to give a meaningful and/or beneficial response towards climate change. Eco-guilt Ecological guilt stems from the self-consciousness of your own actions that 'you are the problem'.Collective guilt is viewed as the negative emotion people experience within their social ingroups as a whole. A manipulative study was conducted evaluating how the perceptions of global warming would influence feelings of collective guilt and likelihood of mitigating pro-environmental behaviors as a result. Through the experience of collective guilt it was hypothesized that it can help mitigate behaviors towards pro-environmental action. Higher instances of collective guilt were recorded when individuals were presented with the stance that humans have a 'minor' effect on climate change. Individuals were recorded to be more likely to use energy conservative practices and have higher willingness to pay 'green taxes' based on those feelings. Ecological guilt was also associated with less likeliness of pro-environmental action and increased levels of feelings of helplessness when human effects were attributed on a larger scale vs. minor. Impacts On April 14, 2018, civil rights attorney David Buckel, 60, self-immolated without witnesses at about 6 a.m. in a Brooklyn, N.Y., park, after having sent an email notifying news organizations. His suicide letter stated, "My early death by fossil fuel reflects what we are doing to ourselves" and "Here is a hope that giving a life might bring some attention to the need for expanded action."On April 22, 2022—Earth Day—Wynn Bruce, 50, self-immolated in front of the U.S. Supreme Court Building, apparently to protest climate inaction, after having edited a comment on a 2021 Facebook post about a course on climate change, writing "4/22/2022" next to a fire emoji. Eco-tourism As for the case of eco-tourism, there have been disheartening impacts made in Bama Yao Autonomous Country located in Guangxi, China. Bama Country is referred to as a longevity town due to the high percentage of centenarians residing in the area. Between the years of 2011-2019 tourism in Bama country had increased by 600% of up to 825,000 tourists. A study was conducted to evaluate emotional response of Bama residents experiencing ecological damage because of economic growth in tourism. Residents were reported to be saddened to notice that the Panyang River that was once used a source for drinking water, bathing, fishing, cooling and cooking is now very polluted as a result of exploitive physical changes done to environment for wellness tourism.Residents have reported feelings of helplessness, sadness and disappointment regarding coming to terms with and letting go of memories associated with the river. Residents say the depletion of the river has led to them losing part of their sense of belonging and has transpired into ecological grief.Where there is economic development, there will be environmental damage, there is no best of both worlds. The natural environment used to be good, but you couldn’t get enough food to eat - Bama residentFindings argue that for some residents their ecological grief can be compensated with economic growth and opportunity for modernization of their lifestyles. Place identity/attachment Place attachment is the emotional connection established with a specific place that are drawn from personal experiences and landmarks associated with memories and emotions. Place identity is referred to as the sense of self and attachment established from living in a certain area. A Survey was conducted to establish whether individuals who hold a stronger place value with the Great Barrier Reef are more likely to show signs of ecological grief from habitat decline. Study used four groups, 1st group being local people, 2nd was tourist, 3rd was travel operators and 4th was fishery companies. When all groups were asked to rate "Thinking about coral bleaching makes me feel depressed" on a 1-10 scale, residents scored the highest of 7.14/10, followed by tourist with a 6.9/10, and commercial travel operators scoring 6.3/10, and fishery companies scoring a 4.66/10 The residents and tourists were next asked a series of 6 questions related to identity, resource pride, place attachment, aesthetic appreciation and lifestyle.There was a positive correlation shown between having a high value of place identity and biodiversity between both tourists and residents Young people and females were more likely to report having feelings of "reef grief". The commercial operators and fisheries only reported high levels of ecological grief when worrying about the negative impacts of climate change. Overall place attachment is found to play a meaningful role in perceptions of climate change impacts. Groups of people affected more than average Young people In an open letter to the Swedish government, a group of psychologists and psychotherapists said, "A continued ecological crisis without an active solution focus from the adult world and decision makers poses a great risk that an increasing number of young people are affected by anxiety and depression."A Boston University publication, The Brink, quotes a graduate student who "studied the collapse of Amazonian rain forests" and recommends a supportive approach, of time in nature and community, self care, and appreciation for small daily efforts on climate. One advocacy group manager says, "Those of us who work in the climate change world see young people mourning the losses that are coming ... These reactions are real and valid."Renee Lertzman, a social scientist who "studies the mental health and emotional components of environmental degradation ... likens the climate-related stress now plaguing teenagers and 20-somethings to the oppressive Cold War fears that gripped young baby boomers, many of whom came of age under the threat of nuclear annihilation."Previous studies on children show that they feel a sense of betrayal by the inaction of adults in the fight for climate change.A study done on climate anxiety in children and young adults collected data from 10,000 individuals from countries in Australia, Brazil, Finland, France, India, Nigeria, Philippines, Portugal, the UK, and the USA all between ages of 16-25 years old. Key objectives were first evaluating how teens and young adults categorize emotional, cognitive, and functional responses to climate change.Secondly was looking at how they appraise government action towards climate change and lastly determining whether there is a relationship between emotional response to climate change and government action. More than 60% of participants said they were "very" worried about climate change and 45% reported the climate anxiety affects their daily life functioning. Reports of climate change affecting their daily life functioning were higher in poverty stricken areas where climate change is affecting livelihood practices. 30% reported they feel that the government is taking environmental concerns seriously. Overall most countries reported greater feelings of betrayal than of reassurance from government support. Positive correlation was shown between negative emotions and functional response in relation to feeling betrayal from government agencies. Scientists Scientists who study climate change and biodiversity loss have formed support groups online and at institutions to help with dealing with ecological grief. Many scientists have seen the impact of climate change and biodiversity loss firsthand often over very short periods of time. I'd just recruited a PhD student to study fish behaviour, and between the time of recruiting him and getting out for the first field season, the Great Barrier Reef died – 80% of the corals where we work were gone, and most of the fish that lived there also moved on. I told him in the interview that his visit was going to be this most wonderful experience, and it was just a tragic graveyard of historic coral reef life. Scientists internalise their emotions, move to other fields of work, work on protecting parts of the environment they study or shift to finding ways to help the environment adapt. Some scientists see the need for new rituals to celebrate their love for the environment. Indigenous communities Indigenous communities may have grief over loss of identity because it is so closely connected to the environment and the knowledge that the environment will degrade further. Also the sadness of watching others experience environment related trauma which they have also experienced.Indigenous people residing in Artic Regions are considered to be the most vulnerable in response to ecological losses due that climate change has been most impactful on Artic regions. We are people of the sea ice. And if there's no more sea ice, how do we be people of the sea ice? Relationship with worldview People express differing intensities of concern and grief about climate change depending on their worldview, with those holding egoistic (defined as people who mostly care about oneself and their health and wellbeing), social-altruistic (defined as people who express concern for others in their community like future generations, friends, family and general public) and biospheric (defined as people who are concerned about environmental aspects like plants and animals) views differing markedly. People who belong to the biospheric group expressed the most concern about ecological grief i.e., a form of grief related to worries about the state of the world's environment, and engage in ecological coping, – which includes connection to community, expression of sorrow and grief, shifting focus to controllable aspects of climate change and being close to nature – people who belonged to the social-altruistic group engaged in ecological coping but did not express ecological stress. As a secondary impact of climate adaptation on women Grief may be directly associated with the secondary impacts of climate adaptation. These secondary impacts have been observed in women according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The IPCC AR5 WG2 TS notes that Women often experience additional duties as laborers and caregivers as a result of extreme weather events and climate change, as well as responses (e.g., male outmigration), while facing more psychological and emotional distress, reduced food intake, adverse mental health outcomes due to displacement, and in some cases increasing incidences of domestic violence. See also Eco-anxiety Effects of climate change on mental health Five Years (David Bowie song) Nuclear anxiety References External links What is Climate Grief?, a review article by Climate & Mind How Climate Change Affects your Mental Health, TED Talk by Britt Wray Climate Psychiatry Alliance

climate of antarctica

The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth. The continent is also extremely dry (it is a desert), averaging 166 mm (6.5 in) of precipitation per year. Snow rarely melts on most parts of the continent, and, after being compressed, becomes the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet. Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, because of the katabatic winds. Most of Antarctica has an ice-cap climate (Köppen classification EF) with extremely cold and dry weather. Temperature The highest temperature ever recorded on Antarctica was 19.8 °C (67.6 °F) recorded at Signy Research Station, Signy Island on 30 January 1982.The highest temperature on the Antarctic mainland was 18.3 °C (64.9 °F) at the Esperanza Base (Argentina) on 6 February 2020. The lowest air temperature record, the lowest reliably measured temperature on Antarctica was set on 21 July 1983, when a temperature of −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) was observed at Vostok Station. For comparison, this is 10.7 °C (19.3 °F) colder than subliming dry ice (at sea level pressure). The elevation of the location is 3,488 meters (11,444 feet). Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures, with −93.2 °C (−135.8 °F) having been observed at the cloud-free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010.The lowest recorded temperature of any location on Earth's surface at 81.8°S 63.5°E / -81.8; 63.5 was revised with new data in 2018 in nearly 100 locations, ranging from −93.2 °C (−135.8 °F) to −98 °C (−144.4 °F). This unnamed part of the Antarctic plateau, between Dome A and Dome F, was measured on 10 August 2010, and the temperature was deduced from radiance measured by the Landsat 8 and other satellites. It was discovered during a National Snow and Ice Data Center review of stored data in December 2013 but revised by researchers on 25 June 2018. This temperature is not directly comparable to the –89.2 °C reading quoted above, since it is a skin temperature deduced from satellite-measured upwelling radiance, rather than a thermometer-measured temperature of the air 1.5 m (5 ft) above the ground surface. The mean annual temperature of the interior is −43.5 °C (−46.3 °F). The coast is warmer; on the coast Antarctic average temperatures are around −10 °C (14.0 °F) (in the warmest parts of Antarctica) and in the elevated inland they average about −55 °C (−67.0 °F) in Vostok. Monthly means at McMurdo Station range from −26 °C (−14.8 °F) in August to −3 °C (26.6 °F) in January. At the South Pole, the highest temperature ever recorded was −12.3 °C (9.9 °F) on 25 December 2011. Along the Antarctic Peninsula, temperatures as high as 18.3 °C (64.9 °F) have been recorded, though the summer temperature is below 0 °C (32 °F) most of the time. Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean. East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation. The Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate. Higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing. Precipitation The total precipitation on Antarctica, averaged over the entire continent, is about 166 millimetres (6.5 inches) per year (Vaughan et al., J. Clim., 1999). The actual rates vary widely, from high values over the Peninsula (15 to 25 inches a year) to very low values (as little as 50 millimetres (2.0 inches) in the high interior (Bromwich, Reviews of Geophysics, 1988). Areas that receive less than 250 millimetres (9.8 inches) of precipitation per year are classified as deserts. Almost all Antarctic precipitation falls as snow. Rainfall is rare and mainly occurs during the summer in coastal areas and surrounding islands. Note that the quoted precipitation is a measure of its equivalence to water, rather than being the actual depth of snow. The air in Antarctica is also very dry. The low temperatures result in a very low absolute humidity, which means that dry skin and cracked lips are a continual problem for scientists and expeditioners working on the continent. Weather condition classification The weather in Antarctica can be highly variable, and the weather conditions can often change dramatically in short periods of time. There are various classifications for describing weather conditions in Antarctica; restrictions given to workers during the different conditions vary by station and nation. Ice cover Nearly all of Antarctica is covered by a sheet of ice that is, on average, at least 1,500 m (5,000 ft) thick. Antarctica contains 90% of the world's ice and more than 70% of its fresh water. If all the land-ice covering Antarctica were to melt — around 30×10^6 km3 (7.2×10^6 cu mi) of ice — the seas would rise by over 60 m (200 ft). The Antarctic is so cold that even with increases of a few degrees, temperatures would generally remain below the melting point of ice. Higher temperatures are expected to lead to more precipitation, which takes the form of snow. This would increase the amount of ice in Antarctica, offsetting approximately one third of the expected sea level rise from thermal expansion of the oceans. During a recent decade, East Antarctica thickened at an average rate of about 1.8 cm (11⁄16 in) per year while West Antarctica showed an overall thinning of 0.9 cm (3⁄8 in) per year. For the contribution of Antarctica to present and future sea level change, see sea level rise. Because ice flows, albeit slowly, the ice within the ice sheet is younger than the age of the sheet itself. Ice shelves About 75% of the coastline of Antarctica is ice shelf. The majority of ice shelf consists of floating ice, and a lesser amount consists of glaciers that move slowly from the land mass into the sea. Ice shelves lose mass through breakup of glacial ice (calving), or basal melting due to warm ocean water under the ice.Melting or breakup of floating shelf ice does not directly affect global sea levels; however, ice shelves have a buttressing effect on the ice flow behind them. If ice shelves break up, the ice flow behind them may accelerate, resulting in increasing melt of the Antarctic ice sheet and an increasing contribution to sea level rise. Known changes in coastline ice around the Antarctic Peninsula: 1936–1989: Wordie Ice Shelf significantly reduced in size. 1995: Ice in the Prince Gustav Channel disintegrated. Parts of the Larsen Ice Shelf broke up in recent decades. 1995: The Larsen A ice shelf disintegrated in January 1995. 2001: 3,250 km2 (1,250 sq mi) of the Larsen B ice shelf disintegrated in February 2001. It had been gradually retreating before the breakup event. 2015: A study concluded that the remaining Larsen B ice-shelf will disintegrate by the end of the decade, based on observations of faster flow and rapid thinning of glaciers in the area.The George VI Ice Shelf, which may be on the brink of instability, has probably existed for approximately 8,000 years, after melting 1,500 years earlier. Warm ocean currents may have been the cause of the melting. Not only are the ice sheets losing mass, they are losing mass at an accelerating rate. Climate change See also Antarctic oscillation Antarctica cooling controversy Climate of the Arctic Effects of global warming Polar amplification Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Southern Ocean References Notes Sources D. G. Vaughan; G. J. Marshall; W. M. Connolley; J. C. King; R. M. Mulvaney (2001). "Devil in the detail". Science. 293 (5536): 1777–9. doi:10.1126/science.1065116. PMID 11546858. S2CID 129175116. M.J. Bentley; D.A. Hodgson; D.E. Sugden; S.J. Roberts; J.A. Smith; M.J. Leng; C. Bryant (2005). "Early Holocene retreat of the George VI Ice Shelf, Antarctic Peninsula". Geology. 33 (3): 173–6. Bibcode:2005Geo....33..173B. doi:10.1130/G21203.1. Further reading Warm Snap Turned Antarctica Green Around the Edges; Thawed-out continent was lined with trees 15 million years ago, study says. 20 June 2012 National Geographic Taking Antarctica's temperature; Frozen continent may not be immune to global warming 27 July 2013; Vol.184 #2 Science News External links Climate Temperature data from the READER project A pamphlet about the weather and climate of Antarctica Antarctica's central ice cap grows while glaciers melt "AWS and AMRC Real-Time Weather Observations and Data". University of Wisconsin–Madison's Antarctic Weather Stations Project and Antarctic Meteorological Research Center. Retrieved 31 May 2005. Antarctica Climate and Weather Climate change in Antarctica Western Antarctica warming confirmed 23 December 2012 USA Today NASA experts explain ice melt in Antarctica (2014) Antarctic ice "Sea Ice Index – Trends in extent – Southern Hemisphere (Antarctic)". National Snow and Ice Data Center. Retrieved 9 January 2009. "Coastal-Change and Glaciological Maps of Antarctica". USGS Fact Sheet 2005–3055. Retrieved 31 May 2005. "Coastal-Change and Glaciological Maps of Antarctica". USGS Fact Sheet 050–98. Retrieved 28 February 2005. "Coastal-change and glaciological map of the Eights Coast area, Antarctica; 1972–2001". U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Series Map, I-2600-E. Retrieved 28 February 2005. "Coastal-change and glaciological map of the Bakutis Coast area, Antarctica; 1972–2002". U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Series Map, I-2600-F. Retrieved 28 February 2005. "Coastal-change and glaciological map of the Saunders Coast area, Antarctica; 1972–1997". U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Series Map, I-2600-G. Retrieved 28 February 2005. "Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World – Antarctica". U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1386-B. Retrieved 28 February 2005.

list of abbreviations relating to climate change

This is a list of abbreviations relating to climate change causation, adaptation and mitigation. A ADP - Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action AGN - African Group of Negotiators APA - Ad Hoc Working Group on the Paris Agreement APP - Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate AR4 - Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC (2007) AR5 - Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC (2014) AR5 SYR - Synthesis Report of AR5 AR6 - Sixth Assessment Report of the IPCC (published on 9 August 2021) AWG-KP - Ad Hoc Working Group on further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol AWG-LCA - Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action AYCC - Australian Youth Climate Coalition B BAP - Bali Action Plan C C&C - Contraction & Convergence, a global CO2 emissions management model promoted by the Global Commons Institute CAIT - The World Resources Institute's Climate Data Explorer archive CAPP - Climate Action Pacific Partnership CAPP II - Climate Action Pacific Partnership (CAPP) Conference II – 2018 CAPP III - Third meeting of the Climate Action Pacific Partnership Conference (29-30 April 2019) CCA - Climate Change Agreement (UK) CCAFS - Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Research Program CCAF - Climate Change Action Fund (Australia) CCC - Committee on Climate Change (UK) CCCEP - Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy CCCR - Canada's Changing Climate Report CCCS - Centre for Climate Change Studies, University of Dar es Salaam CCF - The Scottish Government's Climate Challenge Fund CCIA - Climate Change in Australia CC:iNet - Climate Change Information Network CCL - Climate Change Levy (UK) CCl2F2 - Dichlorodifluoromethane (greenhouse gas) CCLS - Cambridge Climate Lecture Series CCRA - Climate Change Risk Assessment CCS - Carbon Capture and Storage CCUS - Carbon capture, utilization, and sequestration CDM - Clean Development Mechanism CDP - Organisation formerly known as the Carbon Disclosure Project CDR - Carbon dioxide removal CER - Certified Emission Reduction CFC - Chlorofluorocarbon CFRF - Climate Financial Risk Forum (UK) CF4 - Carbon tetrafluoride or tetrafluoromethane (greenhouse gas) CGE - Consultative Group of Experts CHClF2 - Chlorodifluoromethane (greenhouse gas) CH4 - Methane CINC - Interdepartmental Committee of Climate Negotiators CLP - The Carbon Literacy Project (CLP) CMA - Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement CMA1 - First meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (7-18 November 2016) CMA1.2 - The second part of the first session of the Conference of the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (6-17 November 2017) CMA1.3 - The third part of the first session of the Conference of the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (2-14 December 2018) CMA2 - Second meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (2–13 December 2019) CMA3 - Third meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (postponed to 1–12 December 2021) CMIP - Coupled Model Intercomparison Project CMIP5 - Coupled Model Intercomparison Project, Phase 5 CMP - Conference of the Parties Serving as the Meeting of Parties to the Kyoto Protocol CMP9 - 9th meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (11-23 November 2013) CMP10 - 10th meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (1-12 December 2014) CMP11 - 11th meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (30 November-12 December 2015) CMP12 - 12th meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (7-18 November 2016) CMP13 - 13th meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (6-17 November 2017) CMP14 - 14th meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (2-15 December 2018) CMP15 - 15th meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (2–13 December 2019) CMP16 - 16th meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (postponed to 1–12 December 2021) CNZ - Carbon Net Zero CO2 - Carbon dioxide CO2-e - Carbon dioxide equivalent, also CO2-eq CoM - Covenant of Mayors for Climate and Energy (Europe) COP - Conference of the Parties [to the UNFCCC] COP1 - First UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (28 March to 7 April 1995) COP2 - Second UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (8-18 July 1996) COP3 - Third UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (1-10 December 1997) COP4 - Fourth UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (2-14 November 1998) COP5 - Fifth UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (25 October to 5 November 1999) COP6 - Sixth UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (13–25 November 2000) COP6-bis - Resumed Session of COP6 (16-27 July 2001) COP7 - Seventh UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (29 October - 10 November 2001) COP8 - Eighth UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (23 October - 1 November 2002) COP9 - Ninth UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (1-12 December 2003) COP10 - Tenth UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (6-14 December 2004) COP11 - Eleventh UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (28 November - 9 December 2005) COP12 - Twelfth UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (6-17 November 2006) COP13 - 13th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (3-15 December 2007) COP14 - 14th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (1-12 December 2008) COP15 - 15th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (7-18 December 2009) COP16 - 16th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (29 November - 10 December 2010) COP17 - 17th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (28 November - 11 December 2011) COP18 - 18th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (26 November - 6 December 2012) COP19 - 19th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (11-23 November 2013) COP20 - 20th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (1-12 December 2014) COP21 - 21st UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (30 November-12 December 2015) COP22 - 22nd UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (7-18 November 2016) COP23 - 23rd UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (6-17 November 2017) COP24 - 24th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (2-15 December 2018) COP25 - 25th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (2-13 December 2019) COP26 - 26th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (1-12 November 2021) COP27 - 27th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (6-18 November 2022) COP28 - 28th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, scheduled for November 2023 in the United Arab Emirates COP29 - 29th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, 2024, proposed venue is Australia COP30 - anticipated 2025 UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, to take place in Belém, Brazil. CORSIA - Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation CPA - Carbon Pricing Act (Singapore) CPRS - Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (Australia) CRC - CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme, formerly Carbon Reduction Commitment (UK) CREWS - Climate Risk and Early Warning Systems CRU - Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia CRU TS - Climatic Research Unit Time Series datasets CSA - Climate-Smart Agriculture CVF - Climate Vulnerable Forum D DECC - Department of Energy and Climate Change (UK), now Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy E ECI - Environmental Change Institute at the University of Oxford EPR - Extended Producer Responsibility ETC - Energy Transition Council ETS - Emissions Trading System ETSWAP - Emissions Trading Scheme Workflow Automation Project operated by the UK's Environment Agency F FAR - First Assessment Report of the IPCC (1990) F-gas - Fluorinated gas FICER - Fund for Innovative Climate and Energy Research FOLU - Forestry and other land use FFF - Fridays for Future G GCF - Green Climate Fund GCoM - Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate and Energy GHG - Greenhouse gas GtC - Gigatonnes of carbon GWP - Global warming potential H HadCM3 - Hadley Centre Coupled Model, version 3 HadGEM - Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model HadGEM1 - HCFC - Hydrochlorofluorocarbon HFC - Hydrofluorocarbon I ICLEI - International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives IKI - International Climate Initiative (German: Internationalen Klimaschutzinitiative), a German Federal Government initiative IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC-50 - the IPCC's 50th session (2019) IPCC-NGGIP - IPCC National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme ISO 1406x Series - ISO standards for climate change mitigation ISO 14090:2019 - ISO standard for adaptation to climate change — Principles, requirements and guidelines ISO/DIS 14091 - Adaptation to climate change — Guidelines on vulnerability, impacts and risk assessment ISO/TS 14092 - Adaptation to climate change — Requirements and guidance on adaptation planning for local governments and communities J JI - Joint Implementation K KLD - Ministry of Climate and Environment (Klima- og miljødepartementet), Norway L LCDI - Low Carbon Development Indonesia LDCF - Least Developed Countries Fund LECBP - Low Emission Capacity Building Programme LEDS - Low-Emission Development Strategies LSCE - Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement, Gif-sur-Yvette, France LULUCF - Land use, land-use change, and forestry M MCC - Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change, Berlin MPGCA - Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action MoCC - Ministry of Climate Change (Pakistan) MoEFCC - Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (India) MOP1 - 1st Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (28 November - 9 December 2005) MOP2 - 2nd Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (6-17 November 2006) MOP3 - 3rd Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (3-15 December 2007) MOP4 - 4th Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (1-12 December 2008) MOP5 - 5th Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (7-18 December 2009) MRF - Materials Recovery Facility MWE/CCD - Climate Change Department of the Ministry of Water and Environment (Uganda) N NAMA - Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions NAPA - National Adaptation Programme of Action NAZCA - Non-state Actor Zone for Climate Action NC - National Communication (under the Paris Agreement) NDC - Nationally Determined Contributions NECIA - Northeast Climate Impacts Assessment (USA) N2O - Nitrous Oxide NRSP - National Reports Submission Portal O O3 - Ozone P PATPA - Partnership on Transparency in the Paris Agreement P-CAN - Place-based Climate Action Networks, a UK-based partnership between university researchers and the public, private and third sectors in tackling climate change, aiming to accelerate and sustain the transition to a low-carbon, climate-resilient society through the creation of local climate commissions. PCD - Petersberg Climate Dialogue PCD X - Petersberg Climate Dialogue 10 (13-14 May 2019) PCD XI - Petersberg Climate Dialogue (27-28 April 2020) PFC - Perfluorocarbon PIK - Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (German: Potsdam-Institut für Klimafolgenforschung) S SAR - Second Assessment Report of the IPCC (1995) SB 52 - Fifty-second session of the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA 52) and the fifty-second session of the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI 52) (postponed to 2021) SB 56 - the Bonn Climate Change Conference, 56th session of the subsidiary bodies, held on 6 to 16 June 2022 SBI - Subsidiary Body for Implementation SBI 46 - Forth-sixth session of the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (8-18 May 2017) SBI 47 - Forty-seventh session of the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (6-15 November 2017) SBI 52 - Fifty-second session of the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (postponed to 2021) SBSTA - Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice SBTi - Science Based Targets initiative SCCF - Special Climate Change Fund SDA - Sectoral Decarbonization Approach SDGs - Sustainable Development Goals SECR - Streamlined Energy and Carbon Reporting framework (UK) SF6 - Sulfur hexafluoride SRCCL - Special Report on Climate Change and Land of the IPCC SRES - Special Report on Emissions Scenarios of the IPCC SR15 - IPCC's Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C SSP - Shared Socioeconomic Pathway T TACC - Territorial Approach to Climate Change TAR - Third Assessment Report of the IPCC (2001) TCCC - Tarawa Climate Change Conference TCFD - Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures tCO2 - Tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent TD - Talanoa Dialogue TFI - Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories U UKCIP - Multi-disciplinary team formerly known as the UK Climate Impacts Programme, based at the Environmental Change Institute at the University of Oxford UKCP - UK Climate ProjectionsUKCP09 - UK Climate Projections 2009 UKCP18 - UK Climate Projections 2018 UKHACC - UK Health Alliance on Climate Change UN CC:Learn - One UN Climate Change Learning Partnership UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change USCAP - U.S. Climate Action Partnership W WCI - Western Climate Initiative WCRP - World Climate Research Programme WGI - Working Group I of the IPCC, which assesses the physical science of climate change WGII - Working Group II of the IPCC, which assesses the vulnerability of socio-economic and natural systems to climate change WGIII - Working Group III of the IPCC, which "focuses on climate change mitigation, assessing methods for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and removing greenhouse gases from the atmosphere". WIM - Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts WMO - World Meteorological Organization WRI - World Resources Institute Numerical 4CMR - Former Cambridge Centre for Climate Change Mitigation Research Notes == References ==

climate change in puerto rico

Climate change has had large impacts on the ecosystems and landscapes of the US territory Puerto Rico. According to a 2019 report by Germanwatch, Puerto Rico is the most affected by climate change. The territory's energy consumption is mainly derived from imported fossil fuels.The Puerto Rico Climate Change Council (PRCCC) noted severe changes in seven categories: air temperature, precipitation, extreme weather events, tropical storms and hurricanes, ocean acidification, sea surface temperatures, and sea level rise.Climate change also affects Puerto Rico's population, the economy, human health, and the number of people forced to migrate. Surveys have shown climate change is a matter of concern for most Puerto Ricans. The territory has enacted laws and policies concerning climate change mitigation and adaptation, including the use of renewable energy. Local initiatives are working toward mitigation and adaptation goals, and international aid programs support reconstruction after extreme weather events and encourage disaster planning. Greenhouse gas emissions Puerto Rico is the 19th-biggest emitter of carbon dioxide among the 33 Latin American and Caribbean countries; its industrial emissions, energy supplies, and transportation are among the main sources of the island's net greenhouse gas emissions. The territory's gross carbon dioxide emissions rose to 80% between 1990 and 2005. Since 2005, emissions decreased by 42% until 2018, due to Puerto Ricans migrating to the United States. Between 2010 and 2020, the population declined 12% from 3.8 to 3.3 million inhabitants as a result of the country's vulnerability to natural disasters and its economic insecurities. Energy consumption and fossil fuels Puerto Rico's energy consumption is nearly 70 times higher than its energy production. Petroleum products supply 58% of the territory's energy consumption; about 28% comes from natural gas, 12% from coal, and 2% from renewable energy sources.Puerto Rico aspires to increase its use of renewable energy. One policy, The Act No. 82-2010 "Public Policy on Energy Diversification by Means of Sustainable and Alternative Renewable Energy in Puerto Rico Act", helps to achieve this goal, along with local initiatives including Casa Pueblo.Puerto Rico has no reserves of fossil fuels; the territory's energy consumption comes mostly from imported fossil fuels. Impacts on the environment The El Niño–Southern Oscillation and other periodic events, such as Volcanic eruptions, cause natural climate variability. These natural factors are summarized as "internal climate variability" and are always present in the climate system. The climate system is also affected by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and changes in atmospheric concentrations (e.g. carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane) and land surface changes. Climate change signals can be observed as changes in the magnitude of variability and systematic trends over time. Variability is a natural feature of the climate system and its understanding is fundamental for identifying signals of anthropogenic climate change. Changes in climate parameters Puerto Rico has a yearly tropical climate with moderately high temperatures and high humidity. According to a 2019 report by Germanwatch, Puerto Rico has been the territory most-affected by climate change, with a climate risk index score of 6.67. The Puerto Rico Climate Change Council (PRCCC) has identified changes in seven climate parameters: air temperature, precipitation, extreme weather events, tropical storms and hurricanes, ocean acidification, sea-surface temperatures, and sea level rise. Air temperature The mean annual temperature in Puerto Rico has increased from about 23 °C (73 °F) in 1921 to 25 °C (77 °F) in 2021. The central regions of Puerto Rico, which are at higher elevations, are warmer than any other regions of the island. Urban areas such as San Juan have become urban heat islands (UHIs), meaning they are warming more quickly than rural or vegetated regions. Studies in San Juan have shown the UHI effect is permanent due to urban expansion and it leads to a temperature increase of over 4 °C (39 °F) compared to surrounding rural areas. This trend of greater urban warming is expected to continue with San Juan reaching an average temperature of 27 °C (81 °F) by 2050, an increase of 1.5 °C (34.7 °F). Extreme weather events The number of days with high temperatures is increasing while the number of days with very low temperatures is decreasing. During the early 20th century, there were approximately 100 days per decade that reached temperatures of over 32.2 °C (90.0 °F). In 2010, the same number of days above that temperature was reached within a year. Rainfall Puerto Rico receives large amounts of rainfall, especially in the north and central regions, which receive 3–4 m of rainfall every year. Within the territory, rainfall varies between regions due to topography and geography in relation to trade winds and oceanic circulation. Climate change is predicted to exacerbate these regional differences. For example, in some areas such as Old San Juan, there is a long-term trend towards a decrease in precipitation. This decline is expected to continue in future projections. The southern regions of Puerto Rico, which have been drier in the past, show a positive trend in precipitation. The seasonal distribution of precipitation is also expected to become more pronounced, with wetter winters and drier summers. Future projections indicate a further decrease in precipitation.Heavy rainfall has increased by 20% on average in North America, the largest increase being in the wettest regions. Puerto Rico has seen a 37% increase in heavy precipitation. There is only limited data available for future projections, which leads to conflicting forecasts for extreme precipitation in the territory. General projections for the Caribbean region suggest a higher incidence of extreme precipitation events despite a decrease in total rainfall. Rainfall will be less frequent but more intense. Water resources Potential impacts on water resources in rain-fed areas of the Caribbean include higher precipitation extremes, greater seasonal variability in water runoff, a higher likelihood of prolonged dry spells, and an increased risk of droughts and floods. In this context, prolonged dry periods and increased evaporation can lead to a decline in lake levels. This is a problem because they are an essential source of freshwater. Groundwater use is expected to increase with demand for water, especially in dry months when surface sources decline. Prolonged dry periods could also lead to reduced soil moisture, resulting in an increased need for irrigation in agriculture. Sea surface temperature Since 1920, the surface temperatures of the Caribbean Sea have warmed by 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). The warming of the sea surface on Caribbean coasts of Puerto Rico is faster than that on Atlantic coasts. In addition, temperatures below the water surface are rising more quickly than surface temperatures. In 2018, researchers estimated there will be an increase of more than 1 °C (1.8 °F) within 50 years. This would mean temperatures would exceed the threshold for coral bleaching for about one-third of the year and the threshold for the formation of deep convection storms will be exceeded throughout the year. Sea level rise The rate of sea level rise (SLR) in Puerto Rico has been measured at 1.7 mm a year based on historical records from tidal gauges since 1900, which is consistent with global trends. However, recent satellite data from 1992 onwards shows that this rate has almost doubled to 3.2 mm a year. Projections for the future SLR in Puerto Rico are similar to global estimates, with the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) recommending updated bounds of 0.3 m to 2.5 m for end-of-century projections. The Caribbean region, including Puerto Rico, is particularly vulnerable to coastal flooding due to SLR. Ocean acidification As more carbon dioxide (CO₂) is released into the atmosphere, oceans absorbs more CO₂, leading to a decrease in pH and carbonate saturation of the ocean. This process, which is known as ocean acidification, negatively impacts marine life and geological processes by reducing calcification rates and mineral precipitation. Puerto Rico experiences similar trends to the rest of the world, with decreasing average pH and carbonate saturation state. As of 2023, the rate of decline for aragonite saturation states in Puerto Rico is 3% per decade and is expected to continue with ongoing emissions. Tropical storms and hurricanes In Puerto Rico, hurricanes Irma and Maria in 2017 are an example of predicted climate change impacts on tropical cyclones that had devastating effects in the Caribbean, including damage to the coral reefs that dissipate wave energy on Puerto Rico's coasts. The lack of protection from the reefs leads to an increased risk of damage by winter swells, resulting in coastal erosion and sediment displacement. The southern part of the island is particularly vulnerable to Atlantic hurricanes. In the future, rising sea-surface temperatures are likely to lead to more intense rainfall, winds, and storm surges. Ecosystems Despite the relatively small size of territory there are several ecosystems in Puerto Rico; coastal and marine ecosystems, dry forests and rainforests, the Puerto Rican karst, and mountainous areas. Climate change is expected to have synergistic effects on ecosystems and species in Puerto Rico, meaning systems that are already under stress will be exposed to additional stressors, exceeding their adaptive capacity. This may result in loss of habitat, adverse changes in structure and function, and reduced benefits to society. While certain ecosystems and species may be able to adapt to the changing environment, others may have difficulty coping with new conditions. Dry forests and rainforest As of 2023, about 40% of Puerto Rico's land area is covered by forests, mainly young mixed forests, that provide important habitat for numerous plant and animal species. They are also an important source of water for municipalities, agriculture, and industry, which is vital for nearly four million people. Forests also provide recreational areas. Using the changes in Puerto Rico's forests, models for understanding similar changes in other tropical islands as a result of human expansion can be derived. With the introduction of economically important crops and deforestation for pasture and charcoal production, Puerto Rico's forests have dramatically changed over the past two centuries. Economic development and increasing urbanization are the main factors in the disappearance of forests and old agricultural lands. The diversity of Puerto Rican forests in terms of location and type is so great the number of forest types has yet to be fully documented.Climate change is having a strong effect on forests through higher air temperatures, changes in precipitation, more intense wind and water events, and sea-level rise. All of these factors are altering species composition and forest structure due to changes in habitat. Karst landscapes The Puerto Rican karst topography is formed by the dissolution of soluble rocks beneath the surface or with the help of groundwater. Karst topography is often linked with carbonate rocks, including limestone and dolomite. In Puerto Rico, limestone terrain covers around 244,000 ha (600,000 acres) or 28% of the island's area, with 219,000 ha (540,000 acres) in the north, 21,000 ha (52,000 acres) in the south, and 4,600 ha (11,000 acres) scattered throughout the remaining parts of the island. Karst landscapes are very vulnerable to climate change and human pressures such as tourism and agriculture. Human-environment interactions can have a critical effect on the components of karst landscapes such as caves and their biodiversity. Puerto Rico's karst areas have been regarded as one of the world's most-endangered karst areas. It is the least-fragmented habitat in Puerto Rico. In the early 21st century, there are efforts to promote ecotourism in the region to combine the economic benefits of tourism with environmental protection. Wetlands Puerto Rico has a variety of freshwater and marine wetland ecosystems, including coastal seagrass and mangrove ecosystems, freshwater wetlands, and high-elevation cloud forests. These wetlands are highly productive and have a variety of rare plant and animal species. For downstream settlements and communities, they play an important role in water supply. Water runoff from the mountains to the coast contributes to the formation of vital ecosystems in rivers, coastal waters, and estuaries that serve as breeding and nursery habitats for fish, crustaceans, and other organisms.In Puerto Rico and in the wider Caribbean, palustrine and estuarine ecosystems are very vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to the relationship between hydrology, and wetland structure and function. Most wetlands in Puerto Rico are located along the coast, with palustrine wetlands largely adjacent to estuaries or nearshore ecosystems, leading to interactions between the systems.During Puerto Rico's agricultural expansion, wetland ecosystems were severely impacted and destroyed by dredging, filling, draining, eutrophication, and the use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture. The size of the original area of freshwater wetlands in Puerto Rico during the lifetime of Christopher Columbus is unknown. Shorelines The two main types of coasts in Puerto Rico are beaches (30%) and vegetated coasts, which are mainly covered by mangroves (28%), although other plants occur in dune areas. Rocky coasts are composed of different types of rocks and represent 10% of the island's coasts. The transition from agriculture to industry during the 20th century, including the construction of port facilities and breakwaters, greatly altered the coastline. Urbanization also contributes to the hardening of the coastline, affecting sediment transportation and erosion. The spread of paved shorelines poses a significant threat by reducing natural coastal protection and promoting erosion. These effects are likely to be exacerbated by climate change, for example, with the increasing intensity and frequency of storms and sea-level rise. Marine systems Puerto Rico's marine ecosystems consist of coral and seagrass habitats, bays, and small islands that support a range of valuable resources including fisheries and marine mammals. Bioluminescent systems Climate change is stressing bioluminescent algae, particularly through heavy precipitation, storms, and hurricanes. These factors can lead to an increase in land runoff, which can increase levels of sediment and nutrients in the water. Water quality can change due to changes in sedimentation, productivity, and the frequency and magnitude of salinity changes. In addition, warmer temperatures due to climate change affect phytoplankton. Seagrass habitats One effect of climate change is on seagrass cover, which has been researched at Caja de Muertos Island, where there is dense seagrass cover. More intense and frequent storms due to climate change are predicted to damage this habitat; seagrass cover declined after Hurricane Maria in 2017. The seagrass beds have the ability to recover from these storms and some climate change effects such as increased nutrient supply after rainfall events, and higher CO₂ concentrations can benefit the habitat. The more-frequent and more-intense storms are predicted to outweigh these positive effects and lead to long-term damage to seagrass cover. Coral habitats Climate change causes stress on coral habitats through factors such as rising sea temperatures, sudden reductions of salinity, increased chemical toxins, and solar irradiance. A common phenomenon is coral bleaching, which occurs because a change in the habitat's conditions unbalances the symbiosis between corals and populations of photosynthetic dinoflagellate (zooxanthellae). Through stressors caused by climate change, the zooxanthellae lose their photosynthetic pigments or are expelled from the coral tissues. As a result, the corals are deprived of their energy source, which leads to starvation and death.The Puerto Rico Coral Reef Monitoring Program (PRCRMP) is monitoring 42 coral-reef stations around the territory to document the status of the habitats. Mass coral bleaching events were reported after temperature extremes of El Niño events in 1987, 1998, and 2005. These mass bleaching events cause significant declines in biodiversity and the abundance of coral reef fish. Impacts on people Economic impacts Agricultural impacts Climate change poses significant threats to agriculture in Puerto Rico. Droughts, floods, and saltwater intrusion affect agricultural land. Coastal agricultural lands are particularly vulnerable to sea level rise, which can exacerbate water access issues and affect prime agricultural land. New pests and invasive species can also affect livestock, wildlife, and plants. Many farmers in Puerto Rico lack the necessary capacity, expertise, information, and equipment to adapt to climate change.Rising temperatures may have a detrimental effect on agricultural productivity in Puerto Rico, particularly livestock farming because high temperatures can harm cows, causing them to eat less, grow more slowly, and produce less milk. Additionally, reduced water availability during the dry season may stress crops while higher temperatures could lead to reduced yields of certain crops, including plantain, banana, and coffee.Additionally, farinaceous crops, including cassava and yams, have been affected by droughts, leading to reduced yields and quality. Fruits such as mangoes and avocados have been affected by changes in rainfall patterns, which can affect their flowering and fruiting. Farmers have also had to deal with increased costs associated with importing feed to compensate for the reduced availability of hay due to droughts. Coffee production impacts A recent study used a modeling approach to assess the effects of climate change on coffee production in Puerto Rico. The study found under future climate scenarios, the area suitable for coffee production in the territory is expected to significantly decrease, which could result in lower yields and poorer quality coffee. By 2050, the area suitable for coffee production could halve and by 2100 it could be completely gone.According to the study, warming and drying trends are projected to accelerate after 2040; this may lead to the loss of up to 84% of highly suitable growing conditions in top-producing municipalities by 2070. Under one scenario, Puerto Rico may retain only 24 km2 of highly suitable conditions by 2071–2099. Such projected loss of suitable growing conditions could have negative economic effects on the coffee industry, which has long been culturally and economically significant. Although value-added markets present opportunities to revive the industry, regional climate change trends may threaten the production of high-quality coffee. Tourism industry impacts Climate change in Puerto Rico hinders the territory's gross national income (GMI) growth and threatens the tourism industry, which is an important economic driver. The island's natural features, such as coral reefs, beaches, mangroves, and rainforests are particularly vulnerable to climate change. Visitors to these ecosystems spend more than $1.9 billion annually in Puerto Rico. Climate-related risks such as water scarcity, coastal erosion, loss of marine biodiversity, warmer summers, extreme weather events, and an increase in disease outbreaks can substantially affect tourism and the wider economy. Health impacts Since 1950, the frequency of nights where temperatures reach 28 °C (82 °F) or above in Puerto Rico has increased by about 50 percent, and the overnight low in San Juan is above 28 °C (82 °F) about 10 percent of the time. Puerto Rico's climate is suitable for mosquito species that carry diseases like malaria, yellow fever, and dengue fever, which are likely to increase with higher air temperatures that accelerate the mosquito life-cycle and virus replication. Impact on diseases Puerto Rico's warm marine environment supports the occurrence of some water-related illnesses, such as vibriosis and ciguatera poisoning, which can increase with higher ocean temperatures that promote the growth of these bacteria and algae. Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns can also increase the risk of infectious and vector-borne diseases like dengue fever, chikungunya, and Zika virus, which are transmitted by mosquitoes that are sensitive to environmental changes. Impact on public health infrastructure Extreme weather events like hurricanes and floods can have direct effects on human health, causing injuries, displacement, and stress; damaging healthcare infrastructure; and disrupting access to healthcare services, which can worsen existing health disparities. The resilience of healthcare facilities can be increased by installing backup generators, improving building codes, developing emergency response plans, and reducing carbon footprints by implementing energy-efficient practices and using renewable energy sources. Impact on respiratory illnesses Climate change can indirectly affect human health by worsening air and water quality. For example, increases in temperature can worsen air pollution and respiratory illnesses while changes in rainfall patterns can contaminate water sources. Promoting alternative transportation methods such as bicycling and walking can help reduce emissions from vehicles and improve air quality, reducing the risk of respiratory illnesses. Housing impacts Tropical storms and hurricanes have become more intense in Puerto Rico since 2003. Although scientists are not certain this intensification reflects a long-term trend, hurricane wind speeds and rainfall rates are expected to increase as the climate continues to warm. This poses a significant threat to Puerto Rico's housing infrastructure, as cities, roads, and ports that are vulnerable to damage from wind and water. Higher wind speeds can make insurance for wind damage more expensive or difficult to obtain, and coastal homes and infrastructure are likely to flood more often as sea levels rise. Inland flooding is likely to increase as heavy rainstorms become more frequent and intense, resulting in significant property damage and displacement of affected communities. Migration impacts The effects of climate change in Puerto Rico are expected to have significant implications for migration. As extreme weather events become more frequent and intense, they are likely to displace populations and create new waves of climate refugees. Coastal communities are at particular risk of displacement due to sea-level rise and increased storm surges. The impact of climate change on agriculture and food security could also lead to displacement as people are forced to migrate to find better opportunities. Society and culture Puerto Rico has a long and culturally rich history, spanning more than 5,000 years. Climate change is considered a major threat that severely affects the physical evidence of this history. This is due to rising air temperatures, which are associated with an increased rate of degradation of artefacts and decay of organic material. Another reason is the change in precipitation trends, which may make some regions drier or wetter and thus change the conditions for the materials by, for example, making them more prone to fire.In order to preserve Puerto Rico's cultural heritage, its vulnerability must be assessed so that management plans can be created that include strategies to increase resilience and adaptability. Early identification of sites at risk is crucial for the creation of historical records and collections. A useful tool for the protection of cultural heritage sites is community participation, that is the use of citizen science to monitor areas and provide feedback on their significance. Mitigation and adaptation As a developing territory, Puerto Rico has a relatively small carbon footprint, leading to a small global impact on mitigation efforts such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions or increasing carbon sequestration.Puerto Rico recognizes the shared responsibility to reduce emissions and develops mitigation plans and regulations on national and multinational levels. The publication of the first Puerto Rico State of the Climate report in 2013 spurred engagement in climate-change adaptation and mitigation strategies on environmental, social, and economic issues. Mitigation and adaptation approaches The NGO Vida Marina in Puerto Rico found dune restoration can be supported by using biomimicry. Dune formation is accelerated by putting small pieces of wood into the sand; these imitate the sand-collecting property of coastal vegetation. Coral-population-enhancement techniques and restocking measures, are being applied to stabilize populations that have been disturbed by storms. The plantation of elkhorn corals can buffer wave energy and help to build up ramparts that play an important role in mitigating sea-level rise threatening Puerto Rico because they have a stabilizing function for cays. Sea-level changes and coastal erosion, and the presence of invasive species especially in the southern karst might be limited by expanding protected areas such as Guánica Commonwealth Forest. The expansion of existing marine protected areas, creation of new ones, and the creation of education programs improving the management of human activities are expected to diminish coral diseases, and favor other marine species and habitats. Coral survival could also be supported by fostering species with high genetic variability. These efforts could be augmented by restricting land-based sources of pollution. Vulnerability assessments that account for climate-change-induced habitat changes can help to determine areas that would be suitable for the relocation of especially vulnerable species. The improvement of water quality by decreasing the content of nutrients through improvement of drain traps for storm water or the installation of control systems for erosion can significantly contribute to the protection of coastal and marine habitats. Policies and legislation Article VI, § 19 of the Constitution of Puerto Rico includes the duty of public policy to use and manage natural resources as effectively as possible and thus contribute to Puerto Rican welfare. The validity of this mandate persists across any law or regulation. It has not been specifically interpreted with respect to climate change but initiatives and policies aimed at sustainable development, including the mitigation of climate change and adaptation to its consequences, are thriving. Act No. 82-2010, as amended “Public Policy on Energy Diversification by Means of Sustainable and Alternative Renewable Energy in Puerto Rico Act” This law demands the Executive Branch set the frame for future generations to benefit from a healthy environment, economic development, and stable energy prices considering the current energy policy is heavily reliant on fossil fuels and imports. In this context, the law also sets up Renewable Portfolio Standards and mandatory goals for the generation of renewable energy with short-to-long-term targets. Act No. 17-2019, “Puerto Rico Energy Public Policy Act” This act is an amendment to the above Act No. 82-2010 that extends the Renewable Portfolio Standards by setting the goal of generating energy from entirely renewable sources by 2050 (Objective No. 7) and phasing out coal by 2028 (Objective No. 3). Act No. 33-2019, “Mitigation, Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change of Puerto Rico Act” This act puts in place the first public policy of Puerto Rico for climate change. This includes starting greenhouse gas accounting and requests the acceptance of a Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation and Resilience Plan organized by sectors, and defines reduction targets. A Committee of Experts and Advisers on Climate Change, and a Joint Commission on Mitigation, Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change of the Legislative Assembly were set up and the presentation of first results of the above mandates was scheduled for April 2021. Local initiatives Casa Pueblo Casa Pueblo is a community-based voluntary organization that promotes protection of the environment. The organization advocates investment in wind energy, solar energy, and other renewable energy and restructuring energy markets to favor innovation, job creation, and efficient energy use. Caribbean Climate Hub (CCH) The CCH, which is located in Puerto Rico, is part of a network of ten regional hubs working with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to provide agricultural workers with scientific knowledge and technical support to react to climate-changed induced events such as droughts and floods in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The CCH facilitates collaboration with local and regional agencies, universities, and the public to advance climate-change adaptation. Luquillo Long-Term Ecological Research program (LUQ) The LUQ unites research groups that aim to increase understanding of climate change in a tropical environment and the ability to protect it. Data collected by LUQ is made public, and the organization works with other scientists, students, and volunteers. The group's findings are communicated using print publications or workshops, and also reach policy makers. The initiative is mainly funded by the National Science Foundation, the University of Puerto Rico’s Department of Environmental Sciences, and the USDA Forest Service’s International Institute of Tropical Forestry. International support As a result of the damage and suffering in Puerto Rico caused by natural disasters like[Hurricane Irma, Hurricane Maria, and earthquakes, federal aid programs have been set up to support the Government of Puerto Rico with recovery and reconstruction. The FEMA Public Assistance program has been granted by the President of the United States and provides funding for states, territories, and tribes, and is mainly directed toward the reconstruction of damaged infrastructure.The Hazard Mitigation Grant Program aims to support disaster planning and prevent future disasters from harming people and property. The program suggests long-term and cost-efficient mitigation plans, and tries to ensures the time of reconstruction after a disaster is simultaneously used to implement respective mitigation measures to reduce the degree of repetitive damage caused by future extreme events. Footnotes == References ==

climate change and agriculture in the united states

Climate change and agriculture are complexly related processes. In the United States, agriculture is the second largest emitter of greenhouse gases (GHG), behind the energy sector. Direct GHG emissions from the agricultural sector account for 8.4% of total U.S. emissions, but the loss of soil organic carbon through soil erosion indirectly contributes to emissions as well. While agriculture plays a role in propelling climate change, it is also affected by the direct (increase in temperature, change in rainfall, flooding, drought) and secondary (weed, pest, disease pressure, infrastructure damage) consequences of climate change. USDA research indicates that these climatic changes will lead to a decline in yield and nutrient density in key crops, as well as decreased livestock productivity. Climate change poses unprecedented challenges to U.S. agriculture due to the sensitivity of agricultural productivity and costs to changing climate conditions. Rural communities dependent on agriculture are particularly vulnerable to climate change threats.The US Global Change Research Program (2017) identified four key areas of concern in the agriculture sector: reduced productivity, degradation of resources, health challenges for people and livestock, and the adaptive capacity of agriculture communities.Large-scale adaptation and mitigation of these threats relies on changes in farming policy. Livestock and crop production systems Projections for crops and livestock production systems reveal that climate change effects over the next 25 years will be mixed. The continued degree of change in the climate by midcentury and beyond is expected to have overall detrimental effects on most crops and livestock. Climate change will exacerbate current biotic stresses on agricultural plants and animals. Increases of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), rising temperatures, and altered precipitation patterns will affect agricultural productivity. Increases in temperature coupled with more variable precipitation will reduce productivity of crops, and these effects will outweigh the benefits of increasing carbon dioxide. Effects will vary among annual and perennial crops, and regions of the United States; however, all production systems will be affected to some degree by climate change.Livestock production systems are vulnerable to temperature stresses. An animal's ability to adjust its metabolic rate to cope with temperature extremes can lead to reduced productivity and in extreme cases death. Prolonged exposure to extreme temperatures will also further increase production costs and productivity losses associated with all animal products, e.g., meat, eggs, and milk. Grazing lands used for rearing livestock are under increased threats of wildfire.Soil carbon will be depleted during droughts, depriving crops of an essential element of productivity. In 2012, the US experienced a drought that greatly reduced yield of key crops and livestock in the Great Plans and Midwest region. Average yields of commodity crops (corn, soybean, rice) will decline due to the increased temperature whereas other crops (wheat, hay) could potentially increase yield due to anticipated rainfall in certain regions. Effects on horticulture crops will be variable.The Southwest region of the United States is one of the hottest and driest regions in the country. Farmers have identified surface and groundwater shortages as being the cause of diminished crop yields. Climate models indicate the likelihood of a decade-scale drought is incredibly high, posing unprecedented stress to the agro-ecosystem. Weeds, diseases, pests and pollinators Changing pressures associated with weeds, diseases, and insect pests, together with potential changes in timing and coincidence of pollinator lifecycles, will affect growth and yields. The potential magnitude of these effects is not yet well understood. For example, while some pest insects will thrive under increasing air temperatures, warming temperatures may force others out of their current geographical ranges. Increased global temperature in similar landscapes restricts agricultural opportunities for sustainable pollination patterns, decreases agricultural movement into habitable areas, and reduces climate buffering during environmental threats. Several weeds have shown a greater response to carbon dioxide relative to crops; understanding these physiological and genetic responses may help guide future enhancements to weed management. Soil and water impacts Agriculture is dependent on a wide range of ecosystem processes that support productivity including maintenance of soil quality and regulation of water quality and quantity. Multiple stressors, including climate change, increasingly compromise the ability of ecosystems to provide these services.Key near-term climate change effects on agricultural soil and water resources include the potential for increased soil erosion through extreme precipitation events, as well as regional and seasonal changes in the availability of water resources for both rain-fed and irrigated agriculture. Agricultural systems depend upon reliable water sources, and the pattern and potential magnitude of precipitation changes is not well understood, thus adding considerable uncertainty to assessment efforts.A regional climate model estimated that California will experience increased heavy precipitation events and change in the form of precipitation (predominantly rain as opposed to snow). Changes in the water management system will be essential for preventing water scarcity and reducing stress on the agricultural system. Extreme weather The predicted higher incidence of extreme weather events will have an increasing influence on agricultural productivity. Extremes matter because agricultural productivity is driven largely by environmental conditions during critical threshold periods of crop and livestock development. Improved assessment of climate change effects on agricultural productivity requires greater integration of extreme events into crop and economic models.Changes in precipitation patterns can cause dry periods to lengthen and rain to become heavier, even in the same area. On one hand, there is an increase in flooding, which can destroy crops and livestock, pollute water, and damage infrastructure. On the other hand, drought can impact the water supply and increase the risk of wildfires. Human impact on agricultural vulnerability The vulnerability of agriculture to climatic change is strongly dependent on the responses taken by humans to moderate the effects of climate change.Changes in crop and livestock viability are forcing the farmers to find better choices of crops and animals, capable of adaption to temperature changes and water availability. This means farmers are obliged to make new investments and re-learn new practices. And as the farmers are coping with the new transformations, they are facing new threats such as diseases, pets, insects. Role of the US Department of Agriculture A "USDA Science Blueprint" released in February 2020 focuses on areas from "soil health to weather impacts on agriculture to data collection, and specifically mentions climate change." A leader at the Union of Concerned Scientists commented, "It is refreshing to see the USDA under Secretary Perdue—who has previously denied the reality of climate change—acknowledging that agriculture is a contributor to climate change, can also be part of the solution, and must adapt in any case."Concerns remain regarding the cuts to USDA's scientific funding, and the loss of scientific capacity resulting from the decision to move the Economic Research Service (ERS) and the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) away from the Washington DC region.It is unclear how the plan will impact efforts to involve farmers in the process of carbon sequestration. See also Climate change in the United States References This article incorporates public domain material from USDA Agricultural Research Service, Climate Change Program Office. Climate Change and Agriculture in the United States: Effects and Adaptation (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2019-10-15.

climate of vietnam

Vietnam has a monsoon-influenced climate typical of that of mainland Southeast Asia.: 25  The diverse topography, long latitude (Vietnam spans over 15° of latitude), and influences from the South China Sea lead to climatic conditions varying significantly between regions. The northern region, including Northern Vietnam, Thanh Hóa, Nghệ An, and Hà Tĩnh, experiences a monsoonal and warm temperate climate (Cwb) with four distinct seasons (spring, summer, autumn, and winter) while in more southern areas, the climate is tropical monsoon (Aw) with only two seasons (rainy and dry). In addition, a temperate climate exists in mountainous areas, which are found in Sa Pa and Da Lat, while a more continental climate exists in Lai Châu Province and Sơn La Province. 20% of Vietnam's total surface area is low-elevation coastal area, making the country highly vulnerable to climate change effects and the rising sea levels in particular. Atmospheric circulation The atmospheric circulation influencing Vietnam is part of the Southeast Asian monsoon circulation that is characterized by 3 distinct features:: 27  Being, not only closely associated with the South Asian monsoon, especially in summer, but is also strongly influenced by the East Asian monsoon, especially in winter.: 27  In addition to being influenced by tropical, subtropical and temperate circulations from the Northern Hemisphere, the atmospheric circulation influencing Vietnam are closely associated with subtropical and tropical circulations from the Southern Hemisphere.: 27  Vietnam's climate is strongly influenced by its location to the adjacent sea in all seasons.: 27 The two permanent atmospheric pressures that influence the atmospheric circulation of Vietnam are the equatorial low pressure, and the subtropical high pressure.: 27  Seasonal pressure centres that influence Vietnam include the Asian continental high pressure, the Aleutian Low, South Asian continental low-pressure centres, and oceanic continental high pressure centres.: 27  Across East Asia, the polar front moves southwards in winter, reaching down to 8°N in January as the southern limit while the northern limit of it is 25–27°N in July.: 27  Because all of Vietnam lies between the southern and northern limit of the polar front, Vietnam's climate are both influenced by polar air and tropical air (from the tropical convergent zone).: 27  In Vietnam, the monsoon circulation is a combination of both the South Asian and Northeast Asian monsoon systems.: 27  This leads to four distinct seasons of which Winter (November–March) and Summer (May–September) are the major ones while Spring (April) and Fall (October) are transitional ones.: 27 Seasons Winter usually lasts from November until March. During winter, polar air originating from the Siberian High penetrate deeply into the low latitudes, facilitated by the eastern Tibetan Plateau that funnels the air southwards in a northeast direction (the cool air is a wind coming from the northeast).: 27  At the same time, a low pressure system over Australia strengthens that generates a pressure gradients that intensify cold northeasterly winds. Many cold fronts can penetrate into Vietnam during winter of which there are 3-4 occurrences every month in northern Vietnam.: 27  This leads to cold temperatures where temperatures drop by 4 to 5 °C (7 to 9 °F).: 27  Cold weather, occasionally extreme cold can persist for a long time, being characterized by a long stretch of cloudless or partly cloudy days in the first half of winter or a long stretch of cloudy and drizzly conditions in the latter half of winter.: 27  Cold weather occurs more frequently in the north than in the south due to cold fronts penetrate the north more frequently.: 27 Rainy season starts in late April/early May and lasts until October. In summer, the general wind pattern are southwesterly winds in the southern parts of Vietnam and southeasterly winds in northern Vietnam.: 28  The predominantly air blocks in Vietnam are the equatorial and tropical blocks that originate from high pressure systems in the Southern Hemisphere, and a maritime tropical block originating from the subtropical high pressure system in the Pacific Ocean (Pacific subtropical high pressure).: 28  In addition, during summer, Vietnam is influenced by tropical air from the Bay of Bengal which occurs when a continental low pressure originating from South Asia (South Asian continental low) moves eastwards towards Vietnam, covering almost all of Vietnam and southern China; this causes hot, dry weather in the North Central Coast as westerly winds descend and warm adiabatically on the eastern slopes of the Annamite Range (Truong Son range).: 28  On average, 11 storms and tropical low pressures develop in the South China sea during summer of which half are tropical cyclones that originate from the western Pacific.: 28  These storms and cyclones then move westwards towards Vietnam.: 28  On average, Vietnam is affected by 6–8 typhoons or tropical cyclones per year.: 25 Spring and Fall are transitional seasons.: 27  The atmospheric circulation in these seasons represent a transition between winter–summer and summer–winter respectively.: 28 In general, the northern parts of the country have four seasons: winter, spring, summer, and fall (autumn). In the south, only two seasons are present: a dry and a wet season. Temperature Mean annual temperatures in the country, based on meteorological data from weather stations range from 12.8 to 27.7 °C (55 to 82 °F) in Hoang Lien Son.: 30 : 24  At the highest altitudes in the Hoang Lien Son range, mean annual temperatures is only 8 °C (46 °F).: 30  As temperatures vary by altitude, temperatures decrease by 0.5 °C (1 °F) for every 100 metres (328 ft) increase in altitude.: 30  The lowest mean annual temperatures are found in the mountainous areas, where the altitude is higher, and in northern areas, because of their higher latitudes.: 30  Because Vietnam is strongly influenced by the monsoon, the mean temperatures in Vietnam are lower than other countries located at the same latitude in Asia.In winter, mean temperatures range from 2 to 26 °C (36 to 79 °F), which decreases from south to north, and/or as one climbs up its mountains, and vice versa.: 30  In the coolest month, mean temperatures range from 10 to 16 °C (50 to 61 °F) in the northern highlands to 20 to 24 °C (68 to 75 °F) in the southern highlands.: 24  Generally, mean winter temperatures are below 20 °C (68 °F) in many northern locations.: 31  In addition to lower insolation in winter, the Northeast Monsoon contributes to colder conditions.: 31  Many mountainous areas in the north have experienced subzero conditions.: 31  In contrast, temperatures in the Spratly Islands never falls below 21 °C (70 °F).: 31  In summer, mean temperatures vary between 25 and 30 °C (77 and 86 °F).: 24  The highest temperatures normally occurs in March–May in the south and May–July in the north.: 31  This is due to the fact that in the north, drizzle predominates leading to a slight temperature increases in February and March before increasing from April–August while in the south, the temperature increase (from December–February/March) is much larger.: 31  Consequentially, the south reaches their highest temperatures in late winter while in the north, they occur in July and August due to this.: 31  Temperatures in summer are relatively equal among the northern and southern parts of the country with differences being mostly due to altitude (the decrease in temperature is predominantly due to altitude).: 30 In May 2023, the country experienced an unprecedented heatwave where sections of the country registered temperatures over 40 °C. One recording saw the weather reach a record high 44.1 °C at the Hoi Xuan station, breaking the 43.4 °C record set in 2019 according to the National Centre for Hydro Meteorological Forecasting. Precipitation Mean annual rainfall in the country ranges from 700 to 5,000 mm (28 to 197 in) although most places in Vietnam receive between 1,400 and 2,400 mm (55 and 94 in).: 33  The majority of rainfall occurs during the rainy season, which is responsible for 80%–90% of the annual precipitation.: 24  Generally, northern parts of the country receive more rainfall than southern parts of the country.: 33  Islands located in the north general receive less rainfall than the adjacent mainland while in the south, this is reversed where islands such as Phú Quốc receive more rainfall than the adjacent mainland.: 33  The annual average number of rainy days ranges from 60 to 200 in which most days have rainfall averaging less than 5 mm (0.20 in).: 33  The amount of rainy days in a month usually corresponds with the mean monthly precipitation although in the north and north central coast, drizzle is common in winter (despite being the drier season), leading to higher amounts of rain days.: 33  For example, there are more rainy days in the drier season during winter in Yên Bái Province due to drizzle than there are rainy days in the main rainy season.: 33  Drizzle is a weather phenomenon that is characteristic of the weather in winter in the north and north central coast.: 36  Days with thunderstorms occur 20–80 days per year, which are more common in the south and north, and more common in mountainous areas than coastal delta.: 36–37  Thunderstorms can occur year-round although they are the most common during the rainy season.: 37  In the highest peaks in the north in Sa Pa, Tam Dao, and Hoang Lien Son, snowfall can occur.Depending on the region, the onset of the rainy season (defined as when the monthly average precipitation exceeds 100 mm (3.9 in)) differs: In the North West and North East, the rainy season beings in April–May with a peak in July–August and ends in September and October.: 35  In the Red River Delta (North Delta), the rainy season beings in April–May with a peak in July–August and ends in October and November.: 35  On the North Central Coast, the rainy season begins in August and September, reaching a peak in October and November before ending in November and December.: 35  For the South Central Coast, the rainy season begins in August and September, reaching a peak in October and November before ending in December.: 35  In the Central Highlands, the rainy season begins in April and May that peaks in August before ending in October and November.: 35  Finally, the South has its rainy season beginning in May that peaks in September before ending in November.: 35 Regional climate Based on geographic and climatic conditions, there are 7 different climatic regions in Vietnam:: 26  Northwest (Region 1), Northeast (Region 2), North Delta (Red River Delta/Region 3), North Central (North Central Coast/Region 4), South Central (South Central Coast/region 5), Central Highlands (region 6), and the South (region 7).: 26  These seven regions are widely accepted within the Vietnamese climatological community. Generally, these 7 different climatic regions are grouped into 2 main types: The North (includes Northwest, Northeast, North Delta (Red River Delta), North Central (North Central Coast)) which includes all areas north of the Hải Vân Pass and the South (South Central Coast, Central Highlands and the extreme south) which includes all areas south of the Hải Vân Pass. These climatic regions are based on time of rainy season and other climatic elements such as insolation, sunshine, temperature, precipitation, and humidity.: 38–39  The diverse topography, wide range of latitudes (Vietnam spans over 15° of latitude), and influences from the South China Sea lead to climatic conditions varying significantly between regions.: 24 Northwest The Northwest region includes the provinces of Lai Châu, Sơn La, and Điện Biên.: 39  The climate is characterized by cold, dry (little drizzly rain), sunny winters in which hoarfrost is common in many years.: 39  Summers are hot and rainy, coinciding with the rainy season although there is a high frequency of hot, dry days caused by westerly winds.: 39 : 10  Valleys are sheltered from wind, leading to a longer dry season and lower annual rainfall.: 10  The dry season usually lasts for 4–5 months.: 10  The average annual amount of sunshine hours is 1,800 to 2,000.: 41  Owing to diverse terrain and climate in this region, this leads to different types of forests being present.: 10 Northeast The Northeast region includes the northern and northeastern provinces: Lào Cai, Yên Bái, Hòa Bình, Hà Giang, Tuyên Quang, Phú Thọ, Cao Bằng, Lạng Sơn, Bắc Kạn, Thái Nguyên, and Quảng Ninh.: 40  The climate is strongly influenced by the northeast monsoon.: 9  Winters are cold, cloudy (little sunshine) that is characterized by drizzle.: 40  The cold comes earlier than other provinces.: 9  Summers are hot and rainy that coincide with the rainy season. However, unlike the northwest, dry conditions are rare due to a low frequency of westerly winds.: 40  The rainy season usually lasts from May–September although its duration can vary from 4 to 10 months.: 9  In the Hoang Lien Son mountains, winters are cold where snowfall and hoarfrost can occasionally occur.: 9  These mountains have the highest rainfall in the country.: 9  The average annual amount of sunshine hours is 1,400 to 1,700.: 41 Mean annual temperatures in the coastal areas are around 23 °C (73 °F) in which the coldest month has a mean temperature of 16 °C (61 °F) and the hottest month has a mean temperature of 28 °C (82 °F). Average annual rainfall in coastal areas is approximately 1,800 mm (71 in). North Delta (Red River Delta) The North Delta includes the provinces of Phú Thọ, Vĩnh Phúc, Bắc Giang, Bắc Ninh, Hanoi, Hai Phong, Hải Dương, Hưng Yên, Hà Nam, Nam Định, Thái Bình, and Ninh Bình.: 40  Winters are characterized as being cold with large amounts of drizzle and little sunshine while summers are hot, rainy with few dry days.: 40  Hot, dry conditions caused by westerly winds during summer are rare.: 40  The region has a positive water balance (i.e. the precipitation exceeds the potential evapotranspiration). The average annual amount of sunshine hours is 1,400 to 1,700.: 41 Mean annual temperatures in the coastal areas are around 23 °C (73 °F) in which the coldest month has a mean temperature of 16 to 17 °C (61 to 63 °F) and the hottest month has a mean temperature of 28 to 30 °C (82 to 86 °F). Average annual rainfall in coastal areas is approximately 1,600 to 1,700 mm (63 to 67 in). North Central (North Central Coast) The North Central Coast includes the provinces of Thanh Hóa, Nghệ An, Hà Tĩnh, Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị, and Thừa Thiên-Huế.: 40  Winters are characterized by cold, cloudy weather with frequent drizzle, being under the influence of the northeast monsoon.: 40 : 10  Compared to other regions in Northern Vietnam, winters are warmer and wetter due to the influence of the Truong Son Mountains that block the northeast monsoon coming from the Gulf of Tonkin. Summers are characterized by hot, dry weather owing to westerly winds.: 40  This is because the Truong Son Mountains also block the southwest monsoon, causing rainfall to occur on the west side of the mountains in Laos and creating a dry Foehn wind that moves east on the eastern slopes in Vietnam. The region averages between 1,500 and 1,700 hours of sunshine per year.: 11 Mean annual temperatures are around 24 to 25 °C (75 to 77 °F) in which the coldest month has a mean temperature of 17 to 20 °C (63 to 68 °F) and the hottest month has a mean temperature of 29 to 30 °C (84 to 86 °F). Average annual rainfall in coastal areas is approximately 2,000 to 2,900 mm (79 to 114 in). The rainy season occurs in the last 6 months of the year with September and October having the highest rainfall.: 40 South Central (South Central Coast) Da Nang City, Quảng Nam, Quảng Ngãi, Bình Định, Phú Yên, Khánh Hòa, Ninh Thuận, and Bình Thuận are the provinces that are part of the South Central Coast region.: 40  Winters are warm and sunny while summers are hot and dry owing to a high frequency of the westerly winds.: 40  The average annual amount of sunshine hours is 2,000 to 2,500.: 41  The rainfall pattern is similar to the North Central Coast (region 4).Mean annual temperatures are around 25 to 27 °C (77 to 81 °F) while the coldest month has a mean temperature of 22 to 25 °C (72 to 77 °F) and the hottest month has a mean temperature of 28 to 30 °C (82 to 86 °F). In contrast to the North Central Coast, the temperature difference between the coldest and hottest months is much smaller. Average annual rainfall in coastal areas is approximately 1,900 mm (75 in) although some areas in the southern parts of the region receive between 800 and 1,100 mm (31 and 43 in). As one progresses southward, the rainy season shifts away from the end of year (occurs more earlier) and vice versa. In general, the rain season starts in September and ends in December or January.: 11  Northern parts of the region (Quảng Nam and Quảng Ngãi) receive more rainfall than in the southern parts of the region (Bình Thuận and Ninh Thuận).: 11 Central Highlands The Central Highlands (Tây Nguyên) includes Kon Tum Province, Gia Lai Province, Đắk Lắk Province, Đắk Nông Province, and Lâm Đồng Province.: 40  Owing to the higher altitude, temperatures are lower than other regions at comparable latitudes.: 40  Winters are dry while summers are characterized by high rainfall.: 40  The average sunshine hours is 2,000 to 2,500 per year.: 41 The average annual temperature is 21 to 23 °C (70 to 73 °F).: 11  During winter, mean temperatures can fall below 20 °C (68 °F).: 40  The coldest month is January where minimum temperatures can occasionally fall below 0 °C (32 °F).: 11  The highest temperatures occur in late winter and early summer.: 42  This is usually during March and April.: 11 The South The South corresponds to the Southeast region, and the Mekong Delta region.: 42  It also includes some parts of Bình Thuận Province.: 42  The climate of the south is strongly influenced by the southwest monsoon. The climate of this region is characterized by high temperatures year round and sunny weather.: 42  Mean annual temperatures in coastal areas are around 27 °C (81 °F) that is fairly even throughout the year with little difference between the coldest and hottest months of the year. Average annual rainfall in coastal areas is approximately 1,500 to 2,500 mm (59 to 98 in) in which the rainy season is between May and November. The average annual sunshine hours ranges from 2,400 to 3,000.: 41  Sunshine hours are higher in the northeastern parts of the region where they exceed over 2,700 hours per year while in the west, it is around 2,300 hours per year.: 12 Extremes The highest temperature ever recorded in Vietnam was 44,2.C, which was recorded in Tương Dương district, Nghệ An Province on 7 May, 2023.The coldest temperature recorded in Vietnam was −6.1 °C (21.0 °F) in Sa Pa on 4 January 1974. A record low of −6.0 °C (21.2 °F) was also record in Hoang Lien on 1 January 1974 and 6 January 1974. For ground temperatures, the lowest ground temperature ever record was −6.4 °C (20.5 °F) in Sa Pa on 31 December 1975 while the highest was 74.7 °C (166.5 °F) in Buôn Ma Thuột on 23 May 1982.: 33  Absolute record low ground temperatures tend to be 1 to 2 °C (2 to 4 °F) lower than record low air temperatures but absolute record high ground temperatures tend to be over 30 °C (54 °F) higher than the air temperature.: 33 The highest air pressure ever recorded in Vietnam was at the Lang weather station on 18 November 1996 when a reading of 1,035.9 hPa (30.59 inHg) was recorded.: 29  The lowest air pressure ever recorded was at Sa Pa on 24 July 1971 with a reading of 827.0 hPa (24.42 inHg).: 29 The highest wind recorded in Vietnam was 59 m/s (190 ft/s) in Quy Nhon in September 1972 although wind velocities over 40 m/s (130 ft/s) have been recorded in the North Delta (Red River Delta), and coastal areas of Quảng Ninh Province: 29 Climate change Statistics Temperature Precipitation Overall averages Natural disasters Climate extremes include heat waves, cold surges and frosts, floods, droughts, and severe storms. See also Geography of Vietnam References Books External links National Center for Hydro-Meteorological Forecasting (in Vietnamese) Vietnam Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Climate change (in Vietnamese)

climate change in scotland

Climate change in Scotland is causing a range of impacts on Scotland, and its mitigation and adaptation is a matter for the devolved Scottish Parliament. Climate change has already changed timings of spring events such as leaf unfolding, bird migration and egg-laying. Severe effects are likely to occur on biodiversity. Greenhouse gas emissions Scotland's greenhouse gas emissions only accounted for 10% of the UK's emissions in 2003, when figures were published. 37% of Scottish emissions are in energy supply and 17% in transport. Between 1990 and 2007, Scottish net emissions have reduced by 18.7%. The industrial processes sector had the largest decrease, of 72% with a reduction of 48% in the public sector trailing closely behind. Impacts on the natural environment Temperature and weather changes In Scotland, the effects of climate change can be seen in raised temperature changes, increased rainfall and less snow cover. These changes have a significant impact on the growing, breeding and migration seasons, as well as species abundance and diversity. Ecosystems Past observations have indicated some of the likely effects of climate change on biodiversity. Climate change has already changed timings of spring events such as leaf unfolding, bird migration and egg-laying. The population of species could change due to the speed at which they adapt. Changes in the ranges of plant and animal species have been observed. New species may move to Scotland with the changing climate. Shifts may occur on hillsides and species that are already confined to high mountains may become extinct in Scotland. Severe effects are likely to occur on biodiversity. Species of plants and animals that can't adapt quickly enough may become extinct or be replaced by other creatures. Coastal habitats, including machairs, may disappear due to high sea levels eroding the land. Salmon spawning beds may be wiped out by flash floods causing population problems for the species. There will be new risks to animals, plants and their habitats, including non-native pests and diseases.When all these effects are combined with human response, such as land use change and the growth of new forests, Scotland's ecosystems could change drastically. Impacts on people Economic impacts Agriculture In some cases, Scottish agriculture may experience a positive change as summers will be warmer and drier. A higher yields and the possibility of new crops being able to grow in Scotland. However, soil quality would lower with heat and soil moisture stress. The availability of fresh water could cause problems for livestock. Heat stress with warmer and wetter conditions, livestock could face new diseases such as West Nile virus and outbreaks of bluetongue or parasites could increase. Mitigation and adaptation Policies and regulation Climate Change Act The Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 is an Act passed by the Scottish Parliament. The Act includes an emissions target, set for the year 2050, for a reduction of at least 80% from the baseline year, 1990. Annual targets for greenhouse gas emissions must also be set, after consultation the relevant advisory bodies. Provisions are included in the Act for the creation of the Scottish Committee on Climate Change, as at present the only advisory body is the UK Committee on Climate Change. Ministers in parliament must now report on the progress of these targets. As of January 2011, public sector bodies in Scotland must comply with new guidelines set out by the Scottish Government. Protection and enforcement The Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) is Scotland's environmental regulator. SEPA's main role is in protecting and improving Scotland's natural environment. SEPA does this by helping communities, businesses and industries understand their legal and moral responsibilities they have relating to the environment. SEPA recognises that climate change is the single greatest threat to our future. The organisation has produced its own climate change plan which contains details about how it will reduce its carbon emissions. This five year climate change plan introduces SEPA's specific role in climate change mitigation. SEPA, Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH), Forestry and Land Scotland (FLS), Scottish Forestry and Historic Environment Scotland are all government funded organisations with responsibilities for different aspects of Scotland's environment and heritage. A joint statement on climate change was created by all partners in 2009. "The Scientific evidence is now overwhelming: climate change presents very serious global risks and it demands an urgent global response". Afforestation Energy International cooperation During a 2017 visit to the United States, the first minister Nicola Sturgeon met Jerry Brown, Governor of California, where both signed an agreement committing both the Government of California and the Scottish Government to work together to tackle climate change.The COP26 climate conference was held in Glasgow in 2021. See also Energy policy of Scotland Sustainable development in Scotland Climate change in the United Kingdom David Reay, a climate change scientist, author, and senior lecturer in carbon management at the University of Edinburgh References External links Cairngorms Climate An investigation of climate change in the Scottish highlands. Scottish Environment Protection Agency Climate Change from the UCB Libraries GovPubs Climate Change from the Met Office (UK) Global Climate Change from NASA (US) SNIFFER: A handbook of climate trends across Scotland

the islamic declaration on global climate change

The Islamic Declaration on Global Climate Change was a faith-based collective call of Islamic environmentalism to combat and tackle climate change addressed to Muslims all over the world. It was a result of a 2015 international symposium of representatives of academics, religious authorities, inter-governmental organisations, and civil society across a broad cross section of Muslim communities ahead of the Paris Climate Change Conference in 2015–2016. Event of Declaration The Islamic Declaration on Global Climate Change was launched in Istanbul as part of a two-day International Islamic Climate Change Symposium in Istanbul in 17–18 August 2015. Hosted jointly by Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, ISESCO and International Islamic Fiqh Academy, the symposium was co-organised by Islamic relief worldwide, alongside the Islamic Foundation for Ecology and Environmental Science (IFEES), and supported by climate-based civil society network Climate Action Network (CAN). The declaration was endorsed by the grand muftis of Lebanon and Uganda, along with prominent Islamic scholars and teachers hailing from 20 countries all over the Muslim world. Message of the Declaration The declaration is based on an environmental framework present within the principles of Islam, and is part of faith-based climate activism. Its core stems from the essence of a body of ethics known as the Knowledge of Creation (Ilm ul khalq), which is based on the Holy Qur’an. It is part of a spiritual fight against climate change, alongside similar calls by the Catholic Pope and other religious figures. The Islamic Climate Change Declaration iterates a call to reject human greed for natural resources, have respect for “perfect equilibrium” of nature, and focused on the need for recognition of the “moral obligation” towards conservation. Contents of the Declaration The focus of the title is on climate change, and sidelines other ecological concerns. The preamble of the declaration begins with doctrinal affirmation that God created the world. This is connected to the concept of oneness and tied to the unity of creation, giving credence to the idea that the planet is shared by all humanity. The role of human beings as God's Khalifah on earth, or stewards of God's creation, forms a central tenet of the Islamic declaration on climate change, since human beings have failed to live to their duty of stewardship, and have corrupted and abused the earth instead. The example of the Prophet Muhammad and his lifestyle is brought forward to highlight practical manifestations of Islamic principles of conservation and eco-friendliness. References External links Islamic Declaration on Global Climate Change

bird migration

Bird migration is the regular seasonal movement, often north and south, along a flyway, between breeding and wintering grounds. Many species of bird migrate. Migration carries high costs in predation and mortality, including from hunting by humans, and is driven primarily by the availability of food. It occurs mainly in the northern hemisphere, where birds are funnelled onto specific routes by natural barriers such as the Mediterranean Sea or the Caribbean Sea. Migration of species such as storks, turtle doves, and swallows was recorded as many as 3,000 years ago by Ancient Greek authors, including Homer and Aristotle, and in the Book of Job. More recently, Johannes Leche began recording dates of arrivals of spring migrants in Finland in 1749, and modern scientific studies have used techniques including bird ringing and satellite tracking to trace migrants. Threats to migratory birds have grown with habitat destruction, especially of stopover and wintering sites, as well as structures such as power lines and wind farms. The Arctic tern holds the long-distance migration record for birds, travelling between Arctic breeding grounds and the Antarctic each year. Some species of tubenoses (Procellariiformes) such as albatrosses circle the Earth, flying over the southern oceans, while others such as Manx shearwaters migrate 14,000 km (8,700 mi) between their northern breeding grounds and the southern ocean. Shorter migrations are common, while longer ones are not. The shorter migrations include altitudinal migrations on mountains such as the Andes and Himalayas. The timing of migration seems to be controlled primarily by changes in day length. Migrating birds navigate using celestial cues from the Sun and stars, the Earth's magnetic field, and mental maps. Historical views In the Pacific, traditional land-finding techniques used by Micronesians and Polynesians suggest that bird migration was observed and interpreted for more than 3,000 years. In Samoan tradition, for example, Tagaloa sent his daughter Sina to Earth in the form of a bird, Tuli, to find dry land, the word tuli referring specifically to land-finding waders, often to the Pacific golden plover. Bird migrations were recorded in Europe from at least 3,000 years ago by the Ancient Greek writers Hesiod, Homer, Herodotus and Aristotle. Two books of the Bible address migration. The Book of Job notes migrations with the inquiry: "Is it by your insight that the hawk hovers, spreads its wings southward?" A prophecy of Jeremiah includes the following comment: "Even the stork in the heavens knows its seasons, and the turtle dove, the swift and the crane keep the time of their arrival."Aristotle recorded that cranes travelled from the steppes of Scythia to marshes at the headwaters of the Nile, an observation repeated by Pliny the Elder in his Historia Naturalis. Swallow migration versus hibernation Aristotle, however, suggested that swallows and other birds hibernated. This belief persisted as late as 1878 when Elliott Coues listed the titles of no fewer than 182 papers dealing with the hibernation of swallows. Even the "highly observant" Gilbert White, in his posthumously published 1789 The Natural History of Selborne, quoted a man's story about swallows being found in a chalk cliff collapse "while he was a schoolboy at Brighthelmstone", though the man denied being an eyewitness. However, he writes that "as to swallows being found in a torpid state during the winter in the Isle of Wight or any part of this country, I never heard any such account worth attending to", and that if early swallows "happen to find frost and snow they immediately withdraw for a time—a circumstance this much more in favour of hiding than migration", since he doubts they would "return for a week or two to warmer latitudes".Only at the end of the eighteenth century was migration accepted as an explanation for the winter disappearance of birds from northern climes. Thomas Bewick's A History of British Birds (Volume 1, 1797) mentions a report from "a very intelligent master of a vessel" who, "between the islands of Menorca and Majorca, saw great numbers of Swallows flying northward", and states the situation in Britain as follows: Swallows frequently roost at night, after they begin to congregate, by the sides of rivers and pools, from which circumstance it has been erroneously supposed that they retire into the water. Bewick then describes an experiment that succeeded in keeping swallows alive in Britain for several years, where they remained warm and dry through the winters. He concludes: These experiments have since been amply confirmed by ... M. Natterer, of Vienna ... and the result clearly proves, what is in fact now admitted on all hands, that Swallows do not in any material instance differ from other birds in their nature and propensities [for life in the air]; but that they leave us when this country can no longer furnish them with a supply of their proper and natural food ... Pfeilstörche In 1822, a white stork was found in the German state of Mecklenburg with an arrow made from central African hardwood, which provided some of the earliest evidence of long-distance stork migration. This bird was referred to as a Pfeilstorch, German for "Arrow stork". Since then, around 25 Pfeilstörche have been documented. General patterns Migration is the regular seasonal movement, often north and south, undertaken by many species of birds. Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability, habitat, or weather. Sometimes, journeys are not termed "true migration" because they are irregular (nomadism, invasions, irruptions) or in only one direction (dispersal, movement of young away from natal area). Migration is marked by its annual seasonality. Non-migratory birds are said to be resident or sedentary. Approximately 1,800 of the world's 10,000 bird species are long-distance migrants.Many bird populations migrate long distances along a flyway. The most common pattern involves flying north in the spring to breed in the temperate or Arctic summer and returning in the autumn to wintering grounds in warmer regions to the south. Of course, in the southern hemisphere, the directions are reversed, but there is less land area in the far south to support long-distance migration.The primary motivation for migration appears to be food; for example, some hummingbirds choose not to migrate if fed through the winter. In addition, the longer days of the northern summer provide extended time for breeding birds to feed their young. This helps diurnal birds to produce larger clutches than related non-migratory species that remain in the tropics. As the days shorten in autumn, the birds return to warmer regions where the available food supply varies little with the season.These advantages offset the high stress, physical exertion costs, and other risks of migration. Predation can be heightened during migration: Eleonora's falcon Falco eleonorae, which breeds on Mediterranean islands, has a very late breeding season, coordinated with the autumn passage of southbound passerine migrants, which it feeds to its young. A similar strategy is adopted by the greater noctule bat, which preys on nocturnal passerine migrants. The higher concentrations of migrating birds at stopover sites make them prone to parasites and pathogens, which require a heightened immune response.Within a species not all populations may be migratory; this is known as "partial migration". Partial migration is very common in the southern continents; in Australia, 44% of non-passerine birds and 32% of passerine species are partially migratory. In some species, the population at higher latitudes tends to be migratory and will often winter at lower latitude. The migrating birds bypass the latitudes where other populations may be sedentary, where suitable wintering habitats may already be occupied. This is an example of leap-frog migration. Many fully migratory species show leap-frog migration (birds that nest at higher latitudes spend the winter at lower latitudes), and many show the alternative, chain migration, where populations 'slide' more evenly north and south without reversing the order.Within a population, it is common for different ages and/or sexes to have different patterns of timing and distance. Female chaffinches Fringilla coelebs in Eastern Fennoscandia migrate earlier in the autumn than males do and the European tits of genera Parus and Cyanistes only migrate their first year.Most migrations begin with the birds starting off in a broad front. Often, this front narrows into one or more preferred routes termed flyways. These routes typically follow mountain ranges or coastlines, sometimes rivers, and may take advantage of updrafts and other wind patterns or avoid geographical barriers such as large stretches of open water. The specific routes may be genetically programmed or learned to varying degrees. The routes taken on forward and return migration are often different. A common pattern in North America is clockwise migration, where birds flying North tend to be further West, and flying South tend to shift Eastwards. Many, if not most, birds migrate in flocks. For larger birds, flying in flocks reduces the energy cost. Geese in a V-formation may conserve 12–20% of the energy they would need to fly alone. Red knots Calidris canutus and dunlins Calidris alpina were found in radar studies to fly 5 km/h (2.5 kn) faster in flocks than when they were flying alone. Birds fly at varying altitudes during migration. An expedition to Mt. Everest found skeletons of northern pintail Anas acuta and black-tailed godwit Limosa limosa at 5,000 m (16,000 ft) on the Khumbu Glacier. Bar-headed geese Anser indicus have been recorded by GPS flying at up to 6,540 m (21,460 ft) while crossing the Himalayas, at the same time engaging in the highest rates of climb to altitude for any bird. Anecdotal reports of them flying much higher have yet to be corroborated with any direct evidence. Seabirds fly low over water but gain altitude when crossing land, and the reverse pattern is seen in land birds. However most bird migration is in the range of 150 to 600 m (490–2,000 ft). Bird strike Aviation records from the United States show most collisions occur below 600 m (2,000 ft) and almost none above 1,800 m (5,900 ft).Bird migration is not limited to birds that can fly. Most species of penguin (Spheniscidae) migrate by swimming. These routes can cover over 1,000 km (550 nmi). Dusky grouse Dendragapus obscurus perform altitudinal migration mostly by walking. Emus Dromaius novaehollandiae in Australia have been observed to undertake long-distance movements on foot during droughts. Nocturnal migratory behavior During nocturnal migration ("nocmig"), many birds give nocturnal flight calls, which are short, contact-type calls. These likely serve to maintain the composition of a migrating flock, and can sometimes encode the sex of a migrating individual, and to avoid collision in the air. Nocturnal migration can be monitored using weather radar data, allowing ornithologists to estimate the number of birds migrating on a given night, and the direction of the migration. Future research includes the automatic detection and identification of nocturnally calling migrant birds.Nocturnal migrants land in the morning and may feed for a few days before resuming their migration. These birds are referred to as passage migrants in the regions where they occur for a short period between the origin and destination.Nocturnal migrants minimize depredation, avoid overheating, and can feed during the day. One cost of nocturnal migration is the loss of sleep. Migrants may be able to alter their quality of sleep to compensate for the loss. Long-distance migration The typical image of migration is of northern land birds, such as swallows (Hirundinidae) and birds of prey, making long flights to the tropics. However, many Holarctic wildfowl and finch (Fringillidae) species winters in the North Temperate Zone, in regions with milder winters than their summer breeding grounds. For example, the pink-footed goose migrates from Iceland to Britain and neighbouring countries, whilst the dark-eyed junco migrates from subarctic and arctic climates to the contiguous United States and the American goldfinch from taiga to wintering grounds extending from the American South northwestward to Western Oregon. Some ducks, such as the garganey Anas querquedula, move completely or partially into the tropics. The European pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca follows this migratory trend, breeding in Asia and Europe and wintering in Africa. Migration routes and wintering grounds are both genetically and traditionally determined depending on the social system of the species. In long-lived, social species such as white storks (Ciconia ciconia), flocks are often led by the oldest members and young storks learn the route on their first journey. In short-lived species that migrate alone, such as the Eurasian blackcap Sylvia atricapilla or the yellow-billed cuckoo Coccyzus americanus, first-year migrants follow a genetically determined route that is alterable with selective breeding.Many migration routes of long-distance migratory birds are circuitous due to evolutionary history: the breeding range of Northern wheatears Oenanthe oenanthe has expanded to cover the entire Northern Hemisphere, but the species still migrates up to 14,500 km to reach ancestral wintering grounds in sub-Saharan Africa rather than establish new wintering grounds closer to breeding areas.A migration route often does not follow the most direct line between breeding and wintering grounds. Rather, it could follow a hooked or arched line, with detours around geographical barriers or towards suitable stopover habitat. For most land birds, such barriers could consist of large water bodies or high mountain ranges, a lack of stopover or feeding sites, or a lack of thermal columns (important for broad-winged birds). Conversely, in water-birds, large areas of land without wetlands offering suitable feeding sites may present a barrier, and detours avoiding such barriers are observed. For example, brent geese Branta bernicla bernicla migrating between the Taymyr Peninsula and the Wadden Sea travel via low-lying coastal feeding-areas on the White Sea and the Baltic Sea rather than directly across the Arctic Ocean and the Scandinavian mainland.Great snipes make non-stop flights of 4,000–7,000 km, lasting 60–90 h, during which they change their average cruising heights from 2,000 m (above sea level) at night to around 4,000 m during daytime. In waders A similar situation occurs with waders (called shorebirds in North America). Many species, such as dunlin Calidris alpina and western sandpiper Calidris mauri, undertake long movements from their Arctic breeding grounds to warmer locations in the same hemisphere, but others such as semipalmated sandpiper C. pusilla travel longer distances to the tropics in the Southern Hemisphere.For some species of waders, migration success depends on the availability of certain key food resources at stopover points along the migration route. This gives the migrants an opportunity to refuel for the next leg of the voyage. Some examples of important stopover locations are the Bay of Fundy and Delaware Bay.Some bar-tailed godwits Limosa lapponica baueri have the longest known non-stop flight of any migrant, flying 11,000 km from Alaska to their New Zealand non-breeding areas. Prior to migration, 55 percent of their bodyweight is stored as fat to fuel this uninterrupted journey. In seabirds Seabird migration is similar in pattern to those of the waders and waterfowl. Some, such as the black guillemot Cepphus grylle and some gulls, are quite sedentary; others, such as most terns and auks breeding in the temperate northern hemisphere, move varying distances south in the northern winter. The Arctic tern Sterna paradisaea has the longest-distance migration of any bird, and sees more daylight than any other, moving from its Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic non-breeding areas. One Arctic tern, ringed (banded) as a chick on the Farne Islands off the British east coast, reached Melbourne, Australia in just three months from fledging, a sea journey of over 22,000 km (12,000 nmi). Many tubenosed birds breed in the southern hemisphere and migrate north in the southern winter.The most pelagic species, mainly in the 'tubenose' order Procellariiformes, are great wanderers, and the albatrosses of the southern oceans may circle the globe as they ride the "Roaring Forties" outside the breeding season. The tubenoses spread widely over large areas of open ocean, but congregate when food becomes available. Many are among the longest-distance migrants; sooty shearwaters Puffinus griseus nesting on the Falkland Islands migrate 14,000 km (7,600 nmi) between the breeding colony and the North Atlantic Ocean off Norway. Some Manx shearwaters Puffinus puffinus do this same journey in reverse. As they are long-lived birds, they may cover enormous distances during their lives; one record-breaking Manx shearwater is calculated to have flown 8 million kilometres (4.5 million nautical miles) during its over-50-year lifespan. Diurnal migration in large birds using thermals Some large broad-winged birds rely on thermal columns of rising hot air to enable them to soar. These include many birds of prey such as vultures, eagles, and buzzards, but also storks. These birds migrate in the daytime. Migratory species in these groups have great difficulty crossing large bodies of water, since thermals only form over land, and these birds cannot maintain active flight for long distances. Mediterranean and other seas present a major obstacle to soaring birds, which must cross at the narrowest points. Massive numbers of large raptors and storks pass through areas such as the Strait of Messina, Gibraltar, Falsterbo, and the Bosphorus at migration times. More common species, such as the European honey buzzard Pernis apivorus, can be counted in hundreds of thousands in autumn. Other barriers, such as mountain ranges, can cause funnelling, particularly of large diurnal migrants, as in the Central American migratory bottleneck. The Batumi bottleneck in the Caucasus is one of the heaviest migratory funnels on earth, created when hundreds of thousands of soaring birds avoid flying over the Black Sea surface and across high mountains. Birds of prey such as honey buzzards which migrate using thermals lose only 10 to 20% of their weight during migration, which may explain why they forage less during migration than do smaller birds of prey with more active flight such as falcons, hawks and harriers. From observing the migration of eleven soaring bird species over the Strait of Gibraltar, species which did not advance their autumn migration dates were those with declining breeding populations in Europe. Short-distance and altitudinal migration Many long-distance migrants appear to be genetically programmed to respond to changing day length. Species that move short distances, however, may not need such a timing mechanism, instead moving in response to local weather conditions. Thus mountain and moorland breeders, such as wallcreeper Tichodroma muraria and white-throated dipper Cinclus cinclus, may move only altitudinally to escape the cold higher ground. Other species such as merlin Falco columbarius and Eurasian skylark Alauda arvensis move further, to the coast or towards the south. Species like the chaffinch are much less migratory in Britain than those of continental Europe, mostly not moving more than 5 km in their lives.Short-distance passerine migrants have two evolutionary origins. Those that have long-distance migrants in the same family, such as the common chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita, are species of southern hemisphere origins that have progressively shortened their return migration to stay in the northern hemisphere.Species that have no long-distance migratory relatives, such as the waxwings Bombycilla, are effectively moving in response to winter weather and the loss of their usual winter food, rather than enhanced breeding opportunities.In the tropics there is little variation in the length of day throughout the year, and it is always warm enough for a food supply, but altitudinal migration occurs in some tropical birds. There is evidence that this enables the migrants to obtain more of their preferred foods such as fruits.Altitudinal migration is common on mountains worldwide, such as in the Himalayas and the Andes. Dusky grouse in Colorado migrate less than a kilometer away from their summer grounds to winter sites which may be higher or lower by about 400 m in altitude than the summer sites.Many bird species in arid regions across southern Australia are nomadic; they follow water and food supply around the country in an irregular pattern, unrelated to season but related to rainfall. Several years may pass between visits to an area by a particular species. Irruptions and dispersal Sometimes circumstances such as a good breeding season followed by a food source failure the following year lead to irruptions in which large numbers of a species move far beyond the normal range. Bohemian waxwings Bombycilla garrulus well show this unpredictable variation in annual numbers, with five major arrivals in Britain during the nineteenth century, but 18 between the years 1937 and 2000. Red crossbills Loxia curvirostra too are irruptive, with widespread invasions across England noted in 1251, 1593, 1757, and 1791.Bird migration is primarily, but not entirely, a Northern Hemisphere phenomenon. This is because continental landmasses of the northern hemisphere are almost entirely temperate and subject to winter food shortages driving bird populations south (including the Southern Hemisphere) to overwinter; In contrast, among (pelagic) seabirds, species of the Southern Hemisphere are more likely to migrate. This is because there is a large area of ocean in the Southern Hemisphere, and more islands suitable for seabirds to nest. Physiology and control The control of migration, its timing and response are genetically controlled and appear to be a primitive trait that is present even in non-migratory species of birds. The ability to navigate and orient themselves during migration is a much more complex phenomenon that may include both endogenous programs as well as learning. Timing The primary physiological cue for migration is the changes in the day length. These changes are related to hormonal changes in the birds. In the period before migration, many birds display higher activity or Zugunruhe (German: migratory restlessness), first described by Johann Friedrich Naumann in 1795, as well as physiological changes such as increased fat deposition. The occurrence of Zugunruhe even in cage-raised birds with no environmental cues (e.g. shortening of day and falling temperature) has pointed to the role of circannual endogenous programs in controlling bird migrations. Caged birds display a preferential flight direction that corresponds with the migratory direction they would take in nature, changing their preferential direction at roughly the same time their wild conspecifics change course.Satellite tracking of 48 individual Asian houbaras (Chlamydotis macqueenii) across multiple migrations showed that this species uses the local temperature to time their spring migration departure. Notably, departure responses to temperature varied between individuals but were individually repeatable (when tracked over multiple years). This suggests that individual use of temperature is a cue that allows for population-level adaptation to climate change. In other words, in a warming world, many migratory birds are predicted to depart earlier in the year for their summer or winter destination.In polygynous species with considerable sexual dimorphism, males tend to return earlier to the breeding sites than their females. This is termed protandry. Orientation and navigation Navigation is based on a variety of senses. Many birds have been shown to use a sun compass. Using the Sun for direction involves the need for making compensation based on the time. Navigation has been shown to be based on a combination of other abilities including the ability to detect magnetic fields (magnetoreception), use visual landmarks as well as olfactory cues.Long-distance migrants are believed to disperse as young birds and form attachments to potential breeding sites and to favorite wintering sites. Once the site attachment is made they show high site-fidelity, visiting the same wintering sites year after year.The ability of birds to navigate during migrations cannot be fully explained by endogenous programming, even with the help of responses to environmental cues. The ability to successfully perform long-distance migrations can probably only be fully explained with an accounting for the cognitive ability of the birds to recognize habitats and form mental maps. Satellite tracking of day migrating raptors such as ospreys and honey buzzards has shown that older individuals are better at making corrections for wind drift. Birds rely for navigation on a combination of innate biological senses and experience, as with the two electromagnetic tools that they use. A young bird on its first migration flies in the correct direction according to the Earth's magnetic field, but does not know how far the journey will be. It does this through a radical pair mechanism whereby chemical reactions in special photo pigments sensitive to short wavelengths are affected by the field. Although this only works during daylight hours, it does not use the position of the Sun in any way. With experience, it learns various landmarks and this "mapping" is done by magnetites in the trigeminal system, which tell the bird how strong the field is. Because birds migrate between northern and southern regions, the magnetic field strengths at different latitudes let it interpret the radical pair mechanism more accurately and let it know when it has reached its destination. There is a neural connection between the eye and "Cluster N", the part of the forebrain that is active during migrational orientation, suggesting that birds may actually be able to see the magnetic field of the Earth. Vagrancy Migrating birds can lose their way and appear outside their normal ranges. This can be due to flying past their destinations as in the "spring overshoot" in which birds returning to their breeding areas overshoot and end up further north than intended. Certain areas, because of their location, have become famous as watchpoints for such birds. Examples are the Point Pelee National Park in Canada, and Spurn in England. Reverse migration, where the genetic programming of young birds fails to work properly, can lead to rarities turning up as vagrants thousands of kilometres out of range.Drift migration of birds blown off course by the wind can result in "falls" of large numbers of migrants at coastal sites.A related phenomenon called "abmigration" involves birds from one region joining similar birds from a different breeding region in the common winter grounds and then migrating back along with the new population. This is especially common in some waterfowl, which shift from one flyway to another. Migration conditioning It has been possible to teach a migration route to a flock of birds, for example in re-introduction schemes. After a trial with Canada geese Branta canadensis, microlight aircraft were used in the US to teach safe migration routes to reintroduced whooping cranes Grus americana. Adaptations Birds need to alter their metabolism to meet the demands of migration. The storage of energy through the accumulation of fat and the control of sleep in nocturnal migrants require special physiological adaptations. In addition, the feathers of a bird suffer from wear-and-tear and require to be moulted. The timing of this moult – usually once a year but sometimes twice – varies with some species moulting prior to moving to their winter grounds and others molting prior to returning to their breeding grounds. Apart from physiological adaptations, migration sometimes requires behavioral changes such as flying in flocks to reduce the energy used in migration or the risk of predation. Evolutionary and ecological factors Migration in birds is highly labile and is believed to have developed independently in many avian lineages. While it is agreed that the behavioral and physiological adaptations necessary for migration are under genetic control, some authors have argued that no genetic change is necessary for migratory behavior to develop in a sedentary species because the genetic framework for migratory behavior exists in nearly all avian lineages. This explains the rapid appearance of migratory behavior after the most recent glacial maximum.Theoretical analyses show that detours that increase flight distance by up to 20% will often be adaptive on aerodynamic grounds – a bird that loads itself with food to cross a long barrier flies less efficiently. However some species show circuitous migratory routes that reflect historical range expansions and are far from optimal in ecological terms. An example is the migration of continental populations of Swainson's thrush Catharus ustulatus, which fly far east across North America before turning south via Florida to reach northern South America; this route is believed to be the consequence of a range expansion that occurred about 10,000 years ago. Detours may also be caused by differential wind conditions, predation risk, or other factors. Climate change Large scale climatic changes are expected to have an effect on the timing of migration. Studies have shown a variety of effects including timing changes in migration, breeding as well as population declines. Many species have been expanding their range as a likely consequence of climate change. This is sometimes in the form of former vagrants becoming established or regular migrants. Ecological effects The migration of birds also aids the movement of other species, including those of ectoparasites such as ticks and lice, which in turn may carry micro-organisms including those of concern to human health. Due to the global spread of avian influenza, bird migration has been studied as a possible mechanism of disease transmission, but it has been found not to present a special risk; import of pet and domestic birds is a greater threat. Some viruses that are maintained in birds without lethal effects, such as the West Nile virus may however be spread by migrating birds. Birds may also have a role in the dispersal of propagules of plants and plankton.Some predators take advantage of the concentration of birds during migration. Greater noctule bats feed on nocturnal migrating passerines. Some birds of prey specialize on migrating waders. Study techniques Early studies on the timing of migration began in 1749 in Finland, with Johannes Leche of Turku collecting the dates of arrivals of spring migrants.Bird migration routes have been studied by a variety of techniques including the oldest, marking. Swans have been marked with a nick on the beak since about 1560 in England. Scientific ringing was pioneered by Hans Christian Cornelius Mortensen in 1899. Other techniques include radar and satellite tracking. The rate of bird migration over the Alps (up to a height of 150 m) was found to be highly comparable between fixed-beam radar measurements and visual bird counts, highlighting the potential use of this technique as an objective way of quantifying bird migration.Stable isotopes of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulphur can establish avian migratory connectivity between wintering sites and breeding grounds. Stable isotopic methods to establish migratory linkage rely on spatial isotopic differences in bird diet that are incorporated into inert tissues like feathers, or into growing tissues such as claws and muscle or blood.An approach to identify migration intensity makes use of upward pointing microphones to record the nocturnal contact calls of flocks flying overhead. These are then analyzed in a laboratory to measure time, frequency and species. An older technique developed by George Lowery and others to quantify migration involves observing the face of the full moon with a telescope and counting the silhouettes of flocks of birds as they fly at night.Orientation behavior studies have been traditionally carried out using variants of a setup known as the Emlen funnel, which consists of a circular cage with the top covered by glass or wire-screen so that either the sky is visible or the setup is placed in a planetarium or with other controls on environmental cues. The orientation behavior of the bird inside the cage is studied quantitatively using the distribution of marks that the bird leaves on the walls of the cage. Other approaches used in pigeon homing studies make use of the direction in which the bird vanishes on the horizon. Threats and conservation Human activities have threatened many migratory bird species. The distances involved in bird migration mean that they often cross political boundaries of countries and conservation measures require international cooperation. Several international treaties have been signed to protect migratory species including the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 of the US. and the African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird AgreementThe concentration of birds during migration can put species at risk. Some spectacular migrants have already gone extinct; during the passenger pigeon's (Ectopistes migratorius) migration the enormous flocks were 1.5 kilometres (1 mi) wide, darkening the sky, and 500 km (300 mi) long, taking several days to pass.Hunting along migration routes threatens some bird species. The populations of Siberian cranes (Leucogeranus leucogeranus) that wintered in India declined due to hunting along the route, particularly in Afghanistan and Central Asia. Birds were last seen in their favourite wintering grounds in Keoladeo National Park in 2002. Structures such as power lines, wind farms and offshore oil-rigs have also been known to affect migratory birds. Other migration hazards include pollution, storms, wildfires, and habitat destruction along migration routes, denying migrants food at stopover points. For example, in the East Asian–Australasian Flyway, up to 65% of key intertidal habitat at the Yellow Sea migration bottleneck has been destroyed since the 1950s.Other significant areas include stop-over sites between the wintering and breeding territories. A capture-recapture study of passerine migrants with high fidelity for breeding and wintering sites did not show similar strict association with stop-over sites. Unfortunately, many historic stopover sites have been destroyed or drastically reduced due to human agricultural development, leading to an increased risk of bird extinction, especially in the face of climate change.Conversely, so-called "ship-assisted migration" may be a modern benefit to migrating birds by giving them a mid-ocean rest stop on ships. Stopover site conservation efforts California's Central Valley was once a massive stopover site for birds traveling along the Pacific Flyway, before being converted into agricultural land. 90% of North America's shorebirds utilize this migration path and the destruction of rest stops has had detrimental impacts on bird populations, as they cannot get adequate rest and food and can be unable to complete their migration. As a solution, conservationists and farmers in the United States are now working together to help provide stopover habitats for migrating birds. In the winter, when many of these birds are migrating, farmers are now flooding their fields in order to provide temporary wetlands for birds to rest and feed before continuing their journey. Rice is a major crop produced along this flyway, and flooded rice paddies have shown to be important areas for at least 169 different bird species. For example, in California, legislation changes have made it illegal for farmers to burn excess rice straw, so instead they have begun flooding their fields during the winter. Similar practices are now taking place across the nation, with the Mississippi Alluvial Valley being a primary area of interest due to its agricultural use and its importance for migration.Plant debris provides food sources for the birds while the newly formed wetland serves as a habitat for bird prey species such as insects and other invertebrates. In turn, bird foraging assists in breaking down plant matter and droppings then help to fertilize the field helping the farmers, and in turn significantly decreasing their need for artificial fertilizers by at least 13%. Recent studies have shown that the implementation of these temporary wetlands has had significant positive impacts on bird populations, such as the White‐fronted Goose, as well as various species of wading birds. The artificial nature of these temporary wetlands also greatly reduces the threat of predation from other wild animals. This practice requires extremely low investment on behalf of the farmers, and researchers believe that mutually beneficial approaches such as this are key to wildlife conservation moving forward. Economic incentives are key to getting more farmers to participate in this practice. However, issues can arise if bird populations are too high with their large amounts of droppings decreasing water quality and potentially leading to eutrophication. Increasing participation in this practice would allow migratory birds to spread out and rest on a wider variety of locations, decreasing the negative impacts of having too many birds congregated in a small area. Using this practice in areas with close proximity to natural wetlands could also greatly increase their positive impact. See also Human-guided migration Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center Winged Migration, 2001 documentary film References Further reading Alerstam, Thomas (2001). "Detours in bird migration" (PDF). Journal of Theoretical Biology. 209 (3): 319–331. Bibcode:2001JThBi.209..319A. doi:10.1006/jtbi.2001.2266. PMID 11312592. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 May 2015. Alerstam, Thomas (1993). Bird Migration. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44822-2. (first published 1982 as Fågelflyttning, Bokförlaget Signum) Berthold, Peter (2001). Bird Migration: A General Survey (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850787-1. Bewick, Thomas (1797–1804). History of British Birds (1847 ed.). Newcastle: Beilby and Bewick. Dingle, Hugh (1996). Migration: The Biology of Life on The Move. Oxford University Press. Hobson, Keith; Wassenaar, Leonard (2008). Tracking Animal Migration with Stable Isotopes. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-373867-7. Weidensaul, Scott (1999). Living On the Wind: Across the Hemisphere With Migratory Birds. Douglas & McIntyre. White, Gilbert (1898) [1789]. The Natural History of Selborne. Walter Scott. External links Dedicated issue of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B on Adaptation to the Annual Cycle. Route of East Asian Migratory Flyaway Olango Wildlife Sanctuary as a refuelling station of migratory birds Migration Ecology Group, Lund University, Sweden Migrate.ou.edu – Migration Interest Group: Research Applied Toward Education, USA Canadian Migration Monitoring Network (Co-ordinates bird migration monitoring stations across Canada) Bird Research by Science Daily- includes several articles on bird migration The Nature Conservancy's Migratory Bird Program The Compasses of Birds – a review from the Science Creative Quarterly BBC Supergoose – satellite tagging of light-bellied brent geese Soaring with Fidel – follow the annual migration of ospreys from Cape Cod to Cuba to Venezuela Bat predation on migrating birds Global Register of Migratory Species – features not only birds, but other migratory vertebrates such as fishes eBird.com Occurrence Maps – Occurrence maps of migrations of various species in the United States Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center – "Fostering greater understanding, appreciation, and protection of the grand phenomenon of bird migration." The Secrets of Bird Migration: The How, Why, And Where of Flying Across the World Online databases Trektellen.org – Live bird migration counts and ringing records from all over the world Hawkcount.org – Count data and site profiles for over 300 North American Hawkwatch sites Migraction.net – Interactive database with real-time information on bird migration (France)

solar activity and climate

Patterns of solar irradiance and solar variation have been a main driver of climate change over the millions to billions of years of the geologic time scale. Evidence that this is the case comes from analysis on many timescales and from many sources, including: direct observations; composites from baskets of different proxy observations; and numerical climate models. On millennial timescales, paleoclimate indicators have been compared to cosmogenic isotope abundances as the latter are a proxy for solar activity. These have also been used on century times scales but, in addition, instrumental data are increasingly available (mainly telescopic observations of sunspots and thermometer measurements of air temperature) and show that, for example, the temperature fluctuations do not match the solar activity variations and that the commonly-invoked association of the Little Ice Age with the Maunder minimum is far too simplistic as, although solar variations may have played a minor role, a much bigger factor is known to be Little Ice Age volcanism. In recent decades observations of unprecedented accuracy, sensitivity and scope (of both solar activity and terrestrial climate) have become available from spacecraft and show unequivocally that recent global warming is not caused by changes in the Sun. Geologic time Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula. Volcanic outgassing probably created the primordial atmosphere, which contained almost no oxygen and would have been toxic to humans and most modern life. Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies which led to extreme volcanism. Over time, the planet cooled and formed a solid crust, eventually allowing liquid water to exist on the surface. Three to four billion years ago the Sun emitted only 70% of its current power. Under the present atmospheric composition, this past solar luminosity would have been insufficient to prevent water from uniformly freezing. There is nonetheless evidence that liquid water was already present in the Hadean and Archean eons, leading to what is known as the faint young Sun paradox. Hypothesized solutions to this paradox include a vastly different atmosphere, with much higher concentrations of greenhouse gases than currently exist.Over the following approximately 4 billion years, the Sun's energy output increased and the composition of the Earth atmosphere changed. The Great Oxygenation Event around 2.4 billion years ago was the most notable alteration of the atmosphere. Over the next five billion years, the Sun's ultimate death as it becomes a very bright red giant and then a very faint white dwarf will have dramatic effects on climate, with the red giant phase likely already ending any life on Earth. Measurement Since 1978, solar irradiance has been directly measured by satellites with very good accuracy.: 6  These measurements indicate that the Sun's total solar irradiance fluctuates by +-0.1% over the ~11 years of the solar cycle, but that its average value has been stable since the measurements started in 1978. Solar irradiance before the 1970s is estimated using proxy variables, such as tree rings, the number of sunspots, and the abundances of cosmogenic isotopes such as 10Be, all of which are calibrated to the post-1978 direct measurements.Solar activity has been on a declining trend since the 1960s, as indicated by solar cycles 19-24, in which the maximum number of sunspots were 201, 111, 165, 159, 121 and 82, respectively. In the three decades following 1978, the combination of solar and volcanic activity is estimated to have had a slight cooling influence. A 2010 study found that the composition of solar radiation might have changed slightly, with in an increase of ultraviolet radiation and a decrease in other wavelengths." Modern era In the modern era, the Sun has operated within a sufficiently narrow band that climate has been little affected. Models indicate that the combination of solar variations and volcanic activity can explain periods of relative warmth and cold between A.D. 1000 and 1900. The Holocene Numerous paleoenvironmental reconstructions have looked for relationships between solar variability and climate. Arctic paleoclimate, in particular, has linked total solar irradiance variations and climate variability. A 2001 paper identified a ~1500 year solar cycle that was a significant influence on North Atlantic climate throughout the Holocene. Little Ice Age One historical long-term correlation between solar activity and climate change is the 1645–1715 Maunder minimum, a period of little or no sunspot activity which partially overlapped the "Little Ice Age" during which cold weather prevailed in Europe. The Little Ice Age encompassed roughly the 16th to the 19th centuries. Whether the low solar activity or other factors caused the cooling is debated. The Spörer Minimum between 1460 and 1550 was matched to a significant cooling period.A 2012 paper instead linked the Little Ice Age to volcanism, through an "unusual 50-year-long episode with four large sulfur-rich explosive eruptions," and claimed "large changes in solar irradiance are not required" to explain the phenomenon.A 2010 paper suggested that a new 90-year period of low solar activity would reduce global average temperatures by about 0.3 °C, which would be far from enough to offset the increased forcing from greenhouse gases. Fossil fuel era The link between recent solar activity and climate has been quantified and is not a major driver of the warming that has occurred since early in the twentieth century. Human-induced forcings are needed to reproduce the late-20th century warming. Some studies associate solar cycle-driven irradiation increases with part of twentieth century warming.Three mechanisms are proposed by which solar activity affects climate: Solar irradiance changes directly affecting the climate ("radiative forcing"). This is generally considered to be a minor effect, as the measured amplitudes of the variations are too small to have significant effect, absent some amplification process. Variations in the ultraviolet component. The UV component varies by more than the total, so if UV were for some (as yet unknown) reason to have a disproportionate effect, this might explain a larger solar signal. Effects mediated by changes in galactic cosmic rays (which are affected by the solar wind) such as changes in cloud cover.Climate models have been unable to reproduce the rapid warming observed in recent decades when they only consider variations in total solar irradiance and volcanic activity. Hegerl et al. (2007) concluded that greenhouse gas forcing had "very likely" caused most of the observed global warming since the mid-20th century. In making this conclusion, they allowed for the possibility that climate models had been underestimating the effect of solar forcing.Another line of evidence comes from looking at how temperatures at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere have changed. Models and observations show that greenhouse gas results in warming of the troposphere, but cooling of the stratosphere. Depletion of the ozone layer by chemical refrigerants stimulated a stratospheric cooling effect. If the Sun was responsible for observed warming, warming of the troposphere at the surface and warming at the top of the stratosphere would be expected as the increased solar activity would replenish ozone and oxides of nitrogen. Lines of evidence The assessment of the solar activity/climate relationship involves multiple, independent lines of evidence. Sunspots Early research attempted to find a correlation between weather and sunspot activity, mostly without notable success. Later research has concentrated more on correlating solar activity with global temperature. Irradiation Accurate measurement of solar forcing is crucial to understanding possible solar impact on terrestrial climate. Accurate measurements only became available during the satellite era, starting in the late 1970s, and even that is open to some residual disputes: different teams find different values, due to different methods of cross-calibrating measurements taken by instruments with different spectral sensitivity. Scafetta and Willson argue for significant variations of solar luminosity between 1980 and 2000, but Lockwood and Frohlich find that solar forcing declined after 1987. The 2001 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Third Assessment Report (TAR) concluded that the measured impact of recent solar variation is much smaller than the amplification effect due to greenhouse gases, but acknowledged that scientific understanding is poor with respect to solar variation.Estimates of long-term solar irradiance changes have decreased since the TAR. However, empirical results of detectable tropospheric changes have strengthened the evidence for solar forcing of climate change. The most likely mechanism is considered to be some combination of direct forcing by TSI changes and indirect effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on the stratosphere. Least certain are indirect effects induced by galactic cosmic rays.In 2002, Lean et al. stated that while "There is ... growing empirical evidence for the Sun's role in climate change on multiple time scales including the 11-year cycle", "changes in terrestrial proxies of solar activity (such as the 14C and 10Be cosmogenic isotopes and the aa geomagnetic index) can occur in the absence of long-term (i.e., secular) solar irradiance changes ... because the stochastic response increases with the cycle amplitude, not because there is an actual secular irradiance change." They conclude that because of this, "long-term climate change may appear to track the amplitude of the solar activity cycles," but that "Solar radiative forcing of climate is reduced by a factor of 5 when the background component is omitted from historical reconstructions of total solar irradiance ...This suggests that general circulation model (GCM) simulations of twentieth century warming may overestimate the role of solar irradiance variability." A 2006 review suggested that solar brightness had relatively little effect on global climate, with little likelihood of significant shifts in solar output over long periods of time. Lockwood and Fröhlich, 2007, found "considerable evidence for solar influence on the Earth's pre-industrial climate and the Sun may well have been a factor in post-industrial climate change in the first half of the last century", but that "over the past 20 years, all the trends in the Sun that could have had an influence on the Earth's climate have been in the opposite direction to that required to explain the observed rise in global mean temperatures." In a study that considered geomagnetic activity as a measure of known solar-terrestrial interaction, Love et al. found a statistically significant correlation between sunspots and geomagnetic activity, but not between global surface temperature and either sunspot number or geomagnetic activity.Benestad and Schmidt concluded that "the most likely contribution from solar forcing a global warming is 7 ± 1% for the 20th century and is negligible for warming since 1980." This paper disagreed with Scafetta and West, who claimed that solar variability has a significant effect on climate forcing. Based on correlations between specific climate and solar forcing reconstructions, they argued that a "realistic climate scenario is the one described by a large preindustrial secular variability (e.g., the paleoclimate temperature reconstruction by Moberg et al.) with TSI experiencing low secular variability (as the one shown by Wang et al.). Under this scenario, they claimed the Sun might have contributed 50% of the observed global warming since 1900. Stott et al. estimated that the residual effects of the prolonged high solar activity during the last 30 years account for between 16% and 36% of warming from 1950 to 1999. Direct measurement and time series Neither direct measurements nor proxies of solar variation correlate well with Earth global temperature, particularly in recent decades when both quantities are best known.The oppositely-directed trends highlighted by Lockwood and Fröhlich in 2007, with global mean temperatures continuing to rise while solar activity fell, have continued and become even more pronounced since then. In 2007 the difference in the trends was apparent after about 1987 and that difference has grown and accelerated in subsequent years. The updated figure (right) shows the variations and contrasts solar cycles 14 and 24, a century apart, that are quite similar in all solar activity measures (in fact cycle 24 is slightly less active than cycle 14 on average), yet the global mean air surface temperature is more than 1 degree Celsius higher for cycle 24 than cycle 14, showing the rise is not associated with solar activity. The total solar irradiance (TSI) panel shows the PMOD composite of observations with a modelled variation from the SATIRE-T2 model of the effect of sunspots and faculae with the addition of a quiet -Sun variation (due to sub-resolution photospheric features and any solar radius changes) derived from correlations with comic ray fluxes and cosmogenic isotopes. The finding that solar activity was approximately the same in cycles 14 and 24 applies to all solar outputs that have, in the past, been proposed as a potential cause of terrestrial climate change and includes total solar irradiance, cosmic ray fluxes, spectral UV irradiance, solar wind speed and/or density, heliospheric magnetic field and its distribution of orientations and the consequent level of geomagnetic activity. Daytime/nighttime Global average diurnal temperature range has decreased. Daytime temperatures have not risen as fast as nighttime temperatures. This is the opposite of the expected warming if solar energy (falling primarily or wholly during daylight, depending on energy regime) were the principal means of forcing. It is, however, the expected pattern if greenhouse gases were preventing radiative escape, which is more prevalent at night. Hemisphere and latitude The Northern Hemisphere is warming faster than the Southern Hemisphere. This is the opposite of the expected pattern if the Sun, currently closer to the Earth during austral summer, were the principal climate forcing. In particular, the Southern Hemisphere, with more ocean area and less land area, has a lower albedo ("whiteness") and absorbs more light. The Northern Hemisphere, however, has higher population, industry and emissions.Furthermore, the Arctic region is warming faster than the Antarctic and faster than northern mid-latitudes and subtropics, despite polar regions receiving less sun than lower latitudes. Altitude Solar forcing should warm Earth's atmosphere roughly evenly by altitude, with some variation by wavelength/energy regime. However, the atmosphere is warming at lower altitudes while cooling higher up. This is the expected pattern if greenhouse gases drive temperature, as on Venus. Solar variation theory A 1994 study of the US National Research Council concluded that TSI variations were the most likely cause of significant climate change in the pre-industrial era, before significant human-generated carbon dioxide entered the atmosphere.Scafetta and West correlated solar proxy data and lower tropospheric temperature for the preindustrial era, before significant anthropogenic greenhouse forcing, suggesting that TSI variations may have contributed 50% of the warming observed between 1900 and 2000 (although they conclude "our estimates about the solar effect on climate might be overestimated and should be considered as an upper limit.") If interpreted as a detection rather than an upper limit, this would contrast with global climate models predicting that solar forcing of climate through direct radiative forcing makes an insignificant contribution. In 2000, Stott and others reported on the most comprehensive model simulations of 20th century climate to that date. Their study looked at both "natural forcing agents" (solar variations and volcanic emissions) as well as "anthropogenic forcing" (greenhouse gases and sulphate aerosols). They found that "solar effects may have contributed significantly to the warming in the first half of the century although this result is dependent on the reconstruction of total solar irradiance that is used. In the latter half of the century, we find that anthropogenic increases in greenhouses gases are largely responsible for the observed warming, balanced by some cooling due to anthropogenic sulphate aerosols, with no evidence for significant solar effects." Stott's group found that combining these factors enabled them to closely simulate global temperature changes throughout the 20th century. They predicted that continued greenhouse gas emissions would cause additional future temperature increases "at a rate similar to that observed in recent decades". In addition, the study notes "uncertainties in historical forcing" — in other words, past natural forcing may still be having a delayed warming effect, most likely due to the oceans.Stott's 2003 work largely revised his assessment, and found a significant solar contribution to recent warming, although still smaller (between 16 and 36%) than that of greenhouse gases.A study in 2004 concluded that solar activity affects the climate - based on sunspot activity, yet plays only a small role in the current global warming. Correlations to solar cycle length In 1991, Friis-Christensen and Lassen claimed a strong correlation of the length of the solar cycle with northern hemispheric temperature changes. They initially used sunspot and temperature measurements from 1861 to 1989 and later extended the period using four centuries of climate records. Their reported relationship appeared to account for nearly 80 per cent of measured temperature changes over this period. The mechanism behind these claimed correlations was a matter of speculation. In a 2003 paper Laut identified problems with some of these correlation analyses. Damon and Laut claimed: the apparent strong correlations displayed on these graphs have been obtained by incorrect handling of the physical data. The graphs are still widely referred to in the literature, and their misleading character has not yet been generally recognized. Damon and Laut stated that when the graphs are corrected for filtering errors, the sensational agreement with the recent global warming, which drew worldwide attention, totally disappeared.In 2000, Lassen and Thejll updated their 1991 research and concluded that while the solar cycle accounted for about half the temperature rise since 1900, it failed to explain a rise of 0.4 °C since 1980. Benestad's 2005 review found that the solar cycle did not follow Earth's global mean surface temperature. In 2022, Chatzistergos updated the cycle length series with recent sunspot and solar plages data, extending them to more recent periods than previous studies, and also considering the various available time series. This is important because of the plentiful updates and corrections that have been applied to the sunspot data over the last decade. He showed that cycle lengths significantly diverge from Earth's temperatures and concluded that the strong correlation reported by Friis-Christensen and Lassen was an artefact of their analysis. Owing largely to their guess of next extrema times, arbitrarily restricting the analysis over a specific time period, along with other arbitrarities in their methodology. Weather Solar activity may also impact regional climates, such as for the rivers Paraná and Po. Measurements from NASA's Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment show that solar UV output is more variable than total solar irradiance. Climate modelling suggests that low solar activity may result in, for example, colder winters in the US and northern Europe and milder winters in Canada and southern Europe, with little change in global averages. More broadly, links have been suggested between solar cycles, global climate and regional events such as El Niño. Hancock and Yarger found "statistically significant relationships between the double [~21-year] sunspot cycle and the 'January thaw' phenomenon along the East Coast and between the double sunspot cycle and 'drought' (June temperature and precipitation) in the Midwest." Cloud condensation Recent research at CERN's CLOUD facility examined links between cosmic rays and cloud condensation nuclei, demonstrating the effect of high-energy particulate radiation in nucleating aerosol particles that are precursors to cloud condensation nuclei. Kirkby (CLOUD team leader) said, "At the moment, it [the experiment] actually says nothing about a possible cosmic-ray effect on clouds and climate." After further investigation, the team concluded that "variations in cosmic ray intensity do not appreciably affect climate through nucleation."1983–1994 global low cloud formation data from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) was highly correlated with galactic cosmic ray (GCR) flux; subsequent to this period, the correlation broke down. Changes of 3–4% in cloudiness and concurrent changes in cloud top temperatures correlated to the 11 and 22-year solar (sunspot) cycles, with increased GCR levels during "antiparallel" cycles. Global average cloud cover change was measured at 1.5–2%. Several GCR and cloud cover studies found positive correlation at latitudes greater than 50° and negative correlation at lower latitudes. However, not all scientists accept this correlation as statistically significant, and some who do attribute it to other solar variability (e.g. UV or total irradiance variations) rather than directly to GCR changes. Difficulties in interpreting such correlations include the fact that many aspects of solar variability change at similar times, and some climate systems have delayed responses. Historical perspective Physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart in The Discovery of Global Warming (2003) wrote: The study of [sun spot] cycles was generally popular through the first half of the century. Governments had collected a lot of weather data to play with and inevitably people found correlations between sun spot cycles and select weather patterns. If rainfall in England didn't fit the cycle, maybe storminess in New England would. Respected scientists and enthusiastic amateurs insisted they had found patterns reliable enough to make predictions. Sooner or later though every prediction failed. An example was a highly credible forecast of a dry spell in Africa during the sunspot minimum of the early 1930s. When the period turned out to be wet, a meteorologist later recalled "the subject of sunspots and weather relationships fell into dispute, especially among British meteorologists who witnessed the discomfiture of some of their most respected superiors." Even in the 1960s he said, "For a young [climate] researcher to entertain any statement of sun-weather relationships was to brand oneself a crank." See also Radiative forcing Solar phenomena Solar cycle Solar observation Space climate Space weather References General references "The Sun's role in Climate Changes" (PDF). Proc. of The International Conference on Global Warming and The Next Ice Age, 19–24 August 2001, Halifax, Nova Scotia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2004. Retrieved 2005-02-21. White, Warren B.; Lean, Judith; Cayan, Daniel R.; Dettinger, Michael D. (1997). "Response of global upper ocean temperature to changing solar irradiance". Journal of Geophysical Research. 102 (C2): 3255–3266. Bibcode:1997JGR...102.3255W. doi:10.1029/96JC03549. A graphical representation of the relationship between natural and anthropogenic factors contributing to climate change appears in "Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis", a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). External links Gerrit Lohmann; Norel Rimbu; Mihai Dima (2004). "Climate signature of solar irradiance variations: analysis of long-term instrumental, historical, and proxy data" (PDF). International Journal of Climatology. 24 (8): 1045–1056. Bibcode:2004IJCli..24.1045L. doi:10.1002/joc.1054. S2CID 53698312.

white-tailed deer

The white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), also known commonly as the whitetail and the Virginia deer, is a medium-sized species of deer native to North America, Central America, and South America as far south as Peru and Bolivia, where it predominately inhabits high mountain terrains of the Andes. It has also been introduced to New Zealand, all the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico), and some countries in Europe, such as the Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Romania and Serbia. In the Americas, it is the most widely distributed wild ungulate. In North America, the species is widely distributed east of the Rocky Mountains as well as in southwestern Arizona and most of Mexico, except Lower California. It is mostly displaced by the black-tailed or mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) from that point west except for mixed deciduous riparian corridors, river valley bottomlands, and lower foothills of the northern Rocky Mountain region from Wyoming west to eastern Washington and eastern Oregon and north to northeastern British Columbia and southern Yukon, including in the Montana valley and foothill grasslands. The westernmost population of the species, known as the Columbian white-tailed deer, was once widespread in the mixed forests along the Willamette and Cowlitz River valleys of western Oregon and southwestern Washington, but current numbers are considerably reduced, and it is classified as near-threatened. This population is separated from other white-tailed deer populations.Texas is home to the most white-tailed deer of any U.S. state or Canadian province, with an estimated population of 5.3 million. High populations of white-tailed deer exist in the Edwards Plateau of central Texas. Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa, Mississippi, Missouri, New Jersey, Illinois, Wisconsin, Maryland, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, and Indiana also boast high deer densities. The conversion of land adjacent to the Canadian Rockies to agriculture use and partial clear-cutting of coniferous trees, resulting in widespread deciduous vegetation, has been favorable to the white-tailed deer and has pushed its distribution to as far north as Yukon. Populations of deer around the Great Lakes have expanded their range northwards, also due to conversion of land to agricultural use, with local caribou, elk, and moose populations declining. White-tailed deer are crepuscular, meaning they are most active during the dawn and dusk hours. Taxonomy Some taxonomists have attempted to separate white-tailed deer into a host of subspecies, based largely on morphological differences. Genetic studies, however, suggest fewer subspecies within the animal's range, as compared to the 30 to 40 subspecies that some scientists have described in the last century. The Florida Key deer, O. v. clavium, and the Columbian white-tailed deer, O. v. leucurus, are both listed as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. In the United States, the Virginia white-tail, O. v. virginianus, is among the most widespread subspecies. Several local deer populations, especially in the Southern United States, are descended from white-tailed deer transplanted from various localities east of the Continental Divide. Some of these deer populations may have been from as far north as the Great Lakes region to as far west as Texas, yet are also quite at home in the Appalachian and Piedmont regions of the south. These deer, over time, have intermixed with the local indigenous deer (O. v. virginianus and/or O. v. macrourus) populations. Central and South America have a complex number of white-tailed deer subspecies that range from Guatemala to as far south as Peru. This list of subspecies of deer is more exhaustive than the list of North American subspecies, and the number of subspecies is also questionable. However, the white-tailed deer populations in these areas are difficult to study, due to overhunting in many parts and a lack of protection. Some areas no longer carry deer, so assessing the genetic difference of these animals is difficult. Subspecies There are 26 subspecies; seventeen of these occur in North America, ordered alphabetically. (Numbers in parentheses are range map locations.) North and Central America O. v. acapulcensis (1)– (Southern coastal Mexico) O. v. borealis (2)– northern white-tailed deer (the largest and darkest of the white-tailed deer) O. v. carminis (4)– Carmen Mountains white-tailed deer (Texas-Mexico border) O. v. chiriquensis (5)– (Panama) O. v. clavium (6)– Key deer or Florida Keys white-tailed deer O. v. couesi (7)– Coues' white-tailed deer, Arizona white-tailed deer, or fantail deer O. v. dacotensis (9)– Dakota white-tailed deer or northern plains white-tailed deer (most northerly distribution, rivals the northern white-tailed deer in size) O. v. hiltonensis (12)– Hilton Head Island white-tailed deer O. v. leucurus (13)– Columbian white-tailed deer (Oregon and western coastal area) O. v. macrourus (14)– Kansas white-tailed deer O. v. mcilhennyi (15)– Avery Island white-tailed deer O. v. mexicanus (17)– (central Mexico) O. v. miquihuanensis (18)– (northern central Mexico) O. v. nelsoni (19)– (southern Mexico to Nicaragua) O. v. nemoralis (20)– Nicaraguan white-tailed deer (Gulf of Mexico to Suriname in South America; further restricted from Honduras to Panama) O. v. nigribarbis (21)– Blackbeard Island white-tailed deer O. v. oaxacensis (22)– (southern Mexico) O. v. ochrourus (23)– northwestern white-tailed deer or northern Rocky Mountains white-tailed deer O. v. osceola (24)– Florida coastal white-tailed deer O. v. rothschildi (26)– (Coiba Island, Panama) O. v. seminolus (27)– Florida white-tailed deer O. v. sinaloae (28)– (southern Mexico) O. v. taurinsulae (29)– Bulls Island white-tailed deer (Bulls Island, South Carolina) O. v. texanus (30)– Texas white-tailed deer O. v. thomasi (31)– (southern Mexico) O. v. toltecu (32)– (southern Mexico to El Salvador) O. v. venatorius (35)– Hunting Island white-tailed deer (Hunting Island, South Carolina) O. v. veraecrucis (36)– (eastern coastal Mexico) O. v. virginianus (37)– Virginia white-tailed deer or southern white-tailed deer O. v. yucatanesis (38)– (northern Yucatán, Mexico) South America O. v. cariacou (3)– (French Guiana and northern Brazil) O. v. curassavicus (8)– (Curaçao) O. v. goudotii (10)– (Colombia (Andes) and western Venezuela) O. v. gymnotis (11)– South American white-tailed deer (northern half of Venezuela, including Venezuela's Llanos region) O. v. margaritae (16)– (Margarita Island) O. v. nemoralis (20)– Nicaraguan white-tailed deer (Gulf of Mexico to Suriname in South America; further restricted from Honduras to Panama) O. v. peruvianus (25)– South American white-tailed deer or Andean white-tailed deer (most southerly distribution in Peru and possibly Bolivia) O. v. tropicalis (33)– Peru and Ecuador (possibly Colombia) O. v. ustus (34)– Ecuador (possibly southern Colombia and northern Peru) Description The white-tailed deer's coat is a reddish-brown in the spring and summer, and turns to a grey-brown throughout the fall and winter. The white-tailed deer can be recognized by the characteristic white underside to its tail. It raises its tail when it is alarmed to warn the predator that it has been detected.An indication of a deer's age is the length of the snout and the color of the coat, with older deer tending to have longer snouts and grayer coats. A population of white-tailed deer in New York is entirely white except for the nose and hooves – not albino – in color. The former Seneca Army Depot in Romulus, New York, has the largest known concentration of white deer. Strong conservation efforts have allowed white deer to thrive within the confines of the depot. The white-tailed deer's horizontally slit pupil allows for good night vision and color vision during the day. Whitetails process visual images at a much more rapid rate than humans and are better at detecting motion in low-light conditions. Size and weight The white-tailed deer is highly variable in size, generally following both Allen's rule and Bergmann's rule that the average size is larger farther away from the equator. North American male deer (also known as a buck) usually weigh 68 to 136 kg (150 to 300 lb), but mature bucks over 180 kg (400 lb) have been recorded in the northernmost reaches of their native range, namely Minnesota, Ontario, and Manitoba. In 1926, Carl J. Lenander Jr. took a white-tailed buck near Tofte, Minnesota, that weighed 183 kg (403 lb) after it was field-dressed (internal organs and blood removed) and was estimated at 232 kg (511 lb) when alive. The female (doe) in North America usually weighs from 40 to 90 kg (88 to 198 lb). White-tailed deer from the tropics and the Florida Keys are markedly smaller-bodied than temperate populations, averaging 35 to 50 kg (77 to 110 lb), with an occasional adult female as small as 25 kg (55 lb). White-tailed deer from the Andes are larger than other tropical deer of this species and have thick, slightly woolly-looking fur. Length ranges from 95 to 220 cm (37 to 87 in), including a tail of 10 to 37 cm (3.9 to 14.6 in), and the shoulder height is 53 to 120 cm (21 to 47 in). Including all races, the average summer weight of adult males is 68 kg (150 lb) and is 45.3 kg (100 lb) in adult females. It is among the largest deer species in North America, and the largest in South America.Deer have dichromatic (two-color) vision with blue and yellow primaries; humans normally have trichromatic vision. Thus, deer poorly distinguish the oranges and reds that stand out so well to humans. This makes it very convenient to use deer-hunter orange as a safety color on caps and clothing to avoid accidental shootings during hunting seasons. Antlers Males regrow their antlers every year. About one in 10,000 females also has antlers, although this is usually associated with freemartinism. Bucks without branching antlers are often termed "spikehorn", "spiked bucks", "spike bucks", or simply "spikes/spikers". The spikes can be quite long or very short. Length and branching of antlers are determined by nutrition, age, and genetics. Rack growth tends to be very important from late spring until about a month before velvet sheds. Healthy deer in some areas that are well-fed can have eight-point branching antlers as yearlings (1.5 years old). Although antler size typically increases with age, antler characteristics (e.g., number of points, length, or thickness of the antlers) are not good indicators of buck age, in general, because antler development is influenced by the local environment. The individual deer's nutritional needs for antler growth is dependent on the diet of the deer, particularly protein intake. Good antler-growth nutritional needs (calcium) and good genetics combine to produce wall trophies in some of their range. Spiked bucks are different from "button bucks" or "nubbin' bucks", that are male fawns and are generally about six to nine months of age during their first winter. They have skin-covered nobs on their heads. They can have bony protrusions up to a 10 mm (1⁄2 in) in length, but that is very rare, and they are not the same as spikes. Antlers begin to grow in late spring, covered with a highly vascularised tissue known as velvet. Bucks either have a typical or atypical antler arrangement. Typical antlers are symmetrical and the points grow straight up off the main beam. Atypical antlers are asymmetrical and the points may project at any angle from the main beam. These descriptions are not the only limitations for typical and atypical antler arrangement. The Boone and Crockett or Pope and Young scoring systems also define relative degrees of typicality and atypicality by procedures to measure what proportion of the antlers is asymmetrical. Therefore, bucks with only slight asymmetry are scored as "typical". A buck's inside spread can be from 8–60 cm (3–25 in). Bucks shed their antlers when all females have been bred, from late December to February. Ecology White-tailed deer are generalists and can adapt to a wide variety of habitats. The largest deer occur in the temperate regions of North America. The northern white-tailed deer (O. v. borealis), Dakota white-tailed deer (O. v. dacotensis), and northwest white-tailed deer (O. v. ochrourus) are some of the largest animals, with large antlers. The smallest deer occur in the Florida Keys and in partially wooded lowlands in the Neotropics. Although most often thought of as forest animals depending on relatively small openings and edges, white-tailed deer can equally adapt themselves to life in more open prairie, savanna woodlands, and sage communities as in the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. These savanna-adapted deer have relatively large antlers in proportion to their body size and large tails. Also, a noticeable difference exists in size between male and female deer of the savannas. The Texas white-tailed deer (O. v. texanus), of the prairies and oak savannas of Texas and parts of Mexico, are the largest savanna-adapted deer in the Southwest, with impressive antlers that might rival deer found in Canada and the northern United States. Populations of Arizona (O. v. couesi) and Carmen Mountains (O. v. carminis) white-tailed deer inhabit montane mixed oak and pine woodland communities. The Arizona and Carmen Mountains deer are smaller, but may also have impressive antlers, considering their size. The white-tailed deer of the Llanos region of Colombia and Venezuela (O. v. apurensis and O. v. gymnotis) have antler dimensions similar to the Arizona white-tailed deer. In some western regions of North America, the white-tailed deer range overlaps with those of the mule deer. White-tail incursions in the Trans-Pecos region of Texas have resulted in some hybrids. In the extreme north of the range, their habitat is also used by moose in some areas. White-tailed deer may occur in areas that are also exploited by elk (wapiti) such as in mixed deciduous river valley bottomlands and formerly in the mixed deciduous forest of eastern United States. In places such as Glacier National Park in Montana and several national parks in the Columbian Mountains (Mount Revelstoke National Park) and Canadian Rocky Mountains, as well as in the Yukon Territory (Yoho National Park and Kootenay National Park), white-tailed deer are shy and more reclusive than the coexisting mule deer, elk, and moose. Central American white-tailed deer prefer tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests, seasonal mixed deciduous forests, savanna, and adjacent wetland habitats over dense tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests. South American subspecies of white-tailed deer live in two types of environments. The first type, similar to the Central American deer, consists of savannas, dry deciduous forests, and riparian corridors that cover much of Venezuela and eastern Colombia. The other type is the higher elevation mountain grassland/mixed forest ecozones in the Andes Mountains, from Venezuela to Peru. The Andean white-tailed deer seem to retain gray coats due to the colder weather at high altitudes, whereas the lowland savanna forms retain the reddish brown coats. South American white-tailed deer, like those in Central America, also generally avoid dense moist broadleaf forests. Since the second half of the 19th century, white-tailed deer have been introduced to Europe. A population in the Brdy area remains stable today. In 1935, white-tailed deer were introduced to Finland. The introduction was successful, and the deer have recently begun spreading through northern Scandinavia and southern Karelia, competing with, and sometimes displacing, native species. The 2020 population of some 109,000 deer originated from four animals provided by Finnish Americans from Minnesota. Diet White-tailed deer eat large amounts of food, commonly eating legumes and foraging on other plants, including shoots, leaves, cacti (in deserts), prairie forbs, and grasses. They also eat acorns, fruit, and corn. Their multi-chambered stomachs allow them to eat some foods humans cannot, such as mushrooms (even those that are toxic to humans) and poison ivy. Their diets vary by season according to the availability of food sources. They also eat hay, grass, white clover, and other foods they can find in a farmyard. Though almost entirely herbivorous, white-tailed deer have been known to opportunistically feed on nesting songbirds, field mice, and birds trapped in mist nets, if the need arises. When additional amounts of minerals such as calcium are needed in their diet, they can resort to osteophagy, chewing on bones of dead animals. A grown deer can eat around 900 kg (2,000 lb) of vegetable matter annually. A population of around 8 deer per square kilometre (20 /sq mi) can start to destroy the forest environment in their foraging area.Their diet consists mostly of woody shoots, stems, and leaves of woody plants as well as grasses, cultivated crops, nuts, berries, and wildflowers. The items they feed on are not generally abundant in mature forests and are mostly found at "edges". Edges are described as a "mosaic of vegetation types that create numerous interwoven 'edges' where their respective boundaries intersect" and provide optimum cover for browsers such as the white-tailed deer. White-tailed deer can easily thrive in suburban areas, as a combination of increased safety from some predators (including human hunting), high quality and abundance of foods in home gardens, city parks, open farmland, and other factors all create landscapes with an abundance of edge habitat. The white-tailed deer is a ruminant, which means it has a four-chambered stomach. Each chamber has a different and specific function that allows the deer to eat a variety of different foods, digesting it at a later time in a safe area of cover. The stomach hosts a complex set of microbes that change as the deer's diet changes through the seasons. If the microbes necessary for digestion of a particular food (e.g., hay) are absent, it will not be digested. Utilizing foregut fermentation, the fermented ingesta (known as cud) is regurgitated and chewed again, to mix it with saliva and reduce the particle size. Smaller particle size allows for increased nutrient absorption and the saliva is important because it provides liquid for the microbial population, recirculates nitrogen and minerals, and acts as a buffer for the rumen pH. Predators There are several natural predators of white-tailed deer, with wolves, cougars, American alligators, jaguars (in the American southwest, Mexico, and Central and South America) and humans being the most effective natural predators. Aside from humans, these predators frequently pick out easily caught young or infirm deer (which is believed to improve the genetic stock of a population), but can and do take healthy adults of any size. Bobcats, Canada lynx, grizzly and American black bears, wolverines, and packs of coyotes usually prey mainly on fawns. Bears may sometimes attack adult deer, while lynxes, coyotes, and wolverines are most likely to take adult deer when the ungulates are weakened by harsh winter weather. Many scavengers rely on deer as carrion, including New World vultures, raptors, red and gray foxes, and corvids. Few wild predators can afford to be picky and any will readily consume deer as carrion. Records exist of American crows and common ravens attempting to prey on white-tailed deer fawns by pecking around their face and eyes, though no accounts of success are given. Occasionally, both golden and bald eagles may capture deer fawns with their talons. In one case, a golden eagle was filmed in Illinois unsuccessfully trying to prey on a large mature white-tailed deer.White-tailed deer typically respond to the presence of potential predators by breathing very heavily (also called blowing) and fleeing. When they blow, the sound alerts other deer in the area. As they run, the flash of their white tails warns other deer. This especially serves to warn fawns when their mother is alarmed. Most natural predators of white-tailed deer hunt by ambush, although canids may engage in an extended chase, hoping to exhaust the prey. Felids typically try to suffocate the deer by biting the throat. Cougars and jaguars will initially knock the deer off balance with their powerful forelegs, whereas the smaller bobcats and lynxes will jump astride the deer to deliver a killing bite. In the case of canids and wolverines, the predators bite at the limbs and flanks, hobbling the deer, until they can reach vital organs and kill it through loss of blood. Bears, which usually target fawns, often simply knock down the prey and then start eating it while it is still alive. Alligators snatch deer as they try to drink from or cross bodies of water, grabbing them with their powerful jaws and dragging them into the water to drown.Most primary natural predators of white-tailed deer have been essentially extirpated in eastern North America, with a very small number of reintroduced critically endangered red wolves, around North Carolina and a small remnant population of Florida panthers, a subspecies of the cougar. Gray wolves, the leading cause of deer mortality where they overlap, co-occur with whitetails in northern Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, and most of Canada. This almost certainly plays a role in the overpopulation issues with this species. Coyotes, widespread and with a rapidly expanding population, are often the only major nonhuman predator of the species in the Eastern U.S., besides an occasional domestic dog. In some areas, American black bears are also significant predators. In north-central Pennsylvania, black bears were found to be nearly as common predators of fawns as coyotes. Bobcats, still fairly widespread, usually only exploit deer as prey when smaller prey is scarce. Discussions have occurred regarding the possible reintroduction of gray wolves and cougars to sections of the eastern United States, largely because of the apparent controlling effect they have through deer predation on local ecosystems, as has been illustrated in the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park and their controlling effect on previously overpopulated elk. However, due to the heavy urban development in much of the Eastern U.S., and fear for livestock and human lives, such ideas have ultimately been rejected by local communities and/or by government services and have not been carried through.In areas where they are heavily hunted by humans, deer run almost immediately from people and are quite wary even where not heavily hunted. White-tailed deer can run faster than their predators and have been recorded sprinting at speeds of 60 km (40 mi) per hour and sustaining speeds of 50 km (30 mi) per hour over distances of 5–6 km (3–4 mi); this ranks them amongst the fastest of all deer, alongside the Eurasian roe deer. They can also jump 3 m (9 ft) high and up to 9 m (30 ft) forward. When shot at, a white-tailed deer will run at high speeds with its tail down. If frightened, the deer will hop in a zig-zag with its tail straight up. If the deer feels extremely threatened, however, it may choose to attack, charging the person or predator posing the threat, using its antlers or, if none are present, its head to fight off its target. Forest alteration In certain parts of eastern North America, high deer densities have caused large reductions in plant biomass, including the density and heights of certain forest wildflowers, tree seedlings, and shrubs. Although they can be seen as a nuisance species, white-tailed deer also play an important role in biodiversity. At the same time, increases in browse-tolerant grasses and sedges and unpalatable ferns have often accompanied intensive deer herbivory. Changes to the structure of forest understories have, in turn, altered the composition and abundance of forest bird communities in some areas. In regions of intermediate density, deer activity has also been shown to increase herbaceous plant diversity, particularly in disturbed areas, by reducing competitively dominant plants; and to increase the growth rates of important canopy trees, perhaps by increased nutrient inputs into the soil.In northeastern hardwood forests, high-density deer populations affect plant succession, particularly following clear-cuts and patch cuts. In succession without deer, annual herbs and woody plants are followed by commercially valuable, shade-tolerant oak and maple. The shade-tolerant trees prevent the invasion of less commercial cherry and American beech, which are stronger nutrient competitors, but not as shade tolerant. Although deer eat shade-tolerant plants and acorns, this is not the only way deer can shift the balance in favor of nutrient competitors. Deer consuming earlier-succession plants allows in enough light for nutrient competitors to invade. Since slow-growing oaks need several decades to develop root systems sufficient to compete with faster-growing species, removal of the canopy prior to that point amplifies the effect of deer on succession. High-density deer populations possibly could browse eastern hemlock seedlings out of existence in northern hardwood forests; however, this scenario seems unlikely, given that deer browsing is not considered the critical factor preventing hemlock re-establishment at large scales.Ecologists have also expressed concern over the facilitative effect high deer populations have on invasions of exotic plant species. In a study of eastern hemlock forests, browsing by white-tailed deer caused populations of three exotic plants to rise faster than they do in the areas which are absent of deer. Seedlings of the three invading species rose exponentially with deer density, while the most common native species fell exponentially with deer density, because deer were preferentially eating the native species. The effects of deer on the invasive and native plants were magnified in cases of canopy disturbance. Population and controls The white-tailed deer population in North America has declined by several million since 2000, but as of 2017 is considered healthy and is approximately equal to the historical pre-colonization white-tailed population on the continent. The species has rebounded considerably after being overhunted nearly to extinction in the late 1800s and very early 1900s. By contrast, the species' closest cousins (blacktail deer and mule deer) have seen their populations cut by more than half in North America after peaking in 1960 and have never regained their pre-colonization numbers. In the 21st century, the loss of natural predators has been more than offset by the ongoing loss of natural habitat to human development, and changes to logging operations.Several methods have been developed to curb the population of white-tailed deer in suburban areas where they are perceived as overabundant, and these can be separated into lethal and nonlethal strategies. Most common in the U.S. is the use of extended hunting as population control, as well as a way to provide meat for humans. In Maryland and many other states, a state agency sets regulations on bag limits and hunting in the area depending on the deer population levels assessed. Hunting seasons may fluctuate in duration, or restrictions may be set to affect how many deer or what type of deer can be hunted in certain regions. For the 2015–2016 white-tailed deer-hunting season, some areas allowed only the hunting of antlerless white-tailed deer. These included young bucks and females, encouraging the culling of does which would otherwise contribute to increasing populations via offspring production.A more targeted yet more expensive removal strategy than public hunting is a method referred to as sharpshooting. Sharpshooting can be an option when the area inhabited by the deer is unfit for public hunting. This strategy may work in areas close to human populations, since it is done by professional marksmen, and requires a submitted plan of action to the city with details of the time and location of the action, as well as number of deer to be culled. Another controversial method involves trapping the deer in a net or other trap, and then administering a chemical euthanizing agent or extermination by firearm. A main issue in questioning the humaneness of this method is the stress that the deer endure while trapped and awaiting extermination.Nonlethal methods include contraceptive injections, sterilization, and translocation of deer. While lethal methods have municipal support as being the most effective in the short term, some opponents of this view suggest that extermination has no significant impact on deer populations. Opponents of contraceptive methods point out that fertility control cannot provide meat and proves ineffective over time as populations in open-field systems move about. Concerns are voiced that the contraceptives have not been adequately researched for the effect they could have on humans. Fertility control also does nothing to affect the current population and the effects their grazing may be having on the forest plant make-up.Translocation has been considered overly costly for the little benefit it provides. Deer experience high stress and are at high risk of dying in the process, putting into question its humaneness. Another concern regarding translocation is the possible spreading of chronic wasting disease to unaffected deer populations and concerns about exposure to human populations.In addition to the danger of deer-vehicle collisions the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) reported that the estimated loss in field crops, nuts, fruits, and vegetables in 2001 was near $765 million. Behavior Males compete for the opportunity of breeding females. Sparring among males determines a dominance hierarchy. Bucks attempt to copulate with as many females as possible, losing physical condition, since they rarely eat or rest during the rut. The general geographical trend is for the rut to be shorter in duration at increased latitude. Many factors determine how intense the "rutting season" will be; air temperature is a major one. Any time the temperature rises above 40 °F (4 °C), the males do much less traveling looking for females, else they will be subject to overheating or dehydrating. Another factor for the strength of rutting activity is competition. If numerous males are in a particular area, then they compete more with the females. If fewer males or more females are present, then the selection process will not need to be as competitive. Reproduction Females enter estrus, colloquially called the rut, in the autumn, normally in late October or early November, triggered mainly by the declining photoperiod. Sexual maturation of females depends on population density, as well as the availability of food. Young females often flee from an area heavily populated with males. Some does may be as young as six months when they reach sexual maturity, but the average age of maturity is 18 months. Copulation consists of a brief copulatory jump.Females give birth to one to three spotted young, known as fawns, in mid-to-late spring, generally in May or June. Fawns lose their spots during the first summer and weigh from 20 to 35 kg (44 to 77 lb) by the first winter. Male fawns tend to be slightly larger and heavier than females. For the first four weeks, fawns are hidden in vegetation by their mothers, who nurse them four to five times a day. This strategy keeps scent levels low to avoid predators. After about a month, the fawns are then able to follow their mothers on foraging trips. They are usually weaned after 8–10 weeks, but cases have been seen where mothers have continued to allow nursing long after the fawns have lost their spots (for several months, or until the end of fall) as seen by rehabilitators and other studies. Males leave their mothers after a year and females leave after two. Bucks are generally sexually mature at 1.5 years old and begin to breed even in populations stacked with older bucks. Communication White-tailed deer have many forms of communication involving sounds, scent, body language, and marking. In addition to the blowing as mentioned above in the presence of danger, all white-tailed deer can produce audible noises unique to each animal. Fawns release a high-pitched squeal, known as a bleat, to call out to their mothers. This bleat deepens as the fawn grows until it becomes the grunt of the mature deer, a guttural sound that attracts the attention of any other deer in the area. A doe makes maternal grunts when searching for her bedded fawns. Bucks also grunt, at a pitch lower than that of the doe; this grunt deepens as the buck matures. In addition to grunting, both does and bucks also snort, a sound that often signals an imminent threat. Mature bucks also produce a grunt-snort-wheeze pattern, unique to each animal, that asserts its dominance, aggression, and hostility. Another way white-tailed deer communicate is through the use of their white tail. When spooked, it will raise its tail to warn the other deer in the immediate area. Marking White-tailed deer possess many glands that allow them to produce scents, some of which are so potent they can be detected by the human nose. Four major glands are the preorbital, forehead, tarsal, and metatarsal glands. Secretions from the preorbital glands (in front of the eye) were thought to be rubbed on tree branches, but research suggests this is not so. Scent from the forehead or sudoriferous glands (found on the head, between the antlers and eyes) is used to deposit scent on branches that overhang "scrapes" (areas scraped by the deer's front hooves before rub-urination). The tarsal glands are found on the upper inside of the hock (middle joint) on each hind leg. The scent is deposited from these glands when deer walk through and rub against vegetation. These scrapes are used by bucks as a sort of "sign-post" by which bucks know which other bucks are in the area, and to let does know a buck is regularly passing through the area—for breeding purposes. The scent from the metatarsal glands, found on the outside of each hind leg, between the ankle and hooves, may be used as an alarm scent. The scent from the interdigital glands, which are located between the hooves of each foot, emit a yellow waxy substance with an offensive odor. Deer can be seen stomping their hooves if they sense danger through sight, sound, or smell; this action leaves an excessive amount of odor for warning other deer of possible danger. Throughout the year, deer rub-urinate, a process during which a deer squats while urinating so the urine will run down the insides of the deer's legs, over the tarsal glands, and onto the hair covering these glands. Bucks rub-urinate more frequently during the breeding season. Secretions from the tarsal gland mix with the urine and bacteria to produce a strong-smelling odor. During the breeding season, does release hormones and pheromones that tell bucks a doe is in heat and able to breed. Bucks also rub trees and shrubs with their antlers and heads during the breeding season, possibly transferring scent from the forehead glands to the tree, leaving a scent other deer can detect.Sign-post marking (scrapes and rubs) is a very obvious way white-tailed deer communicate. Although bucks do most of the marking, does visit these locations often. To make a rub, a buck uses his antlers to strip the bark off small-diameter trees, helping to mark his territory and polish his antlers. To mark areas they regularly pass through, bucks make scrapes. Often occurring in patterns known as scrape lines, scrapes are areas where a buck has used his front hooves to expose bare earth. They often rub-urinate into these scrapes, which are often found under twigs that have been marked with scent from the forehead glands. Hunting White-tailed deer have long been hunted as game, for pure sport and for their commodities, and is probably the most hunted native big game species in the Americas. In Mesoamerica, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were hunted from very early times. Rites and rituals in preparation for deer hunting and celebration for an auspicious hunt are still practiced in the area today. Ancient hunters ask their gods for permission to hunt, and some deer rites take place in caves.Venison, or deer meat, is a nutritious form of lean animal protein. In some areas where their populations are very high, white-tailed deer are considered a pest, and hunting is used as a method to control them.In 1884, one of the first hunts of white-tailed deer in Europe was conducted in Opočno and Dobříš (Brdy Mountains area), in what is now the Czech Republic. In the same era, white-tailed deer were hunted to near extinction in North America, but numbers have since rebounded to approximate pre-colonization levels. In the United States, whitetail hunting is far more popular in some states than others. The top five states for whitetail hunter concentrations are all in the Northeast and Midwest (Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, New York, Wisconsin, and Ohio). The Northeast in particular has twice the hunter density of the Midwest and Southeast and ten times that of the West.Since whitetail deer is very adaptable, inhabiting diverse regions ranging from tropical rain forests to high-altitude mountain chains of the Andes Mountains at more than 13,000 feet, different hunting methods as well as types of guns and ammo may be used. Most common cartridges used include the .243 Winchester, .308 Winchester, .25-06 Remington, .270 Winchester, 7mm Remington Magnum, .30-06 Springfield, .300 Winchester Magnum and 12 gauge shotshells. Due to the whitetail deer's frame and weight, cup and core bullets are the most recommended for taking clean, ethical shots. Sport hunting for whitetail deer is a way of conservation of natural habitats as well as a population management. Human interactions By the early 20th century, commercial exploitation and unregulated hunting had severely depressed deer populations in much of their range. For example, by about 1930, the U.S. population was thought to number about 300,000. After an outcry by hunters and conservation ecologists, commercial exploitation of deer became illegal and conservation programs along with regulated hunting were introduced. In 2005, estimates put the deer population in the United States at around 30 million. Conservation practices have proved so successful, in parts of their range, the white-tailed deer populations currently far exceed their cultural carrying capacity and the animal may be considered a nuisance. A reduction in non-human predators (which normally cull young, sick, or infirm specimens) has undoubtedly contributed to locally abundant populations. At high population densities, farmers can suffer economic damage by deer feeding on cash crops, especially in corn and orchards. It has become nearly impossible to grow some crops in some areas unless very burdensome deer-deterring measures are taken. Deer are excellent fence-jumpers, and their fear of motion and sounds meant to scare them away is soon dulled. Timber harvesting and forest clearance have historically resulted in increased deer population densities, which in turn have slowed the rate of reforestation following logging in some areas. High densities of deer can have severe impacts on native plants and animals in parks and natural areas; however, deer browsing can also promote plant and animal diversity in some areas. Deer can also cause substantial damage to landscape plants in suburban areas, leading to limited hunting or trapping to relocate or sterilize them. In parts of the Eastern US with high deer populations and fragmented woodlands, deer often wander into suburban and urban habitats that are less than ideal for the species. Farming In New Zealand, the United States, and Canada, white-tailed deer are kept as livestock, and are extensively as well as intensively farmed for their meat, antlers, and pelts. The industry for farming white-tailed deer has grown significantly in the past two decades. In recent years, sales of white-tailed deer has generated up to $44 million in revenue. They are a good business venture because they have a high fertility rate and long reproductive life, can tolerate all weather, can be raised on land that is not suitable for agriculture and offer many by-products that can be sold. The North-American white-tail deer industry is split between breeding farms and hunting ranches. While some people care about the by-products produced by the deer, some people just care for the pursuit of a hunt. In the United States alone, around 13-14 million hunting licenses are sold every year. This could be a very profitable industry, especially considering the invasiveness of this species and the rate they have shown they are able to reproduce. However, this industry could have great repercussions on the ecosystem the farms are placed in because overpopulation of deer causes damage to local fauna. Deer–vehicle collisions Motor vehicle collisions with deer are a serious problem in many parts of the animal's range, especially at night and during rutting season, causing injuries and fatalities among both deer and humans. Vehicular damage can be substantial in some cases. In the United States, such collisions increased from 200,000 in 1980 to 500,000 in 1991. By 2009, the insurance industry estimated 2.4 million deer–vehicle collisions had occurred over the past two years, estimating damage cost to be over 7 billion dollars and 300 human deaths. Despite the alarming high rate of these accidents, the effect on deer density is still quite low. Vehicle collisions of deer were monitored for two years in Virginia, and the collective annual mortality did not surpass 20% of the estimated deer population.Many techniques have been investigated to prevent roadside mortality. Fences or road under- or over- passes have been shown to decrease deer-vehicle collisions, but are expensive and difficult to implement on a large scale. Roadside habitat modifications could also successfully decrease the number of collisions along roadways. An essential procedure in understanding factors resulting in accidents is to quantify risks, which involves the driver's behavior in terms of safe speed and ability to observe the deer. Some have suggested that reducing speed limits during the winter months when deer density is exceptionally high would likely reduce deer-vehicle collisions, but this may be an impractical solution. Diseases Another issue that exists with high deer density is the spreading of infectious diseases. Increased deer populations lead to increased transmission of tick-borne diseases, which pose a threat to human health, to livestock, and to other deer. Deer are the primary host and vector for the adult black-legged tick, which transmits the Lyme disease bacterium to humans. Lyme disease is the most common vector-borne disease in the country with confirmed cases, according to 2019 CDC data, in virtually every state in the U.S. with the highest incidence levels in the states from Maine to Virginia, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. In 2019 the number of confirmed and probable cases totaled about 35,000. Furthermore, the incidence of Lyme disease seems to reflect deer density in the eastern United States, which suggests a strong correlation. White-tailed deer also serve as intermediate hosts for many diseases that infect humans through ticks, such as Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Newer evidence suggests the white-footed mouse is the most significant vector. SARS-CoV-2 Blood samples gathered by USDA researchers in 2021 also showed that 40% of sampled white-tailed deer demonstrated evidence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, with the highest percentages in Michigan, at 67%, and Pennsylvania, at 44%. A later study by Penn State University and wildlife officials in Iowa showed that up to 80 percent of Iowa deer sampled from April 2020 through January 2021 had tested positive for active SARS-CoV-2 infection, rather than solely antibodies from prior infection. This data, confirmed by the National Veterinary Services Laboratory, alerted scientists to the possibility that white-tailed deer had become a natural reservoir for the coronavirus, serving as a potential "variant factory" for eventual retransmission back into humans. An Ohio State University study further showed that humans had transmitted SARS-CoV-2 to white-tailed deer on at least six separate occasions and that deer possessed six mutations that were uncommon in humans at the time of the study. Infected deer can shed virus via nasal secretions and feces for five to six days and frequently engage in activities conductive to viral spread, such as sniffing food intermingled with waste, nuzzling noses, polygamy, and the sharing of salt licks. Canadian researchers uncovered an entirely new SARS-CoV-2 variant within a November–December 2021 study of Ontario white-tailed deer. The new COVID variant had also infected a person who had close contact with local deer, potentially marking the first instance of deer-to-human transmission. Cultural significance In the U.S., the species is the state animal of Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Michigan, Mississippi, Nebraska, New Hampshire, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and South Carolina, the game animal of Oklahoma, and the wildlife symbol of Wisconsin. The white-tailed deer is also the inspiration of the professional basketball team the Milwaukee Bucks. The profile of a white-tailed deer buck caps the coat of arms of Vermont and can be seen in the flag of Vermont and in stained glass at the Vermont State House. It is the national animal of Honduras and Costa Rica and the provincial animal of Canadian Saskatchewan and Finnish Pirkanmaa. It appears on the reverse side of the Costa Rican 1,000 colón note. The 1942 Disney film adaptation of Bambi, famously changed Bambi's species from the novel's roe deer into a white-tailed deer. Climate change Migration patterns Climate change is affecting the white-tailed deer by changing their migration patterns and increasing their population size. This species of deer is restricted from moving northward due to cold harsh winters. Consequently, as climate change warms up Earth, these deer are allowed to migrate further north which will result in the populations of the white-tailed deer increasing. Between 1980 and 2000 in a study by Dawe and Boutin, presence of white-tailed deer in Alberta, Canada was driven primarily by changes in the climate. Populations of white-tailed deer have also moved anywhere from 50 to 250 km north of the eastern Alberta study site. Another study by Kennedy-Slaney, Bowman, Walpole, and Pond found that if current CO2 emissions remained the same, global warming resulting from the increased greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will allow white-tailed deer to survive further and further north by 2100. Food web When species are introduced to foreign ecosystems, they could potentially wreak havoc on the existing food web. For example, when the deer moved north in Alberta, gray wolf populations increased. This butterfly effect was also demonstrated in Yellowstone National Park when the rivers changed because wolves were re-introduced to the ecosystem. It is also possible that the increasing white-tailed deer populations could result in them becoming an invasive species for various plants in Alberta, Canada. Disease However, there are also negative effects resulting from climate change. The species is vulnerable to diseases that are more prevalent in the summer. Insects carrying these diseases are usually killed during the first snowfall. However, as time goes on, they will be able to live longer than they used to meaning the deer are at higher risk of getting sick. It is possible that this will increase the deers' mortality rate from disease. Examples of these diseases are hemorrhagic disease (HD), epizootic hemorrhagic disease and bluetongue viruses, which are transmitted by biting midges. The hotter summers, longer droughts, and more intense rains create the perfect environment for the midges to thrive in. Ticks also thrive in warmer weather heat results in faster development in all of their life stages. 18 different species of tick infest white-tailed deer in the United States alone. Ticks are parasitic to white-tailed deer transmit diseases causing irritation, anemia, and infections. See also Deer hunting Artiodactyla (list) James Jordan Buck Hole in the Horn Buck References Further reading External links "Odocoileus virginianus". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved March 18, 2006. White-tailed Deer, Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History Video of White-tailed/Coues Deer, Arizona Game & Fish Natureworks, New Hampshire Public TV White-tailed deer, Hinterlands Who's Who Smithsonian Wild: Odocoileus virginianus "Virginian Deer" . Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.

climate risk management

Climate risk management (CRM) is a term describing the strategies involved in reducing climate risk, through the work of various fields including climate change adaptation, disaster management and sustainable development. Major international conferences and workshops include: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, World Meteorological Organization - Living With Climate. Definition Climate risk management is a generic term referring to an approach to climate-sensitive decision making. The approach seeks to promote sustainable development by reducing the vulnerability associated with climate risk. CRM involves strategies aimed at maximizing positive and minimizing negative outcomes for communities in fields such as agriculture, food security, water resources, and health.Climate risk management covers a broad range of potential actions, including: early-response systems, strategic diversification, dynamic resource-allocation rules, financial instruments (such as climate risk insurance), infrastructure design and capacity building. But in addition to avoiding adverse outcomes, a climate risk management strategy also aims to maximize opportunities in climate-sensitive economic sectors--for example, farmers who use favorable seasonal forecasts to maximize their crop productivity. Major international conferences and workshops United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change involves negotiations among delegates on climate change framework. Discussions center on mitigation, adaptation, technology development and transfer, and financial resources and investment. During COP21, the international community funded investment in climate risk insurance as part of the strategies for addressing climate risk. World Meteorological Organization - Living With Climate The Living with Climate Conference was co-hosted by the World Meteorological Organization, the Earth Institute and the Finnish Meteorological Institute in July, 2006. The meeting was designed to review opportunities and constraints in integrating climate risks and uncertainties into decision-making. A major outcome was the Espoo Statement. See also Vulnerability Risk management Disaster risk reduction Finnish Meteorological Institute Earth Institute == References ==

ocean

The ocean (also known as the sea or the world ocean) is a body of salt water that covers approximately 70.8% of the Earth and contains 97% of Earth's water. The term ocean also refers to any of the large bodies of water into which the world ocean is conventionally divided. Distinct names are used to identify five different areas of the ocean: Pacific (the largest), Atlantic, Indian, Antarctic/Southern, and Arctic (the smallest). Seawater covers approximately 361,000,000 km2 (139,000,000 sq mi) of the planet. The ocean is the primary component of the Earth's hydrosphere, and thus essential to life on Earth. The ocean influences climate and weather patterns, the carbon cycle, and the water cycle by acting as a huge heat reservoir. Oceanographers split the ocean into vertical and horizontal zones based on physical and biological conditions. The pelagic zone is the open ocean's water column from the surface to the ocean floor. The water column is further divided into zones based on depth and the amount of light present. The photic zone starts at the surface and is defined to be "the depth at which light intensity is only 1% of the surface value": 36  (approximately 200 m in the open ocean). This is the zone where photosynthesis can occur. In this process plants and microscopic algae (free floating phytoplankton) use light, water, carbon dioxide, and nutrients to produce organic matter. As a result, the photic zone is the most biodiverse and the source of the food supply which sustains most of the ocean ecosystem. Ocean photosynthesis also produces half of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere. Light can only penetrate a few hundred more meters; the rest of the deeper ocean is cold and dark (these zones are called mesopelagic and aphotic zones). The continental shelf is where the ocean meets dry land. It is more shallow, with a depth of a few hundred meters or less. Human activity often has negative impacts on the ecosystems within the continental shelf. Ocean temperatures depend on the amount of solar radiation reaching the ocean surface. In the tropics, surface temperatures can rise to over 30 °C (86 °F). Near the poles where sea ice forms, the temperature in equilibrium is about −2 °C (28 °F). In all parts of the ocean, deep ocean temperatures range between −2 °C (28 °F) and 5 °C (41 °F). Constant circulation of water in the ocean creates ocean currents. These directed movements of seawater are caused by forces operating on the water, such as temperature variations, atmospheric circulation (wind), the Coriolis effect and salinity changes. Tides create tidal currents, while wind and waves cause surface currents. The Gulf Stream, Kuroshio Current, Agulhas Current and Antarctic Circumpolar Current are all major ocean currents. Currents transport massive amounts of water and heat around the world. By transporting these pollutants from the surface into the deep ocean, this circulation impacts global climate and the uptake and redistribution of pollutants such as carbon dioxide. Ocean water contains a high concentration of dissolved gases, including oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. This gas exchange occurs at the ocean's surface and solubility depends on the temperature and salinity of the water. Carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere rises due to fossil fuel combustion, which causes higher levels in ocean water, resulting in ocean acidification. The ocean provides crucial environmental services to humankind, such as climate regulation. It also provides a means of trade and transport as well as access to food and other resources. It is known to be the habitat of over 230,000 species, but may hold considerably more – perhaps over two million species. However, the ocean faces numerous human-caused environmental threats, such as marine pollution, overfishing, and effects of climate change on oceans such as ocean warming, ocean acidification and sea level rise. The continental shelf and coastal waters that are most affected by human activity are particularly vulnerable. Terminology Ocean and sea The terms "the ocean" or "the sea" used without specification refer to the interconnected body of salt water covering the majority of the Earth's surface. It includes the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Antarctic/Southern and Arctic Oceans. As a general term, "the ocean" and "the sea" are often interchangeable, although speakers of British English refer to "the sea" in all cases, even when the body of water is one of the oceans. Strictly speaking, a "sea" is a body of water (generally a division of the world ocean) partly or fully enclosed by land. The word "sea" can also be used for many specific, much smaller bodies of seawater, such as the North Sea or the Red Sea. There is no sharp distinction between seas and oceans, though generally seas are smaller, and are often partly (as marginal seas) or wholly (as inland seas) bordered by land. World ocean The contemporary concept of the World Ocean was coined in the early 20th century by the Russian oceanographer Yuly Shokalsky to refer to the continuous ocean that covers and encircles most of the Earth. The global, interconnected body of salt water is sometimes referred to as the World Ocean, global ocean or the great ocean. The concept of a continuous body of water with relatively unrestricted exchange between its components is critical in oceanography. Etymology The word ocean comes from the figure in classical antiquity, Oceanus (; Greek: Ὠκεανός Ōkeanós, pronounced [ɔːkeanós]), the elder of the Titans in classical Greek mythology. Oceanus was believed by the ancient Greeks and Romans to be the divine personification of an enormous river encircling the world. The concept of Ōkeanós has an Indo-European connection. Greek Ōkeanós has been compared to the Vedic epithet ā-śáyāna-, predicated of the dragon Vṛtra-, who captured the cows/rivers. Related to this notion, the Okeanos is represented with a dragon-tail on some early Greek vases. Natural history Origin of water Scientists believe that a sizable quantity of water would have been in the material that formed Earth. Water molecules would have escaped Earth's gravity more easily when it was less massive during its formation. This is called atmospheric escape. During planetary formation, Earth possibly had magma oceans. Subsequently, outgassing, volcanic activity and meteorite impacts, produced an early atmosphere of carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapor, according to current theories. The gases and the atmosphere are thought to have accumulated over millions of years. After Earth's surface had significantly cooled, the water vapor over time would have condensed, forming Earth's first oceans. The early oceans might have been significantly hotter than today and appeared green due to high iron content.Geological evidence helps constrain the time frame for liquid water existing on Earth. A sample of pillow basalt (a type of rock formed during an underwater eruption) was recovered from the Isua Greenstone Belt and provides evidence that water existed on Earth 3.8 billion years ago. In the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt, Quebec, Canada, rocks dated at 3.8 billion years old by one study and 4.28 billion years old by another show evidence of the presence of water at these ages. If oceans existed earlier than this, any geological evidence either has yet to be discovered, or has since been destroyed by geological processes like crustal recycling. However, in August 2020, researchers reported that sufficient water to fill the oceans may have always been on the Earth since the beginning of the planet's formation. In this model, atmospheric greenhouse gases kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its current luminosity. Ocean formation The origin of Earth's oceans is unknown. Oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean eon and may have been the cause for the emergence of life. Plate tectonics, post-glacial rebound, and sea level rise continually change the coastline and structure of the world ocean. A global ocean has existed in one form or another on Earth for eons. Since its formation the ocean has taken many conditions and shapes with many past ocean divisions and potentially at times covering the whole globe.During colder climatic periods, more ice caps and glaciers form, and enough of the global water supply accumulates as ice to lessen the amounts in other parts of the water cycle. The reverse is true during warm periods. During the last ice age, glaciers covered almost one-third of Earth's land mass with the result being that the oceans were about 122 m (400 ft) lower than today. During the last global "warm spell," about 125,000 years ago, the seas were about 5.5 m (18 ft) higher than they are now. About three million years ago the oceans could have been up to 50 m (165 ft) higher. Geography The entire ocean, containing 97% of Earth's water, spans 70.8% of Earth's surface, making it Earth's global ocean or world ocean. This makes Earth, along with its vibrant hydrosphere a "water world" or "ocean world", particularly in Earth's early history when the ocean is thought to have possibly covered Earth completely. The ocean's shape is irregular, unevenly dominating the Earth's surface. This leads to the distinction of the Earth's surface into a water and land hemisphere, as well as the division of the ocean into different oceans. Seawater covers about 361,000,000 km2 (139,000,000 sq mi) and the Ocean's furthest pole of inaccessibility, known as "Point Nemo", in a region known as spacecraft cemetery of the South Pacific Ocean, at 48°52.6′S 123°23.6′W. This point is roughly 2,688 km (1,670 mi) from the nearest land. Oceanic divisions There are different customs to subdivide the ocean and are adjourned by smaller bodies of water such as, seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits. The Ocean is customarily divided into five principal oceans – listed below in descending order of area and volume: Ocean basins The ocean fills Earth's oceanic basins. Earth's oceanic basins cover different geologic provinces of Earth's oceanic crust as well as continental crust. As such it covers mainly Earth's structural basins, but also continental shelfs. Every ocean basin has a mid-ocean ridge, which creates a long mountain range beneath the ocean. Together they form the global mid-oceanic ridge system that features the longest mountain range in the world. The longest continuous mountain range is 65,000 km (40,000 mi). This underwater mountain range is several times longer than the longest continental mountain range – the Andes.Oceanographers state that less than 20% of the oceans have been mapped. Physical properties Color Water cycle, weather and rainfall Ocean water represents the largest body of water within the global water cycle (oceans contain 97% of Earth's water). Evaporation from the ocean moves water into the atmosphere to later rain back down onto land and the ocean. Oceans have a significant effect on the biosphere. The ocean as a whole is thought to cover approximately 90% of the Earth's biosphere. Oceanic evaporation, as a phase of the water cycle, is the source of most rainfall (about 90%), causing a global cloud cover of 67% and a consistent oceanic cloud cover of 72%. Ocean temperatures affect climate and wind patterns that affect life on land. One of the most dramatic forms of weather occurs over the oceans: tropical cyclones (also called "typhoons" and "hurricanes" depending upon where the system forms). As the world's ocean is the principal component of Earth's hydrosphere, it is integral to life on Earth, forms part of the carbon cycle and water cycle, and – as a huge heat reservoir – influences climate and weather patterns. Waves and swell The motions of the ocean surface, known as undulations or wind waves, are the partial and alternate rising and falling of the ocean surface. The series of mechanical waves that propagate along the interface between water and air is called swell – a term used in sailing, surfing and navigation. These motions profoundly affect ships on the surface of the ocean and the well-being of people on those ships who might suffer from sea sickness. Wind blowing over the surface of a body of water forms waves that are perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The friction between air and water caused by a gentle breeze on a pond causes ripples to form. A strong blow over the ocean causes larger waves as the moving air pushes against the raised ridges of water. The waves reach their maximum height when the rate at which they are travelling nearly matches the speed of the wind. In open water, when the wind blows continuously as happens in the Southern Hemisphere in the Roaring Forties, long, organized masses of water called swell roll across the ocean.: 83–84  If the wind dies down, the wave formation is reduced, but already-formed waves continue to travel in their original direction until they meet land. The size of the waves depends on the fetch, the distance that the wind has blown over the water and the strength and duration of that wind. When waves meet others coming from different directions, interference between the two can produce broken, irregular seas.Constructive interference can lead to the formation of unusually high rogue waves. Most waves are less than 3 m (10 ft) high and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or triple that height. Rogue waves, however, have been documented at heights above 25 meters (82 ft).The top of a wave is known as the crest, the lowest point between waves is the trough and the distance between the crests is the wavelength. The wave is pushed across the surface of the ocean by the wind, but this represents a transfer of energy and not horizontal movement of water. As waves approach land and move into shallow water, they change their behavior. If approaching at an angle, waves may bend (refraction) or wrap around rocks and headlands (diffraction). When the wave reaches a point where its deepest oscillations of the water contact the ocean floor, they begin to slow down. This pulls the crests closer together and increases the waves' height, which is called wave shoaling. When the ratio of the wave's height to the water depth increases above a certain limit, it "breaks", toppling over in a mass of foaming water. This rushes in a sheet up the beach before retreating into the ocean under the influence of gravity.Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or other major geological disturbances can set off waves that can lead to tsunamis in coastal areas which can be very dangerous. Sea level and surface The ocean's surface is an important reference point for oceanography and geography, particularly as mean sea level. The ocean surface has globally little, but measurable topography, depending on the ocean's volumes. The ocean surface is a crucial interface for oceanic and atmospheric processes. Allowing interchange of particles, enriching the air and water, as well as grounds by some particles becoming sediments. This interchange has fertilized life in the ocean, on land and air. All these processes and components together make up ocean surface ecosystems. Tides Tides are the regular rise and fall in water level experienced by oceans, primarily driven by the Moon's gravitational tidal forces upon the Earth. Tidal forces affect all matter on Earth, but only fluids like the ocean demonstrate the effects on human timescales. (For example, tidal forces acting on rock may produce tidal locking between two planetary bodies.) Though primarily driven by the Moon's gravity, oceanic tides are also substantially modulated by the Sun's tidal forces, by the rotation of the Earth, and by the shape of the rocky continents blocking oceanic water flow. (Tidal forces vary more with distance than the "base" force of gravity: the Moon's tidal forces on Earth are more than double the Sun's, despite the latter's much stronger gravitational force on Earth. Earth's tidal forces upon the Moon are 20x stronger than the Moon's tidal forces on the Earth.) The primary effect of lunar tidal forces is to bulge Earth matter towards the near and far sides of the Earth, relative to the moon. The "perpendicular" sides, from which the Moon appears in line with the local horizon, experience "tidal troughs". Since it takes nearly 25 hours for the Earth to rotate under the Moon (accounting for the Moon's 28 day orbit around Earth), tides thus cycle over a course of 12.5 hours. However, the rocky continents pose obstacles for the tidal bulges, so the timing of tidal maxima may not actually align with the Moon in most localities on Earth, as the oceans are forced to "dodge" the continents. Timing and magnitude of tides vary widely across the Earth as a result of the continents. Thus, knowing the Moon's position does not allow a local to predict tide timings, instead requiring precomputed tide tables which account for the continents and the Sun, among others. During each tidal cycle, at any given place the tidal waters rise to maximum height, high tide, before ebbing away again to the minimum level, low tide. As the water recedes, it gradually reveals the foreshore, also known as the intertidal zone. The difference in height between the high tide and low tide is known as the tidal range or tidal amplitude. When the sun and moon are aligned (full moon or new moon), the combined effect results in the higher "spring tides", while the sun and moon misaligning (half moons) result in lesser tidal ranges.In the open ocean tidal ranges are less than 1 meter, but in coastal areas these tidal ranges increase to more than 10 meters in some areas. Some of the largest tidal ranges in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy and Ungava Bay in Canada, reaching up to 16 meters. Other locations with record high tidal ranges include the Bristol Channel between England and Wales, Cook Inlet in Alaska, and the Río Gallegos in Argentina.Tides are not to be confused with storm surges, which can occur when high winds pile water up against the coast in a shallow area and this, coupled with a low pressure system, can raise the surface of the ocean dramatically above a typical high tide. Depth The average depth of the oceans is about 4 km. More precisely the average depth is 3,688 meters (12,100 ft). Nearly half of the world's marine waters are over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep. "Deep ocean," which is anything below 200 meters (660 ft), covers about 66% of Earth's surface. This figure does not include seas not connected to the World Ocean, such as the Caspian Sea. The deepest region of the ocean is at the Mariana Trench, located in the Pacific Ocean near the Northern Mariana Islands. The maximum depth has been estimated to be 10,971 meters (35,994 ft). The British naval vessel Challenger II surveyed the trench in 1951 and named the deepest part of the trench the "Challenger Deep". In 1960, the Trieste successfully reached the bottom of the trench, manned by a crew of two men. Oceanic zones Oceanographers classify the ocean into vertical and horizontal zones based on physical and biological conditions. The pelagic zone consists of the water column of the open ocean, and can be divided into further regions categorized by light abundance and by depth. Grouped by light penetration The ocean zones can be grouped by light penetration into (from top to bottom): the photic zone, the mesopelagic zone and the aphotic deep ocean zone: The photic zone is defined to be "the depth at which light intensity is only 1% of the surface value".: 36  This is usually up to a depth of approximately 200 m in the open ocean. It is the region where photosynthesis can occur and is, therefore, the most biodiverse. Photosynthesis by plants and microscopic algae (free floating phytoplankton) allows the creation of organic matter from chemical precursors including water and carbon dioxide. This organic matter can then be consumed by other creatures. Much of the organic matter created in the photic zone is consumed there but some sinks into deeper waters. The pelagic part of the photic zone is known as the epipelagic. The actual optics of light reflecting and penetrating at the ocean surface are complex.: 34–39  Below the photic zone is the mesopelagic or twilight zone where there is a very small amount of light. The basic concept is that with that little light photosynthesis is unlikely to achieve any net growth over respiration.: 116–124  Below that is the aphotic deep ocean to which no surface sunlight at all penetrates. Life that exists deeper than the photic zone must either rely on material sinking from above (see marine snow) or find another energy source. Hydrothermal vents are a source of energy in what is known as the aphotic zone (depths exceeding 200 m). Grouped by depth and temperature The pelagic part of the aphotic zone can be further divided into vertical regions according to depth and temperature: The mesopelagic is the uppermost region. Its lowermost boundary is at a thermocline of 12 °C (54 °F) which generally lies at 700–1,000 meters (2,300–3,300 ft) in the tropics. Next is the bathypelagic lying between 10 and 4 °C (50 and 39 °F), typically between 700–1,000 meters (2,300–3,300 ft) and 2,000–4,000 meters (6,600–13,100 ft). Lying along the top of the abyssal plain is the abyssopelagic, whose lower boundary lies at about 6,000 meters (20,000 ft). The last and deepest zone is the hadalpelagic which includes the oceanic trench and lies between 6,000–11,000 meters (20,000–36,000 ft). The benthic zones are aphotic and correspond to the three deepest zones of the deep-sea. The bathyal zone covers the continental slope down to about 4,000 meters (13,000 ft). The abyssal zone covers the abyssal plains between 4,000 and 6,000 m. Lastly, the hadal zone corresponds to the hadalpelagic zone, which is found in oceanic trenches.Distinct boundaries between ocean surface waters and deep waters can be drawn based on the properties of the water. These boundaries are called thermoclines (temperature), haloclines (salinity), chemoclines (chemistry), and pycnoclines (density). If a zone undergoes dramatic changes in temperature with depth, it contains a thermocline, a distinct boundary between warmer surface water and colder deep water. In tropical regions, the thermocline is typically deeper compared to higher latitudes. Unlike polar waters, where solar energy input is limited, temperature stratification is less pronounced, and a distinct thermocline is often absent. This is due to the fact that surface waters in polar latitudes are nearly as cold as deeper waters. Below the thermocline, water everywhere in the ocean is very cold, ranging from −1 °C to 3 °C. Because this deep and cold layer contains the bulk of ocean water, the average temperature of the world ocean is 3.9 °C. If a zone undergoes dramatic changes in salinity with depth, it contains a halocline. If a zone undergoes a strong, vertical chemistry gradient with depth, it contains a chemocline. Temperature and salinity control ocean water density. Colder and saltier water is denser, and this density plays a crucial role in regulating the global water circulation within the ocean. The halocline often coincides with the thermocline, and the combination produces a pronounced pycnocline, a boundary between less dense surface water and dense deep water. Grouped by distance from land The pelagic zone can be further subdivided into two sub regions based on distance from land: the neritic zone and the oceanic zone. The neritic zone covers the water directly above the continental shelves, including coastal waters. On the other hand, the oceanic zone includes all the completely open water. The littoral zone covers the region between low and high tide and represents the transitional area between marine and terrestrial conditions. It is also known as the intertidal zone because it is the area where tide level affects the conditions of the region. Volumes The combined volume of water in all the oceans is roughly 1.335 billion cubic kilometers (1.335 sextillion liters, 320.3 million cubic miles). Temperature Ocean temperatures depends on the amount of solar radiation falling on its surface. In the tropics, with the Sun nearly overhead, the temperature of the surface layers can rise to over 30 °C (86 °F) while near the poles the temperature in equilibrium with the sea ice is about −2 °C (28 °F). There is a continuous circulation of water in the oceans. Warm surface currents cool as they move away from the tropics, and the water becomes denser and sinks. The cold water moves back towards the equator as a deep sea current, driven by changes in the temperature and density of the water, before eventually welling up again towards the surface. Deep ocean water has a temperature between −2 °C (28 °F) and 5 °C (41 °F) in all parts of the globe.The temperature gradient over the water depth is related to the way the surface water mixes with deeper water or does not mix (a lack of mixing is called ocean stratification). This depends on the temperature: in the tropics the warm surface layer of about 100 m is quite stable and does not mix much with deeper water, while near the poles winter cooling and storms makes the surface layer denser and it mixes to great depth and then stratifies again in summer. The photic depth is typically about 100 m (but varies) and is related to this heated surface layer. Temperature and salinity by region The temperature and salinity of ocean waters vary significantly across different regions. This is due to differences in the local water balance (precipitation vs. evaporation) and the "sea to air" temperature gradients. These characteristics can vary widely from one ocean region to another. The table below provides an illustration of the sort of values usually encountered. Sea ice Seawater with a typical salinity of 35‰ has a freezing point of about −1.8 °C (28.8 °F). Because sea ice is less dense than water, it floats on the ocean's surface (as does fresh water ice, which has an even lower density). Sea ice covers about 7% of the Earth's surface and about 12% of the world's oceans. Sea ice usually starts to freeze at the very surface, initially as a very thin ice film. As further freezing takes place, this ice film thickens and can form ice sheets. The ice formed incorporates some sea salt, but much less than the seawater it forms from. As the ice forms with low salinity this results in saltier residual seawater. This in turn increases density and promotes vertical sinking of the water. Ocean currents and global climate Types of ocean currents An ocean current is a continuous, directed flow of seawater caused by several forces acting upon the water. These include wind, the Coriolis effect, temperature and salinity differences. Ocean currents are primarily horizontal water movements that have different origins such as tides for tidal currents, or wind and waves for surface currents. Tidal currents are in phase with the tide, hence are quasiperiodic; associated with the influence of the moon and sun pull on the ocean water. Tidal currents may form various complex patterns in certain places, most notably around headlands. Non-periodic or non-tidal currents are created by the action of winds and changes in density of water. In littoral zones, breaking waves are so intense and the depth measurement so low, that maritime currents reach often 1 to 2 knots.The wind and waves create surface currents (designated as "drift currents"). These currents can decompose in one quasi-permanent current (which varies within the hourly scale) and one movement of Stokes drift under the effect of rapid waves movement (which vary on timescales of a couple of seconds). The quasi-permanent current is accelerated by the breaking of waves, and in a lesser governing effect, by the friction of the wind on the surface.This acceleration of the current takes place in the direction of waves and dominant wind. Accordingly, when the ocean depth increases, the rotation of the earth changes the direction of currents in proportion with the increase of depth, while friction lowers their speed. At a certain ocean depth, the current changes direction and is seen inverted in the opposite direction with current speed becoming null: known as the Ekman spiral. The influence of these currents is mainly experienced at the mixed layer of the ocean surface, often from 400 to 800 meters of maximum depth. These currents can considerably change and are dependent on the yearly seasons. If the mixed layer is less thick (10 to 20 meters), the quasi-permanent current at the surface can adopt quite a different direction in relation to the direction of the wind. In this case, the water column becomes virtually homogeneous above the thermocline.The wind blowing on the ocean surface will set the water in motion. The global pattern of winds (also called atmospheric circulation) creates a global pattern of ocean currents. These are driven not only by the wind but also by the effect of the circulation of the earth (coriolis force). These major ocean currents include the Gulf Stream, Kuroshio current, Agulhas current and Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current encircles Antarctica and influences the area's climate, connecting currents in several oceans. Relationship of currents and climate Collectively, currents move enormous amounts of water and heat around the globe influencing climate. These wind driven currents are largely confined to the top hundreds of meters of the ocean. At greater depth, the thermohaline circulation (Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC), which is part of a global thermoholine circulation, drives water motion.The AMOC is driven by the cooling of surface waters in the polar latitudes in the north and south, creating dense water which sinks to the bottom of the ocean. This cold and dense water moves slowly away from the poles which is why the waters in the deepest layers of the world ocean are so cold. This deep ocean water circulation is relatively slow and water at the bottom of the ocean can be isolated from the ocean surface and atmosphere for hundreds or even a few thousand years. This circulation has important impacts on global climate and the uptake and redistribution of pollutants such as carbon dioxide by moving these contaminants from the surface into the deep ocean. Ocean currents greatly affect Earth's climate by transferring heat from the tropics to the polar regions. This affects air temperature and precipitation in coastal regions and further inland. Surface heat and freshwater fluxes create global density gradients, which drive the thermohaline circulation that is a part of large-scale ocean circulation. It plays an important role in supplying heat to the polar regions, and thus in sea ice regulation. Oceans moderate the climate of locations where prevailing winds blow in from the ocean. At similar latitudes, a place on Earth with more influence from the ocean will have a more moderate climate than a place with more influence from land. For example, the cities San Francisco (37.8 N) and New York (40.7 N) have different climates because San Francisco has more influence from the ocean. San Francisco, on the west coast of North America, gets winds from the west over the Pacific Ocean, and the influence of the ocean water yields a more moderate climate with a warmer winter and a longer, cooler summer, with the warmest temperatures happening later in the year. New York, on the east coast of North America gets winds from the west over land, so New York has colder winters and hotter, earlier summers than San Francisco. Warmer ocean currents yield warmer climates in the long term, even at high latitudes. At similar latitudes, a place influenced by warm ocean currents will have a warmer climate overall than a place influenced by cold ocean currents. French Riviera (43.5 N) and Rockland, Maine (44.1 N) have same latitude, but the French Riviera is influenced by warm waters transported by the Gulf Stream into the Mediterranean Sea and has a warmer climate overall. Maine is influenced by cold waters transported south by the Labrador Current giving it a colder climate overall. Changes in the thermohaline circulation are thought to have significant impacts on Earth's energy budget. Because the thermohaline circulation determines the rate at which deep waters reach the surface, it may also significantly influence atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. Modern observations, climate simulations and paleoclimate reconstructions suggest that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) has weakened since the preindustrial era. The latest climate change projections in 2021 suggest that the AMOC is likely to weaken further over the 21st century.: 19  Such a weakening could cause large changes to global climate, with the North Atlantic particularly vulnerable.: 19 Chemical properties Salinity Salinity is a measure of the total amounts of dissolved salts in seawater. It was originally measured via measurement of the amount of chloride in seawater and hence termed chlorinity. It is now standard practice to gauge it by measuring electrical conductivity of the water sample. Salinity can be calculated using the chlorinity, which is a measure of the total mass of halogen ions (includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine) in seawater. According to an international agreement, the following formula is used to determine salinity: Salinity (in ‰) = 1.80655 × Chlorinity (in ‰)The average ocean water chlorinity is about 19.2‰, and, thus, the average salinity is around 34.7‰.Salinity has a major influence on the density of seawater. A zone of rapid salinity increase with depth is called a halocline. As seawater's salt content increases, so does the temperature at which its maximum density occurs. Salinity affects both the freezing and boiling points of water, with the boiling point increasing with salinity. At atmospheric pressure, normal seawater freezes at a temperature of about −2 °C. Salinity is higher in Earth's oceans where there is more evaporation and lower where there is more precipitation. If precipitation exceeds evaporation, as is the case in polar and some temperate regions, salinity will be lower. Salinity will be higher if evaporation exceeds precipitation, as is sometimes the case in tropical regions. For example, evaporation is greater than precipitation in the Mediterranean Sea, which has an average salinity of 38‰, more saline than the global average of 34.7‰. Thus, oceanic waters in polar regions have lower salinity content than oceanic waters in tropical regions. However, when sea ice forms at high latitudes, salt is excluded from the ice as it forms, which can increase the salinity in the residual seawater in polar regions such as the Arctic Ocean.Due to the effects of climate change on oceans, observations of sea surface salinity between 1950 and 2019 indicate that regions of high salinity and evaporation have become more saline while regions of low salinity and more precipitation have become fresher. It is very likely that the Pacific and Antarctic/Southern Oceans have freshened while the Atlantic has become more saline. Dissolved gases Ocean water contains large quantities of dissolved gases, including oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. These dissolve into ocean water via gas exchange at the ocean surface, with the solubility of these gases depending on the temperature and salinity of the water. The four most abundant gases in earth's atmosphere and oceans are nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and carbon dioxide. In the ocean by volume, the most abundant gases dissolved in seawater are carbon dioxide (including bicarbonate and carbonate ions, 14 mL/L on average), nitrogen (9 mL/L), and oxygen (5 mL/L) at equilibrium at 24 °C (75 °F) All gases are more soluble – more easily dissolved – in colder water than in warmer water. For example, when salinity and pressure are held constant, oxygen concentration in water almost doubles when the temperature drops from that of a warm summer day 30 °C (86 °F) to freezing 0 °C (32 °F). Similarly, carbon dioxide and nitrogen gases are more soluble at colder temperatures, and their solubility changes with temperature at different rates. Oxygen, photosynthesis and carbon cycling Photosynthesis in the surface ocean releases oxygen and consumes carbon dioxide. Phytoplankton, a type of microscopic free-floating algae, controls this process. After the plants have grown, oxygen is consumed and carbon dioxide released, as a result of bacterial decomposition of the organic matter created by photosynthesis in the ocean. The sinking and bacterial decomposition of some organic matter in deep ocean water, at depths where the waters are out of contact with the atmosphere, leads to a reduction in oxygen concentrations and increase in carbon dioxide, carbonate and bicarbonate. This cycling of carbon dioxide in oceans is an important part of the global carbon cycle. The oceans represent a major carbon sink for carbon dioxide taken up from the atmosphere by photosynthesis and by dissolution (see also carbon sequestration). There is also increased attention on carbon dioxide uptake in coastal marine habitats such as mangroves and saltmarshes. This process is often referred to as "Blue carbon". The focus is on these ecosystems because they are strong carbon sinks as well as ecologically important habitats under threat from human activities and environmental degradation. As deep ocean water circulates throughout the globe, it contains gradually less oxygen and gradually more carbon dioxide with more time away from the air at the surface. This gradual decrease in oxygen concentration happens as sinking organic matter continuously gets decomposed during the time the water is out of contact with the atmosphere. Most of the deep waters of the ocean still contain relatively high concentrations of oxygen sufficient for most animals to survive. However, some ocean areas have very low oxygen due to long periods of isolation of the water from the atmosphere. These oxygen deficient areas, called oxygen minimum zones or hypoxic waters, will generally be made worse by the effects of climate change on oceans. pH The pH value at the surface of oceans (global mean surface pH) is currently approximately in the range of 8.05 to 8.08. This makes it slightly alkaline. The pH value at the surface used to be about 8.2 during the past 300 million years. However, between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05. Carbon dioxide emissions from human activities are the primary cause of this process called ocean acidification, with atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels exceeding 410 ppm (in 2020). CO2 from the atmosphere is absorbed by the oceans. This produces carbonic acid (H2CO3) which dissociates into a bicarbonate ion (HCO−3) and a hydrogen ion (H+). The presence of free hydrogen ions (H+) lowers the pH of the ocean. There is a natural gradient of pH in the ocean which is related to the breakdown of organic matter in deep water which slowly lowers the pH with depth: The pH value of seawater is naturally as low as 7.8 in deep ocean waters as a result of degradation of organic matter there. It can be as high as 8.4 in surface waters in areas of high biological productivity.The definition of global mean surface pH refers to the top layer of the water in the ocean, up to around 20 or 100 m depth. In comparison, the average depth of the ocean is about 4 km. The pH value further down below (lower than 100 m) has not yet been affected by ocean acidification in the same way. There is a large body of deeper water where the natural gradients of pH from 8.2 to about 7.8 still exists and it will take a very long to acidify these waters, and equally a long time to recover from that acidification. But as the top layer of the ocean (the photic zone) is crucial for its marine productivity, any changes to the pH value and temperature of the top layer can have many knock-on effects, for example on marine life and ocean currents (see also effects of climate change on oceans).The key issue in terms of the penetration of ocean acidification is the way the surface water mixes with deeper water or does not mix (a lack of mixing is called ocean stratification). This in turn depends on the water temperature and hence is different between the tropics and the polar regions (see ocean#Temperature).The chemical properties of seawater complicate pH measurement, and several distinct pH scales exist in chemical oceanography. There is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on multiple reference scales may be up to 0.14 units. Alkalinity Alkalinity is the balance of base (proton acceptors) and acids (proton donors) in seawater, or indeed any natural waters. The alkalinity acts as a chemical buffer, regulating the pH of seawater. While there are many ions in seawater that can contribute to the alkalinity, many of these are at very low concentrations. This means that the carbonate, bicarbonate and borate ions are the only significant contributors to seawater alkalinity in the open ocean with well oxygenated waters. The first two of these ions contribute more than 95% of this alkalinity.The chemical equation for alkalinity in seawater is: AT = [HCO3-] + 2[CO32-] + [B(OH)4-]The growth of phytoplankton in surface ocean waters leads to the conversion of some bicarbonate and carbonate ions into organic matter. Some of this organic matter sinks into the deep ocean where it is broken down back into carbonate and bicarbonate. This process is related to ocean productivity or marine primary production. Thus alkalinity tends to increase with depth and also along the global thermohaline circulation from the Atlantic to the Pacific and Indian ocean, although these increases are small. The concentrations vary overall by only a few percent.The absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere does not affect the ocean's alkalinity.: 2252  It does lead to a reduction in pH value though (termed ocean acidification). Residence times of chemical elements and ions The ocean waters contain many chemical elements as dissolved ions. Elements dissolved in ocean waters have a wide range of concentrations. Some elements have very high concentrations of several grams per liter, such as sodium and chloride, together making up the majority of ocean salts. Other elements, such as iron, are present at tiny concentrations of just a few nanograms (10−9 grams) per liter.The concentration of any element depends on its rate of supply to the ocean and its rate of removal. Elements enter the ocean from rivers, the atmosphere and hydrothermal vents. Elements are removed from ocean water by sinking and becoming buried in sediments or evaporating to the atmosphere in the case of water and some gases. By estimating the residence time of an element, oceanographers examine the balance of input and removal. Residence time is the average time the element would spend dissolved in the ocean before it is removed. Heavily abundant elements in ocean water such as sodium, have high input rates. This reflects high abundance in rocks and rapid rock weathering, paired with very slow removal from the ocean due to sodium ions being comparatively unreactive and highly soluble. In contrast, other elements such as iron and aluminium are abundant in rocks but very insoluble, meaning that inputs to the ocean are low and removal is rapid. These cycles represent part of the major global cycle of elements that has gone on since the Earth first formed. The residence times of the very abundant elements in the ocean are estimated to be millions of years, while for highly reactive and insoluble elements, residence times are only hundreds of years. Nutrients A few elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, and potassium essential for life, are major components of biological material, and are commonly known as "nutrients". Nitrate and phosphate have ocean residence times of 10,000 and 69,000 years, respectively, while potassium is a much more abundant ion in the ocean with a residence time of 12 million years. The biological cycling of these elements means that this represents a continuous removal process from the ocean's water column as degrading organic material sinks to the ocean floor as sediment. Phosphate from intensive agriculture and untreated sewage is transported via runoff to rivers and coastal zones to the ocean where it is metabolized. Eventually, it sinks to the ocean floor and is no longer available to humans as a commercial resource. Production of rock phosphate, an essential ingredient in inorganic fertilizer, is a slow geological process that occurs in some of the world's ocean sediments, rendering mineable sedimentary apatite (phosphate) a non-renewable resource (see peak phosphorus). This continual net deposition loss of non-renewable phosphate from human activities, may become a resource issue for fertilizer production and food security in future. Marine life Life within the ocean evolved 3 billion years prior to life on land. Both the depth and the distance from shore strongly influence the biodiversity of the plants and animals present in each region. The diversity of life in the ocean is immense, including: Animals: most animal phyla have species that inhabit the ocean, including many that are found only in marine environments such as sponges, Cnidaria (such as corals and jellyfish), comb jellies, Brachiopods, and Echinoderms (such as sea urchins and sea stars). Many other familiar animal groups primarily live in the ocean, including cephalopods (includes octopus and squid), crustaceans (includes lobsters, crabs, and shrimp), fish, sharks, cetaceans (includes whales, dolphins, and porpoises). In addition, many land animals have adapted to living a major part of their life on the oceans. For instance, seabirds are a diverse group of birds that have adapted to a life mainly on the oceans. They feed on marine animals and spend most of their lifetime on water, many going on land only for breeding. Other birds that have adapted to oceans as their living space are penguins, seagulls and pelicans. Seven species of turtles, the sea turtles, also spend most of their time in the oceans. Plants: including sea grasses, or mangroves Algae: algae is a "catch-all" term to include many photosynthetic, single-celled eukaryotes, such as green algae, diatoms, and dinoflagellates, but also multicellular algae, such as some red algae (including organisms like Pyropia, which is the source of the edible nori seaweed), and brown algae (including organisms like kelp). Bacteria: ubiquitous single-celled prokaryotes found throughout the world Archaea: prokaryotes distinct from bacteria, that inhabit many environments of the ocean, as well as many extreme environments Fungi: many marine fungi with diverse roles are found in oceanic environments Human uses of the oceans The ocean has been linked to human activity throughout history. These activities serve a wide variety of purposes, including navigation and exploration, naval warfare, travel, shipping and trade, food production (e.g. fishing, whaling, seaweed farming, aquaculture), leisure (cruising, sailing, recreational boat fishing, scuba diving), power generation (see marine energy and offshore wind power), extractive industries (offshore drilling and deep sea mining), freshwater production via desalination. Many of the world's goods are moved by ship between the world's seaports. Large quantities of goods are transported across the ocean, especially across the Atlantic and around the Pacific Rim. Many types of cargo including manufactured goods, are typically transported in standard sized, lockable containers that are loaded on purpose-built container ships at dedicated terminals. Containerization greatly boosted the efficiency and reduced the cost of shipping products by sea. This was a major factor in the rise of globalization and exponential increases in international trade in the mid-to-late 20th century.Oceans are also the major supply source for the fishing industry. Some of the major harvests are shrimp, fish, crabs, and lobster. The biggest global commercial fishery is for anchovies, Alaska pollock and tuna.: 6  A report by FAO in 2020 stated that "in 2017, 34 percent of the fish stocks of the world's marine fisheries were classified as overfished".: 54  Fish and other fishery products from both wild fisheries and aquaculture are among the most widely consumed sources of protein and other essential nutrients. Data in 2017 showed that "fish consumption accounted for 17 percent of the global population's intake of animal proteins". To fulfill this need, coastal countries have exploited marine resources in their exclusive economic zone. Fishing vessels are increasingly venturing out to exploit stocks in international waters.The ocean has a vast amount of energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity differences, and ocean temperature differences which can be harnessed to generate electricity. Forms of sustainable marine energy include tidal power, ocean thermal energy and wave power. Offshore wind power is captured by wind turbines placed out on the ocean; it has the advantage that wind speeds are higher than on land, though wind farms are more costly to construct offshore. There are large deposits of petroleum, as oil and natural gas, in rocks beneath the ocean floor. Offshore platforms and drilling rigs extract the oil or gas and store it for transport to land."Freedom of the seas" is a principle in international law dating from the seventeenth century. It stresses freedom to navigate the oceans and disapproves of war fought in international waters. Today, this concept is enshrined in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).The International Maritime Organization and the United Nations are the two major international legal organizations involved in global ocean governance. The International Maritime Organization (IMO), which was ratified in 1958, is mainly responsible for maritime safety, liability and compensation, and has held some conventions on marine pollution related to shipping incidents. Ocean governance is the conduct of the policy, actions and affairs regarding the world's oceans. Threats from human activities Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through many negative influences, such as marine pollution (including marine debris and microplastics) overfishing, ocean acidification and other effects of climate change on oceans. Climate change Marine pollution Plastic pollution Overfishing Protection Ocean protection serves to safeguard the ecosystems in the oceans upon which humans depend. Protecting these ecosystems from threats is a major component of environmental protection. One of protective measures is the creation and enforcement of marine protected areas (MPAs). Marine protection may need to be considered within a national, regional and international context. Other measures include supply chain transparency requirement policies, policies to prevent marine pollution, ecosystem-assistance (e.g. for coral reefs) and support for sustainable seafood (e.g. sustainable fishing practices and types of aquaculture). There is also the protection of marine resources and components whose extraction or disturbance would cause substantial harm, engagement of broader publics and impacted communities, and the development of ocean clean-up projects (removal of marine plastic pollution). Examples of the latter include Clean Oceans International and The Ocean Cleanup. In 2021, 43 expert scientists published the first scientific framework version that – via integration, review, clarifications and standardization – enables the evaluation of levels of protection of marine protected areas and can serve as a guide for any subsequent efforts to improve, plan and monitor marine protection quality and extents. Examples are the efforts towards the 30%-protection-goal of the "Global Deal For Nature" and the UN's Sustainable Development Goal 14 ("life below water").In March 2023 a High Seas Treaty was signed. It is legally binding. The main achievement is the new possibility to create marine protected areas in international waters. By doing so the agreement now makes it possible to protect 30% of the oceans by 2030 (part of the 30 by 30 target). The treaty has articles regarding the principle "polluter-pays", and different impacts of human activities including areas beyond the national jurisdiction of the countries making those activities. The agreement was adopted by the 193 United Nations Member States. See also European Atlas of the Seas Land and water hemispheres List of seas Marine heatwave Ocean (disambiguation) Ocean world Planetary oceanography World Ocean Atlas World Oceans Day References External links FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) Fisheries Division NOAA – National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (United States) United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030)

climate change in minnesota

Climate change in Minnesota encompasses the effects of climate change, attributed to human-caused increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, in the U.S. state of Minnesota. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has reported that "Minnesota's climate is changing. The state has warmed one to three degrees (F) in the 20th century. Floods are becoming more frequent, and ice cover on lakes is forming later and melting sooner. In the coming decades, these trends are likely to continue. Rising temperatures may interfere with winter recreation, extend the growing season, change the composition of trees in the North Woods, and increase water pollution problems in lakes and rivers. The state will have more extremely hot days, which may harm public health in urban areas and corn harvests in rural areas".A 2015 Minnesota Public Radio (MPR) News report describing various indicators that the climate of Minnesota was changing noted specific regional trends of increasing temperatures and precipitation, and effects on trees and wildlife. Heavy precipitation and flooding "Changing the climate is likely to increase the frequency of floods in Minnesota. Over the last half century, average annual precipitation in most of the Midwest has increased by 5 to 10 percent. But rainfall during the four wettest days of the year has increased about 35 percent. During the next century, spring rainfall and annual precipitation are likely to increase, and severe rainstorms are likely to intensify. Each of these factors will tend to further increase the risk of flooding". MPR News specifically identified several different patterns of increased overall precipitation, and increased instances of destructive heavy rains and storms. Lakes and rivers "Flooding is occasionally a problem for both navigation and riverfront communities, and greater river flows could make these problems worse. In the Red River watershed, river flows during the worst flood of the year have been increasing about 10 percent per decade since the 1920s. Floods are also becoming more severe in the upper Mississippi watershed. In June 2014, a flood forced two port facilities in St. Paul to stop operating, and barges waiting to unload had to be temporarily parked in Pigs Eye Lake until the river receded"."Increasingly severe droughts elsewhere in the Mississippi River Basin could also pose problems for navigation in Minnesota. For example, a drought in 2012 led the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to restrict navigation on the lower Mississippi River, which affected shipping upstream. Warmer winters reduce the number of days that ice prevents navigation. Between 1994 and 2011, the decline in ice cover lengthened the shipping season on the Great Lakes by eight days. The Great Lakes are likely to warm another 3° to 7°F in the next 70 years, which will further extend the shipping season"."Higher temperatures and heavier storms could harm water quality in Minnesota's lakes and rivers. Warmer water tends to cause more algal blooms, which can be unsightly, harm fish, and degrade water quality. Severe storms increase the amount of pollutants that run off from land to water, so the risk of algal blooms will be greater if storms become more severe. Increasingly severe storms could also cause sewers to overflow into lakes or rivers more often, threatening beach safety and drinking water supplies". Ecosystems "The ranges of plants and animals are likely to shift as the climate changes. For example, warmer weather could change the composition of Minnesota’s forests. As the climate warms, the populations of paper birch, quaking aspen, balsam fir, and black spruce trees may decline in the North Woods, while oak, hickory, and pine trees may become more numerous. Climate change will also transform fish habitat. Rising water temperatures will increase the available habitat for warmwater fish such as bass, while shrinking the available habitat for coldwater fish such as trout. Declining ice cover and increasingly severe storms would harm both types of fish habitat through erosion and flooding"."Warming could also harm ecosystems by changing the timing of natural processes such as migration, reproduction, and flower blooming. Migratory birds are arriving in Minnesota earlier in spring today than 40 years ago. Along with range shifts, changes in timing can disrupt the intricate web of relationships between animals and their food sources and between plants and pollinators. Because not all species adjust to climate change in the same way, the food that one species eats may no longer be available when that species needs it (for example, when migrating birds arrive). Some types of animals may no longer be able to find enough food". Winter recreation "Warmer winters are likely to shorten the season for recreational activities like ice fishing, snowmobiling, skiing, and snowboarding, which could harm the local economies that depend on them. Small lakes are freezing later and thawing earlier than a century ago, which shortens the season for ice fishing and ice skating. Since the early 1970s, winter ice coverage in the Great Lakes has decreased by 63 percent. Warmer temperatures are likely to shorten the season when the ground is covered by snow, and thereby shorten the season for activities that take place on snow. Nevertheless, annual snowfall has increased in much of the Great Lakes region, which could benefit winter recreation at certain times and locations".Warmer winters and lack of snow have put dogsledding at risk, including John Beargrease Dog Sled Race, which has been re-routed and shortened by 70 miles due to lack of snow. Agriculture "Changing the climate is likely to have both positive and negative effects on agriculture in Minnesota. Warmer weather has extended the growing season by about 15 days since the beginning of the 20th century. Longer frost-free growing seasons and higher concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide would increase yields of soybeans and wheat during an average year. But increasingly hot summers may reduce yields of corn. In seventy years, southern Minnesota is likely to have 5 to 15 more days per year with temperatures above 95°F than it has today. More severe droughts or floods would also hurt crop yields". Air pollution and human health "Changing the climate can harm air quality and amplify existing threats to human health. Higher temperatures increase the formation of ground-level ozone, a pollutant that causes lung and heart problems. Ozone also harms plants. In some rural parts of Minnesota, ozone levels are high enough to reduce yields of soybeans and winter wheat. EPA and the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency have been working to reduce ozone concentrations. As the climate changes, continued progress toward clean air will become more difficult. Climate change may also increase the length and severity of the pollen season for allergy sufferers. For example, the ragweed season in Minneapolis is 21 days longer than in 1995, because the first frost in fall is later". Both the EPA and MPR noted that the increased risk of insect-borne diseases, and specifically that "[t]he ticks that transmit Lyme disease are active when temperatures are above 45°F, so warmer winters could lengthen the season during which ticks can become infected or people can be exposed to the ticks". See also Plug-in electric vehicles in Minnesota References Further reading Brady Dennis; Salwan Georges; John Muyskens (April 29, 2020). "In fast-warming Minnesota, scientists are trying to plant forests of the future". Washington Post. Retrieved 2020-05-19. Angel, J.; C. Swanston; B.M. Boustead; K.C. Conlon; K.R. Hall; J.L. Jorns; K.E. Kunkel; M.C. Lemos; B. Lofgren; T.A. Ontl; J. Posey; K. Stone; G. Tackle; D. Todey (2018). "Midwest". In Reidmiller, D.R.; C.W. Avery; D.R. Easterling; K.E. Kunkel; K.L.M. Lewis; T.K. Maycock; B.C. Stewart (eds.). Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II (Report). Washington, DC, USA: U.S. Global Change Research Program. pp. 872–940. doi:10.7930/NCA4.2018.CH21. -- this chapter of the National Climate Assessment covers Midwest states (Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin). External links Minnesota Pollution Control Agency: Climate change in Minnesota

hadley cell

The Hadley cell, also known as the Hadley circulation, is a global-scale tropical atmospheric circulation that features air rising near the equator, flowing poleward near the tropopause at a height of 12–15 km (7.5–9.3 mi) above the Earth's surface, cooling and descending in the subtropics at around 25 degrees latitude, and then returning equatorward near the surface. It is a thermally direct circulation within the troposphere that emerges due to differences in insolation and heating between the tropics and the subtropics. On a yearly average, the circulation is characterized by a circulation cell on each side of the equator. The Southern Hemisphere Hadley cell is slightly stronger on average than its northern counterpart, extending slightly beyond the equator into the Northern Hemisphere. During the summer and winter months, the Hadley circulation is dominated by a single, cross-equatorial cell with air rising in the summer hemisphere and sinking in the winter hemisphere. Analogous circulations may occur in extraterrestrial atmospheres, such as on Venus and Mars. Global climate is greatly influenced by the structure and behavior of the Hadley circulation. The prevailing trade winds are a manifestation of the lower branches of the Hadley circulation, converging air and moisture in the tropics to form the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) where the Earth's heaviest rains are located. Shifts in the ITCZ associated with the seasonal variability of the Hadley circulation cause monsoons. The sinking branches of the Hadley cells give rise to the oceanic subtropical ridges and suppress rainfall; many of the Earth's deserts and arid regions are located in the subtropics coincident with the position of the sinking branches. The Hadley circulation is also a key mechanism for the meridional transport of heat, angular momentum, and moisture, contributing to the subtropical jet stream, the moist tropics, and maintaining a global thermal equilibrium. The Hadley circulation is named after George Hadley, who in 1735 postulated the existence of hemisphere-spanning circulation cells driven by differences in heating to explain the trade winds. Other scientists later developed similar arguments or critiqued Hadley's qualitative theory, providing more rigorous explanations and formalism. The existence of a broad meridional circulation of the type suggested by Hadley was confirmed in the mid-20th century once routine observations of the upper troposphere became available via radiosondes. Observations and climate modelling indicate that the Hadley circulation has expanded poleward since at least the 1980s as a result of climate change, with an accompanying but less certain intensification of the circulation; these changes have been associated with trends in regional weather patterns. Model projections suggest that the circulation will widen and weaken throughout the 21st century due to climate change. Mechanism and characteristics The Hadley circulation describes the broad, thermally direct, and meridional overturning of air within the troposphere over the low latitudes. Within the global atmospheric circulation, the meridional flow of air averaged along lines of latitude are organized into circulations of rising and sinking motions coupled with the equatorward or poleward movement of air called meridional cells. These include the prominent "Hadley cells" centered over the tropics and the weaker "Ferrell cells" centered over the mid-latitudes. The Hadley cells result from the contrast of insolation between the warm equatorial regions and the cooler subtropical regions. The uneven heating of Earth's surface results in regions of rising and descending air. Over the course of a year, the equatorial regions absorb more radiation from the Sun than they radiate away. At higher latitudes, the Earth emits more radiation than it receives from the Sun. Without a mechanism to exchange heat meridionally, the equatorial regions would warm and the higher latitudes would cool progressively in disequilibrium. The broad ascent and descent of air results in a pressure gradient force that drives the Hadley circulation and other large-scale flows in both the atmosphere and the ocean, distributing heat and maintaining a global long-term and subseasonal thermal equilibrium.The Hadley circulation covers almost half of the Earth's surface area, spanning from roughly the Tropic of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn. Vertically, the circulation occupies the entire depth of the troposphere. The Hadley cells comprising the circulation consist of air carried equatorward by the trade winds in the lower troposphere that ascends when heated near the equator, along with air moving poleward in the upper troposphere. Air that is moved into the subtropics cools and then sinks before returning equatorward to the tropics; the position of the sinking air associated with the Hadley cell is often used as a measure of the meridional width of the global tropics. The equatorward return of air and the strong influence of heating make the Hadley cell a thermally-driven and enclosed circulation. Due to the buoyant rise of air near the equator and the sinking of air at higher latitudes, a pressure gradient develops near the surface with lower pressures near the equator and higher pressures in the subtropics; this provides the motive force for the equatorward flow in the lower troposphere. However, the release of latent heat associated with condensation in the tropics also relaxes the decrease in pressure with height, resulting in higher pressures aloft in the tropics compared to the subtropics for a given height in the upper troposphere; this pressure gradient is stronger than its near-surface counterpart and provides the motive force for the poleward flow in the upper troposphere. Hadley cells are most commonly identified using the mass-weighted, zonally-averaged streamfunction of meridional winds, but they can also be identified by other measurable or derivable physical parameters such as velocity potential or the vertical component of wind at a particular pressure level.Given the latitude ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } and the pressure level p {\displaystyle p} , the Stokes stream function characterizing the Hadley circulation is given by ψ ( ϕ , p ) = 2 π a cos ⁡ ϕ g ∫ 0 p [ v ( ϕ , p ) ] d p {\displaystyle \psi (\phi ,p)={\frac {2\pi a\cos \phi }{g}}\int _{0}^{p}[v(\phi ,p)]\,dp} where a {\displaystyle a} is the radius of Earth, g {\displaystyle g} is the acceleration due to the gravity of Earth, and [ v ( ϕ , p ) ] {\displaystyle [v(\phi ,p)]} is the zonally averaged meridional wind at the prescribed latitude and pressure level. The value of ψ {\displaystyle \psi } gives the integrated meridional mass flux between the specified pressure level and the top of the Earth's atmosphere, with positive values indicating northward mass transport. The strength of the Hadley cells can be quantified based on ψ {\displaystyle \psi } including the maximum and minimum values or averages of the stream function both overall and at various pressure levels. Hadley cell intensity can also be assessed using other physical quantities such as the velocity potential, vertical component of wind, transport of water vapor, or total energy of the circulation. Structure and components The structure of the Hadley circulation and its components can be inferred by graphing zonal and temporal averages of global winds throughout the troposphere. At shorter timescales, individual weather systems perturb wind flow. Although the structure of the Hadley circulation varies seasonally, when winds are averaged annually (from an Eulerian perspective) the Hadley circulation is roughly symmetric and composed of two similar Hadley cells with one in each of the northern and southern hemispheres, sharing a common region of ascending air near the equator; however, the Southern Hemisphere Hadley cell is stronger. The winds associated with the annually-averaged Hadley circulation are on the order of 5 m/s (18 km/h; 11 mph). However, when averaging the motions of air parcels as opposed to the winds at fixed locations (a Lagrangian perspective), the Hadley circulation manifests as a broader circulation that extends farther poleward. Each Hadley cell can be described by four primary branches of airflow within the tropics: An equatorward, lower branch within the planetary boundary layer An ascending branch near the equator A poleward, upper branch in the upper troposphere A descending branch in the subtropicsThe trade winds in the low-latitudes of both Earth's northern and southern hemispheres converge air towards the equator, producing a belt of low atmospheric pressure exhibiting abundant storms and heavy rainfall known as the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). This equatorward movement of air near the Earth's surface constitutes the lower branch of the Hadley cell. The position of the ITCZ is influenced by the warmth of sea surface temperatures (SST) near the equator and the strength of cross-equatorial pressure gradients. In general, the ITCZ is located near the equator or is offset towards the summer hemisphere where the warmest SSTs are located. On an annual average, the rising branch of the Hadley circulation is slightly offset towards the Northern Hemisphere, away from the equator. Due to the Coriolis force, the trade winds deflect opposite the direction of Earth's rotation, blowing partially westward rather than directly equatorward in both hemispheres. The lower branch accrues moisture resulting from evaporation across Earth's tropical oceans. A warmer environment and converging winds force the moistened air to ascend near the equator, resulting in the rising branch of the Hadley cell. The upward motion is further enhanced by the release of latent heat as the uplift of moist air results in an equatorial band of condensation and precipitation. The Hadley circulation's upward branch largely occurs in thunderstorms occupying only around one percent of the surface area of the tropics. The transport of heat in the Hadley circulation's ascending branch is accomplished most efficiently by hot towers – cumulonimbus clouds bearing strong updrafts that do not mix in drier air commonly found in the middle troposphere and thus allow the movement of air from the highly moist tropical lower troposphere into the upper troposphere. Approximately 1,500–5,000 hot towers daily near the ITCZ region are required to sustain the vertical heat transport exhibited by the Hadley circulation.The ascent of air rises into the upper troposphere to a height of 12–15 km (7.5–9.3 mi), after which air diverges outward from the ITCZ and towards the poles. The top of the Hadley cell is set by the height of the tropopause as the stable stratosphere above prevents the continued ascent of air. Air arising from the low latitudes has higher absolute angular momentum about Earth's axis of rotation. The distance between the atmosphere and Earth's axis decreases poleward; to conserve angular momentum, poleward-moving air parcels must accelerate eastward. The Coriolis effect limits the poleward extent of the Hadley circulation, accelerating air in the direction of the Earth's rotation and forming a jet stream directed zonally rather than continuing the poleward flow of air at each Hadley cell's poleward boundary. Considering only the conservation of angular momentum, a parcel of air at rest along the equator would accelerate to a zonal speed of 134 m/s (480 km/h; 300 mph) by the time it reached 30° latitude. However, small-scale turbulence along the parcel's poleward trek and large-scale eddies in the mid-latitude dissipate angular momentum. The jet associated with the Southern Hemisphere Hadley cell is stronger than its northern counterpart due to the stronger intensity of the Southern Hemisphere cell. The cooler, higher-latitudes leads to cooling of air parcels, which causes the poleward air to eventually descend. When the movement of air is averaged annually, the descending branch of the Hadley cell is located roughly over the 25th parallel north and the 25th parallel south. The moisture in the subtropics is then partly advected poleward by eddies and partly advected equatorward by the lower branch of the Hadley cell, where it is later brought towards the ITCZ. Although the zonally-averaged Hadley cell is organized into four main branches, these branches are aggregations of more concentrated air flows and regions of mass transport.Several theories and physical models have attempted to explain the latitudinal width of the Hadley cell. The Held–Hou model provides one theoretical constraint on the meridional extent of the Hadley cells. By assuming a simplified atmosphere composed of a lower layer subject to friction from the Earth's surface and an upper layer free from friction, the model predicts that the Hadley circulation would be restricted to within 2,500 km (1,600 mi) of the equator if parcels do not have any net heating within the circulation. According to the Held–Hou model, the latitude of the Hadley cell's poleward edge ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } scales according to ϕ ∝ g Δ θ H t Ω 2 a 2 θ 0 {\displaystyle \phi \propto {\sqrt {\frac {g\Delta \theta H_{t}}{\Omega ^{2}a^{2}\theta _{0}}}}} where Δ θ {\displaystyle \Delta \theta } is the difference in potential temperature between the equator and the pole in radiative equilibrium, H t {\displaystyle H_{t}} is the height of the tropopause, Ω {\displaystyle \Omega } is the Earth's rotation rate, and θ 0 {\displaystyle \theta _{0}} is a reference potential temperature. Other compatible models posit that the width of the Hadley cell may scale with other physical parameters such as the vertically-averaged Brunt–Väisälä frequency in the tropopshere or the growth rate of baroclinic waves shed by the cell. Seasonality and variability The Hadley circulation varies considerably with seasonal changes. Around the equinox during the spring and autumn for either the northern or southern hemisphere, the Hadley circulation takes the form of two relatively weaker Hadley cells in both hemispheres, sharing a common region of ascent over the ITCZ and moving air aloft towards each cell's respective hemisphere. However, closer to the solstices, the Hadley circulation transitions into a more singular and stronger cross-equatorial Hadley cell with air rising in the summer hemisphere and broadly descending in the winter hemisphere. The transition between the two-cell and single-cell configuration is abrupt, and during most of the year the Hadley circulation is characterized by a single dominant Hadley cell that transports air across the equator. In this configuration, the ascending branch is located in the tropical latitudes of the warmer summer hemisphere and the descending branch is positioned in the subtropics of the cooler winter hemisphere. Two cells are still present in each hemisphere, though the winter hemisphere's cell becomes much more prominent while the summer hemisphere's cell becomes displaced poleward. The intensification of the winter hemisphere's cell is associated with a steepening of gradients in geopotential height, leading to an acceleration of trade winds and stronger meridional flows. The presence of continents relaxes temperature gradients in the summer hemisphere, accentuating the contrast between the hemispheric Hadley cells. Reanalysis data from 1979–2001 indicated that the dominant Hadley cell in boreal summer extended from 13°S to 31°N on average. In both boreal and austral winters, the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean contribute most to the rising and sinking motions in the zonally-averaged Hadley circulation. However, vertical flows over Africa and the Americas are more marked in boreal winter.At longer interannual timescales, variations in the Hadley circulation are associated with variations in the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which impacts the positioning of the ascending branch; the response of the circulation to ENSO is non-linear, with a more marked response to El Niño events than La Niña events. During El Niño, the Hadley circulation strengthens due to the increased warmth of the upper troposphere over the tropical Pacific and the resultant intensification of poleward flow. However, these changes are not asymmetric, during the same events, the Hadley cells over the western Pacific and the Atlantic are weakened. During the Atlantic Niño, the circulation over the Atlantic is intensified. The Atlantic circulation is also enhanced during periods when the North Atlantic oscillation is strongly positive. The variation in the seasonally-averaged and annually-averaged Hadley circulation from year to year is largely accounted for by two juxtaposed modes of oscillation: an equatorial symmetric mode characterized by single cell straddling the equator and an equatorial symmetric mode characterized by two cells on either side of the equator. Energetics and transport The Hadley cell is an important mechanism by which moisture and energy are transported both between the tropics and subtropics and between the northern and southern hemispheres. However, it is not an efficient transporter of energy due to the opposing flows of the lower and upper branch, with the lower branch transporting sensible and latent heat equatorward and the upper branch transporting potential energy poleward. The resulting net energy transport poleward represents around 10 percent of the overall energy transport involved in the Hadley cell. The descending branch of the Hadley cell generates clear skies and a surplus of evaporation relative to precipitation in the subtropics. The lower branch of the Hadley circulation accomplishes most of the transport of the excess water vapor accumulated in the subtropical atmosphere towards the equatorial region. The strong Southern Hemisphere Hadley cell relative to its northern counterpart leads to a small net energy transport from the northern to the southern hemisphere; as a result, the transport of energy at the equator is directed southward on average, with an annual net transport of around 0.1 PW. In contrast to the higher latitudes where eddies are the dominant mechanism for transporting energy poleward, the meridional flows imposed by the Hadley circulation are the primary mechanism for poleward energy transport in the tropics. As a thermally direct circulation, the Hadley circulation converts available potential energy to the kinetic energy of horizontal winds. Based on data from January 1979 and December 2010, the Hadley circulation has an average power output of 198 TW, with maxima in January and August and minima in May and October. The Hadley circulation may be idealized as a heat engine converting heat energy into mechanical energy. As air moves towards the equator near the Earth's surface, it accumulates entropy from the surface either by direct heating or the flux of sensible or latent heat. In the ascending branch of a Hadley cell, the ascent of air is approximately an adiabatic process with respect to the surrounding environment. However, as parcels of air move equatorward in the cell's upper branch, they lose entropy by radiating heat to space at infrared wavelengths and descend in response. This radiative cooling occurs at a rate of at least 60 W m−2 and may exceed 100 W m−2 in winter. The heat accumulated during the equatorward branch of the circulation is greater than the heat lost in the upper poleward branch; the excess heat is converted into the mechanical energy that drives the movement of air. This difference in heating also results in the Hadley circulation transporting heat poleward as the air supplying the Hadley cell's upper branch has greater moist static energy than the air supplying the cell's lower branch. Within the Earth's atmosphere, the timescale at which air parcels lose heat due to radiative cooling and the timescale at which air moves along the Hadley circulation are at similar orders of magnitude, allowing the Hadley circulation to transport heat despite cooling in the circulation's upper branch. Air with high potential temperature is ultimately moved poleward in the upper troposphere while air with lower potential temperature is brought equatorward near the surface. As a result, the Hadley circulation is one mechanism by which the disequilibrium produced by uneven heating of the Earth is brought towards equilibrium. When considered as a heat engine, the thermodynamic efficiency of the Hadley circulation averaged around 2.6 percent between 1979–2010, with small seasonal variability.The Hadley circulation also transports planetary angular momentum poleward due to Earth's rotation. Because the trade winds are directed opposite the Earth's rotation, eastward angular momentum is transferred to the atmosphere via frictional interaction between the winds and topography. The Hadley cell then transfers this angular momentum through its upward and poleward branches. The poleward branch accelerates and is deflected east in both the northern and southern hemispheres due to the Coriolis force and the conservation of angular momentum, resulting in a zonal jet stream above the descending branch of the Hadley cell. The formation of such a jet implies the existence of a thermal wind balance supported by the amplification of temperature gradients in the jet's vicinity resulting from the Hadley circulation's poleward heat advection. The subtropical jet in the upper troposphere coincides with where the Hadley cell meets the Ferrell cell. The strong wind shear accompanying the jet presents a significant source of baroclinic instability from which waves grow; the growth of these waves transfers heat and momentum polewards. Atmospheric eddies extract westerly angular momentum from the Hadley cell and transport it downward, resulting in the mid-latitude westerly winds. Formulation and discovery The broad structure and mechanism of the Hadley circulation – comprising convective cells moving air due to temperature differences in a manner influenced by the Earth's rotation – was first proposed by Edmund Halley in 1685 and George Hadley in 1735. Hadley had sought to explain the physical mechanism for the trade winds and the westerlies; the Hadley circulation and the Hadley cells are named in honor of his pioneering work. Although Hadley's ideas invoked physical concepts that would not be formalized until well after his death, his model was largely qualitative and without mathematical rigor. Hadley's formulation was later recognized by most meteorologists by the 1920s to be a simplification of more complicated atmospheric processes. The Hadley circulation may have been the first attempt to explain the global distribution of winds in Earth's atmosphere using physical processes. However, Hadley's hypothesis could not be verified without observations of winds in the upper-atmosphere. Data collected by routine radiosondes beginning in the mid-20th century confirmed the existence of the Hadley circulation. Early explanations of the trade winds In the 15th and 16th centuries, observations of maritime weather conditions were of considerable importance to maritime transport. Compilations of these observations showed consistent weather conditions from year to year and significant seasonal variability. The prevalence of dry conditions and weak winds at around 30° latitude and the equatorward trade winds closer to the equator, mirrored in the northern and southern hemispheres, was apparent by 1600. Early efforts by scientists to explain aspects of global wind patterns often focused on the trade winds as the steadiness of the winds was assumed to portend a simple physical mechanism. Galileo Galilei proposed that the trade winds resulted from the atmosphere lagging behind the Earth's faster tangential rotation speed in the low latitudes, resulting in the westward trades directed opposite of Earth's rotation.In 1685, English polymath Edmund Halley proposed at a debate organized by the Royal Society that the trade winds resulted from east to west temperature differences produced over the course of a day within the tropics. In Halley's model, as the Earth rotated, the location of maximum heating from the Sun moved west across the Earth's surface. This would cause air to rise, and by conservation of mass, Halley argued that air would be moved to the region of evacuated air, generating the trade winds. Halley's hypothesis was criticized by his friends, who noted that his model would lead to changing wind directions throughout the course of a day rather than the steady trade winds. Halley conceded in personal correspondence with John Wallis that "Your questioning my hypothesis for solving the Trade Winds makes me less confident of the truth thereof". Nonetheless, Halley's formulation was incorporated into Chambers's Encyclopaedia and La Grande Encyclopédie, becoming the most widely-known explanation for the trade winds until the early 19th century. Though his explanation of the trade winds was incorrect, Halley correctly predicted that the surface trade winds should be accompanied by an opposing flow aloft following mass conservation. George Hadley's explanation Unsatisfied with preceding explanations for the trade winds, George Hadley proposed an alternate mechanism in 1735. Hadley's hypothesis was published in the paper "On the Cause of the General Trade Winds" in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Like Halley, Hadley's explanation viewed the trade winds as a manifestation of air moving to take the place of rising warm air. However, the region of rising air prompting this flow lay along the lower latitudes. Understanding that the tangential rotation speed of the Earth was fastest at the equator and slowed farther poleward, Hadley conjectured that as air with lower momentum from higher latitudes moved equatorward to replace the rising air, it would conserve its momentum and thus curve west. By the same token, the rising air with higher momentum would spread poleward, curving east and then sinking as it cooled to produce westerlies in the mid-latitudes. Hadley's explanation implied the existence of hemisphere-spanning circulation cells in the northern and southern hemispheres extending from the equator to the poles, though he relied on an idealization of Earth's atmosphere that lacked seasonality or the asymmetries of the oceans and continents. His model also predicted rapid easterly trade winds of around 37 m/s (130 km/h; 83 mph), though he argued that the action of surface friction over the course of a few days slowed the air to the observed wind speeds. Colin Maclaurin extended Hadley's model to the ocean in 1740, asserting that meridional ocean currents were subject to similar westward or eastward deflections.Hadley was not widely associated with his theory due to conflation with his older brother, John Hadley, and Halley; his theory failed to gain much traction in the scientific community for over a century due to its unintuitive explanation and the lack of validating observations. Several other natural philosophers independently forwarded explanations for the global distribution of winds soon after Hadley's 1735 proposal. In 1746, Jean le Rond d'Alembert provided a mathematical formulation for global winds, but disregarded solar heating and attributed the winds to the gravitational effects of the Sun and Moon. Immanuel Kant, also unsatisfied with Halley's explanation for the trade winds, published an explanation for the trade winds and westerlies in 1756 with similar reasoning as Hadley. In the latter part of the 18th century, Pierre-Simon Laplace developed a set of equations establishing a direct influence of Earth's rotation on wind direction. Swiss scientist Jean-André Deluc published an explanation of the trade winds in 1787 similar to Hadley's hypothesis, connecting differential heating and the Earth's rotation with the direction of the winds.English chemist John Dalton was the first to clearly credit Hadley's explanation of the trade winds to George Hadley, mentioning Hadley's work in his 1793 book Meteorological Observations and Essays. In 1837, Philosophical Magazine published a new theory of wind currents developed by Heinrich Wilhelm Dove without reference to Hadley but similarly explaining the direction of the trade winds as being influenced by the Earth's rotation. In response, Dalton later wrote a letter to the editor to the journal promoting Hadley's work. Dove subsequently credited Hadley so frequently that the overarching theory became known as the "Hadley–Dove principle", popularizing Hadley's explanation for the trade winds in Germany and Great Britain. Critique of Hadley's explanation The work of Gustave Coriolis, William Ferrel, Jean Bernard Foucault, and Henrik Mohn in the 19th century helped establish the Coriolis force as the mechanism for the deflection of winds due to Earth's rotation, emphasizing the conservation of angular momentum in directing flows rather than the conservation of linear momentum as Hadley suggested; Hadley's assumption led to an underestimation of the deflection by a factor of two. The acceptance of the Coriolis force in shaping global winds led to debate among German atmospheric scientists beginning in the 1870s over the completeness and validity of Hadley's explanation, which narrowly explained the behavior of initially meridional motions. Hadley's use of surface friction to explain why the trade winds were much slower than his theory would predict was seen as a key weakness in his ideas. The southwesterly motions observed in cirrus clouds at around 30°N further discounted Hadley's theory as their movement was far slower than the theory would predict when accounting for the conservation of angular momentum. In 1899, William Morris Davis, a professor of physical geography at Harvard University, gave a speech at the Royal Meteorological Society criticizing Hadley's theory for its failure to account for the transition of an initially unbalanced flow to geostrophic balance. Davis and other meteorologists in the 20th century recognized that the movement of air parcels along Hadley's envisaged circulation was sustained by a constant interplay between the pressure gradient and Coriolis forces rather than the conservation of angular momentum alone. Ultimately, while the atmospheric science community considered the general ideas of Hadley's principle valid, his explanation was viewed as a simplification of more complex physical processes.Hadley's model of the global atmospheric circulation being characterized by hemisphere-wide circulation cells was also challenged by weather observations showing a zone of high pressure in the subtropics and a belt of low pressure at around 60° latitude. This pressure distribution would imply a poleward flow near the surface in the mid-latitudes rather than an equatorward flow implied by Hadley's envisioned cells. Ferrel and James Thomson later reconciled the pressure pattern with Hadley's model by proposing a circulation cell limited to lower altitudes in the mid-latitudes and nestled within the broader, hemisphere-wide Hadley cells. Carl-Gustaf Rossby proposed in 1947 that the Hadley circulation was limited to the tropics, forming one part of a dynamically-driven and multi-celled meridional flow. Rossby's model resembled that of a similar three-celled model developed by Ferrel in 1860. Direct observation The three-celled model of the global atmospheric circulation – with Hadley's conceived circulation forming its tropical component – had been widely accepted by the meteorological community by the early 20th century. However, the Hadley cell's existence was only validated by weather observations near the surface, and its predictions of winds in the upper troposphere remained untested. The routine sampling of the upper troposphere by radiosondes that emerged in the mid-20th century confirmed the existence of meridional overturning cells in the atmosphere. Influence on climate The Hadley circulation is one of the most important influences on global climate and planetary habitability, as well as an important transporter of angular momentum, heat, and water vapor. Hadley cells flatten the temperature gradient between the equator and the poles, making the extratropics milder. The global precipitation pattern of high precipitation in the tropics and a lack of precipitation at higher latitudes is a consequence of the positioning of the rising and sinking branches of Hadley cells, respectively. Near the equator, the ascent of humid air results in the heaviest precipitation on Earth. The periodic movement of the ITCZ and thus the seasonal variation of the Hadley circulation's rising branches produces the world's monsoons. The descending motion of air associating with the sinking branch produces surface divergence consistent with the prominence of subtropical high-pressure areas. These semipermanent regions of high pressure lie primarily over the ocean between 20° and 40° latitude. Arid conditions are associated with the descending branches of the Hadley circulation, with many of the Earth's deserts and semiarid or arid regions underlying the sinking branches of the Hadley circulation.The cloudy marine boundary layer common in the subtropics may be seeded by cloud condensation nuclei exported out of the tropics by the Hadley circulation. Effects of climate change Natural variability Paleoclimate reconstructions of trade winds and rainfall patterns suggest that the Hadley circulation changed in response to natural climate variability. During Heinrich events within the last 100,000 years, the Northern Hemisphere Hadley cell strengthened while the Southern Hemisphere Hadley cell weakened. Variation in insolation during the mid- to late-Holocene resulted in a southward migration of the Northern Hemisphere Hadley cell's ascending and descending branches closer to their present-day positions. Tree rings from the mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere suggest that the historical position of the Hadley cell branches have also shifted in response to shorter oscillations, with the Northern Hemisphere descending branch moving southward during positive phases of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation and Pacific decadal oscillation and northward during the corresponding negative phases. The Hadley cells were displaced southward between 1400–1850, concurrent with drought in parts of the Northern Hemisphere. Hadley cell expansion and intensity changes Observed trends According to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6), the Hadley circulation has likely expanded since at least the 1980s in response to climate change, with medium confidence in an accompanying intensification of the circulation. An expansion of the overall circulation poleward by about 0.1°–0.5° latitude per decade since the 1980s is largely accounted for by the poleward shift of the Northern Hemisphere Hadley cell, which in atmospheric reanalysis has shown a more marked expansion since 1992. However, the AR6 also reported medium confidence in the expansion of the Northern Hemisphere Hadley cell being within the range of internal variability. In contrast, the AR6 assessed that it was likely that the Southern Hemisphere Hadley cell's poleward expansion was due to anthropogenic influence; this finding was based on CMIP5 and CMIP6 climate models. Studies have produced a large range of estimates for the rate of widening of the tropics due to the use of different metrics; estimates based on upper-tropospheric properties tend to yield a wider range of values. The degree to which the circulation has expanded varies by season, with trends in summer and autumn being larger and statistically significant in both hemispheres. The widening of the Hadley circulation has also resulted in a likely widening of the ITCZ since the 1970s. Reanalyses also suggest that the summer and autumn Hadley cells in both hemispheres have widened and that the global Hadley circulation has intensified since 1979, with a more pronounced intensification in the Northern Hemisphere. Between 1979–2010, the power generated by the global Hadley circulation increased by an average of 0.54 TW per year, consistent with an increased input of energy into the circulation by warming SSTs over the tropical oceans. In contrast to reanalyses, CMIP5 climate models depict a weakening of the Hadley circulation since 1979. The magnitude of long-term changes in the circulation strength are thus uncertain due to the influence of large interannual variability and the poor representation of the distribution of latent heat release in reanalyses.The expansion of the Hadley circulation due to climate change is consistent with the Held–Hou model, which predicts that the latiduinal extent of the circulation is proportional to the square root of the height of the tropopause. Warming of the troposphere raises the tropopause height, enabling the upper poleward branch of the Hadley cells to extend farther and leading to an expansion of the cells. Results from climate models suggest that the impact of internal variability (such as from the Pacific decadal oscillation) and the anthropogenic influence on the expansion of the Hadley circulation since the 1980s have been comparable. Human influence is most evident in the expansion of the Southern Hemisphere Hadley cell; the AR6 assessed medium confidence in associating the expansion of the Hadley circulation in both hemispheres with the added radiative forcing of greenhouse gasses. Physical mechanisms and projected changes The physical processes by which the Hadley circulation expands by human influence is unclear but may be linked to the increased warming of the subtropics relative to other latitudes in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The enhanced subtropical warmth could enable expansion of the circulation poleward by displacing the subtropical jet and baroclinic eddies poleward. Poleward expansion of the Southern Hemisphere Hadley cell in the austral summer was attributed by the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) to stratospheric ozone depletion based on CMIP5 model simulations, while CMIP6 simulations have not shown as clear of a signal. Ozone depletion could plausibly affect the Hadley circulation through the increase of radiative cooling in the lower stratosphere; this would increase the phase speed of baroclinic eddies and displace them poleward, leading to expansion of Hadley cells. Other eddy-driven mechanisms for expanding Hadley cells have been proposed, involving changes in baroclinicity, wave breaking, and other releases of instability. In the extratropics of the Northern Hemisphere, increasing concentrations of black carbon and tropospheric ozone may be a major forcing on that hemisphere's Hadley cell expansion in boreal summer.Projections from climate models indicate that a continued increase in the concentration of greenhouse gas would result in continued widening of the Hadley circulation. However, simulations using historical data suggest that forcing from greenhouse gasses may account for about 0.1° per decade of expansion of the tropics. Although the widening of the Hadley cells due to climate change has occurred concurrent with an increase in their intensity based on atmospheric reanalyses, climate model projections generally depict a weakening circulation in tandem with a widening circulation by the end of the 21st century. A longer term increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide may lead to a weakening of the Hadley circulation as a result of the reduction of radiative cooling in the troposphere near the circulation's sinking branches. However, changes in the oceanic circulation within the tropics may attenuate changes in the intensity and width of the Hadley cells by reducing thermal contrasts. Changes to weather patterns The expansion of the Hadley circulation due to climate change is connected to changes in regional and global weather patterns. A widening of the tropics could displace the tropical rain belt, expand subtropical deserts, and exacerbate wildfires and drought. The documented shift and expansion of subtropical ridges are associated with changes in the Hadley circulation, including a westward extension of the subtropical high over the northwestern Pacific, changes in the intensity and position of the Azores High, and the poleward displacement and intensification of the subtropical high pressure belt in the Southern Hemisphere. These changes have influenced regional precipitation amounts and variability, including drying trends over southern Australia, northeastern China, and northern South Asia. The AR6 assessed limited evidence that the expansion of the Northern Hemisphere Hadley cell may have led in part to drier conditions in the subtropics and a poleward expansion of aridity during boreal summer. Precipitation changes induced by Hadley circulation changes may lead to changes in regional soil moisture, with modelling showing the most significant declines in the Mediterranean Sea, South Africa, and the Southwestern United States. However, the concurrent effects of changing surface temperature patterns over land lead to uncertainties over the influence of Hadley cell broadening on drying over subtropical land areas.Climate modelling suggests that the shift in the position of the subtropical highs induced by Hadley cell broadening may reduce oceanic upwelling at low latitudes and enhance oceanic upwelling at high latitudes. The expansion of subtropical highs in tandem with the circulation's expansion may also entail a widening of oceanic regions of high salinity and low marine primary production. A decline in extratropical cyclones in the storm track regions in model projections is partly influenced by Hadley cell expansion. Poleward shifts in the Hadley circulation are associated with shifts in the paths of tropical cyclones in the Northern and Southern hemispheres, including a poleward trend in the locations where storms attained their peak intensity. Extraterrestrial Hadley circulations Outside of Earth, any thermally direct circulation that circulates air meridionally across planetary-scale gradients of insolation may be described as a Hadley circulation. A terrestrial atmosphere subject to excess equatorial heating tends to maintain an axisymmetric Hadley circulation with rising motions near the equator and sinking at higher latitudes. Differential heating is hypothesized to result in Hadley circulations analogous to Earth's on other atmospheres in the Solar System, such as on Venus, Mars, and Titan. As with Earth's atmosphere, the Hadley circulation would be the dominant meridional circulation for these extraterrestrial atmospheres. Though less understood, Hadley circulations may also be present on the gas giants of the Solar System and should in principle materialize on exoplanetary atmospheres. The spatial extent of a Hadley cell on any atmosphere may be dependent on the rotation rate of the planet or moon, with a faster rotation rate leading to more contracted Hadley cells (with a more restrictive poleward extent) and a more cellular global meridional circulation. The slower rotation rate reduces the Coriolis effect, thus reducing the meridional temperature gradient needed to sustain a jet at the Hadley cell's poleward boundary and thus allowing the Hadley cell to extend farther poleward. Venus, which rotates slowly, may have Hadley cells that extend farther poleward than Earth's, spanning from the equator to high latitudes in each of the northern and southern hemispheres. Its broad Hadley circulation would efficiently maintain the nearly isothermal temperature distribution between the planet's pole and equator and vertical velocities of around 0.5 cm/s (0.018 km/h; 0.011 mph). Observations of chemical tracers such as carbon monoxide provide indirect evidence for the existence of the Venusian Hadley circulation. The presence of poleward winds with speeds up to around 15 m/s (54 km/h; 34 mph) at an altitude of 65 km (40 mi) are typically understood to be associated with the upper branch of a Hadley cell, which may be located 50–65 km (31–40 mi) above the Venusian surface. The slow vertical velocities associated with the Hadley circulation have not been measured, though they may have contributed to the vertical velocities measured by Vega and Venera missions. The Hadley cells may extend to around 60° latitude, equatorward of a mid-latitude jet stream demarcating the boundary between the hypothesized Hadley cell and the polar vortex. The planet's atmosphere may exhibit two Hadley circulations, with one near the surface and the other at the level of the upper cloud deck. The Venusian Hadley circulation may contribute to the superrotation of the planet's atmosphere.Simulations of the Martian atmosphere suggest that a Hadley circulation is also present in Mars' atmosphere, exhibiting a stronger seasonality compared to Earth's Hadley circulation. This greater seasonality results from diminished thermal inertia resulting from the lack of an ocean and the planet's thinner atmosphere. Additionally, Mars' orbital eccentricity leads to a stronger and wider Hadley cell during its northern winter compared to its southern winter. During most of the Martian year, when a single Hadley cell prevails, its rising and sinking branches are located at 30° and 60° latitude, respectively, in global climate modelling. The tops of the Hadley cells on Mars may reach higher (to around 60 km (37 mi) altitude) and be less defined compared to on Earth due to the lack of a strong tropopause on Mars. While latent heating from phase changes associated with water drive much of the ascending motion in Earth's Hadley circulation, ascent in Mars' Hadley circulation may be driven by radiative heating of lofted dust and intensified by the condensation of carbon dioxide near the polar ice cap of Mars' wintertime hemisphere, steepening pressure gradients. Over the course of the Martian year, the mass flux of the Hadley circulation ranges between 109 kg s−1 during the equinoxes and 1010 at the solstices.A Hadley circulation may also be present in the atmosphere of Saturn's moon Titan. Like Venus, the slow rotation rate of Titan may support a spatially broad Hadley circulation. General circulation modeling of Titan's atmosphere suggests the presence of a cross-equatorial Hadley cell. This configuration is consistent with the meridional winds observed by the Huygens spacecraft when it landed near Titan's equator. During Titan's solstices, its Hadley circulation may take the form of a single Hadley cell that extends from pole to pole, with warm gas rising in the summer hemisphere and sinking in the winter hemisphere. A two-celled configuration with ascent near the equator is present in modelling during a limited transitional period near the equinoxes. The distribution of convective methane clouds on Titan and observations from Huygens spacecraft suggest that the rising branch of its Hadley circulation occurs in the mid-latitudes of its summer hemisphere. Frequent cloud formation occurs at 40° latitude in Titan's summer hemisphere from ascent analogous to Earth's ITCZ. See also Polar vortex – a broad semi-permanent region of cold, cyclonically-rotating air encircling Earth's poles Brewer–Dobson circulation – a circulation between the tropical troposphere and the stratosophere Atlantic meridional overturning circulation – a broad oceanic circulation important for energy exchange across a wide range of latitudes Notes References === Sources ===

coral

Corals are marine invertebrates within the class Anthozoa of the phylum Cnidaria. They typically form compact colonies of many identical individual polyps. Coral species include the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton. A coral "group" is a colony of very many genetically identical polyps. Each polyp is a sac-like animal typically only a few millimeters in diameter and a few centimeters in height. A set of tentacles surround a central mouth opening. Each polyp excretes an exoskeleton near the base. Over many generations, the colony thus creates a skeleton characteristic of the species which can measure up to several meters in size. Individual colonies grow by asexual reproduction of polyps. Corals also breed sexually by spawning: polyps of the same species release gametes simultaneously overnight, often around a full moon. Fertilized eggs form planulae, a mobile early form of the coral polyp which, when mature, settles to form a new colony. Although some corals are able to catch plankton and small fish using stinging cells on their tentacles, most corals obtain the majority of their energy and nutrients from photosynthetic unicellular dinoflagellates of the genus Symbiodinium that live within their tissues. These are commonly known as zooxanthellae and give the coral color. Such corals require sunlight and grow in clear, shallow water, typically at depths less than 60 metres (200 feet; 33 fathoms), but corals in the genus Leptoseris has been found as deep as 172 metres (564 feet; 94 fathoms). Corals are major contributors to the physical structure of the coral reefs that develop in tropical and subtropical waters, such as the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Australia. These corals are increasingly at risk of bleaching events where polyps expel the zooxanthellae in response to stress such as high water temperature or toxins. Other corals do not rely on zooxanthellae and can live globally in much deeper water, such as the cold-water genus Lophelia which can survive as deep as 3,300 metres (10,800 feet; 1,800 fathoms). Some have been found as far north as the Darwin Mounds, northwest of Cape Wrath, Scotland, and others off the coast of Washington state and the Aleutian Islands. Taxonomy The classification of corals has been discussed for millennia, owing to having similarities to both plants and animals. Aristotle's pupil Theophrastus described the red coral, korallion, in his book on stones, implying it was a mineral, but he described it as a deep-sea plant in his Enquiries on Plants, where he also mentions large stony plants that reveal bright flowers when under water in the Gulf of Heroes. Pliny the Elder stated boldly that several sea creatures including sea nettles and sponges "are neither animals nor plants, but are possessed of a third nature (tertia natura)". Petrus Gyllius copied Pliny, introducing the term zoophyta for this third group in his 1535 book On the French and Latin Names of the Fishes of the Marseilles Region; it is popularly but wrongly supposed that Aristotle created the term. Gyllius further noted, following Aristotle, how hard it was to define what was a plant and what was an animal. The Babylonian Talmud refers to coral among a list of types of trees, and the 11th-century French commentator Rashi describes it as "a type of tree (מין עץ) that grows underwater that goes by the (French) name "coral."The Persian polymath Al-Biruni (d.1048) classified sponges and corals as animals, arguing that they respond to touch. Nevertheless, people believed corals to be plants until the eighteenth century when William Herschel used a microscope to establish that coral had the characteristic thin cell membranes of an animal.Presently, corals are classified as species of animals within the sub-classes Hexacorallia and Octocorallia of the class Anthozoa in the phylum Cnidaria. Hexacorallia includes the stony corals and these groups have polyps that generally have a 6-fold symmetry. Octocorallia includes blue coral and soft corals and species of Octocorallia have polyps with an eightfold symmetry, each polyp having eight tentacles and eight mesenteries. The group of corals is paraphyletic because the sea anemones are also in the sub-class Hexacorallia. Systematics The delineation of coral species is challenging as hypotheses based on morphological traits contradict hypotheses formed via molecular tree-based processes. As of 2020, there are 2175 identified separate coral species, 237 of which are currently endangered, making distinguishing corals to be the utmost of importance in efforts to curb extinction. Adaptation and delineation continues to occur in species of coral in order to combat the dangers posed by the climate crisis. Corals are colonial modular organisms formed by asexually produced and genetically identical modules called polyps. Polyps are connected by living tissue to produce the full organism. The living tissue allows for inter module communication (interaction between each polyp), which appears in colony morphologies produced by corals, and is one of the main identifying characteristics for a species of coral.There are 2 main classifications for corals: 1. Hard coral (scleractinian and stony coral) which form reefs by a calcium carbonate base, with polyps with 6 stiff tentacles, and 2. Soft coral (Alcyonacea and ahermatypic coral) which are pliable and formed by a colony of polyps with 8 feather-like tentacles. These two classifications arose from differentiation in gene expressions in their branch tips and bases that arose through developmental signaling pathways such as Hox, Hedgehog, Wnt, BMP etc. Scientists typically select Acropora as research models since they are the most diverse genus of hard coral, having over 120 species. Most species within this genus have polyps which are dimorphic: axial polyps grow rapidly and have lighter coloration, while radial polyps are small and are darker in coloration. In the Acropora genus, gamete synthesis and photosynthesis occur at the basal polyps, growth occurs mainly at the radial polyps. Growth at the site of the radial polyps encompasses two processes: asexual reproduction via mitotic cell proliferation, and skeleton deposition of the calcium carbonate via extra cellular matrix (EMC) proteins acting as differentially expressed (DE) signaling genes between both branch tips and bases. These processes lead to colony differentiation, which is the most accurate distinguisher between coral species. In the Acropora genus, colony differentiation through up-regulation and down-regulation of DEs.Systematic studies of soft coral species have faced challenges due to a lack of taxonomic knowledge. Researchers have not found enough variability within the genus to confidently delineate similar species, due to a low rate in mutation of mitochondrial DNA.Environmental factors, such as the rise of temperatures and acid levels in our oceans account for some speciation of corals in the form of species lost. Various coral species have heat shock proteins (HSP) that are also in the category of DE across species. These HSPs help corals combat the increased temperatures they are facing which lead to protein denaturing, growth loss, and eventually coral death. Approximately 33% of coral species are on the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s endangered species list and at risk of species loss. Ocean acidification (falling pH levels in the oceans) is threatening the continued species growth and differentiation of corals. Mutation rates of Vibrio shilonii, the reef pathogen responsible for coral bleaching, heavily outweigh the typical reproduction rates of coral colonies when pH levels fall. Thus, corals are unable to mutate their HSPs and other climate change preventative genes to combat the increase in temperature and decrease in pH at a competitive rate to these pathogens responsible for coral bleaching, resulting in species loss. Anatomy For most of their life corals are sessile animals of colonies of genetically identical polyps. Each polyp varies from millimeters to centimeters in diameter, and colonies can be formed from many millions of individual polyps. Stony coral, also known as hard coral, polyps produce a skeleton composed of calcium carbonate to strengthen and protect the organism. This is deposited by the polyps and by the coenosarc, the living tissue that connects them. The polyps sit in cup-shaped depressions in the skeleton known as corallites. Colonies of stony coral are markedly variable in appearance; a single species may adopt an encrusting, plate-like, bushy, columnar or massive solid structure, the various forms often being linked to different types of habitat, with variations in light level and water movement being significant.The body of the polyp may be roughly compared in a structure to a sac, the wall of which is composed of two layers of cells. The outer layer is known technically as the ectoderm, the inner layer as the endoderm. Between ectoderm and endoderm is a supporting layer of gelatinous substance termed mesoglea, secreted by the cell layers of the body wall. The mesoglea can contain skeletal elements derived from cells migrated from the ectoderm. The sac-like body built up in this way is attached to a hard surface, which in hard corals are cup-shaped depressions in the skeleton known as corallites. At the center of the upper end of the sac lies the only opening called the mouth, surrounded by a circle of tentacles which resemble glove fingers. The tentacles are organs which serve both for tactile sense and for the capture of food. Polyps extend their tentacles, particularly at night, often containing coiled stinging cells (cnidocytes) which pierce, poison and firmly hold living prey paralyzing or killing them. Polyp prey includes plankton such as copepods and fish larvae. Longitudinal muscular fibers formed from the cells of the ectoderm allow tentacles to contract to convey the food to the mouth. Similarly, circularly disposed muscular fibres formed from the endoderm permit tentacles to be protracted or thrust out once they are contracted. In both stony and soft corals, the polyps can be retracted by contracting muscle fibres, with stony corals relying on their hard skeleton and cnidocytes for defense. Soft corals generally secrete terpenoid toxins to ward off predators.In most corals, the tentacles are retracted by day and spread out at night to catch plankton and other small organisms. Shallow-water species of both stony and soft corals can be zooxanthellate, the corals supplementing their plankton diet with the products of photosynthesis produced by these symbionts. The polyps interconnect by a complex and well-developed system of gastrovascular canals, allowing significant sharing of nutrients and symbionts.The external form of the polyp varies greatly. The column may be long and slender, or may be so short in the axial direction that the body becomes disk-like. The tentacles may number many hundreds or may be very few, in rare cases only one or two. They may be simple and unbranched, or feathery in pattern. The mouth may be level with the surface of the peristome, or may be projecting and trumpet-shaped. Soft corals Soft corals have no solid exoskeleton as such. However, their tissues are often reinforced by small supportive elements known as sclerites made of calcium carbonate. The polyps of soft corals have eight-fold symmetry, which is reflected in the Octo in Octocorallia.Soft corals vary considerably in form, and most are colonial. A few soft corals are stolonate, but the polyps of most are connected by sheets of tissue called coenosarc, and in some species these sheets are thick and the polyps deeply embedded in them. Some soft corals encrust other sea objects or form lobes. Others are tree-like or whip-like and have a central axial skeleton embedded at their base in the matrix of the supporting branch. These branches are composed of a fibrous protein called gorgonin or of a calcified material. Stony corals The polyps of stony corals have six-fold symmetry. In stony corals, the tentacles are cylindrical and taper to a point, but in soft corals they are pinnate with side branches known as pinnules. In some tropical species, these are reduced to mere stubs and in some, they are fused to give a paddle-like appearance.Coral skeletons are biocomposites (mineral + organics) of calcium carbonate, in the form of calcite or aragonite. In scleractinian corals, "centers of calcification" and fibers are clearly distinct structures differing with respect to both morphology and chemical compositions of the crystalline units. The organic matrices extracted from diverse species are acidic, and comprise proteins, sulphated sugars and lipids; they are species specific. The soluble organic matrices of the skeletons allow to differentiate zooxanthellae and non-zooxanthellae specimens. Ecology Feeding Polyps feed on a variety of small organisms, from microscopic zooplankton to small fish. The polyp's tentacles immobilize or kill prey using stinging cells called nematocysts. These cells carry venom which they rapidly release in response to contact with another organism. A dormant nematocyst discharges in response to nearby prey touching the trigger (Cnidocil). A flap (operculum) opens and its stinging apparatus fires the barb into the prey. The venom is injected through the hollow filament to immobilise the prey; the tentacles then manoeuvre the prey into the stomach. Once the prey is digested the stomach reopens allowing the elimination of waste products and the beginning of the next hunting cycle.: 24 Intracellular symbionts Many corals, as well as other cnidarian groups such as sea anemones form a symbiotic relationship with a class of dinoflagellate algae, zooxanthellae of the genus Symbiodinium, which can form as much as 30% of the tissue of a polyp.: 23–24  Typically, each polyp harbors one species of alga, and coral species show a preference for Symbiodinium. Young corals are not born with zooxanthellae, but acquire the algae from the surrounding environment, including the water column and local sediment. The main benefit of the zooxanthellae is their ability to photosynthesize which supplies corals with the products of photosynthesis, including glucose, glycerol, also amino acids, which the corals can use for energy. Zooxanthellae also benefit corals by aiding in calcification, for the coral skeleton, and waste removal. In addition to the soft tissue, microbiomes are also found in the coral's mucus and (in stony corals) the skeleton, with the latter showing the greatest microbial richness.The zooxanthellae benefit from a safe place to live and consume the polyp's carbon dioxide, phosphate and nitrogenous waste. Stressed corals will eject their zooxanthellae, a process that is becoming increasingly common due to strain placed on coral by rising ocean temperatures. Mass ejections are known as coral bleaching because the algae contribute to coral coloration; some colors, however, are due to host coral pigments, such as green fluorescent proteins (GFPs). Ejection increases the polyp's chance of surviving short-term stress and if the stress subsides they can regain algae, possibly of a different species, at a later time. If the stressful conditions persist, the polyp eventually dies. Zooxanthellae are located within the coral cytoplasm and due to the algae's photosynthetic activity the internal pH of the coral can be raised; this behavior indicates that the zooxanthellae are responsible to some extent for the metabolism of their host corals. Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease has been associated with the breakdown of host-zooxanthellae physiology. Moreover, Vibrio bacterium are known to have virulence traits used for host coral tissue damage and photoinhibition of algal symbionts. Therefore, both coral and their symbiotic microorganisms could have evolved to harbour traits resistant to disease and transmission. Reproduction Corals can be both gonochoristic (unisexual) and hermaphroditic, each of which can reproduce sexually and asexually. Reproduction also allows coral to settle in new areas. Reproduction is coordinated by chemical communication. Sexual Corals predominantly reproduce sexually. About 25% of hermatypic corals (reef-building stony corals) form single-sex (gonochoristic) colonies, while the rest are hermaphroditic. It is estimated more than 67% of coral are simultaneous hermaphrodites. Broadcasters About 75% of all hermatypic corals "broadcast spawn" by releasing gametes—eggs and sperm—into the water where they meet and fertilize to spread offspring. Corals often synchronize their time of spawning. This reproductive synchrony is essential so that male and female gametes can meet. Spawning frequently takes place in the evening or at night, and can occur as infrequently as once a year, and within a window of 10-30 minutes. Synchronous spawning is very typical on the coral reef, and often, all corals spawn on the same night even when multiple species are present. Synchronous spawning may form hybrids and is perhaps involved in coral speciation. Environmental cues that influence the release of gametes into the water vary from species to species. The cues involve temperature change, lunar cycle, day length, and possibly chemical signalling. Other factors that affect the rhythmicity of organisms in marine habitats include salinity, mechanical forces, and pressure or magnetic field changes.Mass coral spawning often occurs at night on days following a full moon. A full moon is equivalent to four to six hours of continuous dim light exposure, which can cause light-dependent reactions in protein. Corals contain light-sensitive cryptochromes, proteins whose light-absorbing flavin structures are sensitive to different types of light. This allows corals such as Dipsastraea speciosa to detect and respond to changes in sunlight and moonlight.Moonlight itself may actually suppress coral spawning. The most immediate cue to cause spawning appears to be the dark portion of the night between sunset and moonrise. Over the lunar cycle, moonrise shifts progressively later, occurring after sunset on the day of the full moon. The resulting dark period between day-light and night-light removes the suppressive effect of moonlight and enables coral to spawn.The spawning event can be visually dramatic, clouding the usually clear water with gametes. Once released, gametes fertilize at the water's surface and form a microscopic larva called a planula, typically pink and elliptical in shape. A typical coral colony needs to release several thousand larvae per year to overcome the odds against formation of a new colony.Studies suggest that light pollution desynchronizes spawning in some coral species. In areas such as the Red Sea, as many as 10 out of 50 species may be showing spawning asynchrony, compared to 30 years ago. The establishment of new corals in the area has decreased and in some cases ceased. The area was previously considered a refuge for corals because mass bleaching events due to climate change had not been observed there. Coral restoration techniques for coral reef management are being developed to increase fertilization rates, larval development, and settlement of new corals. Brooders Brooding species are most often ahermatypic (not reef-building) in areas of high current or wave action. Brooders release only sperm, which is negatively buoyant, sinking onto the waiting egg carriers that harbor unfertilized eggs for weeks. Synchronous spawning events sometimes occur even with these species. After fertilization, the corals release planula that are ready to settle. Planulae The time from spawning to larval settlement is usually two to three days but can occur immediately or up to two months. Broadcast-spawned planula larvae develop at the water's surface before descending to seek a hard surface on the benthos to which they can attach and begin a new colony. The larvae often need a biological cue to induce settlement such as specific crustose coralline algae species or microbial biofilms. High failure rates afflict many stages of this process, and even though thousands of eggs are released by each colony, few new colonies form. During settlement, larvae are inhibited by physical barriers such as sediment, as well as chemical (allelopathic) barriers. The larvae metamorphose into a single polyp and eventually develops into a juvenile and then adult by asexual budding and growth. Asexual Within a coral head, the genetically identical polyps reproduce asexually, either by budding (gemmation) or by dividing, whether longitudinally or transversely. Budding involves splitting a smaller polyp from an adult. As the new polyp grows, it forms its body parts. The distance between the new and adult polyps grows, and with it, the coenosarc (the common body of the colony). Budding can be intratentacular, from its oral discs, producing same-sized polyps within the ring of tentacles, or extratentacular, from its base, producing a smaller polyp. Division forms two polyps that each become as large as the original. Longitudinal division begins when a polyp broadens and then divides its coelenteron (body), effectively splitting along its length. The mouth divides and new tentacles form. The two polyps thus created then generate their missing body parts and exoskeleton. Transversal division occurs when polyps and the exoskeleton divide transversally into two parts. This means one has the basal disc (bottom) and the other has the oral disc (top); the new polyps must separately generate the missing pieces. Asexual reproduction offers the benefits of high reproductive rate, delaying senescence, and replacement of dead modules, as well as geographical distribution. Colony division Whole colonies can reproduce asexually, forming two colonies with the same genotype. The possible mechanisms include fission, bailout and fragmentation. Fission occurs in some corals, especially among the family Fungiidae, where the colony splits into two or more colonies during early developmental stages. Bailout occurs when a single polyp abandons the colony and settles on a different substrate to create a new colony. Fragmentation involves individuals broken from the colony during storms or other disruptions. The separated individuals can start new colonies. Coral microbiomes Corals are one of the more common examples of an animal host whose symbiosis with microalgae can turn to dysbiosis, and is visibly detected as bleaching. Coral microbiomes have been examined in a variety of studies, which demonstrate how oceanic environmental variations, most notably temperature, light, and inorganic nutrients, affect the abundance and performance of the microalgal symbionts, as well as calcification and physiology of the host.Studies have also suggested that resident bacteria, archaea, and fungi additionally contribute to nutrient and organic matter cycling within the coral, with viruses also possibly playing a role in structuring the composition of these members, thus providing one of the first glimpses at a multi-domain marine animal symbiosis. The gammaproteobacterium Endozoicomonas is emerging as a central member of the coral's microbiome, with flexibility in its lifestyle. Given the recent mass bleaching occurring on reefs, corals will likely continue to be a useful and popular system for symbiosis and dysbiosis research.Astrangia poculata, the northern star coral, is a temperate stony coral, widely documented along the eastern coast of the United States. The coral can live with and without zooxanthellae (algal symbionts), making it an ideal model organism to study microbial community interactions associated with symbiotic state. However, the ability to develop primers and probes to more specifically target key microbial groups has been hindered by the lack of full-length 16S rRNA sequences, since sequences produced by the Illumina platform are of insufficient length (approximately 250 base pairs) for the design of primers and probes. In 2019, Goldsmith et al demonstrated Sanger sequencing was capable of reproducing the biologically-relevant diversity detected by deeper next-generation sequencing, while also producing longer sequences useful to the research community for probe and primer design (see diagram on right). Holobionts Reef-building corals are well-studied holobionts that include the coral itself together with its symbiont zooxanthellae (photosynthetic dinoflagellates), as well as its associated bacteria and viruses. Co-evolutionary patterns exist for coral microbial communities and coral phylogeny.It is known that the coral's microbiome and symbiont influence host health, however, the historic influence of each member on others is not well understood. Scleractinian corals have been diversifying for longer than many other symbiotic systems, and their microbiomes are known to be partially species-specific. It has been suggested that Endozoicomonas, a commonly highly abundant bacterium in corals, has exhibited codiversification with its host. This hints at an intricate set of relationships between the members of the coral holobiont that have been developing as evolution of these members occurs. A study published in 2018 revealed evidence of phylosymbiosis between corals and their tissue and skeleton microbiomes. The coral skeleton, which represents the most diverse of the three coral microbiomes, showed the strongest evidence of phylosymbiosis. Coral microbiome composition and richness were found to reflect coral phylogeny. For example, interactions between bacterial and eukaryotic coral phylogeny influence the abundance of Endozoicomonas, a highly abundant bacterium in the coral holobiont. However, host-microbial cophylogeny appears to influence only a subset of coral-associated bacteria. Reefs Many corals in the order Scleractinia are hermatypic, meaning that they are involved in building reefs. Most such corals obtain some of their energy from zooxanthellae in the genus Symbiodinium. These are symbiotic photosynthetic dinoflagellates which require sunlight; reef-forming corals are therefore found mainly in shallow water. They secrete calcium carbonate to form hard skeletons that become the framework of the reef. However, not all reef-building corals in shallow water contain zooxanthellae, and some deep water species, living at depths to which light cannot penetrate, form reefs but do not harbour the symbionts. There are various types of shallow-water coral reef, including fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls; most occur in tropical and subtropical seas. They are very slow-growing, adding perhaps one centimetre (0.4 in) in height each year. The Great Barrier Reef is thought to have been laid down about two million years ago. Over time, corals fragment and die, sand and rubble accumulates between the corals, and the shells of clams and other molluscs decay to form a gradually evolving calcium carbonate structure. Coral reefs are extremely diverse marine ecosystems hosting over 4,000 species of fish, massive numbers of cnidarians, molluscs, crustaceans, and many other animals. Evolution At certain times in the geological past, corals were very abundant. Like modern corals, their ancestors built reefs, some of which ended as great structures in sedimentary rocks. Fossils of fellow reef-dwellers algae, sponges, and the remains of many echinoids, brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods, and trilobites appear along with coral fossils. This makes some corals useful index fossils. Coral fossils are not restricted to reef remnants, and many solitary fossils are found elsewhere, such as Cyclocyathus, which occurs in England's Gault clay formation. Early corals Corals first appeared in the Cambrian about 535 million years ago. Fossils are extremely rare until the Ordovician period, 100 million years later, when Heliolitida, rugose, and tabulate corals became widespread. Paleozoic corals often contained numerous endobiotic symbionts.Tabulate corals occur in limestones and calcareous shales of the Ordovician period, with a gap in the fossil record due to extinction events at the end of the Ordovician. Corals reappeared some millions of years later during the Silurian period, and tabulate corals often form low cushions or branching masses of calcite alongside rugose corals. Tabulate coral numbers began to decline during the middle of the Silurian period.Rugose or horn corals became dominant by the middle of the Silurian period, and during the Devonian, corals flourished with more than 200 genera. The rugose corals existed in solitary and colonial forms, and were also composed of calcite. Both rugose and tabulate corals became extinct in the Permian–Triassic extinction event 250 million years ago (along with 85% of marine species), and there is a gap of tens of millions of years until new forms of coral evolved in the Triassic. Modern corals The currently ubiquitous stony corals, Scleractinia, appeared in the Middle Triassic to fill the niche vacated by the extinct rugose and tabulate orders and is not closely related to the earlier forms. Unlike the corals prevalent before the Permian extinction, which formed skeletons of a form of calcium carbonate known as calcite, modern stony corals form skeletons composed of the aragonite. Their fossils are found in small numbers in rocks from the Triassic period, and become common in the Jurassic and later periods. Although they are geologically younger than the tabulate and rugose corals, the aragonite of their skeletons is less readily preserved, and their fossil record is accordingly less complete. Status Threats Coral reefs are under stress around the world. In particular, coral mining, agricultural and urban runoff, pollution (organic and inorganic), overfishing, blast fishing, disease, and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are localized threats to coral ecosystems. Broader threats are sea temperature rise, sea level rise and pH changes from ocean acidification, all associated with greenhouse gas emissions. In 1998, 16% of the world's reefs died as a result of increased water temperature.Approximately 10% of the world's coral reefs are dead. About 60% of the world's reefs are at risk due to human-related activities. The threat to reef health is particularly strong in Southeast Asia, where 80% of reefs are endangered. Over 50% of the world's coral reefs may be destroyed by 2030; as a result, most nations protect them through environmental laws.In the Caribbean and tropical Pacific, direct contact between ~40–70% of common seaweeds and coral causes bleaching and death to the coral via transfer of lipid-soluble metabolites. Seaweed and algae proliferate given adequate nutrients and limited grazing by herbivores such as parrotfish. Water temperature changes of more than 1–2 °C (33.8–35.6 °F) or salinity changes can kill some species of coral. Under such environmental stresses, corals expel their Symbiodinium; without them, coral tissues reveal the white of their skeletons, an event known as coral bleaching.Submarine springs found along the coast of Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula produce water with a naturally low pH (relatively high acidity) providing conditions similar to those expected to become widespread as the oceans absorb carbon dioxide. Surveys discovered multiple species of live coral that appeared to tolerate the acidity. The colonies were small and patchily distributed and had not formed structurally complex reefs such as those that compose the nearby Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System. Coral health To assess the threat level of coral, scientists developed a coral imbalance ratio, Log (Average abundance of disease-associated taxa / Average abundance of healthy associated taxa). The lower the ratio the healthier the microbial community is. This ratio was developed after the microbial mucus of coral was collected and studied. Climate change impacts Increasing sea surface temperatures in tropical regions (~1 °C (1.8 °F)) the last century have caused major coral bleaching, death, and therefore shrinking coral populations. Although coral are able to adapt and acclimate, it is uncertain if this evolutionary process will happen quickly enough to prevent major reduction of their numbers. Climate change causes more frequent and more severe storms that can destroy coral reefs.Annual growth bands in some corals, such as the deep sea bamboo corals (Isididae), may be among the first signs of the effects of ocean acidification on marine life. The growth rings allow geologists to construct year-by-year chronologies, a form of incremental dating, which underlie high-resolution records of past climatic and environmental changes using geochemical techniques.Certain species form communities called microatolls, which are colonies whose top is dead and mostly above the water line, but whose perimeter is mostly submerged and alive. Average tide level limits their height. By analyzing the various growth morphologies, microatolls offer a low-resolution record of sea level change. Fossilized microatolls can also be dated using radiocarbon dating. Such methods can help to reconstruct Holocene sea levels.Though coral have large sexually-reproducing populations, their evolution can be slowed by abundant asexual reproduction. Gene flow is variable among coral species. According to the biogeography of coral species, gene flow cannot be counted on as a dependable source of adaptation as they are very stationary organisms. Also, coral longevity might factor into their adaptivity.However, adaptation to climate change has been demonstrated in many cases, which is usually due to a shift in coral and zooxanthellae genotypes. These shifts in allele frequency have progressed toward more tolerant types of zooxanthellae. Scientists found that a certain scleractinian zooxanthella is becoming more common where sea temperature is high. Symbionts able to tolerate warmer water seem to photosynthesise more slowly, implying an evolutionary trade-off.In the Gulf of Mexico, where sea temperatures are rising, cold-sensitive staghorn and elkhorn coral have shifted in location. Not only have the symbionts and specific species been shown to shift, but there seems to be a certain growth rate favorable to selection. Slower-growing but more heat-tolerant corals have become more common. The changes in temperature and acclimation are complex. Some reefs in current shadows represent a refugium location that will help them adjust to the disparity in the environment even if eventually the temperatures may rise more quickly there than in other locations. This separation of populations by climatic barriers causes a realized niche to shrink greatly in comparison to the old fundamental niche. Geochemistry Corals are shallow, colonial organisms that integrate oxygen and trace elements into their skeletal aragonite (polymorph of calcite) crystalline structures as they grow. Geochemical anomalies within the crystalline structures of corals represent functions of temperature, salinity and oxygen isotopic composition. Such geochemical analysis can help with climate modeling. The ratio of oxygen-18 to oxygen-16 (δ18O), for example, is a proxy for temperature. Strontium/calcium ratio anomaly Time can be attributed to coral geochemistry anomalies by correlating strontium/calcium minimums with sea surface temperature (SST) maximums to data collected from NINO 3.4 SSTA. Oxygen isotope anomaly The comparison of coral strontium/calcium minimums with sea surface temperature maximums, data recorded from NINO 3.4 SSTA, time can be correlated to coral strontium/calcium and δ18O variations. To confirm the accuracy of the annual relationship between Sr/Ca and δ18O variations, a perceptible association to annual coral growth rings confirms the age conversion. Geochronology is established by the blending of Sr/Ca data, growth rings, and stable isotope data. El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is directly related to climate fluctuations that influence coral δ18O ratio from local salinity variations associated with the position of the South Pacific convergence zone (SPCZ) and can be used for ENSO modeling. Sea surface temperature and sea surface salinity The global moisture budget is primarily being influenced by tropical sea surface temperatures from the position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The Southern Hemisphere has a unique meteorological feature positioned in the southwestern Pacific Basin called the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ), which contains a perennial position within the Southern Hemisphere. During ENSO warm periods, the SPCZ reverses orientation extending from the equator down south through Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji and towards the French Polynesian Islands; and due east towards South America affecting geochemistry of corals in tropical regions.Geochemical analysis of skeletal coral can be linked to sea surface salinity (SSS) and sea surface temperature (SST), from El Nino 3.4 SSTA data, of tropical oceans to seawater δ18O ratio anomalies from corals. ENSO phenomenon can be related to variations in sea surface salinity (SSS) and sea surface temperature (SST) that can help model tropical climate activities. Limited climate research on current species Climate research on live coral species is limited to a few studied species. Studying Porites coral provides a stable foundation for geochemical interpretations that is much simpler to physically extract data in comparison to Platygyra species where the complexity of Platygyra species skeletal structure creates difficulty when physically sampled, which happens to be one of the only multidecadal living coral records used for coral paleoclimate modeling. Protection Marine Protected Areas, Biosphere reserves, marine parks, national monuments world heritage status, fishery management and habitat protection can protect reefs from anthropogenic damage.Many governments now prohibit removal of coral from reefs, and inform coastal residents about reef protection and ecology. While local action such as habitat restoration and herbivore protection can reduce local damage, the longer-term threats of acidification, temperature change and sea-level rise remain a challenge.Protecting networks of diverse and healthy reefs, not only climate refugia, helps ensure the greatest chance of genetic diversity, which is critical for coral to adapt to new climates. A variety of conservation methods applied across marine and terrestrial threatened ecosystems makes coral adaption more likely and effective.To eliminate destruction of corals in their indigenous regions, projects have been started to grow corals in non-tropical countries. Relation to humans Local economies near major coral reefs benefit from an abundance of fish and other marine creatures as a food source. Reefs also provide recreational scuba diving and snorkeling tourism. These activities can damage coral but international projects such as Green Fins that encourage dive and snorkel centres to follow a Code of Conduct have been proven to mitigate these risks. Jewelry Corals' many colors give it appeal for necklaces and other jewelry. Intensely red coral is prized as a gemstone. Sometimes called fire coral, it is not the same as fire coral. Red coral is very rare because of overharvesting. In general, it is inadvisable to give coral as gifts since they are in decline from stressors like climate change, pollution, and unsustainable fishing. Always considered a precious mineral, "the Chinese have long associated red coral with auspiciousness and longevity because of its color and its resemblance to deer antlers (so by association, virtue, long life, and high rank". It reached its height of popularity during the Manchu or Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) when it was almost exclusively reserved for the emperor's use either in the form of coral beads (often combined with pearls) for court jewelry or as decorative Penjing (decorative miniature mineral trees). Coral was known as shanhu in Chinese. The "early-modern 'coral network' [began in] the Mediterranean Sea [and found its way] to Qing China via the English East India Company". There were strict rules regarding its use in a code established by the Qianlong Emperor in 1759. Medicine In medicine, chemical compounds from corals can potentially be used to treat cancer, neurological diseases, inflammation including arthritis, pain, bone loss, high blood pressure and for other therapeutic uses. Coral skeletons, e.g. Isididae are being researched for their potential near-future use for bone grafting in humans. Coral Calx, known as Praval Bhasma in Sanskrit, is widely used in traditional system of Indian medicine as a supplement in the treatment of a variety of bone metabolic disorders associated with calcium deficiency. In classical times ingestion of pulverized coral, which consists mainly of the weak base calcium carbonate, was recommended for calming stomach ulcers by Galen and Dioscorides. Construction Coral reefs in places such as the East African coast are used as a source of building material. Ancient (fossil) coral limestone, notably including the Coral Rag Formation of the hills around Oxford (England), was once used as a building stone, and can be seen in some of the oldest buildings in that city including the Saxon tower of St Michael at the Northgate, St. George's Tower of Oxford Castle, and the medieval walls of the city. Shoreline protection Healthy coral reefs absorb 97 percent of a wave's energy, which buffers shorelines from currents, waves, and storms, helping to prevent loss of life and property damage. Coastlines protected by coral reefs are also more stable in terms of erosion than those without. Local economies Coastal communities near coral reefs rely heavily on them. Worldwide, more than 500 million people depend on coral reefs for food, income, coastal protection, and more. The total economic value of coral reef services in the United States - including fisheries, tourism, and coastal protection - is more than $3.4 billion a year. Aquaria The saltwater fishkeeping hobby has expanded, over recent years, to include reef tanks, fish tanks that include large amounts of live rock on which coral is allowed to grow and spread. These tanks are either kept in a natural-like state, with algae (sometimes in the form of an algae scrubber) and a deep sand bed providing filtration, or as "show tanks", with the rock kept largely bare of the algae and microfauna that would normally populate it, in order to appear neat and clean. The most popular kind of coral kept is soft coral, especially zoanthids and mushroom corals, which are especially easy to grow and propagate in a wide variety of conditions, because they originate in enclosed parts of reefs where water conditions vary and lighting may be less reliable and direct. More serious fishkeepers may keep small polyp stony coral, which is from open, brightly lit reef conditions and therefore much more demanding, while large polyp stony coral is a sort of compromise between the two. Aquaculture Coral aquaculture, also known as coral farming or coral gardening, is the cultivation of corals for commercial purposes or coral reef restoration. Aquaculture is showing promise as a potentially effective tool for restoring coral reefs, which have been declining around the world. The process bypasses the early growth stages of corals when they are most at risk of dying. Coral fragments known as "seeds" are grown in nurseries then replanted on the reef. Coral is farmed by coral farmers who live locally to the reefs and farm for reef conservation or for income. It is also farmed by scientists for research, by businesses for the supply of the live and ornamental coral trade and by private aquarium hobbyists. Gallery Further images: commons:Category:Coral reefs and commons:Category:Corals See also Keystone species Ringstead Coral Bed References Sources Allen, G.R.; R. Steene (1994). Indo-Pacific Coral Reef Field Guide. Tropical Reef Research. ISBN 978-981-00-5687-2. Calfo, Anthony (2007). Book of Coral Propagation. Reading Trees Publications. ISBN 978-0-9802365-0-7. Colin, P.L.; C. Arneson (1995). Tropical Pacific Invertebrates. Coral Reef Press. ISBN 978-0-9645625-0-9. Fagerstrom, J.A. (1987). The Evolution of Reef Communities. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-81528-0. Gosliner, T.; D. Behrens; G. Williams (1996). Coral Reef Animals of the Indo-Pacific, Animals Life from Africa to Hawai'i (invertebrates). Sea Challengers. ISBN 978-0-930118-21-1. Nybakken, J.W. (2004). Marine Biology, An Ecological Approach. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 978-0-8053-4582-7. Redhill, Surrey. Corals of the World: Biology and Field Guide. Segaloff, Nat; Paul Erickson (1991). A Reef Comes to Life. Creating an Undersea Exhibit. F. Watts. ISBN 978-0-531-10994-6. Sheppard, Charles R.C.; Davy, Simon K.; Pilling, Graham M. (25 June 2009). The Biology of Coral Reefs. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-105734-2. Veron, J.E.N. (1993). Corals of Australia and the Indo-Pacific. ISBN 978-0-8248-1504-2. Wells, Susan (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. IUCN, UNEP. ISBN 9782880329440. External links Coral Reefs The Ocean Portal by the Smithsonian Institution NOAA - Coral Reef Conservation Program NOAA CoRIS – Coral Reef Biology NOAA Office for Coastal Management - Fast Facts - Coral Reefs NOAA Ocean Service Education – Corals "What is a coral?". Stanford microdocs project. Archived from the original on 2014-01-06. Retrieved 2017-02-04.

cloud forest

A cloud forest, also called a water forest, primas forest, or tropical montane cloud forest, is a generally tropical or subtropical, evergreen, montane, moist forest characterized by a persistent, frequent or seasonal low-level cloud cover, usually at the canopy level, formally described in the International Cloud Atlas (2017) as silvagenitus. Cloud forests often exhibit an abundance of mosses covering the ground and vegetation, in which case they are also referred to as mossy forests. Mossy forests usually develop on the saddles of mountains, where moisture introduced by settling clouds is more effectively retained. Cloud forests are among the most biodiversity rich ecosystems in the world with a large number of species directly or indirectly depending on them.Other moss forests include black spruce/feathermoss climax forest, with a moderately dense canopy and a forest floor of feathermosses including Hylocomium splendens, Pleurozium schreberi and Ptilium crista-castrensis. These weft-form mosses grow in boreal moss forests. Climate The presence of cloud forests is dependent on local climate (which is affected by the distance to the sea), the exposition and the latitude (from 23°N to 25°S), and the elevation (which varies from 500 m to 4000 m above sea level). Typically, there is a relatively small band of elevation in which the atmospheric environment is suitable for cloud forest development. This is characterized by persistent fog at the vegetation level, resulting in the reduction of direct sunlight and thus of evapotranspiration. Within cloud forests, much of the moisture available to plants arrives in the form of fog drip, where fog condenses on tree leaves and then drips onto the ground below. Annual rainfall can range from 500 to 10,000 mm/year and mean temperature between 8 and 20 °C (46.4 and 68 °F).While cloud forest today is the most widely used term, in some regions, these ecosystems or special types of cloud forests are called mossy forest, elfin forest, montane thicket, and dwarf cloud forest.The definition of cloud forest can be ambiguous, with many countries not using the term (preferring such terms as Afromontane forest and upper montane rain forest, montane laurel forest, or more localised terms such as the Bolivian yungas, and the laurisilva of the Atlantic Islands), and occasionally subtropical and even temperate forests in which similar meteorological conditions occur are considered to be cloud forests. Characteristics In comparison with lower-altitude tropical moist forests, cloud forests show a reduced tree stature combined with increased stem density and generally, a lower diversity of woody plants. Trees in these regions are generally shorter and more heavily stemmed than in lower-altitude forests in the same regions, often with gnarled trunks and branches, forming dense, compact crowns. Their leaves become smaller, thicker and harder with increasing altitude. The high moisture promotes the development of a high biomass and biodiversity of epiphyte, particularly bryophytes, lichens, ferns (including filmy ferns), bromeliads and orchids. The number of endemic plants can be very high.An important feature of cloud forests is the tree crowns that intercept the wind-driven cloud moisture, part of which drips to the ground. This fog drip occurs when water droplets from the fog adhere to the needles or leaves of trees or other objects, coalesce into larger drops and then drop to the ground. It can be an important contribution to the hydrologic cycle.Cloud forests are often peatlands, showcasing many classic peatland attributes. Due to the high water content of the soil, the reduced solar radiation and the low rates of decomposition and mineralization, the soil acidity is very high, with more humus and peat often forming the upper soil layer.Stadtmüller (1987) distinguishes two general types of tropical montane cloud forests: Areas with a high annual precipitation due to a frequent cloud cover in combination with heavy and sometimes persistent orographic rainfall; such forests have a perceptible canopy strata, a high number of epiphytes, and a thick peat layer which has a high storage capacity for water and controls the runoff; In drier areas with mainly seasonal rainfall, cloud stripping can amount to a large proportion of the moisture available to plants. Distribution of tropical montane cloud forests Only 1% of the global woodland consists of cloud forests. They previously comprised an estimated 11% of all tropical forests in the 1970s. A total of around 736 cloud forest sites have been identified in 59 countries by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, with 327 of them legally protected areas as of 2002. Important areas of cloud forest are in Central and South America (mainly Costa Rica, Venezuela, Honduras, Mexico, Ecuador, and Colombia), East and Central Africa, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Hawaii, Papua New Guinea, and in the Caribbean.The 1997 version of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre's database of cloud forests found a total of 605 tropical montane cloud forest sites in 41 countries. 280 sites, or 46% of the total, were located in Latin America, known in biogeography as the Neotropical realm. Twelve countries had tropical montane cloud forest sites, with the majority in Venezuela (64 sites), Mexico (64), Ecuador (35) and Colombia (28). Southeast Asia and Australasia had 228 sites in 14 countries – 66 in Indonesia, 54 in Malaysia, 33 in Sri Lanka, 32 in the Philippines, and 28 in Papua New Guinea. 97 sites were recorded in 21 African countries, mostly scattered on isolated mountains. Of the 605 sites, 264 were in protected areas. Conservation status Cloud forests occupied 0.4% of the global land surface in 2001 and harboured ~3,700 species of birds, mammal, amphibians and tree ferns (~15% of the global diversity of those groups), with half of those species entirely restricted to cloud forests. Worldwide, ~2.4% of cloud forests (in some regions, more than 8%) were lost between 2001 and 2018, especially in readily accessible places. While protected areas have slowed this decline, a large proportion of loss in TCF cover is still occurring despite formal protection. Temperate cloud forests Although far from being universally accepted as true cloud forests, several forests in temperate regions have strong similarities with tropical cloud forests. The term is further confused by occasional reference to cloud forests in tropical countries as "temperate" due to the cooler climate associated with these misty forests. Distribution of temperate cloud forests Argentina – Salta, Jujuy, Catamarca and Tucumán (Southern Andean Yungas) Australia – Lamington National Park, Springbrook National Park, Mount Bartle Frere and Mount Bellenden Ker (Queensland) and Mount Gower (Lord Howe Island) Brazil – Serra do Mar coastal forests Canada – Coastal British Columbia Chile – Bosque de Fray Jorge National Park People's Republic of China – Yunnan Plateau, mountains of southern and eastern China Costa Rica – Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve. 10,500 Hectares of Cloud Forest. There are 2500 plant species (most species of orchids in a single place on earth), 100 species of mammals, 400 species of birds, 120 species of reptiles, and thousands of insects. Ethiopia – Harenna Forest, Bale Mountains National Park and Kafa Biosphere Reserve in South West Ethiopia Peoples' Region Fiji Islands - Tropical Montane cloud forests of Taveuni [Ash, J., 1987. Stunted cloud-forest in Taveuni, Fiji.], Gau Island [Keppel, G. and Thomas, N.T., 2009. Composition and structure of the cloud forest on Mt Delaco, Gau, Fiji. The South Pacific Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences, 27(1), pp.28-34.] Taiwan – Yuanyang Lake Nature Reserve, Chatianshan Nature Reserve, and Fuxing District in Taoyuan Iran – Eastern part of Alborz mountains, north of Iran, Golestan Province Japan – parts of Yakushima Island New Zealand – parts of Fiordland, Mount Taranaki, and Mount Cargill Pakistan – Shoghran Forest in the Kaghan Valley, and regions of Upper Swat in the northwest of Pakistan Peru – Peruvian Cloud Forest Portugal – Azores and Madeira (often refers to the wetter, higher altitude expanse of laurisilva) Spain – Canary Islands (laurisilva) and very locally in Los Llanos del Juncal (Alcornocales Natural Park) in the Province of Cádiz. United States – Pacific Northwest and in the Southern Appalachians. Importance Watershed function: Because of the cloud-stripping strategy, the effective rainfall can be doubled in dry seasons and increase the wet season rainfall by about 10%. Experiments of Costin and Wimbush (1961) showed that the tree canopies of non-cloud forests intercept and evaporate 20 percent more of the precipitation than cloud forests, which means a loss to the land component of the hydrological cycle. Vegetation: Tropical montane cloud forests are not as species-rich as tropical lowland forests, but they provide the habitats for many species found nowhere else. For example, the Cerro de la Neblina, a cloud-covered mountain in the south of Venezuela, accommodates many shrubs, orchids, and insectivorous plants which are restricted to this mountain only. Fauna: The endemism in animals is also very high. In Peru, more than one-third of the 270 endemic birds, mammals, and frogs are found in cloud forests. One of the best-known cloud forest mammals is the spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus). Many of those endemic animals have important functions, such as seed dispersal and forest dynamics in these ecosystems. Current situation In 1970, the original extent of cloud forests on the Earth was around 50 million hectares. Population growth, poverty and uncontrolled land use have contributed to the loss of cloud forests. The 1990 Global Forest Survey found that 1.1% of tropical mountain and highland forests were lost each year, which was higher than in any other tropical forests. In Colombia, one of the countries with the largest area of cloud forests, only 10–20% of the initial cloud forest cover remains. Significant areas have been converted to plantations, or for use in agriculture and pasture. Significant crops in montane forest zones include tea and coffee, and the logging of unique species causes changes to the forest structure.In 2004, an estimated one-third of all cloud forests on the planet were protected at that time. Impact of climate change Because of their delicate dependency on local climates, cloud forests will be strongly affected by global climate change. Results show that the extent of environmentally suitable areas for cloud forest in Mexico will sharply decline in the next 70 years. A number of climate models suggest low-altitude cloudiness will be reduced, which means the optimum climate for many cloud forest habitats will increase in altitude. Linked to the reduction of cloud moisture immersion and increasing temperature, the hydrological cycle will change, so the system will dry out. This would lead to the wilting and the death of epiphytes, which rely on high humidity. Frogs and lizards are expected to suffer from increased drought. Calculations suggest the loss of cloud forest in Mexico would lead to extinction of up to 37 vertebrates specific to that region. In addition, climate changes can result in a higher number of hurricanes, which may increase damage to tropical montane cloud forests. All in all, the results of climate change will be a loss in biodiversity, altitude shifts in species ranges and community reshuffling, and, in some areas, complete loss of cloud forests. In botanical gardens Cloud-forest conditions are hard and expensive to replicate in a glasshouse because it is necessary to maintain very high humidity. Day temperatures have to be between 70-75F while night temperatures have to be maintained between 55-60F. In most cases, sophisticated refrigeration equipment has to be used to provide night temperatures below 60F. Such displays are usually quite small, but there are some notable exceptions. In the United States, The Atlanta Botanical Garden has a large tropical cloud forest greenhouse with a large collection of cloud forest epiphytes from around the world. It implements a refrigeration system to decrease the temperature at night. For many years, the Singapore Botanic Gardens had a so-called coolhouse. The Gardens by the Bay features a 0.8 hectares (2.0 acres) coolhouse that is simply named "Cloud Forest". The latter features a 35-metre (115 ft)-high artificial mountain clad in epiphytes such as orchids, ferns, clubmosses, bromeliads and others. Due to a relatively mild climate and summer fog, the San Francisco Botanical Garden has three outdoor cloud forest collections, including a 2-acre Mesoamerican Cloud Forest established in 1985. The Buffalo and Erie County Botanical Gardens contains a "Panama Cloud Forest" garden in House 11. Footnotes References Bruijnzeel, L. A. (1990). Hydrology of Moist Tropical Forests and Effects of Conversion: A State of Knowledge Review. OCLC 222853422. Bruijnzeel, L.A.; Hamilton, L.S. (2000). Decision Time For Cloud Forests: Water-Related Issues And Problems Of The Humid Tropics And Other Warm Humid Regions. Paris, France: UNESCO's IHP Humid Tropics Programme Series No.13. Bruijnzeel, L. A; Proctor, J (1995). "Hydrology and Biogeochemistry of Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: What Do We Really Know?". In Hamilton, Lawrence S.; Juvik, James O.; Scatena, F. N. (eds.). Tropical Montane Cloud Forests. Ecological Studies. Vol. 110. pp. 38–78. doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-2500-3_3. ISBN 978-1-4612-7564-0. Bubb, Philip; May, Ian; Miles, Lera; Sayer, Jeff (2004). Cloud Forest Agenda. ISBN 92-807-2399-5. Archived from the original on 26 December 2017. Retrieved 26 December 2017. Foster, Pru (2001). "The potential negative impacts of global climate change on tropical montane cloud forests". Earth-Science Reviews. 55 (1–2): 73–106. Bibcode:2001ESRv...55...73F. doi:10.1016/S0012-8252(01)00056-3. Clarke, Charles (1997). Nepenthes of Borneo. ISBN 978-983-812-015-9. García-Santos, G; Marzol, M. V; Aschan, G (2004). "Water dynamics in a laurel montane cloud forest in the Garajonay National Park (Canary Islands, Spain)". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 8 (6): 1065–75. Bibcode:2004HESS....8.1065G. doi:10.5194/hess-8-1065-2004. García-Santos, G. (2007). An ecohydrological and soils study in a montane cloud forest in the National Park of Garajonay, La Gomera (Canary Islands, Spain) (PhD Thesis). hdl:1871/12697. García-Santos, G; Bruijnzeel, L.A; Dolman, A.J (2009). "Modelling canopy conductance under wet and dry conditions in a subtropical cloud forest". Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 149 (10): 1565–72. Bibcode:2009AgFM..149.1565G. doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2009.03.008. Grubb, PJ; Tanner, EVJ (July 1976). "The montane forests and soils of Jamaica: a reassessment". Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. 57 (3): 313–68. doi:10.5962/p.185865. JSTOR 43794514. S2CID 134572910. Häger, Achim (2006). Einfluss von Klima und Topographie auf Struktur, Zusammensetzung und Dynamik eines tropischen Wolkenwaldes in Monteverde, Costa Rica [Influence of climate and topography on the structure, composition and dynamics of a tropical cloud forest in Monteverde, Costa Rica] (Dissertation) (in German). doi:10.53846/goediss-2265. hdl:11858/00-1735-0000-0006-B0EE-1. S2CID 247019823. Hamilton, Lawrence S; Juvik, James O; Scatena, F. N (1995). "The Puerto Rico Tropical Cloud Forest Symposium: Introduction and Workshop Synthesis". In Hamilton, Lawrence S.; Juvik, James O.; Scatena, F. N. (eds.). Tropical Montane Cloud Forests. Ecological Studies. Vol. 110. pp. 1–18. doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-2500-3_1. ISBN 978-1-4612-7564-0. Kappelle, M (2004). "Tropical Montane Forests". In Burley, Jeffery (ed.). Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences. pp. 1782–92. doi:10.1016/B0-12-145160-7/00175-7. ISBN 978-0-12-145160-8. Ponce-Reyes, Rocío; Reynoso-Rosales, Víctor-Hugo; Watson, James E. M; Vanderwal, Jeremy; Fuller, Richard A; Pressey, Robert L; Possingham, Hugh P (2012). "Vulnerability of cloud forest reserves in Mexico to climate change" (PDF). Nature Climate Change. 2 (6): 448–52. Bibcode:2012NatCC...2..448P. doi:10.1038/nclimate1453. Ponce-Reyes, Rocio; Nicholson, Emily; Baxter, Peter W. J; Fuller, Richard A; Possingham, Hugh (2013). "Extinction risk in cloud forest fragments under climate change and habitat loss". Diversity and Distributions. 19 (5–6): 518–29. doi:10.1111/ddi.12064. van Steenis, Cornelis Gijsbert Gerrit Jan (1972). The Mountain Flora of Java. Brill. OCLC 741884105. Vogelmann, H. W (1973). "Fog Precipitation in the Cloud Forests of Eastern Mexico". BioScience. 23 (2): 96–100. doi:10.2307/1296569. JSTOR 1296569. External links Tropical Montane Cloud Forest Initiative Monteverde Cloud Forest Ecology Roach, John (August 13, 2001). "Cloud Forests Fading in the Mist, Their Treasures Little Known". National Geographic News Cloud Forests United Tropical hydrology and cloud forests project Hydrology of tropical cloud forests project Cloud Forest Video – Rara Avis CR Tropical Montane Cloud Forests – Science for Conservation and Management (L.A. Bruijnzeel, F.N. Scatena and L.S. Hamilton, 2011) Andes Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research Group Costin, A.B.; Wimbush, D.J. (1961). Studies in catchment hydrology in the Australian Alps. IV, Interception by trees of rain, cloud, and fog. OCLC 822214607. Stadtmüller, Thomas (1987). Cloud Forests in the Humid Tropics: A Bibliographic Review. ISBN 978-92-808-0670-0.

climate change mitigation framework

There are various theoretical frameworks to mitigate climate change. Frameworks are significant in that they provide a lens through which an argument can be addressed, and can be used to understand the possible angles from which to approach solving climate change. Frameworks in political science are used to think about a topic from various angles in order to understand different perspectives of the topic; common ones in international political science include rationalist, culturalist, marxist, and liberal institutionalist. See international relations theory for more frameworks through which problems can be analyzed. History of approach to solving climate change Historically climate change has been approached at a multinational level where a consensus decision is reached at the United Nations (UN), under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This represents the dominant approach historically of engaging as many international governments as possible in taking action in on a worldwide public issue. While there is a precedent that this model can work, as seen in the Montreal Protocol, there has been a shift away from this after it failed in the Kyoto Protocol and more recently is in jeopardy for the Paris Agreement. Free rider problem Unanimous consensus decision making has presented problems where any small number of countries can block passage of a resolution on what all countries will do to address the issue. Because of this small number of countries that do not want a resolution to the problem, all other countries are faced with the choice to attempt to combat the collective problem unilaterally, or also defect and economically benefit from not allocating the necessary resources to change. This is essentially the free rider problem present in the tragedy of the commons, where the world's climate is a public, non-rival, non-excludable good. The free rider problem can be summarized as the issue of a party receiving benefits of a public good without contributing to the cost. This often results in the good being overused or damaged by parties who are unable to be excluded from the using the good, resulting in a suboptimal good for everyone. Montreal Protocol Despite the issue of the free rider problem, there has been a precedent which suggests that action on climate change can be accomplished on the world scale, as this was seen with previous agreements such as the Montreal Protocol. This agreement effectively phased out various substances that were causing the depletion of the ozone layer (ODS), and addressed an international issue through a treaty with a multilateral fund, subsidization for technology transfer, and professional involvement of the scientific community. Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol was another international agreement that aimed to reduce emissions and greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, focusing on what industrialized nations could do to limit this. Nations in the agreement were assigned maximum amounts of emissions, and if these were not met then there was a penalty of a lower limit. It was not successful in its initial goal of decreasing greenhouse gas emissions, evidenced by the facts in the further rounds of countries pledging commitments, there were many significant defections, including Canada and the US, and countries not following through on pledges. This created a precedent where countries determined their own contributions and were able to withdraw from the agreement at any time, reintroducing the free-rider problem. The Doha Round extended the Kyoto Protocol to 2020 by reintroducing emissions targets, but was effectively replaced by the following Paris Agreement. Paris Agreement More recently, the 2016 Paris Agreement has come out with Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), which are determined by countries and must be ambitious and progressive with every 5 years. Since the NDCs are determined by each individual country, there is a potential problem of countries not being stringent enough with themselves, misreporting, or simply not setting goals that will meet the under 2°C increase in temperature requirement set out by the 2018 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report that is deemed necessary to meet in order to mitigate detrimental effects on hundreds of millions of lives. History of climate change frameworks As a result of the historical precedent that international consensus and decision making can be accomplished under the threat of a global environmental issue, with the depletion of the ozone layer, there has been a tendency towards a top-down, consensus-based approach to addressing climate change through the UNFCCC. This approach is the dominant one where all world governments are engaged, which makes sense as the entire population of the world is affected by this issue. The top-down approach is that of strong central oversight by a majority of world governments in determining how various approaches to climate change mitigation should be implemented. This approach has been the largest route to tackling the goal of solving climate change, however the world is not on track to reach the under 2°C warming in average temperature that would help hundreds of millions of people.Thus, the top-down framework of only utilizing the UNFCCC consensus approach has been proposed to be ineffective, with counter proposals of bottom up governance and decreasing the emphasis of the UNFCCC. There is a lack of consensus leading to various frameworks being proposed with varying levels of involvement of the UNFCCC and other intergovernmental actors, with proposed local-level approaches, emphasis on innovation and competition, enforcement mechanisms, and multilateral forums. Polycentric approach The polycentric approach is a proposition to look at the relationships between cities, smaller and larger governments, and private actors when unconstrained by a mandated plan from the top (UNFCCC). The shared interests of furthering action on climate change leads to a form of competition between various actors, but also forces them to look to each other to find out what practices are most effective. This can be seen at city-wide levels on taxation, where one city starts a tax on an unsustainable good and others can observe the effects of the tax, and adopt the policy if it's found to be effective. This experimentation also results in trust building, as various private and governmental actors increasingly communicate with each other and rely on each other's successes. This approach favors individual, low-level actors working with each other to achieve a common goal, with some integration into higher levels of governance for support, but whose integration is unnecessary and perhaps unhelpful. The polycentric approach allows a significant space for nongovernmental organizations and nonprofits to participate in furthering the cause, which is different from the top-down approach of the UNFCCC. Bottom-up approach The bottom-up approach also emphasizes smaller entities cooperating, but with integrated support from top-level governance like the UNFCCC. These levels of support can vary depending on the approach, but all tend to include at least some level of interaction with higher levels of governance, while emphasizing lower level actors taking more action.This approach accounts for climate clubs, which encourage global powers to take action on climate change, or pay a price for their inaction. This can include penalties such as the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism, exclusion from various markets by world powers, and sanctions against the country that are economically detrimental enough that they are forced to take action on climate change. This tackles the free-rider problem which is present when working with any group with a public good. The lack of international cooperation is solved through forcing other government's hands while stressing a decentralized decision making process to increase cooperation. The approach of using climate clubs with penalty defaults and integrating actors below the UNFCCC, like the OECD and the G20, to accomplish this end is somewhat experimental governance, as it borders on infringing on sovereignty of other countries by strong-arming them,{{ and has not been tried before. Minilateralism Minilateralism (groupings with select state membership) does falls only loosely into the category of the bottom-up framework as it is against integrating nongovernmental actors and governmental actors in approaching the problem. Aside from this main difference, minilateralism encourages the smallest possible break from the current top-down UNFCCC-led approach where the UNFCCC is still employed but other intergovernmental bodies are also incorporated. Possible intergovernmental bodies to be utilized include the OECD, the G20, or other international leading bodies that could address the issue further. This encourages the UNFCCC to not completely stop working on addressing the issue from a top-down approach, but in the interim these other bodies are important in furthering the cause. Multilateralism opens up the opportunity for international cooperation initiatives, where the UNFCCC could be supplemented by other multinational organizations that work towards climate change. This does not account for the free rider problem that the bottom-up approach with sanctions approach accounts for, and instead encourages those who are willing to make change do as much as possible. This then puts the burden on those who are willing to make change, and can create an example of what should be done, but offers no penalties for those who do not follow suit. Failure of governance Another approach suggests that government should be entirely forsaken because of the free-rider problem and shortcomings with consensus, and instead innovation, entrepreneurship, and investment in sustainable technology should be focused on. This is largely proposed because of the free rider problem of countries defecting from international agreements for their own economic gain in the short run. This is compounded by the non-excludable harms and benefits of mitigating climate change, where penalties harsh enough to sufficiently incentivize countries into taking action may not be practical, and countries will not act unless sufficiently incentivized. Under the failure of governance argument, the problems facing governance are massive and it would be less costly to invest in innovation and technology rather than governance. == References ==

carbon pricing in canada

Carbon pricing in Canada is implemented either as a regulatory fee or tax levied on the carbon content of fuels at the Canadian provincial, territorial or federal level. Provinces and territories of Canada are allowed to create their own system of carbon pricing as long as they comply with the minimum requirements set by the federal government; individual provinces and territories thus may have a higher tax than the federally mandated one but not a lower one. Currently, all provinces and territories are subject to a carbon pricing mechanism, either by an in-province program or by one of two federal programs. As of April 2023 the federal minimum tax is set at CA$65 per tonne of CO2 equivalent, set to increase to CA$170 in 2030.In the absence of a provincial system, or in provinces and territories whose carbon pricing system does not meet federal requirements, a regulatory fee is implemented by the federal Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act (GHGPPA), which passed in December 2018. In provinces where the fee is levied, 90% of the revenues are returned to tax-payers. The carbon tax is levied because of a need to combat climate change, which resulted in Federal commitments to the Paris Agreement. According to NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), the air today contains 400 ppm of CO2 while the CO2 level average over the past 400,000 years was between 200 ppm and 280 ppm.Saskatchewan never had a carbon pricing system and other provinces—Manitoba, Ontario, New Brunswick, and Alberta—have opted out of previous provincial carbon tax systems. Revenue from the federal GHGPPA, which came into effect in April 2019, is redistributed to the provinces, either through tax credits to individual residents or to businesses and organizations that are affected by the tax but are unable to pass on the cost by raising consumer prices.The introduction of the tax was met with political resistance, mainly by the Conservative Party of Canada which attempted to "make the carbon tax the single issue" of the 2019 federal election campaign. This argument did not succeed, as the Canadian voting public supported parties that also supported the carbon tax, leading CBC News to declare Canada's carbon tax to be "the big election winner" and "the only landslide victor" in this election. Similarly, legal challenges to the law failed on March 25, 2021 when the Supreme Court of Canada rejected the 2019 appeal of the provinces of Manitoba, Ontario, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, ruling in Reference re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act that GHGPPA was constitutional. History Alberta becomes first jurisdiction in North America to put price on carbon In 2003 Alberta signaled its commitment to manage greenhouse gas emissions by passing the Climate Change and Emissions Management Act. One of the first actions taken under this legislation was to develop a mandatory reporting program for large emitters in Alberta. In March 2007 Alberta passed Specified Gas Emitters Regulation. The first compliance cycle was from July 1 to December 31, 2007. Quebec implements first carbon tax In June 2007, Quebec implemented the first carbon tax in Canada which was expected to generate $2 million annually.On December 11, 2008, ExxonMobil CEO Rex Tillerson said that a carbon tax is preferable to a cap-and-trade program which "inevitably introduces unnecessary cost and complexity". A carbon tax is "a more direct, more transparent and more effective approach". Tillerson added that he hoped that the revenues from a carbon tax would be used to lower other taxes so as to be revenue neutral. 2008: Dion election proposal An unpopular revenue-neutral carbon tax was proposed in 2008 during the Canadian federal election, by Stéphane Dion, then leader of the Liberal Party. It was Dion's main platform and it allegedly contributed to the defeat of the Liberal Party with its worst share of the popular vote in the country's history.The Conservative party, who won the 2008 election, had promised to implement a North American-wide cap-and-trade system for greenhouse gases. During the 2008 Canadian federal election, the Conservative party promised to develop and implement greenhouse gas emissions trading by 2015, also known as cap and trade, that encourage a certain type of behaviour through economic incentives regarding the control of emissions and pollution. 2014 Ecofiscal Commission In 2014 public policy economists and superannuated politicians came together to begin discussions on what would become the Canada's Ecofiscal Commission. The Commission was established with the participation of Paul Martin, Jim Dinning, Preston Manning, and Jack Mintz on November 4, 2014, and became the leading advocacy group in Canada for carbon pricing. They published reports in 2015, 2016, and 2017. 2015: Trudeau pledges to act if elected In February 2015, Justin Trudeau announced that he would impose carbon pricing if elected. The proposed system would resemble the medicare model in which provinces would design systems suitable for their needs with the federal government setting national targets and enforcing principles. 2016: Paris Agreement The Paris Agreement (French: Accord de Paris) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), dealing with greenhouse-gas-emissions mitigation, adaptation, and finance, signed in 2016. The agreement's language was negotiated by representatives of 196 state parties at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Le Bourget, near Paris, France, and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015. Under the Paris Agreement, each country must determine, plan, and regularly report on the contribution that it undertakes to mitigate global warming. No mechanism forces a country to set a specific target by a specific date.A special report by The Guardian in partnership with Climate Action Tracker, compared pledges made by some 200 countries that participated in the 2015 United Nations round of talks on a "new climate deal" hosted in Paris. The co-authors wrote an in-depth analysis of 14 key countries and blocs, including Canada. The article, which summarized the report, said that Canada climate targets were the "weakest ... of any major industrialised economy which experts say was a "direct result" of Stephen Harper government's hard line policies" and its "promotion" of the "vast reserves of tar sands in Alberta" that are highly polluting".By December 2016 the ten provinces and the Canadian government presented their "executive, mitigation and adaptation" strategies towards a clean economy. The "extensive document"—"Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change"—"lean[-ed] heavily on carbon pricing".In 2018, Canada passed the GHGPPA implementing a revenue-neutral carbon tax starting in 2019, which applies only to provinces whose carbon pricing systems created for their jurisdictions, did not meet federal requirements. Revenue from the carbon tax will be redistributed to the provinces.According to a report by the Canadian Chamber of Commerce (CCC) released on December 13, 2018, Canada's largest business group endorsed the carbon pricing introduced by the federal government saying it offers flexibility and is the "most efficient way to cut emissions" and "solidly backs carbon pricing." According to a December 13 CTV News article, Stewart Elgie, from the Ottawa-based Environment Institute at the University of Ottawa, the CCC's "endorsement of the carbon tax as the most efficient emissions-cutting tool" and its support of "Canada's investments in clean technology at home and abroad", provides the Canadian economy with a "major opportunity...to market itself in a low-carbon future".In December 2018, the Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry submitted their report based on a year-long study on the "impacts of climate change and carbon pricing on agriculture, agri-food and forestry". Although some witnesses raised concerns that Canada's international competitiveness could be diminished compared with producers "who do not bear these additional, carbon-related costs". The Committee noted that a "study of the effects of British Columbia's carbon tax — which launched in 2008 — suggested the province's international competitiveness was not diminished".: 10  The report recommended that Environment and Climate Change Canada, formerly known as Environment Canada, or EC consider exemptions for agricultural activities under the GHGPPA, with "special attention to competitiveness for producers and food affordability for Canadians". The Committee recommended exempting fuels used for heating or transportation in farming activities.: 10 2018: Canadian government enacts GHGPPA The Parliament of Canada passed the Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act (GHGPPA) in the fall of 2018 under Bill C-74. The GHGPPA refers to charge or pricing instead of taxation. The charge which will rise to $50 per tonne of CO2 by 2022, begins at CA$20 in 2019 and increases by CA$10 per year until 2022. Through the GHGPPA, provinces have the flexibility to create their own solutions to deal with GHG emissions in their own jurisdictions. Through the GHGPPA all provinces are required to place a minimum price of CA$20 a tonne of GHG emissions by January 1, 2019. The tax will be retroactive to January. The tax has increased to CA$30 in 2020 and to CA$40 per tonne as of April 2021.The federal government plans to send an annual rebate ranging from $300 to 600 adequate emissions pricing plans. For example, if a family of 4 in Ontario pays CA$20 per month extra for gas, home heating and other costs, that same family will receive CA$307 in annual rebates. Compared to the CA$240 in costs, the GHGPPA should leave them CA$67 better off in 2019. The rebate benefit increases each year as the carbon price and the rebate both gradually rise. Taxpayers had to request the Climate Action Incentive Payment (CAIP) rebate on their annual income tax return until filing their 2021 tax return, from which time eligibility for the rebate is automatic and the taxpayer sent a cheque or a direct deposit is made into their bank account.In her October 23, 2018 Power & Politics podcast, Vassy Kapelos interviewed Dominic LeBlanc, the Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs, Northern Affairs and Internal Trade, Saskatchewan Premier Scott Moe, and Ontario Minister of Environment Rod Phillips.Carbon pricing in Canada is forecast by Environment Canada to remove 50-60 MT of emissions from the air annually by 2022, which represents about 12% of all Canadian emissions. However, Canada needs to reduce emissions to 512 MT by 2030 to meet its Paris Climate Change accord. This would mean reducing annual emissions by about 200MT from the 2018 levels. In addition to carbon pricing, the government is pursuing a range of additional policies including improving fuel standards, energy efficiency, and closing coal plants. Forecast economic impact A May 22, 2018 report by the Parliamentary Budget Officer (OFC) showed that carbon pricing would have at most a minor impact on the economy, with an increase in GDP in 2022 of about CA$2 billion, or 0.1% of GDP.: 5 According to a 2018 report, British Columbia, which has had a carbon price since 2008, had the fastest growing economy in Canada.In their April 25, 2019 report, Canada's Parliamentary Budget Officer estimated that the federal government "will generate CA$2.63 billion in carbon pricing revenues in 2019-20.": 1  The report said that the "vast majority of revenues (CA$2.43 billion) will be generated through the fuel charge; the balance, roughly CA$197 million, will be generated by output-based pricing.": 1  According to the PBO report, there will be an estimated increase in carbon pricing revenues of CA$6.20 billion by 2023-24.—CA$5.77 billion from the fuel charge proceed and the rest from the OBPS: 1 —a "trading system for large industry, known as the output-based pricing system (OBPS)".: 16  "The federal government has stated that the carbon pricing system will be revenue neutral; any revenues generated under the system will be returned to the province or territory in which they are generated. Households will receive 90 per cent of the revenues raised. The remaining 10 per cent will go to support particularly affected sectors, including small businesses, schools, and hospitals. Based on this assumption, 80% of households will receive higher transfers than the amount paid in direct and indirect costs. The net benefits are broadly progressive by income group: lower-income households will receive larger net transfers than higher-income households." However, the Canadian Revenue Agency has declared that, as of June 3, 2019, the average payment to households was less than previously estimated. It amounted to CA$174 in New Brunswick, CA$203 in Ontario, CA$231 in Manitoba and CA$422 in Saskatchewan. 2018: Constitutional challenges of GHGPPA In 2019, the provinces of Manitoba, Ontario, Saskatchewan brought their case to the Supreme Court of Canada. On March 25, 2021, the justices rejected their appeal, ruling in Reference re Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act that the GHGPPA was constitutional. 2020: Updated federal carbon price, reaching $170 in 2030 In December 2020, the federal government released an updated plan with a $15 /t per year increase in the carbon pricing, reaching $95 /t in 2025 and $170 /t in 2030. Carbon price in individual provinces and territories By 2018, Quebec (2007), British Columbia (2008), Alberta, Ontario, Manitoba and Nova Scotia had carbon-pricing policies in place. By 2017, Metro Vancouver was "exploring road fares and other fee-based mechanisms to address traffic congestion". Ontario cancelled their cap and trade system in 2018. The outlines of a new climate plan for Ontario, which did not include any carbon pricing system, was unveiled in November 2018.Manitoba, Ontario, Saskatchewan, and New Brunswick refused to impose their own emissions pricing so the federal pricing came into effect on April 1. Residents of the four provinces pay more for gasoline and heating fuel. The "starting rate added 4.4 cents to the price of a litre of gas, about four cents to a cubic metre of natural gas". The price of propane, butane and aviation fuel will also increase. Residents will receive rebates on their income tax returns. Amounts will vary with each province. In Saskatchewan for example, a family of four will receive $609 in 2019. British Columbia The Government of British Columbia introduced a carbon tax in 2008.British Columbia was the first Canadian province to join the Western Climate Initiative (WCI), which was established in February 2007 by the governors of Arizona, California, New Mexico, Oregon, and Washington to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The WCI became an international partnership when BC joined. By 2011, BC's preference was for its existing carbon tax as opposed to the cap and trade proposed by the WCI.In 2013, Angel Gurría, then-Secretary-General of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), said that the "implementation of British Columbia's carbon tax is as near as we have to a textbook case, with wide coverage across sectors and a steady increase in the rate" over a period of five years.According to a November 2015 article in The Atlantic, after British Columbia's provincial government introduced a carbon tax in 2008, greenhouse emissions were reduced, "fossil fuel use in British Columbia [had fallen] by 16 percent, as compared to a 3 percent increase in the rest of Canada, and its economy ... outperformed the rest of the country." This proved that carbon tax benefits were "no longer theoretical" and that they did not hinder economic growth. Quebec Quebec participates in an international emissions trading scheme with the US state of California. In June 2007, Quebec implemented a carbon tax on energy distributors, producers, and refiners, the first Canadian province to do so. When announcing the new tax, Quebec Natural Resources Minister Claude Béchard said that industries would absorb the tax, which would total CA$200 million in revenue annually, instead of passing on the cost to consumers. Of the 50 companies affected, the hardest hit would be oil companies, who would pay "about CA$69 million a year for gasoline, CA$36 million for diesel fuel, and CA$43 million for heating oil". The tax would also affect natural gas distributors who would pay about CA$39 million and electricity distributor Hydro-Québec who would pay CA$4.5 million for its Sorel-Tracy, Quebec-based thermal energy plant. Saskatchewan The Premier of Saskatchewan, Scott Moe, has spoken emphatically against the GHGPPA. The Government of Saskatchewan released a report entitled "Prairie Resilience: A Made-in-Saskatchewan Climate Change Strategy" which he said in an October 23, 2018 interview with CBC's Vassy Kapelos, has been accepted by the federal government as meeting GHGPPA requirements. The federal government assured residents of Saskatchewan that "all direct proceeds collected in Saskatchewan under the federal pollution pricing backstop system" would be paid "through direct payments to individuals and families and investments to reduce emissions, save money, and create jobs". For example, a family of four would "receive $609 in 2019". Alberta In July 2007, Alberta enacted the Specified Gas Emitters Regulation, Alta. Reg. 139/2007, (SGER). This tax exacts a $15/tonne contribution by companies that emit more than 100,000 tonnes of greenhouse gas annually that do not reduce their CO2 emissions per barrel by 12 percent, or buy an offset. In January 2016, the contribution required by large emitters increased to $20/tonne. The tax fell heavily on oil companies and coal-fired electricity plants. It was intended to encourage companies to lower emissions while fostering new technology. The plan only covered the largest emitters, who produced 70% of Alberta's emissions. Critics charged that the smallest energy producers are often the most casual about emissions and pollution. The carbon tax is currently $20 per tonne. Because Alberta's economy is dependent on oil extraction, the majority of Albertans opposed a nationwide carbon tax. Alberta also opposed a national cap and trade system. The local tax retains the proceeds within Alberta.On 23 November 2015, the Alberta government announced a carbon tax scheme similar to British Columbia's in that it would apply to the entire economy. All businesses and residents paid tax based upon equivalent emissions, including the burning of wood and biofuels. The tax came into force in 2017 at $20 per tonne. On 4 June 2019 a carbon tax repeal bill was enacted.In November 2015 Premier Rachel Notley and Alberta Environment Minister Shannon Phillips announced Alberta's carbon tax.In his Maclean's 2015 article, economist Trevor Tombe wrote that "[p]ricing carbon is one of the most sensible policy prescriptions to address greenhouse gas emissions". Tombe listed the advantages and disadvantages. The carbon tax provides a "new source of revenue for the government". The tax is a "far more efficient means of lowering greenhouse gas emissions than regulatory approaches." As part of the process of researching and implementing the carbon tax, the Alberta government worked with a panel chaired by University of Alberta economist Andrew Leach to study a carbon tax based on "sensible, evidence-based policy advice", which Tombe described as "a model for other jurisdictions". The price of the carbon tax began at CA$20 a tonne in 2017, rose to CA$30 a ton in 2018 and was tied to a 2% increase based on rising inflation, which Tombe considered to be "reasonable". Tombe estimated the impact of the carbon tax on the 3 "most carbon-intensive consumer purchases". He estimated an increase in the price of gasoline of c. 6.7 cents per litre when the CA$30 a tonne tax came into effect. Natural gas prices would increase by about $1.50 /GJ. "[L]ow to middle-income households" would "receive compensation".Premier Kenney joined like-minded premiers, including Doug Ford of Ontario, Scott Moe of Saskatchewan and Brian Pallister of Manitoba, in a lawsuit against the federal Liberal government on the carbon tax. The Court of Appeal of Alberta ruled against the federal government. This decision was later overturned when the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that the federal carbon tax was constitutional.The first piece of legislation introduced by the newly-elected Premier of Alberta, Jason Kenney, was Bill 1: An Act to Repeal the Carbon Tax. The bill repeals the provincial carbon tax, but it will be replaced by the federal carbon levy. Ontario The Ontario Climate Change Mitigation and Low-Carbon Economy Act, 2016 passed by the government of Kathleen Wynne established a standard cap and trade system which integrates with the Western Climate Initiative (WCI) providing access to an "even greater market to buy and sell the most cost effective carbon credits." Gary Goodwin called it the "best and most integrated solution to the problem of emissions."In September 2017, the Wynne government of Ontario joined the Western Climate Initiative (WCI), which was established in February 2007 by the governors of Arizona, California, New Mexico, Oregon, and Washington to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. *April 24, 2007: British Columbia joined with the five western states, turning the WCI into an international partnership with the goal of developing a multi-sector, market-based program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.and link its cap-and-trade system with Quebec's and California's in January 2018. This harmonized carbon market will be the second largest in the world, trailing only the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) and will feature joint permit auctions. Because it allows for permit trading between jurisdictions, linked cap-and-trade systems achieve lower-cost mitigation actions across jurisdictions than an unlinked system.In October 2018, the newly-elected Progressive Conservative government under premier Doug Ford, cancelled the previous cap and trade system as he had promised in his electoral campaign. In November, the Ontario government unveiled a climate plan which did "not include any kind of price on emissions". Gas station decals In April 2019, the provincial government introduced the Federal Carbon Tax Transparency Act as part of its budget, which makes it mandatory for all gas stations (excluding those situated on Indian reserves) to display government-commissioned decals on their pumps informing customers of the claimed "cost" of the carbon tax—increasing gas prices by 4.4 cents per-litre, and increasing gas prices by up to 11 cents per-litre by 2022. The decals contain a URL for a page on the Ontario web site that explains its positions on the tax, but the decals do not mention the rebate programs. Gas stations may be inspected at "all reasonable times" for compliance with the Act, and owners may be fined CA$500 for their first violation, and CA$1,000 per-day if they persist. The fines increase to $5,000 and 10,000 for corporations. The act became effective August 30, 2019.Federal Minister of Environment and Climate Change Catherine McKenna accused the Ford government of "wasting taxpayers' dollars on misleading stickers" which failed to acknowledge the rebate programs "or the cost of inaction on climate change". The Act was criticized by the Ontario NDP, with MPP Peter Tabuns accusing Ford of "threatening private business owners with massive fines for failing to post Conservative Party advertisement[s]". Fellow MPP Taras Natyshak issued a letter to the Chief Electoral Officer, alleging that the decals should be considered partisan campaign advertising under the Canada Elections Act due to the then-upcoming federal election. The government defended the decals and Act, considering it "transparency" that reminds Ontario residents of the "costs" of the Liberal carbon tax. Green Party of Ontario leader Mike Schreiner accused Ford of "forcing businesses to be complicit in his anti-climate misinformation campaign", and invited gas stations to help him inform the public that "climate change will cost us more" with his own version of the decal.The Canadian Civil Liberties Association took the Ontario government to court over the mandatory stickers, arguing the messages were “a form of compelled political expression.” In September 2020, the Ontario Superior Court of Justice sided with CCLA, ruling that Ford's mandatory gas-pump decals attacking federal carbon-pricing measures are unconstitutional and violated business owners' freedom of expression. Northwest Territories The Government of the Northwest Territories implemented a carbon price that took effect in September 2019. Output Based Pricing System (OBPS) Most aspects of the federal government's Output Based Pricing System (OBPS) announced in December 2018, "which targets greenhouse gas emissions from large, industrial facilities", are similar to Alberta's Carbon Competitiveness Incentive Regulation (CCIR) which was also similar to Alberta's 2007 Specified Gas Emitters Regulation (SGER). The three programs had a "price on carbon emissions" and a "system of allocations through which firms receive some number of emissions credits for free." The OBPS rules apply to large facilities in Ontario, New Brunswick, Manitoba, Prince Edward Island, Saskatchewan, Yukon and Nunavut—the "provinces covered by the federal backstop policy." The OBPS covers a "relatively small share of emissions in the provinces it affects." Most emissions come from smaller emitters which "will be covered in large part by the carbon price". A University of Alberta professor of economics named Andrew Leach blogged that "Much of the coverage of this system has framed the OBPS as an exemption from emissions pricing for large emitters, but that hides the importance of the two, linked programs – the carbon price and the output-based allocation of credits."In the spring of 2018, the federal government had "proposed that all fossil fuel-burning generating stations be treated the same with the first 420 tonnes of greenhouse gases per gigawatt hour of electricity produced exempt from carbon taxes and everything above that subject to a charge."CBC reported in October 2018 that "natural gas stations face carbon taxes on emissions above 370 tonnes, oil on emissions above 550 tonnes and coal above 800 tonnes, a major concession to coal plants." Carbon tax and the 2019 federal election In June 2018, John Ivison wrote in the National Post that the Conservative Party were attempting to make the carbon tax "the single issue" of the 2019 federal election campaign. He argued that Andrew Scheer's leadership had interpreted Doug Ford's election as premier of Ontario as "an explicit rejection of the carbon tax". See also Climate change in Canada Acts and Regulations for carbon pricing Notes == References ==

climate change in washington, d.c.

Climate change in Washington, D.C. is marked by rising temperatures, increased rainfall and flooding, and storm surges of the Potomac River. Tourism is directly impacted as the cherry blossom bloom is shifting. The city's government is active in climate adaptation and mitigation efforts. Consequences Rising temperatures Climate change has already caused a 2 °F temperature rise (compared to 50 years ago) in D.C., warming more than the average nationwide. By the 2080s, the average summer high temperature of the district is expected to increase from the historic high of 87 °F to anywhere between 93 °F and 97 °F. This continues the trend of the District's rising summer temperatures, as five out of six of the District's hottest recorded summers have transpired after 2010. These rising temperatures have an adverse effect on the health of residents, raising the risk of heat-related illnesses, respiratory issues due to increased ozone, pollen, and ragweed counts, and increased disease spread by mosquitoes due to the higher biting rates and faster life cycles caused by rising temperatures.Summers are 5–10% more humid in 2019 than they were in the 1970s, according to analysis by the Washington Post. This results in up to a 5 degree increase in perceived temperature. Thus an 86 degree summer day, which felt like 89 degrees in the 1970s, may now feel more like 91–92 degrees. Shifting rainfall Rainfall is expected to increase during the winter and spring, but remain largely stagnant during fall and summer. This, when combined with increased temperatures drying soil, will increase flooding during winter and spring but increase drought during fall and summer. Flooding and land subsidence By 2017, land subsidence was ongoing, nuisance flooding had become more common in the waterfront areas of the city. Early blooming of cherry blossoms Washington’s cherry trees are blooming earlier: since 1921, peak bloom dates have shifted earlier by approximately five days. The timing of the peak bloom is important to tourism and the local economy because the cherry blossoms draw more than one million people each year, many of whom are visitors. Climate change mitigation policies Gray Administration Under Mayor Vincent Gray, the city began an effort known as the Sustainable DC. As part of this effort, Gray signed the Sustainable DC Act of 2012. This act had various sections dedicated to promoting energy efficiency, natural river conservation, renewable energy, ENERGY STAR ratings for buildings, Anacostia River cleanup, urban agriculture, and healthy air. Alongside this act, the office released the Sustainable DC Plan. This plan was drafted in 2011 and released in February 2013, with the vow to make the city the "healthiest, greenest, and most livable city in the United States" by 2032. This plan was developed in cooperation with 4,700 people via 24 public events. The plan outlined the following priorities: Spending $500 million to make city buildings more energy efficient, requiring them to generate at least as much energy as they consume Increasing the cost of parking, and aiming to have a quarter of all commuter trips be by bike or foot and half by public transportation Reducing greenhouse-gas emissions and energy use by 50 percent by 2032 Improving recycling and establishing municipal composting Spending $4.5 million to create 10 “mini” neighborhood parks out of existing parking spaces Proposing a ban on plastic foam food containers Creating swimmable and fishable Anacostia RiverMayor Gray left office after a single term, but several of these initiatives persisted after his time in office. Specifically, the ban on styrofoam containers went into effect on January 1, 2016, "banning businesses and organizations that serve food or beverages from using disposable food service ware made of expanded polystyrene" Bowser Administration Mayor Muriel Bowser assumed office in January 2015, and appointed former DC Council member Tommy Wells director for the District Department of Energy & Environment (DOEE). DOEE and the Department of Employment Services (DOES) partnered in 2016 to create Solar Works DC, a program which trains local workers to install residential solar panels on hundreds of homes of low-income residents. In November 2016, the City of the District of Columbia published the Climate Ready DC Plan, a climate adaptation plan. In this report, the city committed to reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 50% by 2032 and 80% by 2050. In December 2017, at the North American Climate Summit, Mayor Bowser pledged to make Washington DC carbon-neutral and climate resilient by 2050. This commitment expanded the previous 80% reduction to 100% reduction. That same year, the city has also mandated 50% renewable energy by 2032.Mayor Bowser also created a successor to the Sustainable DC Plan, known as Sustainable DC 2.0, released in August 2018. Development of this plan took place over 20 months, and involved more than 4000 people. This plan has focus areas including: Governance, Equity, Built Environment, Climate, Economy, Education, Energy, Food, Health, Nature, Transportation, Waste, and Water. The Clean Energy DC Omnibus Amendment Act of 2018, effective March 2019, mandated that 100% of the District’s energy supply come from Tier 1 renewable energy sources by 2032. A 2022 report on the progress of this mandate indicates that the number of certified Community Renewable Energy Facilities (CREFs) grew from 12 in 2019 to 219 by the end of 2021. The Climate Commitment Act of 2022, passed in 2022, codifies the District's commitment to the Paris Agreement, by mandating that the city neutralize GHG emissions by 2045, reach carbon neutrality in government operations by 2040, and end new purchases of fossil fuel-based heating equipment and vehicles by 2025 and 2026. The Clean Energy DC Building Code Amendment Act of 2022 requires all new construction or substantial improvements of covered buildings to be constructed to a net-zero-energy standard, beginning on January 1, 2027.As of April 2023, the Bowser administration is currently in the process of updating the 2018 Clean Energy DC Plan, calling the new report Clean Energy DC 2.0 (CEDC 2.0). The aim of the new plan is to reduce emissions by 56% in 2032 compared to a 2006 baseline. See also Plug-in electric vehicles in Washington, D.C. == References ==

climate change in north korea

Climate change in North Korea is an especially pressing issue because North Korea is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change due to its weak food security, which in the past has led to widespread famine. The North Korean Ministry of Land and Environmental Protection estimates that North Korea's average temperature rose by 1.9 °C between 1918 and 2000. In the 2013 edition of Germanwatch's Climate Risk Index, North Korea was judged to be the seventh hardest hit by climate-related extreme weather events of 179 nations during the period 1992–2011.North Korean carbon dioxide emissions are estimated to be roughly 56.38 million metric tons of CO2 in 2021. The vast majority of this is due to North Korea's reliance on coal for energy production. As a result of its mountainous geography as well as the onset of sea level rise and increasing frequency of extreme weather events, the biggest climate change-related concern for North Korea is food security. Low food production in 2017 and 2018 resulted in undernourishment in an estimated 10.3 million people. This has created a high dependency on foreign nations to fulfil food demands. This challenge - along with disruption to economic growth as a result of climate change - might undermine the totalitarian rule of the North Korean government and may be a cause for regime change in the future. Greenhouse gas emissions Due to lack of consistent reporting, North Korean greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are largely based on estimates, with most recent figures estimating that North Korean emitted roughly 56.38 million metric tons of CO2 in 2021. Despite the inconsistency between estimates, the general consensus is that North Korean GHG emissions peaked in the early 1990s; according to UN statistics, emissions have declined by roughly 70% since 1993. Additionally, due to low energy consumption, North Korean CO2 emissions account for only 0.15% of global emissions; this is down from its peak of 0.93% in 1989. This period of high emissions was largely due to the Chollima Movement, a government incentive that encourage mass industrialisation and economic growth, while the subsequent drop in emissions is largely due to the famine of the 1990s and its associated energy and economic crisis. Energy consumption The majority of the DPRK's energy production is generated from coal combustion, and as a result roughly 85% of its 2019 emissions were from the burning of coal. North Korea's economic is highly dependent on coal exports, which generated $1.4 billion in revenue in 2013 (10% of the country's GDP), is of particular environmental concern to the international community, since the DPRK is using its coal and oil reserves to insulate it from international pressure over its nuclear weapons regime. Since higher-quality anthracite is reserved for export, the majority of domestic coal burned is of very low quality leading to high rates of air pollution. In addition to regional health and environmental effects - North Korea's pollution-related mortality rate is the highest in the world - this increased coal consumption is impacting regional pollution levels, with an estimated 20% of air pollution in South Korea having originated from North Korea. Impacts on the natural environment Temperature and weather changes North Korea consists largely of mountains on the north and east coast. The largest range in the North is the Hamgyong Mountains; on the east coast, the Taebaek Mountains extend into South Korea and form the main ridge of the Korean peninsula. These mountains form the country's largest watershed, where rivers such as the Yalu, Tumen and Taedong flow into the Korea Bay and the Sea of Japan. By contrast, North Korea's plains are relatively small, with the largest - the Pyongyang and Chaeryŏng plains - each covering roughly 500 km2. Sea level rise In its Intended Nationally Determined Contributions under the UNFCCC, North Korea reports that sea levels are projected to rise by 0.67m to 0.89m by 2100, which it estimates will cause a coastline retreat of 67m to 89m on the East Coast and 670m to 890m on the West Coast. In its Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, the United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change says that rising sea levels will have major impacts on flooding, coastal erosion and soil salinity, changes in which would further damage North Korea's farmlands. Impacts on people Economic impacts Agriculture In its Environment and Climate Change Outlook Report, the North Korean government acknowledge that extreme weather events, such as droughts and flooding, pest outbreaks, forest and land mismanagement and industrial activities have degraded soil productivity on a large scale. Additionally, there was an increasingly significant variation in seasonal temperature between 1918 and 2000, with winter temperatures increasing by an average of 4.9 °C and spring temperatures by an average of 2.4 °C. In contrast to other scientific observations, the North Korean government views this as beneficial to agriculture, as the growing season is becoming more extended and agricultural growing conditions are improving. Climate change in North Korea has had the greatest impact on agriculture and food production - according to Paul Chisholm of NPR: The roots of what is known as "food insecurity" lie partly in the geography and climate of the country. Mountains cover most of the nation, leaving few places to farm. North Korea is also beset by widespread erosion and frequent drought. In addition, many of the country's farmers do not have access to modern agricultural machinery like tractors and combines. Add it all up, and you're left with a country that is reliant on neighbors for much of its food. As a result of the impacts of climate change on North Korea's agricultural production, there has been a considerable reduction in food security for North Korean citizens. The famine that ran from 1994 to 1998 was largely caused and exacerbated by withdrawal of aid from allies, flooding and failed food distribution systems, and is estimated to have caused between 240,000 and 2 million deaths. Following an 18-month drought in 2014, the North Korean government declared national emergencies in 2017 and 2018 due to low food production in key provinces, resulting in major shortages across the country. As a result of these climate change-induced food shortages, the Red Cross estimates that 10.3 million North Koreans are undernourished and 20% of children under the age of 5 face stunted physical and cognitive growth as a result of malnourishment. According to a report by the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization, North Korea would require 641,000 tonnes in food aid in 2019, up by 40.57% from the previous year. Mitigation and adaption Policies and legislation North Korea's political ideology of Juche views the environment in the context of socio-political issues, which has resulted in the belief that a revolution from capitalism to communism is necessary to solve environmental issues. As such, the government of North Korea views pollution reduction, effective land management and environmental protection as integral to a socialist society. This led to the creation of the Environmental Protection Law of 1986, which discussed the importance of environmental protection in building communism and outlined the responsibilities of the government and the people in ensuring the preservation of the natural environment, especially in regards to pollution. Climate change has become a feature of anti-American propaganda, with the state media increasingly referencing American obstructionism within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as well as the USA's relatively large greenhouse gas emissions. International cooperation As a party to the UNFCCC, North Korea has ratified both the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris climate agreement. Under the Paris agreement, North Korea has pledged to an 8% reduction of its carbon dioxide emissions by 2030; however, it notes that with international financial support and investment, it could achieve a 40% reduction in the same time period. This compliance and international cooperation on climate change comes partially from a genuine concern for environmental protection, but is also a vehicle for receiving foreign assistance and aid. This international compliance is a result of the parallels between international climate politics and the survival imperatives of the DPRK's government.North Korea has registered several Clean Development Mechanism projects to the UNFCCC in order to reduce its emissions - these include hydropower stations and methane reduction programs. These projects have been facilitated by $752,000 in UN funding which was approved in December 2019 and will allow the North Korean government to address the structural barriers to its engagement in climate mitigation.In November 2021, North Korean Ambassador to the UK Choe Il attended COP26 in Glasgow, Scotland; though Ambassador Il did not comment on whether North Korea in climate talks with officials from South Korea or the USA, the North Korean delegation was present for a speech by South Korean president Moon Jae-in on reforestation on the Korean peninsula. The United Nations Climate Change conference is one of the few high-level international meetings that North Korean delegates regularly attend. Society and culture Political stability Despite concerns of unrest following the death of Supreme Leader Kim Jong-Il in 2011, Kim Jong-Un has been able to achieve domestic stability through an aggressive foreign policy and the establishment of advisory agencies and committees. However, climate change is posing a risk to this stability. North Korean totalitarianism, which is based on total control by the state, is largely unable to deal with major disruptions to economic growth, food production and energy generation resulting from climate change as totalitarian control requires more resources than more common decentralised governance - as such, climate change limits the ability of the regime to uphold its governance functions. In years to come, North Korea is expected to experience greater migration, government corruption and even the erosion of the Juche ideology itself as a result of climate change. In his 2021 report to the 8th Congress of the Workers' Party of Korea, President Kim noted progress in "establishing a national system for disaster prevention and crisis management", displaying a commitment to improving future resilience to climate change and environmental degradation.While the effects of climate change on political stability are expected to be primarily domestic, there is also concern that regional stability will be impacted by climate change in North Korea. Food insecurity and extreme weather may result in mass migration to neighbouring states, primarily China - this may strain relations between North Korea and China which has the potential to marginalise North Korea, resulting in increased nuclear weapons buildup and threat perception by the Kim regime. Additionally, the increasing environmental impacts on coastal military facilities may result in climate mitigation efforts being misinterpreted by adversaries as a change in military strategy, thus potentially eroding diplomatic relations or increasing the potential for armed conflict. See also Climate of North Korea Climate change in South Korea == References ==

land surface effects on climate

Land surface effects on climate are wide-ranging and vary by region. Deforestation and exploitation of natural landscapes play a significant role. Some of these environmental changes are similar to those caused by the effects of global warming. Deforestation effects Major land surface changes affecting climate include deforestation (especially in tropical areas), and destruction of grasslands and xeric woodlands by overgrazing, or lack of grazing. These changes in the natural landscape reduce evapotranspiration, and thus water vapor, in the atmosphere, limiting clouds and precipitation. It has been proposed, in the journal Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, that evaporation rates from forested areas may exceed that of the oceans, creating zones of low pressure, which enhance the development of storms and rainfall through atmospheric moisture recycling. The American Institute of Biological Sciences published a similar paper in support of this concept in 2009. In addition, with deforestation and/or destruction of grasslands, the amount of dew harvested (or condensed) by plants is greatly diminished. All of this contributes to desertification in these regions. 25-50% of the rainfall in the Amazon basin comes from the forest, and if deforestation reaches 30-40% most of the Amazon basin will enter a permanent dry climate. In another article published by Nature, it points out that tropical deforestation can lead to large reductions in observed precipitation.This concept of land-atmosphere feedback is common among permaculturists, such as Masanobu Fukuoka, who, in his book, The One Straw Revolution, said "rain comes from the ground, not the sky."Deforestation, and conversion of grasslands to desert, may also lead to cooling of the regional climate. This is because of the albedo effect (sunlight reflected by bare ground) during the day, and rapid radiation of heat into space at night, due to the lack of vegetation and atmospheric moisture.Reforestation, conservation grazing, holistic land management, and, in drylands, water harvesting and keyline design, are examples of methods that might help prevent or lessen these drying effects. Mountain meteorological effects Orographic lift Orographic lift occurs when an air mass is forced from a low elevation to a higher elevation as it moves over rising terrain. As the air mass gains altitude it quickly cools down adiabatically, which can raise the relative humidity to 100% and create clouds and, under the right conditions, precipitation. Rain shadow A rain shadow is a dry area on the leeward side of a mountainous area (away from the wind). The mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems and cast a "shadow" of dryness behind them. Wind and moist air is drawn by the prevailing winds towards the top of the mountains, where it condenses and precipitates before it crosses the top. In an effect opposite that of orographic lift, the air, without much moisture left, advances behind the mountains creating a drier side called the "rain shadow". Foehn wind A föhn or foehn is a type of dry, warm, down-slope wind that occurs in the lee (downwind side) of a mountain range. It is a rain shadow wind that results from the subsequent adiabatic warming of air that has dropped most of its moisture on windward slopes (see orographic lift). As a consequence of the different adiabatic lapse rates of moist and dry air, the air on the leeward slopes becomes warmer than equivalent elevations on the windward slopes. Föhn winds can raise temperatures by as much as 14 °C (25 °F) in just a matter of minutes. Central Europe enjoys a warmer climate due to the Föhn, as moist winds off the Mediterranean Sea blow over the Alps. See also References External links YouTube interview with Susan Martinez, Ph.D., on "global drying" theory YouTube presentation: "Do forests attract rain?" from the Center for International Forestry Research YouTube TEDx presentation by Peter Westerveld on restored land helping to bring rain YouTube TED presentation by Allan Savory on using conservation grazing to green desert areas YouTube: "Green Desert," a documentary film about the effects of deforestation in Indonesia

climate of romania

The climate of Romania is continental, transitioning into humid subtropical (locally often "warm oceanic" or "Pontic") on the eastern coast, influenced by polar intrusions, and therefore characterized by harsh winters. The mountain ranges of the Carpathian arc have a cool mountain climate with high humidity throughout the year.Rainfall, although adequate throughout the country, decreases from west to east and from mountains to plains. Some mountainous areas receive more than 1,010 mm (39.8 in) of precipitation each year. Annual precipitation averages about 635 mm (25 in) in central Transylvania, 521 mm (20.5 in) at Iaşi in Moldavia, and only 381 mm (15 in) at Constanţa on the Black Sea. Summers in the country are generally very warm to hot, and temperatures over 35 °C (95 °F) are not unknown in the lower-lying areas of the country. Night time lows in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C (60.8 °F), but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. In the coldest months of winter (December and January) temperatures average between 3˚C and -15˚C. During winter, the skies are often cloudy and snowfall is quite common. In the plains of Romania there are about thirty days with snowfall per year. Records The absolute minimum temperature was −38.5 °C (−37.3 °F), registered near Brașov in 1942. The absolute maximum temperature was 44.5 °C (112.1 °F), recorded at Ion Sion, Brăila County in 1951. Averages and records by city See also Climate == References ==

climate of hawaii

The U.S. state of Hawaiʻi, which covers the Hawaiian Islands, is tropical but it experiences many different climates, depending on altitude and surroundings. The island of Hawaiʻi for example hosts 4 (out of 5 in total) climate groups on a surface as small as 4,028 square miles (10,430 km2) according to the Köppen climate types: tropical, arid, temperate and polar. When counting also the Köppen sub-categories – notably including the very rare cold-summer mediterranean climate – the island of Hawaiʻi hosts 10 (out of 14 in total) climate zones. The islands receive most rainfall from the trade winds on their north and east flanks (the windward side) as a result of orographic precipitation. Coastal areas are drier, especially the south and west side or leeward sides.Overall with climate change, Hawaiʻi is getting drier and hotter. The Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation from October to April. Drier conditions generally prevail from May to September. Due to cooler waters around Hawaiʻi, the risk of tropical cyclones is low for Hawaiʻi. Temperature Temperatures at sea level generally range from highs of 84–88 °F (29–31 °C) during the summer months to 79–83 °F (26–28 °C) during the winter months. Rarely does the temperature rise from above 90 °F (32 °C) or drop below 60 °F (16 °C) at lower elevations. Temperatures are lower at higher altitudes. During the winter, snowfall is common at the summits of Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa on Hawaiʻi Island. On Maui, the summit of Haleakalā occasionally experiences snowfall, but snow had never been observed below 7,500 feet (2,300 m) before February 2019, when snow was observed at 6,200 feet (1,900 m) and fell at higher elevations in amounts large enough to force Haleakalā National Park to close for several days. The record low temperature in Honolulu is 52 °F (11 °C) on January 20, 1969.Overall with climate change, Hawaiʻi is getting hotter. Temperatures of 90 °F (32 °C) and above are uncommon, with the exception of dry, leeward areas. In the leeward areas, temperatures may reach into the low 90s several days during the year, but temperatures higher than these are unusual. The highest temperature ever recorded on the islands was 100 °F (38 °C) on April 27, 1931, in Pāhala. The surface waters of the open ocean around Hawaiʻi range from 75 °F (24 °C) between late February and early April, to a maximum of 82 °F (28 °C) in late September or early October. In the United States, only Florida has warmer surf temperatures.The Pacific High, and with it the trade-wind zone, moves north and south with changing angle of the sun, so that it reaches its northernmost position in the summer. This brings trade winds during the period of May through September, when they are prevalent 80 to 95 percent of the time. From October through April, the heart of the trade winds moves south of Hawaiʻi; thus there average wind speeds are lower across the islands. Due to Hawaiʻi being at the northern edge of the tropics (mostly above 20 latitude), there are only weak wet and dry seasons unlike many tropical climates. Winds Island wind patterns are very complex. Though the trade winds are fairly constant, their relatively uniform air flow is distorted and disrupted by mountains, hills, and valleys. Usually winds blow upslope by day and downslope by night. Local conditions that produce occasional violent winds are not well understood. These are very localized, sometimes reaching speeds of 60 to 100 mph (100 to 160 km/h) and are best known in the settled areas of Kula and Lāhainā on Maui. The Kula winds are strong downslope winds on the lower slopes of the west side of Haleakalā. These winds tend to be strongest from 2,000 to 4,000 ft (600 to 1,200 m) above mean sea level. The Lahaina winds are also downslope winds, but are somewhat different. They are also called "lehua winds" after the ʻōhiʻa lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), whose red blossoms fill the air when these strong winds blow. They issue from canyons at the base of the western Maui mountains, where steeper canyon slopes meet the more gentle piedmont slope below. These winds only occur every 8 to 12 years. They are extremely violent, with wind speeds of 80–100 mph (130–160 km/h) or more. Cloud formation Under trade wind conditions, there is very often a pronounced moisture discontinuity between 4,000 and 8,000 feet (1,200 and 2,400 m). Below these heights, the air is moist; above, it is dry. The break (a large-scale feature of the Pacific High) is caused by a temperature inversion embedded in the moving trade wind air. The inversion tends to suppress the vertical movement of air and so restricts cloud development to the zone just below the inversion. The inversion is present 50 to 70 percent of the time; its height fluctuates from day to day, but it is usually between 5,000 and 7,000 feet (1,500 and 2,100 m). On trade wind days when the inversion is well defined, the clouds develop below these heights with only an occasional cloud top breaking through the inversion. These towering clouds form along the mountains where the incoming trade wind air converges as it moves up a valley and is forced up and over the mountains to heights of several thousand feet. On days without an inversion, the sky is almost cloudless (completely cloudless skies are extremely rare). In leeward areas well screened from the trade winds (such as the west coast of Maui), skies are clear 30 to 60 percent of the time. Windward areas tend to be cloudier during the summer, when the trade winds and associated clouds are more prevalent, while leeward areas, which are less affected by cloudy conditions associated with trade wind cloudiness, tend to be cloudier during the winter, when storm fronts pass through more frequently. On Maui, the cloudiest zones are at and just below the summits of the mountains, and at elevations of 2,000 to 4,000 ft (600 to 1,200 m) on the windward sides of Haleakalā. In these locations the sky is cloudy more than 70 percent of the time. The usual clarity of the air in the high mountains is associated with the low moisture content of the air. Precipitation Hawaiʻi differs from many tropical locations with pronounced wet and dry seasons, in that the wet season coincides with the winter months (rather than the summer months more typical of other places in the tropics). For instance, Honolulu's Köppen climate classification is the rare As wet-winter subcategory of the tropical wet and dry climate type.Overall with climate change, Hawaiʻi is getting drier. Major storms occur most frequently in October through March. There may be as many as six or seven major storm events in a year. Such storms bring heavy rains and can be accompanied by strong local winds. The storms may be associated with the passage of a cold front, the leading edge of a mass of relatively cool air that is moving from west to east or from northwest to southeast. Annual mean rainfall ranges from 7.4 in (188 mm) on the summit of Mauna Kea to 404.4 in (10,271 mm) in Big Bog. Windward slopes have greater rainfall than leeward lowlands and tall mountains. On windward coasts, many brief showers are common, not one of which is heavy enough to produce more than 0.01 in (0.25 mm) of rain. The usual run of trade wind weather yields many light showers in the lowlands, whereas torrential rains are associated with a sudden surge in the trade winds or with a major storm. Hāna has had as much as 28 in (710 mm) of rain in a single 24-hour period. Severe thunderstorms, as defined by the National Weather Service (NWS) as tornadoes, hail 1 in (25 mm) or larger, and/or convective winds of at least 58 mph (93 km/h) occur but are relatively uncommon. Nontornadic waterspouts are more common than tornadoes produced by supercells, which produce stronger, longer lasting tornadoes, especially with respect to inland areas, and also produce the largest hail, such as the 2012 Hawaiʻi hailstorm. An annual average of approximately one tornado, either emanating from supercells or by other processes, occurs. Kona storms are features of the winter season. The name comes from winds out of the "kona" or usually leeward direction. Rainfall in a well-developed Kona storm is widespread and more prolonged than in the usual cold-front storm. Kona storm rains are usually most intense in an arc, extending from south to east of the storm and well in advance of its center. Kona rains last from several hours to several days. The rains may continue steadily, but the longer lasting ones are characteristically interrupted by intervals of lighter rain or partial clearing, as well as by intense showers superimposed on the more moderate continuous, steady rain. An entire winter may pass without a single well-developed Kona storm. More often there are one or two such storms a year; sometimes four or five. Hurricanes The hurricane season in the Hawaiian Islands is roughly from June through November, when hurricanes and tropical storms are most probable in the North Pacific. These storms tend to originate off the coast of Mexico (particularly the Baja California peninsula) and track west or northwest towards the islands. As storms cross the Pacific, they tend to lose strength if they bear northward and encounter cooler water.True hurricanes are rare in Hawaiʻi, thanks in part to the comparatively cool waters around the islands as well as unfavorable atmospheric conditions, such as enhanced wind shear; only four have affected the islands during 63 years. Tropical storms are more frequent. These have more modest winds, below 74 mph (119 km/h). Because tropical storms resemble Kona storms, and because early records do not distinguish clearly between them, it has been difficult to estimate the average frequency of tropical storms. Every year or two a tropical storm will affect the weather in some part of the islands. Unlike cold fronts and Kona storms, hurricanes and tropical storms are most likely to occur during the last half of the year, from July through December. Three strong and destructive hurricanes are known to have made landfall on the islands, an unnamed storm in 1871, Hurricane Dot in 1959, and Hurricane ʻIniki in 1992. Another hurricane, ʻIwa, caused significant damage in 1982 but its center passed nearby and did not directly make landfall. The rarity of hurricanes making landfall on the Islands is subject to change as the climate warms. In the Pliocene era, where CO2 levels were comparable to those we see today, the waters around Hawaiʻi were much warmer, resulting in frequent hurricane strikes in computer simulations. Effect on trade winds Despite being small islands within the vast Pacific Ocean, the Hawaiian Islands have a surprising effect on ocean currents and circulation patterns over much of the Pacific. In the Northern Hemisphere, trade winds blow from northeast to southwest, from North and South America toward Asia, between the equator and 30 degrees north latitude. Typically, the trade winds continue across the Pacific, unless something gets in their way, like an island. Hawaiʻi's high mountains present a substantial obstacle to the trade winds. The elevated topography blocks the airflow, effectively splitting the trade winds in two. This split causes a zone of weak winds, called a "wind wake", on the leeward side of the islands.Aerodynamic theory indicates that an island wind wake effect should dissipate within a few hundred kilometers and not be felt in the western Pacific. However, the wind wake caused by the Hawaiian Islands extends 1,860 miles (3,000 km), roughly 10 times longer than any other wake. The long wake testifies to the strong interaction between the atmosphere and ocean, which has strong implications for global climate research. It is also important for understanding natural climate variations, like El Niño. There are number of reasons why this has been observed only in Hawaiʻi. First, the ocean reacts slowly to fast-changing winds; winds must be steady to exert force on the ocean, such as the trade winds. Second, the high mountain topography provides a significant disturbance to the winds. Third, the Hawaiian Islands are large in horizontal (east-west) scale, extending over four degrees in longitude. It is this active interaction between wind, ocean current, and temperature that creates this uniquely long wake west of Hawaiʻi. The wind wake drives an eastward "counter current" that brings warm water 5,000 miles (8,000 km) from the Asian coast. This warm water drives further changes in wind, allowing the island effect to extend far into the western Pacific. The counter current had been observed by oceanographers near the Hawaiian Islands years before the long wake was discovered, but they did not know what caused it. Statistics State Major cities See also Climate of the United States Climate of Hawaiʻi, with an interactive map, from the Geography Department, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa Notes == References ==

list of ministers of climate change

A list of ministers of climate change or officials in charge of cabinet positions with portfolios dealing primarily with climate change and issues related to mitigation of global warming. A Australia Austria B Belgium C Canada D Denmark E European Union F Finland France G Germany Greece I Ireland India Italy L Luxembourg M Malaysia Malta N Netherlands New Zealand Niue Norway P Pakistan Portugal R Romania S Scotland Spain Sweden U United Kingdom See also List of environmental ministries List of ministers of the environment References "United Nations Climate Change Conference, COP 14 and CMP 4, Poznan, 1–12 December 2008, Daily Programme" (PDF). United Nations Climate Change Conference. Retrieved 2008-12-21. External links Seager, Ashley (2008-02-05). "MPs call for climate change minister". guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 2008-06-22.

climate change in nebraska

Climate change in Nebraska encompasses the effects of climate change, attributed to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, in the U.S. state of Nebraska. The University of Nebraska–Lincoln (UNL) reported that "climate change poses significant risks to Nebraska's economy, environment and citizens". This view is expanded upon by the United States Environmental Protection Agency: "Nebraska's climate is changing. In the past century, most of the state has warmed by at least one degree (F). The soil is becoming drier, and rainstorms are becoming more intense. In the coming decades, flooding is likely to increase, yet summers are likely to become increasingly hot and dry, which would reduce yields of some crops, require farmers to use more water, and amplify some risks to human health". The UNL report similarly identifies the main concerns for climate change in Nebraska as "increases in temperatures and the number of flooding and drought incidents".The 2019 Midwestern U.S. floods left extensive damage in the state. Precipitation and water resources "Changing the climate is likely to increase the demand for water but make it less available. Soils will probably continue to become drier, because warmer temperatures increase evaporation and water use by plants, and average rainfall during summer is likely to decrease. More evaporation and less rainfall would reduce the average flow of rivers and streams. Decreased river flows can create problems for navigation, recreation, public water supplies, and electric power generation. Commercial navigation can be suspended during droughts (or floods) when there is too little water to keep channels deep enough for barge traffic. Decreased river flows can also lower the water level in lakes and reservoirs, which may limit municipal water supplies and impair swimming, fishing, and other recreational activities. Lower flows during a summer drought can reduce hydroelectric power generation at a time of year when warmer temperatures increase the demand for electricity for air conditioning. Conventional power plants also need adequate water for cooling". "Higher temperatures and drier soils are likely to increase the use of water by more than 25 percent during the next 50 years, mostly because of increased irrigation. Approximately one-third of the farmland in Nebraska is irrigated with ground water, most of which comes from the High Plains Aquifer System, and municipal water supplies also reply primarily on ground water. In Nebraska, the aquifer is only being depleted in a few western areas. But water levels are declining throughout much of Kansas, where the average temperature today is similar to what the average temperature of Nebraska is likely to be 70 to 100 years from now". Agriculture "Rising temperatures and changes in rainfall are likely to have both negative and positive effects on Nebraska’s farms and ranches. Hot weather causes cows to eat less and grow more slowly, and it can threaten their health. Increased winter and spring precipitation could leave some fields too wet to plant, and warmer winters may promote the growth of weeds and pests. Hotter summers and drier soils would cause droughts to become more intense. Over the next 70 years, the number of days per year above 100°F is likely to double. Increased drought, along with a greater number of extremely hot days, could cause crop failures. Even where ample water is available, higher temperatures would reduce yields of corn. Increased concentrations of carbon dioxide, however, may increase yields of wheat and soybean enough to offset the impact of higher temperatures. Warmer and shorter winters may allow for a longer growing season, which could allow two crops per year instead of one in some instances. Increased precipitation at the beginning of the growing season could also be beneficial to some crops". UNL has noted that the effects of climate change on specific large bodies of water like the Platte River "have raised alarms for the agricultural community". Rainstorms and tornadoes "Although summer droughts are likely to become more severe, floods may also intensify. During the last 50 years, the amount of rain falling during the wettest four days of the year has increased about 15 percent in the Great Plains. River levels during floods have become higher in eastern Nebraska. Over the next several decades, heavy downpours will account for an increasing fraction of all precipitation, and average precipitation during winter and spring is likely to increase. Both of these factors would further increase flooding"."Scientists do not know how the frequency and severity of tornadoes will change. Rising concentrations of greenhouse gases tend to increase humidity, and thus atmospheric instability, which would encourage tornadoes. But wind shear is likely to decrease, which would discourage tornadoes"."Research is ongoing to learn whether tornadoes will be more or less frequent in the future. Because Nebraska experiences more than 50 tornadoes a year, such research is closely followed by meteorologists in the state". Grassroots organizing on climate-related issues A book by Mary Pipher, The Green Boat, documents individual actions by Nebraskans on climate and environment, and a local coalition opposing Nebraska Bill LB 1161, which authorized use of eminent domain in Nebraska for the Keystone XL pipeline. Energy mix and commitment to net-zero carbon emissions In December 2019, the board of the Omaha Public Power District voted to commit to net-zero emissions by 2050. A a 400- to 600-megawatt solar array is planned, as is the closing three gas fired power units, and conversion of two coal-burning units to natural gas. Nebraska legislator John S. McCollister praised the decision, stating that "Nebraska has the third best wind energy generating potential of any state," and emphasizing the employment impact of wind energy projects. References Further reading Conant, R.T.; D. Kluck; M. Anderson; A. Badger; B.M. Boustead; J. Derner; L. Farris; M. Hayes; B. Livneh; S. McNeeley; D. Peck; M. Shulski; V. Smal (2018). "Northern Great Plains". In Reidmiller, D.R.; C.W. Avery; D.R. Easterling; K.E. Kunkel; K.L.M. Lewis; T.K. Maycock; B.C. Stewart (eds.). Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II (Report). Washington, DC, USA: U.S. Global Change Research Program. pp. 941–986. doi:10.7930/NCA4.2018.CH22.—this chapter of the National Climate Assessment covers Montana, Wyoming, South Dakota, North Dakota, and Nebraska

environmental policy of the joe biden administration

The environmental policy of the Joe Biden administration includes a series of laws, regulations, and programs introduced by United States President Joe Biden since he took office in January 2021. Many of the actions taken by the Biden administration reversed the policies of his predecessor, Donald Trump. By July 2022, the Biden administration had created 54 environmental policies and proposed 43 more.Biden's climate change policy focuses on reducing greenhouse gas emissions, as under the Obama administration. On his first day in office he rejoined the Paris Agreement. In April 2021, he hosted a virtual climate summit with 40 world leaders. In November 2021, Biden and other world leaders met at the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26) to negotiate goals to reduce global warming. After four years of absence under the former president, the U.S. sought to regain its credibility. The main climate target of the Biden administration is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by the United States to net zero by 2050. John Kerry leads the effort as Special Envoy for Climate.On his first day in office, Biden began to make policy changes to protect the environment. He began revising and strengthening the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and ordered a number of executive orders aimed at reviewing or undoing the environmental policies of the former administration, including removal of some wildlife protections, the construction of the Keystone XL pipeline, and drilling for oil and gas on federal lands. He promised to end and reverse deforestation and land degradation by 2030. As a first step in recognizing the impact of climate change on less developed nations—an impact which is largely the result of years of environmental damage caused by nations which have prospered—Biden signed an executive order to study the effects of climate change's impact on migration, including "options for protection and resettlement." Biden appointed Pete Buttigieg as the Secretary of Transportation, and he is expected to work with the administration to reduce carbon emissions with plans such as improved public transportation, building a national network of electric vehicle chargers, and other strategies to reduce emissions.The Biden administration delivered a tax plan to congress that aims to start winding back fossil fuel subsidies, replacing the subsidies with incentives to start producing green energy. His proposed budget includes a 30% increase in clean energy research and development, $2 billion to be invested in green energy projects and $6.5 billion to lend to rural communities in support of additional green energy, power storage, and transmission projects. Biden has ordered the amount of energy produced from offshore wind turbines to be doubled by 2030.In August 2022, Biden signed into law the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, which includes the largest federal climate change investment in American history ($391 billion). With this law and additional federal and state measures, the USA can fulfill its pledge in Paris agreement: 50% greenhouse gas emissions reduction by the year 2030. Climate change Climate team personnel as of 2021 As of 2021, the following officials compose Joe Biden's climate team: Climate change policies The final target of the administration is reaching carbon neutrality in the United States by 2050. Joe Biden sees climate change as an "existential threat", a view supported by most in the scientific community. During his inauguration, Biden said: "A cry for survival comes from the planet itself, a cry that can't be any more desperate or any more clear." However, some activists have criticized the administration's policies for being insufficient to prevent catastrophic climate change. Democratic control of the United States Congress raises the chances that the administration will be able to pass climate-related legislation, although members like Senator Joe Manchin hold key voting positions and could block proposed bills from passing the Senate.Biden's climate plan changed significantly in 2020. In the beginning, it was criticized by many environmental groups as not being aggressive enough or even being detrimental contrary to prior stances on climate. Biden consulted with them, mainly through the Biden-Sanders Unity Task Forces, and included many of their recommendations in his plans, after which it received more support.The administration set a target of achieving zero emissions from the power sector by 2035. Other sectors with considerable emissions are agriculture and construction. Biden's climate plan includes a strong increase in green building. According to the plan, 4 million buildings in the United States should be upgraded, as well as 2 million weatherized in the next 4 years. This is expected to create 1 million green jobs. The entire climate plan is expected to create 10 million green jobs. This number is smaller than other proposals like the Green New Deal, which claims to guarantee a job for every American.Biden ordered the director of national intelligence Avril Haines to prepare a report about the impacts of climate change. Biden also included John Kerry – the Climate Envoy – in the National Security Council. He created a National Climate Task Force and the White House Office of Domestic Climate Policy. He said: "In my view, we've already waited too long to deal with this climate crisis and we can't wait any longer. We see it with our own eyes, we feel it, we know it in our bones." and "it's time to act". He also mentioned that climate action is linked with other aspects of his agenda such as health, jobs, and security.As of August 2021, some calculations suppose that the infrastructure bill, the budget reconciliation bill, if passed, will cut emissions by 45% by 2030. Administrative orders from Biden and some states should increase the reduction to 50%.In September 2021, the EPA planned to issue its final rule to reduce hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) emissions by 85% within 15 years. HFCs are greenhouse gases that are thousands of times more potent than CO2.In December 2021, Biden signed an executive order directing the US government to cut its own emission by 65% by 2030 with different measures including energy efficiency, electric vehicles and renewable energy. Social cost of carbon On the first day of his presidency, Biden signed an order directing a return to the Obama-era policy of taking into account the social cost of carbon when implementing new regulations, a practice that the Trump administration abandoned in 2017. In February 2021, Biden raised the social cost of carbon in the US to $51 per ton, replacing the lower Trump Administration's estimates with the estimates developed under President Obama. This figure has an impact on EPA regulations but not on the fuel price. Carbon pricing is already in operation in a few US states. The $51 estimate is announced to be evaluated. It is lower than the EU carbon price but higher than the Chinese carbon price. The administration has set the social cost of methane at $1,500 per tonne.In March 2022, the court allowed the Biden administration to use the social cost of carbon, reversing a previous court ruling. Climate legislation In the years 2021-2022 Biden promoted 2 bills that can reduce the US greenhouse gas emissions by more than 50% from the level of 2005: the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act and the Build Back Better Act. The Build Back Better act faced strong opposition in the Senate and was not approved. The group of experts who made the analysis said that the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act alone will make only a small reduction in emissions, but they did not count at all the impact of measures regarding highways and public transport. The bill includes the largest federal investment in public transit in history. The bill includes spending of 105 billion dollars in public transport. It also give 110 billion on fixing roads and bridges what includes measures for climate change mitigation - access for cyclists and pedestrians.The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, was approved by the Congress and signed by Biden into law in November 2021.In August 2022, President Biden signed into law the Inflation Reduction Act, which contains the largest climate investment by the U.S. federal government in history, including over $391 billion to reduce carbon emissions. The bill, passing by a 51–50 vote in the Senate, explicitly defined carbon dioxide as an air pollutant under the Clean Air Act to make the Act's EPA enforcement provisions harder to challenge in court. With this law approved and additional federal and state measures, the USA can fulfill its pledge in Paris agreement: 50% greenhouse gas emissions reduction by the year 2030. Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act Biden's infrastructure plan is also a major pillar in his climate policy. The plan includes measures for reaching carbon neutrality in the electricity sector, supporting electric vehicles, and promoting energy efficiency on a very large scale. The plan should cost $2.3 trillion. If passed, it can have a large influence on the Greenhouse gas emissions of the United States. The plan, according to Biden's administration, should help rebuild the American economy and create millions of jobs. Biden's administration claims that economic and climate issues are linked.In June 2021 Biden and a group of democratic and republican senators agreed on a compromise; a $973 billion bill. According to an official press release "The Plan is the largest federal investment in public transit in history and is the largest federal investment in passenger rail since the creation of Amtrak." According to the document this should lower the GHG emission of the US.On 10 of August the bill was approved by the Senate. 19 Republican senators, including Mitch McConnell, voted for it, despite criticism from Donald Trump, who called it "the beginning of the Green New Deal". The bill includes spending of 105 billion dollars for public transit, $21 billion for environmental projects, $50 billion for water storage, $15 billion for electric vehicles. 73 billion dollars will be spent on power infrastructure what includes its adjustment to renewable energy. $110 billion will be spent on fixing roads and bridges what includes measures for climate change mitigation - access for cyclists and pedestrians. The plan also includes $1 billion for better connection of neighborhoods separated by transport infrastructure. According to Biden's administration the plan should add 2 million jobs per year. Build Back Better Act A potential $23 billion worth of tax credits for nuclear generating plants are included in the proposed bill while the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act which became law included modest amounts to support older plants and DOE's Advanced Reactor Demonstration Program (ADRP). Inflation Reduction Act The law is considered as the most important climate legislation in the history of the USA. It is expected to also make some impact internationally, repositioning the country as climate leader. It represents the largest investment into addressing climate change in United States history, including more than $391 billion to reduce carbon emissions. According to several independent analyses, the law is projected to reduce 2030 U.S. greenhouse gas emissions to 40% below 2005 levels.The bill aims to decrease residential energy costs by focusing on improvements to home energy efficiency. Measures include $9 billion in home energy rebate programs that focus on improving access to energy efficient technologies, and 10 years of consumer tax credits for the use of heat pumps, rooftop solar, and high-efficiency electric heating, ventilation, air conditioning and water heating. The bill extends the $7,500 tax credit for the purchase of new electric vehicles while also providing a $4,000 tax credit toward the purchase of used electric vehicles, in an effort to increase low- and middle-income access to this technology. This is projected to lead to an average of $500 in savings on energy spending for every family that receives the maximal benefit of these incentives.The bill includes a 30% tax credit ($1,200 to $2,000 per year) and different types of rebates (reaching $14,000) for homeowners who will increase the energy efficiency of their house. In some cases, all upgrade expenses will be returned.The bill allocates $3 billion for helping disadvantaged communities with transportation matters, including reconnecting communities separated by transport infrastructure, assuring safe and affordable transportation "and community engagement activities." This should improve clean transit. Projects improving connectivity and walkability in these neighborhoods can get grants reaching 80%-100% of the overall cost. The bill also supports biking.There are also funds allocated to national clean energy production. This includes the continuation of the production tax credit ($30 billion) and investment tax credit ($10 billion) toward clean energy manufacturing, including solar power, wind power, and energy storage.The bill also provides funds toward the decarbonization of the economy in other areas, providing various tax credits and grants toward decarbonizing the industrial and transportation sectors. This also includes a program to reduce methane emissions from production and transportation of natural gas. The bill also provides for a focus on communities and environmental justice by providing several grants targeting historically marginalized and disadvantaged communities that have been disproportionally impacted by environmental pollution and climate change.The bill also allocates funds for rural communities and forestland, including $20 billion to invest in climate-smart agriculture, $5 billion in forest conservation and urban tree planting and $2.6 billion to protect and restore coastal habitats.The bill should cut the global greenhouse gas emissions in a level similar to "eliminating the annual planet-warming pollution of France and Germany combined" and may help to limit the warming of the planet to 1.5 degrees - the target of the Paris Agreement. With the bill and additional federal and state measures, the USA can fulfill its pledge in Paris agreement: 50% greenhouse gas emissions reduction by the year 2030.An assessment by the Rhodium Group, an independent research firm, estimated it would reduce national greenhouse gas emissions 32–42% below 2005 levels by 2030, compared to 24–35% under current policy while reducing household energy costs and improving energy security. Furthermore, Rhodium Group projects that the nuclear provisions in the bill are likely to "keep much, if not all" of the nation's nuclear reactors that are at risk of retiring, estimated to be 22–38% of the fleet, online through the 2030s.A preliminary analysis by the REPEAT Project of Princeton University estimated that the investments made by the law would reduce net emissions 42% below 2005 levels, compared to 27% under current policies (including the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law).The nonpartisan Energy Innovation Group estimated the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions at 37–41% below 2005 levels in 2030, compared to 24% without the bill. This estimate of the greenhouse gas emission reduction lines up with the figure provided by the bill's authors which is a 40% reduction in carbon emissions relative to 2005 levels.Modeling from the nonpartisan research institution Resources for the Future indicates the bill would decrease retail power costs by 5.2–6.7% over a ten-year period, resulting in savings of $170–220 per year for the average U.S. household. Also that the bill would tend to stabilize electricity prices.In reaction to the Supreme Court case West Virginia v. EPA, which limited the EPA's authority to institute a program such as the Obama-era Clean Power Plan, Title VI of the IRA amended the Clean Air Act to explicitly designate carbon dioxide, hydrofluorocarbons, methane, nitrous oxide, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride as air pollutants to unambiguously provide the EPA congressional authorization to regulate carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, as well as to promote renewable energy. Adaptation to climate change Biden's administration spent a lot of effort on flood management and increasing climate resilience as a whole especially in communities discriminated before. In June 2023, $575 million were allocated to help coastal and Great Lakes communities, including Tribal communities, to adapt to climate change. The measures include protecting coastal ecosystems that protect communities from sea level rise, storm surge, and more. When Biden announced the allocation, he mentioned one of the nature reserves of California, saying: “These wetlands act as a critical buffer between the rising tides and the communities at risk”In 2023 an agreement between seven states was achieved, aiming to preserve the Colorado River water system from collapse due to poor management and climate change. The country is heavily depending on this river. Some states will reduce water use, receiving compensation for it ($1.2 billion), from the federal government. Many other projects for preserving the river like water recycling, rain harvesting, are advanced. The funding is coming from the Bipartisan infrastructure bill and the Inflation Reduction Act. Domestic action In May 2022 the White House Council on Environmental Quality released a report in which it describes how Biden's administration followed the around 200 recommendations of the White House Environmental Justice Advisory Council. The full report has around 150 pages. The report summarizes many of the steps taken by the administration in the environmental domain. Among others, it mentions: Unprecedented funding for Energy efficiency and Weatherization. Promoting Transit-oriented development, Walking, Cycling, Mixed-use development. Promoting cooperation with Indigenous peoples of the Americas in environmental issues. Climate-related financial and green marketing regulation In February 2021, Acting U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) Chair Allison Lee announced that the SEC would open a review of climate-related disclosures for public companies to update regulatory guidance the agency issued in 2010 for such disclosures. In March 2021, the SEC announced that examination of regulatory compliance related to disclosures for climate change and environmental, social, and corporate governance (ESG) would be an area of focus for the agency in 2021, and the SEC also announced the creation of a task force to pursue enforcement cases against investment fund managers and public companies for deceptive marketing for ESG investment funds and for false or misleading statements in climate risk disclosures. In the same month, the Employee Benefits Security Administration (EBSA) of the U.S. Labor Department announced that it would review and not enforce a Trump administration final rule for fiduciaries in proxy voting under the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) to consider pecuniary interests only and not ESG factors in investments for 401(k)s pursuant to Executive Order 13990, while Acting Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) Chair Rostin Behnam announced the formation of an agency interdivisional unit to assess the impact of climate risks on futures, options, and other derivatives markets.In August 2021, the SEC and the Eastern New York U.S. Attorney's Office were reportedly investigating the DWS Group (the asset management division of Deutsche Bank) after its former chief sustainability officer leaked internal emails and company presentations to The Wall Street Journal that showed that the company had overstated its ESG investment efforts. In remarks made by video conference to the European Parliament Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs in September 2021, SEC Chair Gary Gensler stated that the agency was preparing recommendations for new disclosure requirements for ESG investment funds, while the SEC released a list of letters sent to the chief financial officers of certain public companies to request that the companies provide greater information to investors about climate risks to financial earnings or business operations. In October 2021, EBSA proposed reversing the Trump administration ERISA final rule for fiduciaries in proxy voting on ESG investments for 401(k)s, while the Financial Stability Oversight Council (FSOC) released a report pursuant to Executive Order 14030 that identified climate change as an emerging and increasing threat to the stability of the U.S. financial system.In November 2021, the SEC rescinded a Trump administration rule issued in 2017 that permitted company managers to exclude ESG proposals from shareholders in annual proxy statements, while Acting Comptroller of the Currency Michael J. Hsu stated at a conference hosted by The Wall Street Journal for sustainable business that climate risk guidance for bank stress tests issued by his office would be consistent with stress test principles proposed by the Network for Greening the Financial System. In December 2021, the U.S. Justice Department informed Deutsche Bank that it may have violated its deferred prosecution agreement from the previous January for failing to inform prosecutors of their former chief sustainability officer's internal complaint about the DWS Group's overstating of its ESG investment efforts. In the same month, the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) released a draft regulatory guidance statement to banks for identifying climate risks and for climate risk management (CRM). In March 2022, Deutsche Bank agreed to extend the term of an external compliance monitor until February 2023 from its 2015 settlement with the Justice Department to address its failure to disclose the internal ESG complaint from its former chief sustainability officer the previous August.Also in March 2022, the SEC approved a rules proposal to require the disclosure of climate risks, CRM policies, and carbon footprint accounting (including the use of carbon offsets) by public companies in 10-K forms and other SEC filings pursuant to Sections 7, 10, 19(a), and 28 of the Securities Act of 1933 and Sections 3(b), 12, 13, 15, 23(a), and 36 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. In May 2022, the SEC extended the public comment window for its climate risk and carbon footprint disclosure rules proposal until June 17, 2022, and proposed two rules changes to ESG investment fund qualifications to prevent greenwashing marketing practices and to increase disclosure requirements for achieving ESG impacts. In June 2022, the CFTC issued a request for information to solicit public comment until October 7, 2022, to inform the agency's response to the recommendations made in the October 2021 FSOC report on climate-related financial risk and hosted a convening for voluntary carbon market participants to discuss improving the credibility of carbon credits, while the SEC was reportedly investigating the ESG investment funds of Goldman Sachs for potential greenwashing.In August 2022, Section 60111 in Title VI of the Inflation Reduction Act appropriated $5 million to the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program (GHGRP) of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) created under the Clean Air Act in 2009 to support enhanced standardization and transparency of corporate greenhouse gas emission reduction commitment plans and interim targets and to support corporations progress towards implementing such plans and meeting such commitments. In testimony before the U.S. Senate Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs Committee in September 2022, SEC Chair Gary Gensler stated that public companies subject to the carbon footprint disclosure rule would not be required to solicit carbon footprint accounting from their small business suppliers, while the OCC announced the appointment of a chief climate risk officer who would report directly to the Comptroller. In October 2022, the SEC announced that it would re-open the public comment windows for the climate risk and carbon footprint disclosure rules proposal and for the ESG disclosure rules proposal due to a technical error with the SEC public comment internet submission form.In November 2022, EBSA announced a final rule removing the Trump administration pecuniary interest only requirement for fiduciaries in proxy voting under ERISA when considering ESG investments for 401(k)s, while Goldman Sachs agreed to pay $4 million to settle the SEC investigation of the company's ESG funds for greenwashing without admitting or denying guilt of the SEC's allegations. In December 2022, the OCC chief climate risk officer stated at a conference hosted by Ceres that the OCC climate risk regulatory guidance for banks was issued to encourage banking institutions to adopt CRM policies and not to promote carbon neutrality pledges, while Title I of Division HH of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 enacted the Growing Climate Solutions Act requiring the U.S. Department of Agriculture to evaluate and make a determination of whether to create a Greenhouse Gas Technical Assistance Provider and Third-Party Verifier Program that would create a voluntary registry for private businesses, non-profit organizations, or public agencies that act as third-party verifiers of carbon credits for agricultural or forestry carbon offset projects with standardized registration qualifications for participating entities and standardized protocols for ensuring the transparency of carbon credits verified by the registered entities in the program.Also in December 2022, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) announced that it was seeking public comment until February 21, 2023, for potential revisions to agency guidelines made pursuant to Section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 for preventing deceptive green marketing practices for claims about carbon offsets, compostability, biodegradability, oxo-biodegradability, photodegradability, ozone safety, recyclability, recycled content, energy use and energy efficiency, organic products, and sustainability. In January 2023, the FTC extended the public comment window for the revisions to its green marketing guidelines until April 24, 2023, while the Federal Reserve announced that the six largest U.S. banks (Bank of America, Citigroup, Goldman Sachs, JPMorgan Chase, Morgan Stanley, and Wells Fargo) would have until July 31, 2023, to complete a pilot climate scenario exercise analysis of climate risks to their loan portfolios and commercial real estate holdings in the Northeastern United States.In February 2023, the SEC Division of Examinations announced that oversight of ESG investment funds would be among six top priorities for the agency in 2023, while SEC Chair Gary Gensler stated in an interview that the agency was making adjustments to the climate risk and carbon footprint disclosure rule proposed the previous March after the agency received nearly 15,000 public comments on the rule proposal. In March 2023, in the first veto of his administration, Biden rejected a bill passed by the 118th United States Congress on party-line votes to overturn the EBSA ERISA 401(k) fiduciary proxy voting rule for ESG investments finalized the previous November, while SEC Chair Gary Gensler suggested in an interview with the Council of Institutional Investors that the Scope 3 emissions disclosure requirement included in the climate risk and carbon footprint disclosure rules proposal could be scaled back due to Scope 3 emissions accounting being less well-developed, and stated that the climate risk and carbon footprint disclosure rules proposal had received the largest number of public comments for a rule proposal in the agency's history.Also in March 2023, the FTC announced that it would host a workshop about recycling marketing claims as part of its review for its green marketing guidelines on May 23, 2023. In April 2023, SEC Chair Gary Gensler testified before the U.S. House Financial Services Committee on the climate risk and carbon footprint disclosure rules proposal, while in remarks made at an event hosted by the Bipartisan Policy Center, CFTC Chair Rostin Behnam stated that the CFTC has the clear legal authority to oversee the carbon credits market to prevent securities fraud and market manipulation (as carbon credits are financial derivatives of an underlying commodity) but not to establish standards for carbon credit registries, and that the CFTC was considering hosting a second convening for voluntary carbon market participants later in the year before formulating an agency policy on carbon credits. In June 2023, the CFTC announced that it would host a second convening the following month and the CFTC Whistleblower Office announced that it was seeking tips for violations of the Commodity Exchange Act in carbon credit markets. In September 2023, SEC Chair Gary Gensler stated in testimony before the Senate Banking Committee that agency staff was reviewing the public comments on the climate risk and carbon footprint accounting rule proposal with a particular focus on Scope 3 reporting and reiterated that the proposed rule would apply only to public companies. CCS and CDR industry policies In February 2021, the Biden administration announced that it would steer $30 billion in farm aid from the Commodity Credit Corporation to farmers implementing regenerative farming practices (e.g. carbon farming) to enhance carbon sequestration. Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act that Biden signed into law in November 2021, a $12 billion appropriation was made for carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) projects. In May 2022, the U.S. Department of Energy announced a $3.5 billion program funded under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act to create four large-scale regional direct air capture (DAC) hubs each consisting of a network of carbon dioxide removal (CDR) projects. Under the CHIPS and Science Act that Biden signed into law in August 2022, a $1 billion appropriation was included to fund CDR research, development, and deployment. Under the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) that Biden also signed into law in August 2022, a $20 billion appropriation was made to the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) for oversubscribed programs (including the Environmental Quality Incentives Program and the Conservation Stewardship Program) to assist farmers with conservation practices to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to increase carbon sequestration in soil and trees (and other climate-smart agricultural practices).Also, the IRA authorized the creation of the Energy Infrastructure Reinvestment (EIR) Program, a $5 billion loan guarantee program for projects to repurpose shuttered fossil fuel energy production facilities for clean energy production or to update existing energy production facilities with emissions control technologies including CCS, and also increased the Section 45Q federal tax credit for CCS projects to $85 per metric ton of CO2 sequestered from $50 per ton and for DAC projects to $180 per metric ton of permanent CDR from $50 per ton, while the tax credit for the use of captured CO2 for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) or other uses was increased to $60 per metric ton from $35 per metric ton for CCS and to $130 per metric ton from $35 per metric ton for DAC. In October 2022, the Global CCS Institute (of which the U.S. Department of Energy is a member organization) released a report on the global status of CCS projects that stated that there were 13 operational projects, 68 projects in development, and 2 projects with suspended operations in the United States (among 61 new CCS projects that had been announced over the previous year and 196 projects that were operational or in development worldwide in total). Energy efficiency The executive order requiring federal agencies to cut emissions issued on 8 December 2021 contained measures about energy efficiency (sections 205, 206, 605).By the end of the year 2021, the Joe Biden administration reversed some of the rules established under Trump that reduced energy efficiency, but many of them remained in place.The administration released unprecedented funding for energy efficiency and weatherization. The Weatherization Assistance Program alone gave 3.5 billion dollars for the effort, resulting in 700,000 low-income households that increased energy efficiency and paid less for energy. 8.7 billion dollars were spent through the Low-Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP). This program primarily helped households with children, elderly individuals, and people with disabilities.In June 2022, Biden announced a new initiative for increasing energy efficiency in buildings, reducing payment for energy in households at the same time. At least 225 million dollars were scheduled to be spent on it.In February 2023 the United States Department of Energy proposed a set of new energy efficiency standards that, if implemented, will save to users of different electric machines in the United States around $3,500,000,000 per year and will reduce by the year 2050 carbon emissions by the same amount as emitted by 29,000,000 houses.On October 2023 the Senate in a bipartisan vote rejected a proposal that could hurt policies promoting energy efficiency in houses. An opponent of the proposal argued the policies can save to a homeowner 15,000$ in average. The amount of money expected to be saved is not uniform but depend on climate zone. The report that calculated the gains divided the country into 8 zones from very hot and humid climate (zone 1) to subarctic and arctic (zone 8). The whole life cycle savings vary "from as low as $7,536 in Climate Zone 2, to a high of $46,836 in Climate Zone 8." Land and ocean conservation Biden's administration set a goal of protecting 30% of the land and the water of the US. Currently, 12% of land and 26% of water are protected. The plan for achieving the target is called "America the Beautiful" and include many measures like expanding urban green spaces and collaboration with indigenous people. The initiative includes $1 billion in grants for community-based conservation and restoration projects.In October 2021, President Biden announced the expansion of Bears Ears National Monument, Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monument, and Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National Monument, restoring the original areas and protections that were reduced by President Trump.President Biden created Camp Hale–Continental Divide National Monument in 2022 and Avi Kwa Ame National Monument and Castner Range National Monument in 2023.In March 2023, Biden directed the Department of Commerce to designate the Pacific Remote Islands as a National Marine Sanctuary, expanding the protections of Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.Biden's administration launched a plan for protecting the oceans called "Ocean Climate Action Plan". It includes measures for protecting and restoring many marine and coastal ecosystems, stopping climate change with the help of these ecosystems and helping communities depending on them. Oil and gas pipelines The Biden administration supports the Line 3 pipeline owned by the Canadian corporation Enbridge. However, the pipeline was still facing significant resistance as of September 2021.In January 2021, President Biden halted further development of the Keystone Pipeline by way of an executive order, which also directed agencies to review and reverse more than 100 Trump administration actions on the environment. In June 2021, the pipeline project was canceled. It was considered an environmental threat by environmentalists, indigenous peoples, and the Biden administration. Environmental reviews of projects In January 2021, Biden took some actions to improve the link between science and the policies of his administration on environmental issues. It includes improving the environmental reviews of big projects before they are given approval according to the NEPA, improving the function of the Environmental Protection Agency, and reestablishing a scientific body to calculate the social cost of all greenhouse gases, not just carbon dioxide. He ordered a stop to the oil and gas drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, as well as stating that the voices of indigenous peoples should be taken into consideration in the process of approving projects. He has also begun the process of installing standards for methane emissions.In October 2021, the Biden administration filed an application for a mineral withdrawal which will put a hold on the development of a copper mine near Ely, Minnesota while the environmental impacts are studied. The proposed mine is located on the watershed of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness, an area that is popular for canoeing, fishing, and hiking, and is the country's most visited wilderness area. The Obama administration had launched a similar study but 24 weeks into the 28 week study the newly elected Trump administration ended it, allowing the plans for the mining operation to continue. The completed study could lead to a 20-year ban on mining upstream from the BWCAW.In April 2022, the Biden administration restored components of an environmental law (NEPA) from the 1970s that were abolished by Trump, requiring consideration of climate impacts and local community interests before approving major projects. Drilling on public lands One week after becoming president, Biden signed several executive orders aimed at combatting climate change and protecting the environment. He ordered the Interior Secretary to stop new oil and gas drilling in federal lands and water, and a review of existing projects. However, these pauses were only temporary and didn't stop drilling permanently. Another order sets a target of protecting 30% of United States lands and waters by 2030, as well as set in motion the creation of a plan for climate financing and a climate target for the United States. Biden also signed a presidential memorandum establishing a process for documenting any instances in which "improper political interference" interfered with research or distorted data. Biden also increased the social cost of carbon to $51, the price that had been set by the Obama administration but had been slashed to $7 by Trump.In response to the reviews, the Interior Department stopped many of the oil and gas drilling projects, took measures for the protection of wild animals, and restored national monuments. It is also preparing a review of the entire oil and gas leasing program of the United States. However, the Biden administration does support an oil drilling project, known as "Willow", which was approved by the Trump administration. This decision was criticized by environmentalists.In early June 2021, the Interior Department suspended all oil and gas leases in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. This national wildlife refuge includes around 20 million acres where snowy owls, caribou and other endangered wildlife lives. Days later, a federal court issued a temporary injunction against the Interior Department action, pending litigation filed by more than a dozen states.Attorneys general from Republican states successfully sued to lift the suspension that Biden had placed on the selling of federal gas and oil leases and on September 17 energy companies including Chevron, ExxonMobil, and Shell bid $192 million for drilling rights on federal gas and oil reserves in the Gulf of Mexico. In November 2021, it was reported that the Biden administration was preparing lease some 80 million acres to gas and oil drilling companies. More than 250 indigenous, social justice, and environmental groups wrote a letter to the Biden administration asking Biden to keep his promise to end new leases on public waters and lands and stop the sale which they believe "makes a mockery" of the climate commitments made at COP26. The lease sale in the Gulf of Mexico was further criticized after the Department of Justice debunked the justification that the sale was legally required by the June 2021 ruling blocking the pause on oil leases.In January 2022, a federal judge remanded the lease auction back to the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for relying on a distorted Trump-era environmental impact assessment. The administration also proposed another round of gas and oil lease sales in 2022, in Colorado, Montana, Wyoming, and other western states.In February 2022, the Biden administration suspended any further oil and gas leases on public lands. The decision came after a Trump-appointed judge reversed the social cost of carbon of $51 per ton, the figure established by Obama and restored by Biden, back to $7 per ton which had been Trump's cost estimate. The reversal was a result of a suit by 10 Republican attorneys general.In May 2022 the administration abolished 3 leases in the Mexican Gulf and Alaska. One of the reasons was "a lack of industry interest". Renewable energy In his proposed 2022 budget, the Biden Administration has proposed a $10 billion investment in clean energy research and development, an increase of 30%. The budget also proposes $2 billion to be invested in green energy projects, as well as setting aside reserves of $6.5 billion to lend to communities to lend to rural communities in support of additional green energy, power storage, and transmission projects. Biden has ordered the amount of energy produced from offshore wind turbines to be doubled by 2030.In April 2023, the Biden administration announced that it would make $450 million in funding available through the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act for clean energy demonstration projects in coal mining communities to convert current and former mines into clean energy projects, as well as $16 million in funding to the University of North Dakota and West Virginia University to create design studies for a full-scale refinery facility to extract and separate rare-earth elements and other minerals (including those needed in electric vehicle batteries) from coal ash, acid mine drainage, and other mine waste. Nuclear energy $6.6 billion is provided in the new infrastructure law to keep older nuclear power plants from being prematurely decommissioned. Biden initiatives fully fund two new reactor demonstration projects, X-energy and TerraPower. Fossil fuel subsidies The Biden administration has delivered a tax plan to congress that aims to start winding back fossil fuel subsidies, replacing the subsidies with incentives to start producing green energy. It is estimated that ending tax subsidies for those companies could save the American taxpayer $121 billion over the course of the next decade. He has also stated his ambition to make the United States' power sector completely free of fossil fuels by 2035, and will bring a law to congress with a legal commitment to make the grid 80% clean by 2030. He has also made a commitment to ensure that all federal vehicles are electric. In a series of executive orders at the beginning of his presidency, Biden ordered an increase in the production of renewable energy on federal lands and water, the creation of the Civilian Climate Corps, and making the fossil fuel companies responsible for repairing faults that lead to environmental damage. As a part of a commitment to environmental justice, he also stated that 40% of all climate investments will be sent to the most historically vulnerable communities, and created a special body for dealing with the issue, the White House Environmental Justice Interagency Council. Deforestation and wildlife On the first day of his presidency, the Biden administration ordered a broad review of Trump-era policies pertaining to wildlife in the United States, including the gutting of the Migratory Birds Treaty Act and his decision to strip a number of animals, including gray wolves and the northern spotted owl, of their protections under the Endangered Species Act. In June 2021, the Biden administration announced that they were beginning the process of restoring and strengthening wildlife protections that were loosened under the Trump Administration, mainly in regards to the weakening of protections granted to endangered animals under the Endangered Species Act, and the extent to which their habitats have to be protected. In June 2022, the Biden administration restored a rule that broadened the definition of a “critical habitat” and allowed more protection of endangered species. This reversed a rule that Trump put into place right before leaving office, which limited the definition of a “critical habitat” to areas that could have sustained endangered species at the time, excluding places that could potentially sustain them in the future.In November 2021, Biden promised to end and reverse deforestation and land degradation by 2030, in the COP26 climate summit's first major agreement. In the same month, the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network issued an advisory to financial institutions to increase scrutiny of financial transactions potentially tied to wildlife trafficking, illegal logging, and illegal fishing and the advisory was the first in the agency's history to prevent environmental crimes. Transportation The transportation sector is the biggest emitter of CO2 in the United States, and reducing transportation emissions will require a large-scale transition to carbon-free transportation. Biden promised to give all cities with populations greater than 100,000 people good public transport with low carbon options. United States Secretary of Transportation Pete Buttigieg is expected to work toward achieving the goals, but nothing had been put into action as of June 2021. Biden plans to increase the use of "zero carbon" transport, including cycling and walking.In August 2021, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) proposed new light-duty vehicle greenhouse gas emission standards for Model Years 2023 through 2026. The 2023 target would call for a 9.8% reduction over the 2022 target with subsequent year-over-year reductions of approximately 5%.In December 2021, the new greenhouse gas emissions standards for vehicles were adopted. They were 6% stronger than the original proposition made in August and were estimated to prevent the emission of 3.1 billion tons of CO2 into the atmosphere. The benefits of the new standards overpass the cost by 190 billion dollars, including savings on fuel, reduction of the impacts of climate change and air pollution. According to the EPA the reduction is "equivalent to more than half the total U.S. CO2 emissions in 2019". The rules should cut the emissions from passenger cars and trucks (17% of the US greenhouse gas emissions) by 5%-10% in the years 2023–2026.The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act includes: $7.5 billion to build a national network of electric vehicle chargers $5 billion for a "Clean School Bus Program" $350 million for new wildlife crossings and corridors pilot project $250 million for an electric or low-emissions ferry pilot program $250 million to reduce truck idling at portsBiden's administration promoted Transit-oriented development, Walking, Cycling, Mixed-use development among other by creating community-based Transport hubs. This was done mainly in low income neighborhoods. 1 billion dollars will be spent on reconnecting neighborhoods.In April 2023, the EPA proposed new tailpipe emissions limits that the agency estimated could require 67 percent of all new automobiles sold in the United States to be electric by 2032 (surpassing the previous commitment by the Biden administration under Executive Order 14037 for electric cars to make up 50 percent of new automobile sales by 2030). Agriculture Biden pledged to cut emissions from the agriculture sector in the US by 50% by 2030. In February 2022 the United States Department of Agriculture begun to implement a program designed to cut greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector in the US. The sector accounts for over 10% of the overall emissions. The program includes a 1 billion dollars spendings on methods like No-till farming, Crop rotation, Carbon capture and storage, Manure management and Rotational grazing. The program includes measures regarding Forests. The agriculture sector in the USA has already heavily suffered from different impacts of climate change. On October 2023, the Senate approved 8.5 million$ to Urban agriculture. Indigenous people The administration spent many efforts on enhancing cooperation with the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, among others, by creating a consultation mechanism for assuring their voice will be heard for environmental justice initiatives. Different tribes and villages received help in protection from different effects of climate change.The Biden administration provided a total of 120 million dollars to support tribes impacted by the effects of climate change. The funding consists of $25 million from the annual allocations for fiscal year 2023, $72 million from the Inflation Reduction Act, and $23 million from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The program covers a variety of initiatives, including planning for climate adaptation, drought management, wildland fire mitigation measures, community-driven relocation and management of the ocean and coastline.On October 8, 2021, President Joe Biden delivered the first-ever presidential proclamation of Indigenous Peoples' Day, providing the most substantial boost yet to efforts to redirect the federal holiday commemorating Christopher Columbus toward an appreciation of Indigenous people. On the same day, the Biden Administration unveiled its plans to restore land for two significant national monuments in Utah that Trump had stripped of protections. One of them, Bears Ears, is situated on what Indigenous tribes recognize as sacred ground. International climate action Paris climate agreement Upon his first hours in office on January 20, 2021, President Biden signed an executive order bringing the United States back into the Paris Climate Agreement, after President Trump announced the country's withdrawal in 2017. The move was welcomed by environmental groups and by the Union of Concerned Scientists.The General Secretary of the United Nations, António Guterres, congratulated Biden, stating that with the United States rejoining the agreement, the countries responsible for two-thirds of the global greenhouse gas emission will have made pledges to become carbon neutral. Without the United States, it was only half. President of France Emmanuel Macron congratulated Biden saying, 'Welcome back to the Paris Agreement!'In February 2021, The United States officially rejoined the Paris Agreement. Speaking about the occasion, John Kerry mentioned the urgent need to act on climate change in the next 10 years, the impact that climate change will have on the future, and the impacts that it is already having, such as the latest extreme cold events in the USA that in his opinion is "related to climate because the polar vortex penetrates further south because of the weakening of the jet stream related to warming." This opinion is shared by many climate scientists.One week after Biden became president, he also began the process of creating a special plan for providing financial help for low-income countries in addressing issues related to climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation.In February 2021, Biden issued an order to begin the process of identification of climate refugees and finding ways to help those people.The Biden administration is urging China to speed up its commitment to becoming carbon neutral, with John Kerry saying that its pledge to reach net-zero emissions by 2060 is "not good enough". International climate summit On the 22–23 April 2021, Biden hosted a virtual climate summit with 40 world leaders, organised by the administration.At the summit, Biden announced a new target for the US, previously having no Nationally Determined Contribution due to their withdrawal from the Paris Agreement. The new target aims to reduce GHG emissions by 50% - 52% by 2030 relative to the level of 2005, the amount specified by experts to adequately limit temperature rise. The new target is described as a considerable step forward in the fight against climate change, although still not enough to limit global temperature rise to under the 1.5 degrees target. Overall, the commitments made at the summit reduce the gap between the government's current pledges and the 1.5 degrees target by 12% - 14%. If the pledges are accomplished, global emissions by 2030 will fall by 2.6% - 3.7% GtCO2e more than they would have with the pledges before the summit.At the beginning of May 2021, Climate Action Tracker released a more detailed report about the significance of the summit. According to the report, the summit, together with other pledges made from September 2020, reduce the expected rise in temperature by 2100 by 0.2 degrees. If all pledges are fulfilled, temperatures will rise by 2.4 °C, compared to the 2.9 °C increase that would arise from business-as-usual. In the most optimistic scenario, if the countries also fulfill the pledges that are not part of the Paris Agreement, temperatures will rise by 2.0 °C.Biden's administration also launched a number of coalitions and initiatives aimed at stopping climate change and helping to reduce its impacts. These include a Global Climate Ambition Initiative for helping low-income countries to achieve emissions targets and a "Net-Zero Producers Forum, with Canada, Norway, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia, together representing 40% of global oil and gas production" IPCC and United Nations climate summits In November 2021, world leaders met at the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26) to negotiate goals to reduce global warming. While there was some progress, it is believed that the agreements reached are not sufficient to avoid the worst damage.Developing countries, which have already faced hardships due to intense droughts and flooding, asked that developed countries, largely responsible for global warming, establish a fund to help them cope. The more well-to-do nations, including the U.S., refused. One of the successes of the conference was the US - China agreement on fighting climate change together. The framework includes commitments to: Working for achieving halt in temperature rise on 2 and preferably 1.5 degrees, global Carbon neutrality. Establishing environmental standards and policies needed for the transition to clean economy. Moving toward Circular economy. Control and reduce Methane emissions. China will adopt a national methane reduction plan as the U.S. has already done. In the first half of 2022 both countries will convene a meeting to accelerate the process. Increase Energy efficiency and usage of Renewable energy. The U.S. will make its electricity sector, carbon pollution-free by 2035. Working to stop globally the use of unabated thermal coal power generation. China will lower the use of coal how much it can during the 15th Five Year Plan. Working to stop illegal deforestation by stopping illegal imports. Giving financial and capacity building help to other countries. Submitting new NDC to the year 2035 by 2025. Create a special body: ""Working Group on Enhancing Climate Action in the 2020s," that will coordinate the implementation of this agreement.At the conference, 40 countries, including the U.S. and five institutions promised to stop financing carbon intensive projects abroad by the end of the year 2022.At the conference US and UAE launched an initiative named "the Agriculture Innovation Mission for Climate (AIM for Climate)". In February 2022 the US gave 1 billion dollars to GHG emissions, cutting from its agricultural sector what can be considered as part of the implementation. The initiative needs another 8 billion dollars for being implemented as well. Bilateral climate issues The Biden administration ended the U.S.-China Clean Energy Research Center (CERC) established under Obama.: 98  CERC had been the most ambitious clean energy cooperation platform between the two countries,: 117  and one of the few cooperation mechanisms to have survived the Trump administration.: 98 International carbon accounting reporting standards In July 2023, the International Organization of Securities Commissions, of which the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission and Commodity Futures Trading Commission are board members and whose members agencies regulate more than 95 percent of worldwide market capitalization, endorsed the climate reporting standards created by the International Sustainability Standards Board (including for Scope 3 reporting). Reception Environmental organizations and scientists responded positively to the Biden administration's actions on climate change on the first day of his presidency. The decisions taken one week later were similarly welcomed by environmental groups, like the Natural Resources Defense Council, the Sunrise Movement and partially by the Indigenous Environmental Network. However, the Western Energy Alliance filed a lawsuit against the decision to stop giving new permits for oil and gas drilling in federal lands and waters, whilst the Indigenous Environmental Network said that the decision did not go far enough. There is also concern that the ban on new oil and gas drilling on public lands will not reduce greenhouse gas emissions because less than half of the existing permits are presently in use.Some have criticized Biden's environmental policies on the premise that they will eliminate jobs, a popular Republican argument against Biden in the 2020 election. Biden has countered that his policies will actually create jobs in the transition to a green economy. There is also the argument that climate change, if not acted upon, would cause the loss of many more jobs than any climate action on the part of the Biden Administration would. According to Energy Innovation, a program aimed at reaching zero emissions by 2050, could save the U.S. 3.5 trillion dollars if it starts being implemented now, compared to a scenario in which it will begin to be implemented in 2030.The Biden administration's environmental policy has been characterized as a return to the Obama administration's climate change policy of reducing carbon emissions with the goal of conserving the environment for future generations. However, according to a letter sent to the administration by a group of young climate activists, returning to the policy of Obama and reaching carbon neutrality by 2050 will not be enough to stabilize the climate. Others have criticized Biden's environmental policies for being too conservative, believing that they do not go far enough in comparison to policies put in place by politicians like the Green Party's Howie Hawkins, who created the original version of the Green New Deal, or Biden's primary rival Bernie Sanders.The attorney general of 21 Republican-led states sued Biden for canceling the permit to build the Keystone XL pipeline. The attorney general of 14 Republican-led states sued him for the moratorium on new oil and gas leases on public lands and waters. Many of those states suffer from severe, climate change induced, heat wave and drought. Farmers are among the most affected.In February 2022, around 100 religious leaders called to Biden and Congress to pass the Build Back Better bill for protecting the climate. Those included Christians, Jews and others. Around 80% of Catholic woman are members in the organizations that signed the letter. One of them mentioned that the bill sets a spending of 555 billion dollars through several years while the Senate approved spending of 770 billion in 1 year for military tasks. References Bundled references

sustainable healthcare

Sustainable healthcare is organised medical care that ensures the health needs of the current population are met, without compromising environmental, economic or social resources for future generations. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines an environmentally sustainable health care system as ‘as a health system that improves, maintains or restores health, while minimizing negative impacts on the environment and leveraging opportunities to restore and improve it, to the benefit of the health and well-being of current and future generations’.... It aims to reframe medical practice and the health sector to address human health in the context of Planetary health, where earth systems and humans are reciprocal. Sustainable healthcare acknowledges all these dimensions of sustainability (environmental, economic and social, also called the 3 pillars of sustainability), delivering healthcare that does not damage the environment (either now or in the future), is economical and has a positive social impact. The effects of climate change on human health The World Health Organization (WHO) has describes climate change as the biggest health threat facing humanity, highlighting that those in low-income and disadvantaged communities, who historically contributed least to the causes of climate change, are being affected first and hit the hardest. These concerns are also seen in ‘The Lancet Countdown’, an annual report published in The Lancet medical journal by a group of international experts; it makes an assessment of how climate change is impacting human health. In 2016 the report described the effects of climate change on human health as ‘potentially catastrophic’.Threats to human health vary from direct injury following extreme weather events, exacerbation of respiratory disease due to air pollution, change in the distribution of vector borne disease, increase likelihood of zoonotic diseases, malnutrition following crop failures, negative impact on mental health, heat related illness and many more. The impact of healthcare on climate change Healthcare is a significant contributor to climate change and environmental degradation. According to estimates, healthcare is responsible for approximately 4.4% of global net emissions, this means if the worlds healthcare systems were one country, it would be the fifth-largest emitter on the planet.In addition to greenhouse gas emissions, healthcare also contributes to local air pollution. For example, in England it is estimated that 3.5% of all road travel in the country is related to the National Health Service (NHS); due to a combination of patient, visitor and staff travel and delivery of supplies. The waste generated by healthcare, such as pharmaceuticals and plastic pollution, also has a negative impact on planetary health. In the United States, it is estimated that pollution caused by healthcare results in a loss of 388,000 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) annually.Reducing the environmental impact of healthcare has a positive impact on both climate change and human health. Approaches to Sustainable Healthcare In 2017 the World Health Organization (WHO) published a strategic document outlining 10 actions points to improve environmental sustainability in healthcare systems. This included points such as sustainable procurement, reducing air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions from healthcare, prioritising public health measures to prevent disease and improving efficiency of resource use. In 2021, prior to the 26th UN Climate Change Conference of Parties (COP) in Glasgow, a joint editorial published simultaneously in 233 medical journals around the world highlighted the health consequences of climate change and the need for immediate political action. It also called on healthcare professionals to ‘join in the work to achieve environmentally sustainable health systems before 2040’. Emphasizing that this will inevitably mean a change in clinical practice. Greener NHS One example of a healthcare system making changes towards sustainability is the UK’s National Health Service (NHS). In 2020 it became the first healthcare service in the world to commit to a target of net zero. To achieve this target the ‘Greener NHS programme’ was created. In 2020 Greener NHS published a report ‘Delivering a Net Zero National Health Service’, which outlines how the NHS can achieve net zero. In this report the sources of carbon emissions across the NHS are summarised, this highlights various ‘hotspots’ where a high proportion of emissions can be targeted. Estates and facilities (including building energy) is highlighted as one hotspot, but there are also opportunities for change in supply chain, pharmaceuticals, medical devices and travel; all of which are directly influenced by the choices of clinicians, recognising that that a change in clinical practice will be required. Healthcare without Harm Healthcare without Harm is a nongovernmental organization (NGO) that aims to reduce the environmental impact of healthcare around the world. It was established in the United States of America (USA) in 1996 after a team of health care professionals realised the bi-products of the medical waste incinerators were having a direct negative impact on the health of the local population. The organisation now works internationally to assist health care organisations in delivering healthcare, without negatively impacting human health or causing environmental damage. The Global Climate and Health Alliance The Global Climate and Health Alliance (GCHA) is an international organisation of health care and development groups. The aim of the organisation is centred around minimising the health impacts of climate change and encouraging the health co-benefits achieved by tackling climate change. Five Principles of Sustainable Healthcare The ‘Five Principles of Sustainable Healthcare’ have been proposed as a model to facilitate sustainable decision making at all levels of the healthcare system and clinical practice. The order of the principles was specifically designed to reflect their power (and therefore importance) to achieve sustainable changeIn order they are ‘Prevention’ (preventing disease and encouraging healthier populations), ‘patient self-care’ (equipping patients to manage own health), ‘lean service delivery’ (improving efficiency), ‘low carbon alternatives’ (of treatments or interventions where available) and ‘facilities’ (minimising environmental impact of infrastructure). Sustainability in Quality Improvement The quality of care delivered in a health care system often depends on a complex network of processes and pathways. Quality Improvement in healthcare is when health care professionals familiar with these processes and pathways use a systematic approach to address specific problems in their field, thereby improving the process or pathway with a measurable effect. Traditionally this measurable effect may be improved clinical outcomes, time saved or money saved. Sustainable quality improvement looks to take a broader view of the measurable effect, considering social and environmental outcomes alongside financial ones. This is also known as the Triple Bottom Line. This principle was applied to the sustainable value of healthcare by including sustainability as a domain of quality in healthcare. Rather than just assessing a treatment or interventions value against its clinical outcome and financial cost, social and environmental cost are also considered. == References ==

world bank

The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans and grants to the governments of low- and middle-income countries for the purpose of pursuing capital projects. The World Bank is the collective name for the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and International Development Association (IDA), two of five international organizations owned by the World Bank Group. It was established along with the International Monetary Fund at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference. After a slow start, its first loan was to France in 1947. In the 1970s, it focused on loans to developing world countries, shifting away from that mission in the 1980s. For the last 30 years, it has included NGOs and environmental groups in its loan portfolio. Its loan strategy is influenced by the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals, as well as environmental and social safeguards. As of 2022, the World Bank is run by a president and 25 executive directors, as well as 29 various vice presidents. IBRD and IDA have 189 and 174 member countries, respectively. The U.S., Japan, China, Germany and the U.K. have the most voting power. The bank aims loans at developing countries to help reduce poverty. The bank is engaged in several global partnerships and initiatives, and takes a role in working toward addressing climate change. The World Bank operates a number of training wings and it works with the Clean Air Initiative and the UN Development Business. It works within the Open Data Initiative and hosts an Open Knowledge Repository. The World Bank has been criticized as promoting inflation and harming economic development, causing protests in 1988 and 2000. There has also been criticism of the bank's governance and response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The president David Malpass faced strong criticism as he challenged the scientific consensus on climate change. He was replaced by Ajay Banga, supporting climate action. World Bank Group The World Bank Group is an extended family of five international organizations, and the parent organization of the World Bank, the collective name given to the first two listed organizations, the IBRD and the IDA: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) International Development Association (IDA) International Finance Corporation (IFC) Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) History The World Bank was created at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference, along with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The president of the World Bank is traditionally an American. The World Bank and the IMF are both based in Washington, D.C., and work closely with each other. Although many countries were represented at the Bretton Woods Conference, the United States and United Kingdom were the most powerful in attendance and dominated the negotiations.: 52–54  The intention behind the founding of the World Bank was to provide temporary loans to low-income countries that could not obtain loans commercially. The bank may also make loans and demand policy reforms from recipients. 1944–1974 In its early years, the bank made a slow start for two reasons: it was underfunded, and there were leadership struggles between the US executive director and the president of the organization. When the Marshall Plan went into effect in 1947, many European countries began receiving aid from other sources. Faced with this competition, the World Bank shifted its focus to non-European allies. Until 1968, its loans were earmarked for the construction of infrastructure works, such as seaports, highway systems, and power plants, that would generate enough income to enable a borrower country to repay the loan. In 1960, the International Development Association was formed (as opposed to a UN fund named SUNFED), providing soft loans to developing countries. Before 1974, the reconstruction and development loans the World Bank made were relatively small. Its staff was aware of the need to instill confidence in the bank. Fiscal conservatism ruled, and loan applications had to meet strict criteria.: 56–60 The first country to receive a World Bank loan was France in 1947. The bank's president at the time, John McCloy, chose France over two other applicants, Poland and Chile. The loan was for US$250 million, half the amount requested, and came with strict conditions. France had to agree to produce a balanced budget and give priority of debt repayment to the World Bank over other governments. World Bank staff closely monitored the use of the funds to ensure that the French government met the conditions. In addition, before the loan was approved, the United States State Department told the French government that its members associated with the Communist Party would first have to be removed. The French government complied and removed the Communist coalition government—the so-called tripartite. Within hours, the loan to France was approved. 1974–1980 From 1974 to 1980, the bank concentrated on meeting the basic needs of people in the developing world. The size and number of loans to borrowers greatly increased, as loan targets expanded from infrastructure into social services and other sectors.These changes can be attributed to Robert McNamara, who was appointed to the presidency in 1968 by Lyndon B. Johnson.: 60–63  McNamara implored bank treasurer Eugene Rotberg to seek out new sources of capital outside of the northern banks that had been the primary sources of funding. Rotberg used the global bond market to increase the capital available to the bank. One consequence of the period of poverty alleviation lending was the rapid rise of Third World debt. From 1976 to 1980, developing world debt rose at an average annual rate of 20%.The World Bank Administrative Tribunal was established in 1980, to decide on disputes between the World Bank Group and its staff where allegation of non-observance of contracts of employment or terms of appointment had not been honored. 1980–1989 McNamara was succeeded by US President Jimmy Carter's nominee, Alden W. Clausen, in 1980. Clausen replaced many members of McNamara's staff and crafted a different mission emphasis. His 1982 decision to replace the bank's Chief Economist, Hollis B. Chenery, with Anne Krueger was an example of this new focus. Krueger was known for her criticism of development funding and for describing Third World governments as "rent-seeking states". During the 1980s, the bank emphasized lending to service Third-World debt, and structural adjustment policies designed to streamline the economies of developing nations. UNICEF reported in the late 1980s that the structural adjustment programs of the World Bank had been responsible for "reduced health, nutritional and educational levels for tens of millions of children in Asia, Latin America, and Africa". 1989–present Beginning in 1989, in response to harsh criticism from many groups, the bank began including environmental groups and NGOs in its loans to mitigate the past effects of its development policies that had prompted the criticism.: 93–97  It also formed an implementing agency, in accordance with the Montreal Protocols, to stop ozone-depletion damage to the earth's atmosphere by phasing out the use of 95% of ozone-depleting chemicals, with a target date of 2015. Since then, in accordance with its so-called "Six Strategic Themes", the bank has put various additional policies into effect to preserve the environment while promoting development. For example, in 1991, the bank announced that to protect against deforestation, especially in the Amazon, it would not finance any commercial logging or infrastructure projects that harm the environment. In order to promote global public goods, the World Bank tries to control communicable diseases such as malaria, delivering vaccines to several parts of the world, and joining combat forces. In 2000 the bank announced a "war on AIDS" and in 2011 the bank joined the Stop Tuberculosis Partnership.Traditionally, based on a tacit understanding between the United States and Europe, the president of the World Bank has been selected from candidates nominated by the United States. This is significant because the World Bank tends to lend more readily to countries that are friendly with the United States, not because of direct U.S. influence but because of the employees of the World Bank. In 2012, for the first time, two non-US citizens were nominated. On 23 March 2012, U.S. President Barack Obama announced that the United States would nominate Jim Yong Kim as the next president of the bank. Jim Yong Kim was elected on 27 April 2012 and reelected to a second five-year term in 2017. He announced that he would resign effective 1 February 2019. He was replaced on an interim basis by now-former World Bank CEO Kristalina Georgieva, then by David Malpass on 9 April 2019. In 2023 a new president was appointed: Ajay Banga. His term began on 2 June 2023. He was supported by the American president Joe Biden partly because he supports climate action. He is also expected to help low income countries deal with debts. He is the first Indian American to lead the bank. He worked before as the head of Mastercard. The former president David Malpass faced criticism as he challenged the scientific consensus on climate change. COVID-19 pandemic In September 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, the World Bank announced a $12 billion plan to supply "low and middle income countries" with a vaccine once it was approved. In June of 2022, the bank reported that $10.1 billion had been allocated to supply 78 countries with the vaccine. Evolution of criteria Various developments brought the Millennium Development Goals targets for 2015 within reach in some cases. For the goals to be realized, six criteria must be met: stronger and more inclusive growth in Africa and fragile states, more effort in health and education, integration of the development and environment agendas, more as well as better aid, movement on trade negotiations, and stronger and more focused support from multilateral institutions like the World Bank. Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger: From 1990 through 2004, the proportion of people living in extreme poverty fell from almost a third to less than a fifth. Although results vary widely within regions and countries, the trend indicates that the world as a whole can meet the goal of halving the percentage of people living in poverty. Africa's poverty, however, is expected to rise, and most of the 36 countries where 90% of the world's undernourished children live are in Africa. Less than a quarter of countries are on track for achieving the goal of halving under-nutrition. Achieve Universal Primary Education: The percentage of children in school in developing countries increased from 80% in 1991 to 88% in 2005. Still, about 72 million children of primary school age, 57% of them girls, were not being educated as of 2005. Promote Gender Equality: The tide is turning slowly for women in the labor market, yet far more women than men—worldwide more than 60%—are contributing but unpaid family workers. The World Bank Group Gender Action Plan was created to advance women's economic empowerment and promote shared growth. Reduce Child Mortality: There is some improvement in survival rates globally; accelerated improvements are needed most urgently in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. An estimated 10 million-plus children under five died in 2005; most of their deaths were from preventable causes. Improve Maternal Health: Almost all of the half-million women who die during pregnancy or childbirth every year live in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. There are numerous causes of maternal death that require a variety of health care interventions to be made widely accessible. Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria, and Other Diseases: Annual numbers of new HIV infections and AIDS deaths have fallen, but the number of people living with HIV continues to grow. In the eight worst-hit southern African countries, prevalence is above 15 percent. Treatment has increased globally, but still meets only 30 percent of needs (with wide variations across countries). AIDS remains the leading cause of death in Sub-Saharan Africa (1.6 million deaths in 2007). There are 300 to 500 million cases of malaria each year, leading to more than 1 million deaths. Nearly all the cases and more than 95 percent of the deaths occur in Sub-Saharan Africa. Ensure Environmental Sustainability: Deforestation remains a critical problem, particularly in regions of biological diversity, which continues to decline. Greenhouse gas emissions are increasing faster than energy technology advancement. Develop a Global Partnership for Development: Donor countries have renewed their commitment. Donors have to fulfill their pledges to match the current rate of core program development. Emphasis is being placed on the Bank Group's collaboration with multilateral and local partners to quicken progress toward the MDGs' realization. Environmental and Social Safeguards To ensure that World Bank-financed operations do not compromise these goals but instead add to their realisation, the following environmental, social, and legal safeguards were defined: Environmental Assessment, Indigenous Peoples, Involuntary Resettlement, Physical Cultural Resources, Forests, Natural Habitats, Pest Management, Safety of Dams, Projects in Disputed Areas, Projects on International Waterways, and Performance Standards for Private Sector Activities.At the World Bank's 2012 annual meeting in Tokyo, a review of these safeguards was initiated, which was welcomed by several civil society organisations. As a result, the World Bank developed a new Environmental and Social Framework, which has been in implementation since 1 October 2018. Leadership The president of the bank is the president of the entire World Bank Group. The president is responsible for chairing meetings of the boards of directors and for overall management of the bank. Traditionally, the president of the bank has always been a U.S. citizen nominated by the United States, the largest shareholder in the bank (the managing director of the International Monetary Fund having always been a European). The nominee is subject to confirmation by the board of executive directors to serve a five-year, renewable term. While most World Bank presidents have had banking experience, some have not.The vice presidents of the bank are its principal managers, in charge of regions, sectors, networks and functions. There are two executive vice presidents, three senior vice presidents, and 24 vice presidents.The boards of directors consist of the World Bank Group president and 25 executive directors. The president is the presiding officer, and ordinarily has no vote except to break a tie. The executive directors as individuals cannot exercise any power or commit or represent the bank unless the boards specifically authorized them to do so. With the term beginning 1 November 2010, the number of executive directors increased by one, to 25. Presidents Chief economists Politicians who were World Bank employees Some notable politicians who worked for the World Bank include: Former Afghanistan president Ashraf Ghani. Fakhruddin Ahmed was the chief adviser of the interim Government of Bangladesh during the political crisis of 2006–2008. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, former World Bank Managing Director who held several posts in the government of Nigeria, including Minister of Finance. Sri Mulyani Indrawati, former World Bank Managing Director and current Minister of Finance of Indonesia Members The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) has 189 member countries, while the International Development Association (IDA) has 174. Each member state of IBRD should also be a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and only members of IBRD are allowed to join other institutions within the bank (such as IDA). The five United Nations member states that are not members of the World Bank are Andorra, Cuba, Liechtenstein, Monaco, and North Korea. Kosovo is not a member of the UN, but is a member of the IMF and the World Bank Group, including the IBRD and IDA. Voting power In 2010, voting powers at the World Bank were revised to increase the voice of developing countries, notably China. The countries with most voting power are now the United States (15.85%), Japan (6.84%), China (4.42%), Germany (4.00%), the United Kingdom (3.75%), France (3.75%), India (2.91%), Russia (2.77%), Saudi Arabia (2.77%) and Italy (2.64%). Under the changes, known as 'Voice Reform – Phase 2', countries other than China that saw significant gains included South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Singapore, Greece, Czech Republic, Hungary, Brazil, India, and Spain. Most developed countries' voting power was reduced, along with a few developing countries such as Nigeria. The voting powers of the United States, Russia and Saudi Arabia were unchanged.The changes were brought about with the goal of making voting more universal in regards to standards, rule-based with objective indicators, and transparent among other things. Now, developing countries have an increased voice in the "Pool Model", backed especially by Europe. Additionally, voting power is based on economic size in addition to the International Development Association contributions. List of 20 largest countries by voting power in each World Bank institution The following table shows the subscriptions of the top 20 member countries of the World Bank by voting power in the following World Bank institutions as of December 2014 or March 2015: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the International Development Association (IDA), and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). Member countries are allocated votes at the time of membership and subsequently for additional subscriptions to capital (one vote for each share of capital stock held by the member). Poverty reduction strategies For the poorest developing countries in the world, the bank's assistance plans are based on poverty reduction strategies; by combining an analysis of local groups with an analysis of the country's financial and economic situation the World Bank develops a plan pertaining to the country in question. The government then identifies the country's priorities and targets for the reduction of poverty, and the World Bank instigates its aid efforts correspondingly. Forty-five countries pledged US$25.1 billion in "aid for the world's poorest countries", aid that goes to the World Bank International Development Association (IDA), which distributes the loans to eighty poorer countries. Wealthier nations sometimes fund their own aid projects, including those for diseases. Robert B. Zoellick, the former president of the World Bank, said when the loans were announced on 15 December 2007, that IDA money "is the core funding that the poorest developing countries rely on".World Bank organizes the Development Marketplace Awards, a grant program that surfaces and funds development projects with potential for development impact that are scalable and/or replicable. The grant beneficiaries are social enterprises with projects that aim to deliver social and public services to groups with the lowest incomes. Global partnerships and initiatives The World Bank has been assigned temporary management responsibility of the Clean Technology Fund (CTF), focused on making renewable energy cost-competitive with coal-fired power as quickly as possible, but this may not continue after UN's Copenhagen climate change conference in December 2009, because of the bank's continued investment in coal-fired power plants. (In December 2017, Kim announced the World Bank would no longer finance fossil fuel development.) Together with the World Health Organization, the World Bank administers the International Health Partnership (IHP+). IHP+ is a group of partners committed to improving the health of citizens in developing countries. Partners work together to put international principles for aid effectiveness and development cooperation into practice in the health sector. IHP+ mobilizes national governments, development agencies, civil society, and others to support a single, country-led national health strategy in a well-coordinated way. Climate change World Bank President Jim Yong Kim said in 2012: A 4-degree warmer world can, and must be, avoided—we need to hold warming below 2 degrees ... Lack of action on climate change threatens to make the world our children inherit a completely different world than we are living in today. Climate change is one of the single biggest challenges facing development, and we need to assume the moral responsibility to take action on behalf of future generations, especially the poorest. A World Bank report into climate change in 2012 noted that (p. xiii) "even with the current mitigation commitments and pledges fully implemented, there is roughly a 20 percent likelihood of exceeding 4 °C by 2100." This is despite the fact that the "global community has committed itself to holding warming below 2 °C to prevent 'dangerous' climate change". Furthermore, "a series of recent extreme events worldwide highlight the vulnerability of all countries ... No nation will be immune to the impacts of climate change."The World Bank doubled its aid for climate change adaptation from $2.3bn (£1.47bn) in 2011 to $4.6bn in 2012. The planet is now 0.8 °C warmer than in pre-industrial times. It says that 2 °C warming will be reached in 20 to 30 years.In December 2017, Kim announced the World Bank would no longer finance fossil fuel development, but a 2019 International Consortium of Investigative Journalists article found that the bank continues "to finance oil and gas exploration, pipelines and refineries," that "these fossil fuel investments make up a greater share of the bank's current energy lending portfolio than renewable projects," and that the bank "has yet to meaningfully shift away from fossil fuels."EU finance ministers joined civil sector groups, including Extinction Rebellion, in November 2019 in calling for an end to World Bank funding of fossil fuels.In 2021, the World Bank offered support to Kazakhstan to help the country in its mission for decarbonization and carbon neutrality.In 2023 a new president was appointed: Ajay Banga. He was supported by the American president Joe Biden partly because he supports climate action. The former president David Malpass faced criticism as he challenged the scientific consensus on climate change. Food security Global Food Security Program: Launched in April 2010, six countries alongside the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation have pledged $925 million for food security. To date, the program has helped eight countries, promoting agriculture, research, trade in agriculture, etc. Launched Global Food Crisis Response Program: Given grants to approximately 40 nations for seeds, etc. for improving productivity. In process of increasing its yearly spending for agriculture to $6–8 billion from earlier $4 billion. Runs various nutrition programs across the world, e.g., vitamin A doses for children, school meals, etc. Training wings Global Operations Knowledge Management Unit The World Bank Institute (WBI) was a "global connector of knowledge, learning and innovation for poverty reduction". It aimed to inspire change agents and prepare them with essential tools that can help achieve development results. WBI had four major strategies to approach development problems: innovation for development, knowledge exchange, leadership and coalition building, and structured learning. World Bank Institute (WBI) was formerly known as Economic Development Institute (EDI), established on 11 March 1955 with the support of the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations. The purpose of the institute was to provide an open place where senior officials from developing countries could discuss development policies and programs. Over the years, EDI grew significantly and in 2000, the institute was renamed as the World Bank Institute. Sanjay Pradhan is the past vice president of the World Bank Institute. As of 2019, World Bank Institute functions have been mostly encapsulated by a new unit Global Operations Knowledge Management Unit (GOKMU), which is now responsible for knowledge management and learning across the bank. Global Development Learning Network The Global Development Learning Network (GDLN) is a partnership of over 120 learning centers (GDLN Affiliates) in nearly 80 countries around the world. GDLN Affiliates collaborate in holding events that connect people across countries and regions for learning and dialogue on development issues. GDLN clients are typically NGOs, government, private sector, and development agencies who find that they work better together on subregional, regional, or global development issues using the facilities and tools offered by GDLN Affiliates. Clients also benefit from the ability of Affiliates to help them choose and apply these tools effectively and to tap development practitioners and experts worldwide. GDLN Affiliates facilitate around 1000 video conference-based activities a year on behalf of their clients, reaching some 90,000 people worldwide. Most of these activities bring together participants in two or more countries over a series of sessions. A majority of GDLN activities are organized by small government agencies and NGOs. GDLN Asia Pacific The GDLN in the East Asia and Pacific region has experienced rapid growth and Distance Learning Centers now operate or are planned in 20 countries: Australia, Mongolia, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Japan, Papua New Guinea, South Korea, Thailand, Laos, Timor Leste, Fiji, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and New Zealand. With over 180 Distance Learning Centers, it is the largest development learning network in the Asia and Pacific region. The Secretariat Office of GDLN Asia Pacific is located in the Center of Academic Resources of Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. GDLN Asia Pacific was launched at the GDLN's East Asia and Pacific regional meeting held in Bangkok from 22 to 24 May 2006. Its vision is to become "the premier network exchanging ideas, experience and know-how across the Asia Pacific Region". GDLN Asia Pacific is a separate entity to The World Bank. It has endorsed its own Charter and Business Plan and, in accordance with the Charter, a GDLN Asia Pacific Governing Committee has been appointed. The committee comprises China (2), Australia (1), Thailand (1), The World Bank (1), and finally, a nominee of the Government of Japan (1). The organization is currently hosted by Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok, Thailand, a founding member of the GDLN Asia Pacific. The Governing Committee has determined that the most appropriate legal status for the GDLN AP in Thailand is a "Foundation". The World Bank is engaging a solicitor in Thailand to process all documentation in order to obtain this status. GDLN Asia Pacific is built on the principle of shared resources among partners engaged in a common task, and this is visible in the organizational structures that exist, as the network evolves. Physical space for its headquarters is provided by the host of the GDLN Centre in Thailand – Chulalongkorn University; Technical expertise and some infrastructure is provided by the Tokyo Development Learning Centre (TDLC); Fiduciary services are provided by Australian National University (ANU) Until the GDLN Asia Pacific is established as a legal entity in Thailand, ANU, has offered to assist the governing committee, by providing a means of managing the inflow and outflow of funds and of reporting on them. This admittedly results in some complexity in contracting arrangements, which need to be worked out on a case-by-case basis and depends to some extent on the legal requirements of the countries involved. JUSTPAL Network A Justice Sector Peer-Assisted Learning (JUSTPAL) Network was launched in April 2011 by the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management (PREM) Department of the World Bank's Europe and Central Asia (ECA) Region. JUSTPAL's objective is to provide an online and offline platform for justice professionals to exchange knowledge, good practices, and peer-driven improvements to justice systems and thereby support countries to improve their justice sector performance, quality of justice, and service delivery to citizens and businesses. The JUSTPAL Network includes representatives of judiciaries, ministries of justice, prosecutors, anti-corruption agencies, and other justice-related entities from across the globe. It has active members from more than 50 countries. To facilitate fruitful exchange of reform experiences and sharing of applicable good practices, JUSTPAL has organized its activities under five Communities of Practice (COPs): Budgeting for the Justice Sector; Information Systems for Justice Services; Justice Sector Physical Infrastructure; Court Management and Administration; and Prosecution and Anti-Corruption Agencies. Country assistance strategies As a guideline to the World Bank's operations in any particular country, a Country Assistance Strategy is produced in cooperation with the local government and any interested stakeholders and may rely on analytical work performed by the bank or other parties. Multi-Donor Trust Fund Another programme is the Multi-Donor Trust Fund. Clean Air Initiative Clean Air Initiative (CAI) is a World Bank initiative to advance innovative ways to improve air quality in cities through partnerships in selected regions of the world by sharing knowledge and experiences. It includes electric vehicles. Initiatives like this help address and tackle pollution-related diseases. United Nations Development Business Based on an agreement between the United Nations and the World Bank in 1981, Development Business became the official source for World Bank Procurement Notices, Contract Awards, and Project Approvals.In 1998, the agreement was renegotiated, and included in this agreement was a joint venture to create an online version of the publication. Today, Development Business is the primary publication for all major multilateral development banks, U.N. agencies, and several national governments, many of which have made the publication of their tenders and contracts in Development Business a mandatory requirement.The World Bank or the World Bank Group is also a sitting observer in the United Nations Development Group. Open data initiative The World Bank collects and processes large amounts of data and generates them on the basis of economic models. These data and models have gradually been made available to the public in a way that encourages reuse, whereas the recent publications describing them are available as open access under a Creative Commons Attribution License, for which the bank received the SPARC Innovator 2012 award.The World Bank also endorses the Principles for Digital Development. Grants table The following table lists the top 15 DAC 5 Digit Sectors to which the World Bank has committed funding, as recorded in its International Aid Transparency Initiative (IATI) publications. The World Bank states on the IATI Registry website that the amounts "will cover 100% of IBRD and IDA development flows" but will not cover other development flows. Open Knowledge Repository The World Bank hosts the Open Knowledge Repository (OKR) as an official open access repository for its research outputs and knowledge products. The World Bank's repository is listed in the Registry of Research Data Repositories re3data.org. Criticisms and controversy The World Bank has long been criticized by non-governmental organizations, such as the indigenous rights group Survival International, and academics, including Henry Hazlitt, Ludwig Von Mises, and its former Chief Economist Joseph Stiglitz. Hazlitt argued that the World Bank along with the monetary system it was designed within would promote world inflation and "a world in which international trade is State-dominated" when they were being advocated. Stiglitz argued that the free market reform policies that the bank advocates are often harmful to economic development if implemented badly, too quickly ("shock therapy"), in the wrong sequence or in weak, uncompetitive economies.One of the most common criticisms of the World Bank has been the way it is governed. While the World Bank represents 188 countries, it is run by a small number of economically powerful countries. These countries (which also provide most of the institution's funding) choose the bank's leadership and senior management, and their interests dominate.: 190  Titus Alexander argues that the unequal voting power of western countries and the World Bank's role in developing countries makes it similar to the South African Development Bank under apartheid, and therefore a pillar of global apartheid.: 133–141 In the 1990s, the World Bank and the IMF forged the Washington Consensus, policies that included deregulation and liberalization of markets, privatization and the downscaling of government. Though the Washington Consensus was conceived as a policy that would best promote development, it was criticized for ignoring equity, employment, and how reforms like privatization were carried out. Stiglitz argued that the Washington Consensus placed too much emphasis on GDP growth and not enough on the permanence of growth or on whether growth contributed to better living standards.: 17 The United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations report criticized the World Bank and other international financial institutions for focusing too much "on issuing loans rather than on achieving concrete development results within a finite period of time" and called on the institution to "strengthen anti-corruption efforts".James Ferguson has argued that the main effect of many development projects carried out by the World Bank and similar organizations is not the alleviation of poverty. Instead, the projects often serve to expand the exercise of bureaucratic state power. His case studies of development projects in Thaba-Tseka show that the World Bank's characterization of the economic conditions in Lesotho was flawed, and the bank ignored the political and cultural character of the state in crafting its projects. As a result, the projects failed to help the poor but succeeded in expanding the government bureaucracy.Criticism of the World Bank and other organizations often takes the form of protesting, such as the World Bank Oslo 2002 Protests, the 2007 October Rebellion, and the 1999 Battle of Seattle. Such demonstrations have occurred all over the world, even among the Brazilian Kayapo people.Another source of criticism has been the tradition of having an American head the bank, implemented because the United States provides the majority of World Bank funding. "When economists from the World Bank visit poor countries to dispense cash and advice," observed The Economist in 2012, "they routinely tell governments to reject cronyism and fill each important job with the best candidate available. It is good advice. The World Bank should take it."In 2021, an independent inquiry of the World Bank's Doing Business reports by the law firm WilmerHale found that World Bank leaders, including then-Chief Executive Kristalina Georgieva and then-President Jim Yong Kim, pressured staff members of the bank to alter data to inflate the rankings for China, Saudi Arabia, Azerbaijan and the United Arab Emirates.In September 2023, it was revealed that the World Bank had poured billions of dollars into fossil fuel projects in 2022. Campaigners estimated that about $3.7bn in trade finance was supplied to oil and gas projects despite the World Bank's green pledges. Structural adjustment The effect of structural adjustment policies on poor countries has been one of the most significant criticisms of the World Bank. The 1979 energy crisis plunged many countries into economic crisis.: 68  The World Bank responded with structural adjustment loans, which distributed aid to struggling countries while enforcing policy changes in order to reduce inflation and fiscal imbalance. Some of these policies included encouraging production, investment and labour-intensive manufacturing, changing real exchange rates, and altering the distribution of government resources. Structural adjustment policies were most effective in countries with an institutional framework that allowed these policies to be implemented easily. For some countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, economic growth regressed and inflation worsened. By the late 1980s, some international organizations began to believe that structural adjustment policies were worsening life for the world's poor, due to a reduction in social spending and an increase in the price of food, as subsidies were lifted. The World Bank changed structural adjustment loans, allowing for social spending to be maintained, and encouraging a slower change to policies such as transfer of subsidies and price rises.: 70  In 1999, the World Bank and the IMF introduced the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper approach to replace structural adjustment loans.: 147 Fairness of assistance conditions Some critics, most prominently the author Naomi Klein, are of the opinion that the World Bank Group's loans and aid have unfair conditions attached to them that reflect the interests, financial power and political doctrines (notably the Washington Consensus) of the bank and the countries that are most influential within it. Among other allegations, Klein says the Group's credibility was damaged "when it forced school fees on students in Ghana in exchange for a loan; when it demanded that Tanzania privatise its water system; when it made telecom privatisation a condition of aid for Hurricane Mitch; when it demanded labour 'flexibility' in Sri Lanka in the aftermath of the Asian tsunami; when it pushed for eliminating food subsidies in post-invasion Iraq".A study of the period 1970–2004 found that a less-developed country would on average receive more World Bank projects during any period when it occupied one of the rotating seats on the UN Security Council. Sovereign immunity The World Bank requires sovereign immunity from countries it deals with. Sovereign immunity waives a holder from all legal liability for their actions. It is proposed that this immunity from responsibility is a "shield which The World Bank wants to resort to, for escaping accountability and security by the people". As the United States has veto power, it can prevent the World Bank from taking action against its interests. PricewaterhouseCoopers World Bank favored PricewaterhouseCoopers as a consultant in a bid for privatizing the water distribution in Delhi, India. COVID-19 The World Bank has been criticized for the slow response of its Pandemic Emergency Financing Facility (PEF), a fund that was created to provide money to help manage pandemic outbreaks. The terms of the PEF, which is financed by bonds sold to private investors, prevent any money from being released from the fund until 12 weeks after the outbreak was initially detected (23 March). The COVID-19 pandemic met all other requirements for the funding to be released in January 2020.Critics have argued that the terms of the PEF are too stringent, and the 12-week delay means that the funding will be much less effective than if it was released to assist governments in initially containing the outbreak. They argue that the fund prioritizes the interests of the private bondholders over public health. Cronyism In May 2023, British newspaper The Guardian reported leaked recordings from some World Bank staff referring to Robert Malpass, the son of the institution's president David Malpass, as a "prince" and an "important little fellow" who could go "running to daddy" if things went wrong. Malpass served as undersecretary of the US Treasury in the Trump administration before being appointed by Trump in February 2019 to be World Bank's president. Before Malpass became president, his son Robert had joined the International Finance Corporation (IFC), a branch of the World Bank Group that lends money to private sector businesses and whose USD 5.5 billion funding from a USD 13 billion World Bank capital increase was secured by the US Treasury at the time that David Malpass was the Treasury's undersecretary. Suspension of loans to Uganda On the 9th of August 2023, the World Bank announced it was suspending new loans to Uganda because it claims that a new anti-homosexuality act, enacted in May 2023, contradicts its core values on human rights. The World Bank joined the United States in imposing sanctions against Uganda over the anti-homosexuality law. Uganda dismissed the move by the World Bank as unjust and hypocritical. See also Clean Energy for Development Investment Framework Democracy Index Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) International Finance Corporation New Development Bank The Swiss constituency References Further reading Ascher, W. "New development approaches and the adaptability of international agencies: the case of the World Bank" International Organization 1983. 37, 415–439. Bazbauers, Adrian Robert. The World Bank and Transferring Development (Springer, 2018). Bergsen, H., Lunde, L., Dinosaurs or Dynamos? The United Nations and the World Bank at the Turn of the Century. (Earthscan, London, 1999). Bilbert, C., and C. Vines, eds. The World Bank: Structures and Policies (Cambridge UP, 2000) Brown, Michael Barratt. Africa's choices: after thirty years of the World Bank (Routledge, 2019). Davis, Gloria. A history of the social development network in The World Bank, 1973-2003 (The World Bank, 2004). Heldt, Eugénia C., and Henning Schmidtke. "Explaining coherence in international regime complexes: How the World Bank shapes the field of multilateral development finance." Review of International Political Economy (2019): 1–27. online Heyneman, Stephen P. "The history and problems in the making of education policy at the World Bank, 1960–2000." International Journal of Educational Development 23 (2003) 315–337 Hurni, Bettina S. The Lending Policy Of The World Bank In The 1970s (1980) Mason, Edward S., and Robert E. Asher. The world bank since Bretton Woods (Brookings Institution Press, 2010). Pereira, João Márcio Mendes. "The World Bank as a political, intellectual, and financial actor (1944-1994)." Relaciones Internacionales 26.52 (2017): online in English Pereira, João Márcio Mendes. "Assaulting Poverty: Politics and Economic Doctrine in the History of the World Bank (1944-2014)." Revista De História 174 (2016): 235–265. online Polak, Jacques J., and James M. Boughton. "The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund: A Changing Relationship." in Economic Theory and Financial Policy (Routledge, 2016) pp. 92–146. Salda, Anne C. M., ed. Historical dictionary of the World Bank (1997) Weaver, Catherine. 2008. Hypocrisy Trap: The World Bank and the Poverty of Reform. Princeton University Press. Woods, Ngaire. The globalizers: the IMF, the World Bank, and their borrowers (Cornell UP, 2014). World Bank. A Guide to the World Bank (2nd ed. 2007) online External links Official website IBRD main page IDA main page

climate change in the republic of ireland

Climate change in the Republic of Ireland is having a range of impacts. Increasing temperatures are changing weather patterns, with increasing heatwaves, rainfall and storm events. These changes lead to ecosystem on land and in Irish waters, altering the timing of species' life cycles and changing the composition of ecosystems. Climate change is also impacting people through flooding and by increasing the risk of health issues such as skin cancers and disease spread. Climate change is considered to be the single biggest threat to Ireland according to the head of the Defence Forces of Ireland, Mark Mellett. Greenhouse gas emissions Ireland's greenhouse gas emissions increased between 1990 and 2001 when they peaked at 70.46 Mt carbon dioxide equivalent before decreasing each year up to 2014. In 2015 the emissions increased 4.1%, and in 2016 increased by 3.4% before remaining stable in 2017 and 2018, before decreasing by 4.5% in 2019 from the 2018 levels. Overall, the emissions have increased by 10.1 per cent from 1990 to 2019. The Central Statistics Office also collate and publish data relating to emissions and the effects as recorded in Ireland.In 2017, Ireland had the third highest greenhouse gas emissions per capita in the European Union and 51% higher than the EU-28 average of 8.8 tonnes. The world average in 2016 was 4.92 tonnes. Sources 71.4% of the emissions in 2019 came from energy industries, transport and agriculture, with agriculture the single largest contributor at 35.3%. In Irish agriculture, the two most important greenhouse gases are methane and nitrous oxide. 60% of Irish agricultural emissions come directly from animal agriculture, primarily as a result of methane-producing enteric fermentation from cattle. A further 30% derive from soils fertilised by manures, synthetic fertiliser or animal grazing on pasture. Impacts on the natural environment Temperature and weather changes Between 1890 and 2008, the mean temperature recorded in Ireland measured an increase of 0.7 degrees Celsius, with an increase of 0.4 degrees Celsius between 1980 and 2008. Other indicators of a warming climate identified by the Environmental Protection Agency are ten of the warmest recorded years occurring since 1990, a decrease in the number of days with frost and a shorter season in which frost occurs, and increased annual rainfall in the north and west of the country. An increase in the active growing season has been recorded, as well as an increase in animals arriving in Ireland and its surrounding waters which are adapted to warmer conditions.A 2020 study from the Irish Centre for High-End Computing indicated that Ireland's climate is likely to change drastically by 2050. Annual average temperatures could climb to 1.6 °C above pre-industrial levels under RCP8.5, with the east of Ireland seeing the highest increase, resulting in a "direct impact" on public health and mortality. The study also predicted the number of frost days to decrease between 68 and 78 per cent, summer precipitation to decrease by up to 17%. In June 2023, there was a Category 4 (extreme) marine heatwave in Irish waters, with some regions experiencing a Category 5 (beyond extreme) increase in temperatures. During this heatwave sea surface temperatures reached their highest ever recorded in Irish waters. Ecosystems Temperature changes risk disrupting or changing the timing of the life cycle of plant and animal species across the country. For example, the timing of leaf unfolding in Irish beech trees has become steadily earlier since the 1970s. Changes to the timing of life cycle events (phenology) can result in temporal mismatches between species, as not all species and life history events are equally responsive to temperature. Such changes may result in disruption of previously synchronised ecosystem function, resulting to changes in species composition and functioning of Irish ecosystems.Ocean acidification has been recorded in the waters off at Ireland since records began in 1990 by the Marine Institute. This is caused by the uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide into the ocean. In addition to acidification, Irish waters are becoming warmer and less salty, causing harm to marine life. Harmful algae are becoming more abundant in Irish waters, not just in warmer months, potentially harming ocean creatures such as shellfish. Impacts on people Sea level rise and flooding One of the greatest threats is to coastal and low lying regions from sea level rise, alongside increased rainfall and storm events. 40% of the population live within 5 km of the coast, and 70,000 Irish addresses are at risk of coastal flooding by 2050. Sea levels have risen around by 40 cm around Cork since 1842, approximate 50% greater than previously expected. The rate of sea level rise around Dublin is approximately twice the global rate.Storm surges also have an increased risk of occurring with rising temperature, with climatologists predicting that Ireland is overdue a 3m storm surge. In addition to coastal flooding, flooding due to increased groundwater levels is also a risk. Drought An increase in water shortages are expected due to periods of drought, and a decrease in water quality. Health impacts Adverse health issues relating to climate change have also been identified by the Irish Health Service Executive, including increased risk of skin cancers, waterbourne, foodborne and respiratory diseases. Mitigation and adaptation Policies and regulation The previous governing policy on mitigation, the 2017 National Mitigation Plan, was quashed by the Irish Supreme Court in August 2020. The Court ruled that the plan was contrary to the 2015 Climate Action and Low Carbon Development Act.Agencies, such as the Geological Survey of Ireland (GSI), have formulated a number of projects aimed at providing alternatives to current energy sources and the movement away from the contributing factors of climate change. These include the GSI's research into geothermal technologies and carbon sequestration. Climate change Bill 2021 On 23 July, the Climate Action and Low Carbon Development (Amendment) Bill 2021 was signed into law by the President. The bill creates a legally binding path to net zero emissions by 2050. Five-year carbon budgets produced by the Climate Change Advisory Council will dictate the path to carbon neutrality, with the aim of the first two budgets creating a 51% reduction by 2030. The five-year budgets will not be legally binding.Despite being touted as "ambitious" by the Irish Government, the bill came under heavy criticism from Irish environmentalists and scientists. Amendments passed by the Seanad on 9 July allow the Government, rather than the Climate Change Advisory Committee to determine how greenhouse gas emissions are calculated and taken into account. Climate scientist and IPCC author John Sweeney argued that these amendments "depart from the scientifically established methodology and give discretion to the Government to decide what to measure, how to measure it, and what the removals will be and how they are counted". See also Plug-in electric vehicles in the Republic of Ireland Renewable energy in the Republic of Ireland Climate change in the United Kingdom References External links Met Éireann's work on Climate Change

climate of turkey

Turkey's climate is varied and generally temperate, with the regions bordering the Mediterranean and Black Sea heavily affected by the coasts, and the interior being drier and more continental. Coastal areas in the southern half of the country, including Antalya, İzmir, Adana, feature a very typical Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Coastal areas in the north are cooler and have more oceanic influence; cities around the Sea of Marmara, including İstanbul, Bursa, İzmit, have cool, frequently rainy and occasionally snowy winters, and warm to hot, moderately dry summers. Further east, near the Black Sea coast, the dry season completely disappears, leading to cool, rainy and occasionally snowy winters, and warm, showery summers. The lower plateaus of the interior is generally continental, and mostly feature hot, dry summers, and cold, snowy winters. Despite this, winter precipitation varies widely, leading to humid rainfall regimes near areas like Bitlis, while rain-shadowed areas are semi-arid. Higher plateaus that nevertheless allow permanent settlement, like Kars and Ardahan, are high-continental and sometimes subalpine, with frigid, snowy winters, and mild, rainy summers. Dry summers in the south and west, along with moderate aridity in the interior makes the country vulnerable to climate change. Regions Mediterranean climates "True" Mediterranean climate A "true", or rather eu-Mediterranean (Köppen: Csa, Trewartha: Cs) climate exists on sea level from the coasts of Antakya to around Muğla, and north to around Manisa, which is generally considered to be its northern limit. Average temperatures range between 17–20 °C (63–68 °F); winters have means around 7–10 °C (45–50 °F), while summers have mean temperatures between 26–29 °C (79–84 °F). Precipitation amounts to around 600–1,200 millimetres (24–47 in), all of it rain. Summers get almost no rain, while winters receive plentiful, and sometimes copious amounts of it. Winter precipitation depends on local topography, with enclosed bays of convergent air, such as Antalya, getting almost twice the amount of rain as storm-protected areas such as Mersin. Mountains around the region still show the Mediterranean rainfall pattern, but have mild summers and below-freezing temperatures during winter, creating a zone which may be termed oro-Mediterranean. Pre-Mediterranean climate A pre-Mediterranean climate (Turkish: Akdeniz sâhil ardı iklimi, Köppen: Csa, Trewartha: Cs/Do/Dc) exists in relatively continental areas influenced by the Mediterranean climatic system, notably around the inner Aegean and Southeastern Anatolia. Average temperatures range between 14–18 °C (57–64 °F) with winter means around 1–6 °C (34–43 °F), and summers as hot as (or hotter than) the Mediterranean. Rainfall follows the general pattern of the Mediterranean region, but sunshine is sometimes noticeably lower, and precipitation amounts are lower than the Mediterranean region, between 400–800 millimetres (16–31 in). Snow can also fall in this area, unlike the coastal Mediterranean region. Transitional zone Marmara dry-summer temperate climate The climate around the Marmara Sea (Turkish: Marmara geçiş iklimi, lit. 'Marmara transitional climate', Köppen: Csa/Csb/Cfa/Cfb, Trewartha: Cs/Cf/Do) is complex, transitional and often microclimatic. It wraps around the sea, covering Bursa, Bilecik, southern İzmit and İstanbul, as well as Tekirdağ. Often of a meso- or supra-Mediterranean quality at sea-level; its vegetation at sea level is similar to the lower mountains of the "true" Mediterranean region, with heat-tolerant broadleaf oaks and occasional mesophilous trees, such as beech. Therefore, it is generally considered mild-temperate and not subtropical in Turkish sources and furthermore, Bohn, in a survey of European vegetation and climate, calls the climate sub-continental sub-Mediterranean.Its average temperatures range around 12–15 °C (54–59 °F) at sea level. Its summers are generally cool for the Mediterranean, but warm for oceanic climates, with means around 20–25 °C (68–77 °F), varying on a microclimatic level. Winter means range between 2–6 °C (36–43 °F), with a noticeable decrease further inland. Precipitation amounts to 600–1,100 millimetres (24–43 in). Winters are very cloudy, with the amount of rainy days far surpassing much of Europe; while snow falls occasionally, often with sea-effect. Summers are moderately dry, but feature occasional thunderstorms, sometimes severe; along with the Black Sea climatic region further east, areas around the Marmara Sea have their peak thunderstorm activity in early and late summer. Mountains here often quickly transition into subalpine climates, most notably Uludağ. Thracian sub-humid climate Inland regions northwest of the Marmara Sea have a transitional, sub-humid climate (Köppen: Csa/Cfa, Trewartha: Cs/Cf/Do), with average temperatures matching those of the Marmara Sea, albeit with colder, snowier winters and hotter summers. The vegetation here is pre-steppic, mostly oak savanna. This area does have similarities to the pre-Mediterranean climate further south, but its lower sunshine, light winter precipitation and milder, wetter summers distinguish the two. The area's thunderstorm season peaks in May and early June, resulting in a slightly earlier season than that of the Marmara Sea. Humid maritime climates Western Pontic climate A mild, humid temperate climate (Köppen: Cfa/Cfb, Trewartha: Cf/Do) exists from the northern coast of Istanbul to İnebolu, at sea level around the coast of the Black Sea. Its vegetation is deciduous broadleaf, and resembles the supra-Mediterranean zone at sea level, although it is part of a different floristic zone, specifically the Euxinic one. Its average temperatures range around 12–14 °C (54–57 °F) at sea level, with summer means around 20–23 °C (68–73 °F) and winter means around 4–6 °C (39–43 °F). Rainfall is well-distributed and quite frequent, generally around 900–1,500 millimetres (35–59 in) with a spring drying pattern, instead of a summer-dry one. Winter snowfall is about the same amount as the Marmara region, but winter means are raised by Foehn winds. Central Pontic climate In sheltered locations around Sinop and Samsun, the climate (Köppen: Cfa, Trewartha: Cf) is noticeably drier and warmer than the Western Pontic zone, but somewhat cooler, and much drier than the Eastern Pontic zone. Meso-Mediterranean vegetation resurfaces here, and coexists with broadleaf forest. Average temperatures range around 13–15 °C (55–59 °F), with summer means around 22–25 °C (72–77 °F) and winter means around 6–8 °C (43–46 °F). Rainfall follows the general distribution of the region, but the area is less humid than expected in all seasons. Eastern Pontic climate As the Black Sea coast assumes a southwest-northeast direction once again, rainfall increases, and forms the near-subtropical, extremely humid climate (Köppen: Cfa, Trewartha: Cf) prevalent in the eastern Black Sea region. Featuring temperate rainforests, its temperatures are very slightly warmer than the transitional zone further west, but rainfall in this region is nearly constant in frequency, varying only by intensity. Rainfall amounts are also quite copious at 1,500–2,500 millimetres (59–98 in), with a spring drying pattern. Some parts of the region get below 1,200 hours of sunshine, values far below Western Europe and more comparable to subpolar regions. Mountains in this region have a perhumid, alpine climate with verdant meadows (Turkish: yayla) alternating with krummholz and boreal forests. Continental climates Pre-Pontic sub-humid continental climate Between the humid Pontic climate and semi-arid conditions further inland, a sub-humid to humid continental climate (Turkish: Karadeniz sâhil ardı iklimi, lit. 'Pre-Pontic climate', Köppen: Dfb, Trewartha: Dc) exists, most notably near Kastamonu. Average temperatures range around 8–11 °C (46–52 °F), with means of 18–21 °C (64–70 °F) during the hottest month and winter means just below the freezing mark. Rainfall is around 500 millimetres (20 in), with a spring storm season. Northeastern high-continental climate In the far-northeast of the country, often in elevations above 1,500 metres (4,900 ft), the summerly drying trend is no longer observed, and a unique, high-continental climate (Köppen: Dfb/Dfc, Trewartha: Dc/Ec) forms near Kars and Ardahan. Here, average temperatures are generally just above the freezing mark, while summers average around 15 °C (59 °F). Winters are the most severe in the country, with lows routinely below −18 °C (0 °F). Rainfall is generally around 500–700 millimetres (20–28 in) with an early-summer wet season. Orographic rain-belt continental climate On the foothills of the Anti-Taurus and Zagros Mountains, south of the Armenian highlands and, in general, near the continental foothills of the southern Alpide belt in Turkey, an orographically-induced rainbelt forms a Mediterranean-influenced continental climate (Köppen: Dsa/Dsb, Trewartha: Dc), high in precipitation. Temperatures average around 8–12 °C (46–54 °F) with winter means around −3 °C (27 °F) and summer temperatures averaging between 21–25 °C (70–77 °F). Precipitation is heaviest in early-spring, with totals above 800 millimetres (31 in). Winters are very snowy. Despite this high precipitation, summer aridity keep the vegetation of the area pre-steppic. Semi-arid continental climate In drier areas of Central and Eastern Anatolia, a semi-arid, occasionally sub-humid climate (Köppen: BSk/Dsa, Trewartha: BS/Dc) takes hold, due to extensive rain-shadowing from all sides. Here, summer means range around 22–25 °C (72–77 °F), while winter means are around freezing, averaging out to around 10–13 °C (50–55 °F). Precipitation is scarce at around 300–400 millimetres (12–16 in), and heaviest in late-spring. Climate change See also Climate change in Turkey Geography of Turkey Environmental issues in Turkey == References and notes ==

interim climate change committee

The Interim Climate Change Committee (or ICCC) is a ministerial advisory committee created by the New Zealand Government in mid–April 2018 to explore how New Zealand transitions to a net zero emissions economy by 2050. The Interim Committee was superseded and replaced by an independent Climate Change Commission under the Climate Change Response (Zero Carbon) Amendment Act in November 2019. Mandates and functions The Interim Climate Change Committee is modeled after the United Kingdom's Committee on Climate Change, an independent advisory body that advises the UK Government on whether it is meeting its climate change mitigation goals. The purpose of the ICCC is to provide independent analysis on issues identified in the Government's "Terms of Reference" that will be passed to the Climate Change Commission. The Terms of Reference for the ICCC are: How surrender obligations could best be arranged if agricultural methane and nitrous oxide emissions enter into the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme, and Planning for the transition to 100% renewable electricity by 2035.In addition, the ICCC will explore issues such as how to transition to 100 percent renewable electricity generation by 2035 and reducing New Zealand's carbon emissions under the terms of the Paris Agreement. It will consult with key stakeholders and hand over its research and analysis to an independent Climate Change Commission under the Climate Change Response (Zero Carbon) Amendment Act in May 2019. Membership On 17 April 2018, the Minister for Climate Change Issues James Shaw announced the membership of the ICCC. The ICCC's Chair is Dr David Prentice, the CEO and Managing Director of Opus International Consultants Limited. Other members include: Lisa Tumahai, Deputy Chair of the ICCC and Kaiwhakahaere of Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu Dr Harry Clark, an agricultural greenhouse gas expert Dr Keith Turner, formerly CEO of Meridian Energy Dr Jan Wright, who used to be Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment Dr Suzi Kerr, knows about economics of climate change policy and emissions trading. History The ICCC officially came into existence on 1 May 2018. While the ICCC shares the same facilities as the Ministry for the Environment, it operates independently of the Ministry and has its own information management system. The opposition National Party's climate change spokesperson Todd Muller expressed support for the Committee but criticised Minister Shaw's position to look into agriculture when the science to reduce ruminant emissions had not yet been refined. He also expressed unease about increased taxation of farmers and regional New Zealand. The business lobby group Business New Zealand welcomed the formation of the ICCC. Meanwhile, the agricultural lobby groups DairyNZ and Federated Farmers also welcomed the establishment of the ICCC but stressed that the agricultural sector should not bear the full burden of any increased taxation or regulations.On 1 June 2018 the ICCC updated its Work Programme with the Minister for Climate Change Hon James Shaw and further clarified its Terms of Reference. In 2019, the ICCC proposed that Lake Onslow in the South Island's Otago region be used for a pumped hydro-storage system to provide backup electricity generation in dry years. In July 2020, Minister of Energy Megan Woods announced that the New Zealand government would fund a detailed feasibility study of the plan. If progressed, the scheme would be the biggest infrastructure project in New Zealand since the 1980s, employing between 3500 and 4500 people, and take four to five years to build and a further two years to fill.In November 2019, the ICCC was replaced by the Climate Change Commission. Notes and references External links Official site

before the flood (film)

Before the Flood is a 2016 documentary film about climate change directed by Fisher Stevens. The film was produced as a collaboration between Stevens, Leonardo DiCaprio, James Packer, Brett Ratner, Trevor Davidoski, and Jennifer Davisson Killoran. Martin Scorsese is an executive producer.The film covers effects of climate change in various regions of the world, and discusses climate change denial. Numerous public figures are interviewed in the documentary. To offset the carbon emissions of the production, the filmmakers paid a voluntary carbon tax. The soundtrack features compositions by Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross, Mogwai and Gustavo Santaolalla. The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2016, and was released theatrically on October 21, before airing on the National Geographic Channel on October 30. As part of National Geographic's commitment to covering climate change, the documentary was made widely available and free of charge on various platforms. It received generally positive critical reviews. Background At the European premiere in London in October 2016, DiCaprio introduced the film as follows: Before The Flood is the product of an incredible three-year journey that took place with my co-creator and director Fisher Stevens. We went to every corner of the globe to document the devastating impacts of climate change and questioned humanity's ability to reverse what may be the most catastrophic problem mankind has ever faced. There was a lot to take in. All that we witnessed on this journey shows us that our world's climate is incredibly interconnected and that it is at urgent breaking point. ... We wanted to create a film that gave people a sense of urgency, that made them understand what particular things are going to solve this problem. We bring up the issue of a carbon tax, for example, which I haven't seen in a lot of documentaries. Basically, sway a capitalist economy to try to invest in renewables, to bring less money and subsidies out of oil companies. These are the things that are really going to make a massive difference. ... We need to use our vote ... We cannot afford to have political leaders out there that do not believe in modern science or the scientific method or empirical truths ... We cannot afford to waste time having people in power that choose to believe in the 2 percent of the scientific community that is basically bought off by lobbyists and oil companies. Content The film shows DiCaprio visiting various regions of the globe exploring the impact of global warming. As a narrator, DiCaprio comments these encounters as well as archive footages. DiCaprio repeatedly references a 15th-century triptych by Hieronymus Bosch, The Garden of Earthly Delights, which, he explains, hung above his crib as an infant, and which he uses as an analogy of the present course of the world toward potential ruin as depicted on its final panel. The film also documents, in part, the production of DiCaprio's 2015 film The Revenant. DiCaprio's comments and inquiries focus extensively on climate change denial, mostly among corporate lobbyists and politicians of the United States.They interview with British-born astronaut Piers Sellers, a NASA scientist who flew on three space missions, discusses his desire to publicize the perils of global warming in the short time he expected he had remaining to live, as he had stage IV pancreatic cancer as he was being filmed. He died on December 23, 2016. Cast Along with DiCaprio, the documentary's subjects include Piers Sellers, Barack Obama, Pope Francis, Sunita Narain, Anote Tong, John Kerry, Elon Musk, Alejandro González Iñárritu, Johan Rockström, Greg Mankiw, Gidon Eshel, Farwiza Farhan, Ian Singleton, Lindsey Allen, Jeremy Jackson, Thomas Remengesau Jr., Alvin Lin, Ma Jun, Michael E. Mann, Philip Levine, Jason E. Box, Dr. Enric Sala, Michael Brune, and Ban Ki-Moon.Subjects for the DVD's extra or deleted scenes include: Mark Z. Jacobson, Steven Chu, Andrew Baker, Ben Kirtman, and Sala. Topics include education, politics, coral, hurricanes, and urgency. Broadcast and streaming The film was made available freely on the internet between October 30 and November 6, 2016, the run up to US Election Day, having aired on the National Geographic Channel in 171 countries and on some countries' national television channels. The film is subtitled in 45 languages, making it accessible for non-English audiences. The film had been watched more than 2 million times on the day following its release, and within weeks had been viewed by more than 60 million people, "making it arguably one of the most watched documentaries in history." As of November 2022, it is available for streaming on Disney+. Carbon tax The film takes a closer look into the possibility of a carbon tax benefiting the American nation. In addition, they state that, "the carbon emissions from Before the Flood were offset through a voluntary carbon tax." Reception Critical response The film received mostly positive reviews from critics. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 75% approval rating, based on 32 reviews with an average score of 7.0/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "A fervent call to action where there is no time to waste, lest our future be left in the mud; Leonardo DiCaprio makes it his mission to deliver this urgent message Before the Flood." On Metacritic, it has a score of 63 out of 100, based on 10 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews."Before the Flood was described as "surprisingly moving" in W and as "a heartfelt, decent, educational documentary about the most important issue of our time" by The Guardian.Variety praised the fact that "given the sincerity of its message, its ability to assemble such a watchable and comprehensive account gives it an undeniable urgency," stating that "where the film succeeds the most is by focusing on the ground-level victims of climate change, whether the polar bears of the Arctic, or the inhabitants of island nations like Kiribati." Accolades Soundtrack The film's soundtrack was written and performed by Mogwai, Trent Reznor, Atticus Ross, and Gustavo Santaolalla. See also Don't Look Up References External links Official website Before the Flood on Dailymotion National Geographic's Free to Watch Site hosting 'Before the Flood' until November 7, 2017 – National Geographic TV Shows, Specials & Documentaries Before the Flood at IMDb Before the Flood at Rotten Tomatoes Before the Flood at Metacritic

c40 cities climate leadership group

C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group is a group of 96 cities around the world that represents one twelfth of the world's population and one quarter of the global economy. Created and led by cities, C40 is focused on fighting the climate crisis and driving urban action that reduces greenhouse gas emissions and climate risks, while increasing the health, wellbeing and economic opportunities of urban residents. From 2021, Mayor of London, Sadiq Khan, serves as C40's Chair, former Mayor of New York City Michael Bloomberg as Board President, and Mark Watts as Executive Director. All three work closely with the 13-member steering committee, the Board of Directors and professional staff. The rotating steering committee of C40 mayors provides strategic direction and governance. Steering committee members include: London, Freetown, Barcelona, Phoenix, Dhaka North, Tokyo, Buenos Aires, Bogotá, Abidjan, Montréal, Milan and Hong Kong.Working across multiple sectors and initiative areas, C40 convenes networks of cities providing a suite of services in support of their efforts, including: direct technical assistance; facilitation of peer-to-peer exchange; and research, knowledge management & communications. C40 is also positioning cities as a leading force for climate action around the world, defining and amplifying their call to national governments for greater support and autonomy in creating a sustainable future. History C40 started in October 2005 when London Mayor Ken Livingstone convened representatives from 18 megacities to forge an agreement on cooperatively reducing climate pollution and created the 'C20'. In 2006, Mayor Livingstone and the Clinton Climate Initiative (CCI)—led by the efforts of former U.S. President Bill Clinton—combined to strengthen both organizations, bringing the number of cities in the network to 40 and helping to deliver projects and project management for participating cities to further enhance emissions reductions efforts. Serving as C40's first chair, Livingstone established the C40 Secretariat in London, set up the C40 Steering Committee, and initiated the use of C40 workshops to exchange best practices amongst participating cities. In 2008, former Mayor of Toronto David Miller took over as C40 chair. Highlights of his tenure included the Copenhagen Climate Summit for Mayors and the C40 Cities Mayors Summit in Seoul, both in 2009, as well as the launch of practical action initiatives for cities, such as the Climate Positive Development Program and the Carbon Finance Capacity Building program.Three-term Mayor of New York City Michael Bloomberg served as chair from 2010 to 2013. During his three-year tenure, Mayor Bloomberg demonstrated unwavering commitment to building a professional organization and establishing measurable and uniform benchmarks for success, as well as expanding knowledge-sharing between cities and partner organizations with similar priorities. Key milestones during his chairmanship include the full integration of the CCI Cities Program into the C40, and the C40 Mayors Summits in Sao Paulo and Johannesburg. Under Mayor Bloomberg's leadership, C40 grew to include 63 cities. In December 2013 former Mayor of Rio de Janeiro Eduardo Paes became Chair of C40. During his tenure Mayor Paes oversaw the addition of more than 20 new member cities (particularly those in the Global South) several groundbreaking research reports, successful international events, and thriving global partnerships, all of which are helping cities make real contributions to the reduction of global greenhouse gas emissions and climate risks. He also helped launch the Compact of Mayors (now the Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate & Energy), put in place the C40 Cities Finance Facility, and oversaw the opening of a permanent C40 office in Rio de Janeiro, at the Museum of Tomorrow. In 2015, as C40 marked its 10th anniversary, cities were crucial voices in shaping and advocating for a strong Paris Agreement—just as city leaders will be crucial in delivering on its ambition going forward. More than 1,000 mayors, local representatives, and community leaders from around the world took part in the Climate Summit for Local Leaders, hosted by Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo and the UN Secretary-General's Special Envoy for Cities and Climate Change Michael R. Bloomberg during the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference. In August 2016, Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo became C40's first chairwoman after being voted in unanimously by the Steering Committee. Mayor Hidalgo has announced an ambitious agenda for the organization, including plans to focus on securing green financing, supporting compliance with the Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate & Energy, encouraging inclusive and sustainable growth in cities, and recognizing the leadership of women in tackling climate change. In December 2016, C40 held its sixth biennial Mayors Summit in Mexico City. The Global Summit, hosted by Mayor of Mexico City Miguel Ángel Mancera, was attended by 1,400 people, including representatives from more than 90 cities. The current chair of C40 Cities is Mayor Sadiq Khan of London, UK. Membership While C40 originally targeted megacities for their greater capacity to address climate change, C40 now offers three types of membership categories to reflect the diversity of cities taking action to address climate change. The categories consider such characteristics as population size, economic output, environmental leadership, and the length of a city's membership.1. Megacities Population: City population of 3 million or more, and/or metropolitan area population of 10 million or more, either currently or projected for 2025. OR GDP: One of the top 25 global cities, ranked by current GDP output, at purchasing-power parity (PPP), either currently or projected for 2025.2. Innovator Cities Cities that do not qualify as Megacities but have shown clear leadership in environmental and climate change work. An Innovator City must be internationally recognized for barrier-breaking climate work, a leader in the field of environmental sustainability, and a regionally recognized “anchor city” for the relevant metropolitan area.3. Observer Cities A short-term category for new cities applying to join the C40 for the first time; all cities applying for Megacity or Innovator membership will initially be admitted as Observers until they meet C40's year-one participation requirements, for up to one year. A longer-term category for cities that meet Megacity or Innovator City guidelines and participation requirements, but for local regulatory or procedural reasons, are unable to approve participation as a Megacity or Innovator City expeditiously. Member cities C40 has 96 member cities across seven geographic regions. Climate Positive Affiliations Partners C40 is a member of The People's Vaccine Alliance. Additional partners include: Clinton Foundation Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP) International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG) World Bank World Resources Institute (WRI) Funding C40's work is made possible by three strategic funders: Bloomberg Philanthropies, Children's Investment Fund Foundation and Realdania.Additional funding comes from: See also Climate change adaptation Climate change mitigation Covenant of Mayors Energy conservation ICLEI – Local Governments for Sustainability Individual and political action on climate change List of largest cities London Climate Change Agency PlaNYC Renewable energy United Cities and Local Governments World energy supply and consumption References External links C40 cities official website 1st World Cities Leadership Climate Change Summit, London, 2005 2nd World Large Cities Climate Summit, New York, 2007 3rd Large Cities Climate Summit, Seoul, 2009 New York City Mayor, Michael Bloomberg's 2007 Keynote Address. Micro-Motives for State and Local Climate Change Initiatives, Harvard Law and Policy Review, Vol. 2, pp. 119–137, 2008

ministry of environment and climate change (maharashtra)

The Ministry of Environment is a ministry of the Government of Maharashtra. The ministry is responsible for promoting environmental issues in Maharashtra. The Ministry is headed by a cabinet level minister. Eknath Shinde is current Chief Minister of Maharashtra and Minister of Environment and Climate Change. Head office List of cabinet ministers List of ministers of state History Ministry of Environment was renamed as Ministry of Environment and Climate Change in 2020. Maharashtra Pollution Control Board Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB) is execution wing of the ministry.MPCB is responsible for implementation of - Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 Water (Cess) Act, 1977 Few provisions under Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 Biomedical Waste (M&H) Rules, 1998, Hazardous Waste (M&H) Rules, 2000, Municipal Solid Waste Rules, 2000 etc.MPCB is an ISO 9000 and ISO 27001 certified organization. Composition of the MPCB As per provisions of section 4 of the Water (P&CP) Act, 1974 and section 5 of Air (P&CP) Act, 1981), board consists of - Chairman, Member Secretary Official and Non-Official Members References External links Official website

cryosphere

The cryosphere (from the Greek κρύος kryos, "cold", "frost" or "ice" and σφαῖρα sphaira, "globe, ball") is an all-encompassing term for the portions of Earth's surface where water is in solid form, including sea ice, lake ice, river ice, snow cover, glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets, and frozen ground (which includes permafrost). Thus, there is a wide overlap with the hydrosphere. The cryosphere is an integral part of the global climate system with important linkages and feedbacks generated through its influence on surface energy and moisture fluxes, clouds, precipitation, hydrology, atmospheric and oceanic circulation. Through these feedback processes, the cryosphere plays a significant role in the global climate and in climate model response to global changes. Approximately 10% of the Earth's surface is covered by ice, but this is rapidly decreasing. The term deglaciation describes the retreat of cryospheric features. Overall interactions Frozen water is found on the Earth’s surface primarily as snow cover, freshwater ice in lakes and rivers, sea ice, glaciers, ice sheets, and frozen ground and permafrost (permanently frozen ground). The residence time of water in each of these cryospheric sub-systems varies widely. Snow cover and freshwater ice are essentially seasonal, and most sea ice, except for ice in the central Arctic, lasts only a few years if it is not seasonal. A given water particle in glaciers, ice sheets, or ground ice, however, may remain frozen for 10–100,000 years or longer, and deep ice in parts of East Antarctica may have an age approaching 1 million years.Most of the world's ice volume is in Antarctica, principally in the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. In terms of areal extent, however, Northern Hemisphere winter snow and ice extent comprise the largest area, amounting to an average 23% of hemispheric surface area in January. The large areal extent and the important climatic roles of snow and ice, related to their unique physical properties, indicate that the ability to observe and model snow and ice-cover extent, thickness, and physical properties (radiative and thermal properties) is of particular significance for climate research.There are several fundamental physical properties of snow and ice that modulate energy exchanges between the surface and the atmosphere. The most important properties are the surface reflectance (albedo), the ability to transfer heat (thermal diffusivity), and the ability to change state (latent heat). These physical properties, together with surface roughness, emissivity, and dielectric characteristics, have important implications for observing snow and ice from space. For example, surface roughness is often the dominant factor determining the strength of radar backscatter. Physical properties such as crystal structure, density, length, and liquid water content are important factors affecting the transfers of heat and water and the scattering of microwave energy. The surface reflectance of incoming solar radiation is important for the surface energy balance (SEB). It is the ratio of reflected to incident solar radiation, commonly referred to as albedo. Climatologists are primarily interested in albedo integrated over the shortwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum (~300 to 3500 nm), which coincides with the main solar energy input. Typically, albedo values for non-melting snow-covered surfaces are high (~80–90%) except in the case of forests. The higher albedos for snow and ice cause rapid shifts in surface reflectivity in autumn and spring in high latitudes, but the overall climatic significance of this increase is spatially and temporally modulated by cloud cover. (Planetary albedo is determined principally by cloud cover, and by the small amount of total solar radiation received in high latitudes during winter months.) Summer and autumn are times of high-average cloudiness over the Arctic Ocean so the albedo feedback associated with the large seasonal changes in sea-ice extent is greatly reduced. It was found that snow cover exhibited the greatest influence on Earth's radiative balance in the spring (April to May) period when incoming solar radiation was greatest over snow-covered areas.The thermal properties of cryospheric elements also have important climatic consequences. Snow and ice have much lower thermal diffusivities than air. Thermal diffusivity is a measure of the speed at which temperature waves can penetrate a substance. Snow and ice are many orders of magnitude less efficient at diffusing heat than air. Snow cover insulates the ground surface, and sea ice insulates the underlying ocean, decoupling the surface-atmosphere interface with respect to both heat and moisture fluxes. The flux of moisture from a water surface is eliminated by even a thin skin of ice, whereas the flux of heat through thin ice continues to be substantial until it attains a thickness in excess of 30 to 40 cm. However, even a small amount of snow on top of the ice will dramatically reduce the heat flux and slow down the rate of ice growth. The insulating effect of snow also has major implications for the hydrological cycle. In non-permafrost regions, the insulating effect of snow is such that only near-surface ground freezes and deep-water drainage is uninterrupted.While snow and ice act to insulate the surface from large energy losses in winter, they also act to retard warming in the spring and summer because of the large amount of energy required to melt ice (the latent heat of fusion, 3.34 x 105 J/kg at 0 °C). However, the strong static stability of the atmosphere over areas of extensive snow or ice tends to confine the immediate cooling effect to a relatively shallow layer, so that associated atmospheric anomalies are usually short-lived and local to regional in scale. In some areas of the world such as Eurasia, however, the cooling associated with a heavy snowpack and moist spring soils is known to play a role in modulating the summer monsoon circulation. Climate change feedback mechanisms There are numerous cryosphere-climate feedbacks in the global climate system. These operate over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales from local seasonal cooling of air temperatures to hemispheric-scale variations in ice sheets over time scales of thousands of years. The feedback mechanisms involved are often complex and incompletely understood. For example, Curry et al. (1995) showed that the so-called "simple" sea ice-albedo feedback involved complex interactions with lead fraction, melt ponds, ice thickness, snow cover, and sea-ice extent.The role of snow cover in modulating the monsoon is just one example of a short-term cryosphere-climate feedback involving the land surface and the atmosphere. Components Snow Most of the Earth's snow-covered area is located in the Northern Hemisphere, and varies seasonally from 46.5 million km2 in January to 3.8 million km2 in August.Snow cover is an extremely important storage component in the water balance, especially seasonal snowpacks in mountainous areas of the world. Though limited in extent, seasonal snowpacks in the Earth’s mountain ranges account for the major source of the runoff for stream flow and groundwater recharge over wide areas of the midlatitudes. For example, over 85% of the annual runoff from the Colorado River basin originates as snowmelt. Snowmelt runoff from the Earth's mountains fills the rivers and recharges the aquifers that over a billion people depend on for their water resources.Furthermore, over 40% of the world's protected areas are in mountains, attesting to their value both as unique ecosystems needing protection and as recreation areas for humans. Sea ice Sea ice covers much of the polar oceans and forms by freezing of sea water. Satellite data since the early 1970s reveal considerable seasonal, regional, and interannual variability in the sea ice covers of both hemispheres. Seasonally, sea-ice extent in the Southern Hemisphere varies by a factor of 5, from a minimum of 3–4 million km2 in February to a maximum of 17–20 million km2 in September. The seasonal variation is much less in the Northern Hemisphere where the confined nature and high latitudes of the Arctic Ocean result in a much larger perennial ice cover, and the surrounding land limits the equatorward extent of wintertime ice. Thus, the seasonal variability in Northern Hemisphere ice extent varies by only a factor of 2, from a minimum of 7–9 million km2 in September to a maximum of 14–16 million km2 in March.The ice cover exhibits much greater regional-scale interannual variability than it does hemispherical. For instance, in the region of the Sea of Okhotsk and Japan, maximum ice extent decreased from 1.3 million km2 in 1983 to 0.85 million km2 in 1984, a decrease of 35%, before rebounding the following year to 1.2 million km2. The regional fluctuations in both hemispheres are such that for any several-year period of the satellite record some regions exhibit decreasing ice coverage while others exhibit increasing ice cover. Lake ice and river ice Ice forms on rivers and lakes in response to seasonal cooling. The sizes of the ice bodies involved are too small to exert anything other than localized climatic effects. However, the freeze-up/break-up processes respond to large-scale and local weather factors, such that considerable interannual variability exists in the dates of appearance and disappearance of the ice. Long series of lake-ice observations can serve as a proxy climate record, and the monitoring of freeze-up and break-up trends may provide a convenient integrated and seasonally-specific index of climatic perturbations. Information on river-ice conditions is less useful as a climatic proxy because ice formation is strongly dependent on river-flow regime, which is affected by precipitation, snow melt, and watershed runoff as well as being subject to human interference that directly modifies channel flow, or that indirectly affects the runoff via land-use practices.Lake freeze-up depends on the heat storage in the lake and therefore on its depth, the rate and temperature of any inflow, and water-air energy fluxes. Information on lake depth is often unavailable, although some indication of the depth of shallow lakes in the Arctic can be obtained from airborne radar imagery during late winter (Sellman et al. 1975) and spaceborne optical imagery during summer (Duguay and Lafleur 1997). The timing of breakup is modified by snow depth on the ice as well as by ice thickness and freshwater inflow. Frozen ground and permafrost Glaciers and ice sheets Ice sheets and glaciers are flowing ice masses that rest on solid land. They are controlled by snow accumulation, surface and basal melt, calving into surrounding oceans or lakes and internal dynamics. The latter results from gravity-driven creep flow ("glacial flow") within the ice body and sliding on the underlying land, which leads to thinning and horizontal spreading. Any imbalance of this dynamic equilibrium between mass gain, loss and transport due to flow results in either growing or shrinking ice bodies.Relationships between global climate and changes in ice extent are complex. The mass balance of land-based glaciers and ice sheets is determined by the accumulation of snow, mostly in winter, and warm-season ablation due primarily to net radiation and turbulent heat fluxes to melting ice and snow from warm-air advection Where ice masses terminate in the ocean, iceberg calving is the major contributor to mass loss. In this situation, the ice margin may extend out into deep water as a floating ice shelf, such as that in the Ross Sea. Changes due to climate change Snow cover decrease Studies in 2021 found that Northern Hemisphere snow cover has been decreasing since 1978, along with snow depth. Paleoclimate observations show that such changes are unprecedented over the last millennia in Western North America.North American winter snow cover increased during the 20th century, largely in response to an increase in precipitation.Because of its close relationship with hemispheric air temperature, snow cover is an important indicator of climate change.Global warming is expected to result in major changes to the partitioning of snow and rainfall, and to the timing of snowmelt, which will have important implications for water use and management. These changes also involve potentially important decadal and longer time-scale feedbacks to the climate system through temporal and spatial changes in soil moisture and runoff to the oceans.(Walsh 1995). Freshwater fluxes from the snow cover into the marine environment may be important, as the total flux is probably of the same magnitude as desalinated ridging and rubble areas of sea ice. In addition, there is an associated pulse of precipitated pollutants which accumulate over the Arctic winter in snowfall and are released into the ocean upon ablation of the sea ice. Glaciers and ice sheets decline Sea ice decline The overall trend indicated in the passive microwave record from 1978 through mid-1995 shows that the extent of Arctic sea ice is decreasing 2.7% per decade. Subsequent work with the satellite passive-microwave data indicates that from late October 1978 through the end of 1996 the extent of Arctic sea ice decreased by 2.9% per decade while the extent of Antarctic sea ice increased by 1.3% per decade. Sea ice extent for the Northern Hemisphere showed a decrease of 3.8% ± 0.3% per decade from November 1978 to December 2012. Permafrost thaw Related scientific disciplines "Cryospheric sciences" is an umbrella term for the study of the cryosphere. As an interdisciplinary Earth science, many disciplines contribute to it, most notably geology, hydrology, and meteorology and climatology; in this sense, it is comparable to glaciology. The term deglaciation describes the retreat of cryospheric features. See also Climate system Cryobiology International Association of Cryospheric Sciences (IACS) Polar regions of Earth Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate Water cycle References External links Canadian Cryospheric Information Network Near-real-time overview of global ice concentration and snow extent National Snow and Ice Data Center

minister of natural resources, environment and climate change (malaysia)

The Minister of Natural Resources, Environment and Climate Change has been Nik Nazmi Nik Ahmad since 3 December 2022. The minister administers the portfolio through the Ministry of Natural Resources, Environment and Climate Change. List of ministers Energy The following individuals have been appointed as Minister of Energy, or any of its precedent titles: Political party: Alliance/BN PH PN Environment The following individuals have been appointed as Minister of Environment, or any of its precedent titles: Political party: BN PH PN Climate change The following individuals have been appointed as Minister of Climate Change, or any of its precedent titles: Political party: PH Natural resources The following individuals have been appointed as Minister of Natural Resources, or any of its precedent titles: Political party: Alliance/BN PH PN Land The following individuals have been appointed as Minister of Land, or any of its precedent titles: Political party: Alliance/BN PH Water The following individuals have been appointed as Minister of Water, or any of its precedent titles: Political party: BN PH PN See also Minister of Energy, Science, Technology, Environment and Climate Change (Malaysia) == References ==

climate of the philippines

The Philippines has five types of climates: tropical rainforest, tropical monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical and oceanic (both are in higher-altitude areas) characterized by relatively high temperature, oppressive humidity and plenty of rainfall. There are two seasons in the country, the wet season and the dry season, based upon the amount of rainfall. This is also dependent on location in the country as some areas experience rain all throughout the year (see Climate types). Based on temperature, the warmest months of the year are March through October; the winter monsoon brings cooler air from November to February. May is the warmest month, and January, the coolest.Weather in the Philippines is monitored and managed by the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA). Rainfall Monsoons are large-scale sea breezes which occur when the temperature on land is significantly warmer or cooler than the temperature of the ocean. Most summer monsoons or southwest monsoons (Filipino: Habagat) have a dominant westerly component and a strong tendency to ascend and produce copious amounts of rain (because of the condensation of water vapor in the rising air). The intensity and duration, however, are not uniform from year to year. Winter monsoons or northeast monsoons (Filipino: Amihan), by contrast, have a dominant easterly component and a strong tendency to diverge, subside and cause drought. The summer monsoon brings heavy rains to most of the archipelago from May to October. Annual average rainfall ranges from as much as 5,000 millimeters (197 in) in the mountainous east coast section of the country, to less than 1,000 millimeters (39 in) in some of the sheltered valleys. Monsoon rains, although hard and drenching, are not normally associated with high winds and waves. At least 30 percent of the annual rainfall in the northern Philippines can be traced to tropical cyclones, while the southern islands receiving less than 10 percent of their annual rainfall from tropical cyclones. The wettest known tropical cyclone to impact the archipelago was the July 1911 cyclone, when the total precipitation for Baguio was distributed over the four days as: 14th – 879.8 mm (34.6 in), 15th – 733.6 mm (28.9 in), 16th – 424.9 mm (16.7 in), 17th – 200.4 mm (7.9 in); followed by extraordinary drought from October 1911 to May 1912, so that the annual amount of those two years were hardly noticeable. Typhoons The Philippines sit across the typhoon belt, making dangerous storms from July through October. Climate change exacerbates the situation with typhoons in the Philippines. Bagyo is the Filipino term for any tropical cyclone in the Philippine Islands. From the statistics gathered by PAGASA from 1948 to 2004, around an average of 28 storms and/or typhoons per year enter the PAR (Philippine Area of Responsibility) – the designated area assigned to PAGASA to monitor during weather disturbances. Those that made landfall or crossed the Philippines, the average was nine per year. In 1993, a record 19 typhoons made landfall in the country making it the most in one year. The fewest per year were 4 during the years 1955, 1958, 1992, and 1997.PAGASA categorises typhoons into five types according to wind speed. Once a tropical cyclone enters the PAR, regardless of strength, it is given a local name for identification purposes by the media, government, and the general public. Public Storm Warning System (PSWS) For the past ten years, the Philippines has experienced a number of extremely damaging tropical cyclones, particularly typhoons with more than 185 km/h (115 mph; 100 kn; 51 m/s) of sustained winds. Because of this, the Super Typhoon (STY) category with more than 185 km/h (115 mph; 100 kn; 51 m/s) maximum sustained winds was officially adopted. PAGASA revises definition of super typhoon, signal system in 2022. However, according to different stakeholders, the extensive and devastating damages caused by strong typhoons such as Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) in 2013 and Typhoon Rai (Odette) in 2021 made the four‑level warning system inadequate. Strongest typhoons Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda, 2013) The deadliest typhoon to impact the Philippines was Typhoon Haiyan, locally known as Yolanda, in November 2013, in which more than 6,300 people died from its storm surges and powerful winds. Over 1,000 went missing and nearly 20,000 were injured. Winds reached 315 km/h (196 mph; 170 kn; 88 m/s) in one–minute sustained and may have been the strongest storm in history in terms of wind speeds as wind speeds before the 1970s were too high to record. Typhoon Angela (Rosing, 1995) Back in 1995, where Typhoon Angela, known as Rosing was an extremely catastrophic category 5 typhoon that made landfall in Catanduanes and made across Manila. Winds reached 290 km/h (180 mph) on one-minute sustain winds. Rosing took 936 lives and the most powerful typhoon that ever hit Metro Manila. Typhoon Bopha (Pablo, 2012) On late December 3, 2012, Typhoon Bopha or known as Pablo made landfall on Eastern Mindanao, damage was over US$1.04 billion by winds of 280 km/h (175 mph) on one-minute sustain winds. Typhoon Bopha was the most powerful typhoon ever hit Mindanao, killing 1,067 people and 834 people were missing. Most of the damage was caused by rushing storm surges and screaming winds. Typhoon Megi (Juan, 2010) Typhoon Megi (2010) was the strongest storm ever to make landfall in the country in terms of pressure. It made landfall in Northern Luzon, and reached wind speeds of 295 km/h (185 mph) on one-minute sustained winds, killing 67 people and costing over US$700 million in damage. Climate types There are four recognized climate types in the Philippines, and they are based on the distribution of rainfall (See the Philippine Climate Map at the top). They are described as follows: Temperature The average year-round temperature measured from all the weather stations in the Philippines, except Baguio, is 26.6 °C (79.9 °F). Cooler days are usually felt in the month of January with temperature averaging at 25.5 °C (77.9 °F) and the warmest days, in the month of May with a mean of 28.3 °C (82.9 °F). Elevation factors significantly in the variation of temperature in the Philippines. In Baguio, with an elevation of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) above sea level, the mean average is 18.3 °C (64.9 °F) or cooler by about 4.3 °C (8 °F). In 1915, a one-year study was conducted by William H. Brown of the Philippine Journal of Science on top of Mount Banahaw at 2,100 m (6,900 ft) elevation. The mean temperature measured was 18.6 °C (65.5 °F), a difference of 10 °C (18 °F) from the lowland mean temperature. Humidity Relative humidity is high in the Philippines. A high amount of moisture or vapor in the air makes hot temperatures feel hotter. This quantity of moisture is due to different factors – the extraordinary evaporation from the seas that surrounds the country on all sides, to the different prevailing winds in the different seasons of the year, and finally, to the abundant rains so common in a tropical country. The first may be considered as general causes of the great humidity, which is generally observed in all the islands throughout the year. The last two may influence the different degree of humidity for the different months of the year and for the different regions of the archipelago. Seasons The climate of the country is divided into two main seasons: the rainy season, from June to the early part of October; the dry season, from the later part of October to May. The dry season may be subdivided further into (a) the cool dry season, from the later part of October to February; and (b) the hot dry season, from March to May. The months of April and May, the hot and dry months when schools are on their long break between academic years (before the COVID-19 pandemic), is referred to coloquially as "summer" (after the summer season which lasts from June to August in most countries). Climate change Notes References == Sources ==

climate change in the gambia

Climate change in the Gambia is having impacts on the natural environment and people of The Gambia. Like other countries in West Africa, the impacts of climate change are expected to be varied and complex. Climate change adaptation is going to be important to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals in the country. Impacts on the natural environment The Sahel climate makes the eco region particularly vulnerable to changes in water. Climate change is expected to increase or make more severe windstorms, floods, droughts, and coastal erosion and saltwater intrusion. Temperature and weather changes Impacts on people Economic impacts Agriculture is 26% of the GDP and employs 68% of the labor force. Much of the agriculture is rain fed, so changes in precipitation will have significant impacts. In 2012, drought plus increased food prices led to a food crisis in the region. Rice farmers near the coast are also experiencing saltwater intrusion.Fisheries are also vulnerable, with changes to breeding grounds for coastal fishery species putting additional pressure on already unsustainable fishery practices.Infrastructure is already seeing major losses from flooding and windstorms. For example, urban floods in 2020 severely damaged at least 2371 houses, and destroyed crops. Mitigation and adaptation Policies and legislation The Gambia has published a Climate Change Priority Action Plan that focuses on 24 cross-sectoral activities. International cooperation United Nations Environment Programme started a $20.5 million project in partnership with the Government of Gambia to restore forests and marginal agricultural land. == References ==

climate of malta

Malta has a Subtropical-Mediterranean climate according to the Köppen climate classification (Csa), with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. Rain occurs mainly in winter, with summer being generally dry. According to the Troll-Paffen climate classification and the Siegmund/Frankenberg climate classification, Malta lies within the subtropical zone, being at 35ºN latitude. Temperature The average yearly temperature is around 23 °C (73 °F) during the day and 16 °C (61 °F) at night (one of the warmest temperature averages in Europe). In the coldest month – January – the typical maximum temperature ranges from 12 to 20 °C (54 to 68 °F) during the day and the minimum from 6 to 12 °C (43 to 54 °F) at night. In the warmest month – August – the typical maximum temperature ranges from 28 to 34 °C (82 to 93 °F) during the day and the minimum from 20 to 24 °C (68 to 75 °F) at night. Generally, April starts with temperatures from 17–22 °C (63–72 °F) during the day and 10–14 °C (50–57 °F) at night. November has temperatures from 17–23 °C (63–73 °F) during the day and 11–18 °C (52–64 °F) at night. However even in the winter months of the year (December, January, February) temperatures sometimes reach 20 °C (68 °F), March is transitional, with warmer temperatures, daily maximums often exceed 20 °C (68 °F) and lows are already in the 2 digits (above 10 °C (50 °F)) since early March. With an average of 19.3 °C (67 °F), Malta has the warmest average temperature in Europe. Amongst all capitals in the continent of Europe, Valletta – the capital of Malta has the warmest winters, with average temperatures of around 16 °C (61 °F) during the day and 10 °C (50 °F) at night in the months of January and February. In March and December average temperatures are around 17 °C (63 °F) during the day and 11 °C (52 °F) at night. In Malta, large fluctuations in temperature are rare. Malta is one of only a handful of locations in Europe with a USDA hardiness zone of 11a, that is the average absolute minimum temperature recorded each year is between 4.4 to 7.2 °C (39.9 to 45.0 °F). Daylight Malta enjoys one of the most optimal arrangement of hours of daylight in Europe. Days in winter are not as short as in the northern part of the continent, the average hours of daylight in December, January and February is 10.3 hours (for comparison: London or Moscow or Warsaw – about 8 hours). The shortest day of the year – 21 December – sunrise is around 7:00 and sunset is around 17:00. The longest day of the year – 21 June – sunrise is around 5:30 and sunset is around 20:30. Sunshine As one might expect from Malta's high daylight hours, Malta enjoys around 3,000 hours of sunshine per year (also one of the highest in Europe), from an average of above 5 hours of sunshine per day in December to an average of above 12 hours of sunshine per day in July. Thus, Malta enjoys about twice the amount of sunshine as cities in the northern half of Europe. For comparison, London has 1,461 hours per year; however, in winter Malta has much more sunshine. For comparison, London has 37 hours while Malta has 161 hours of sunshine in December. Sea temperature Average annual temperature of sea is 20 °C (68 °F) (the highest annual sea temperature in Europe), from 15–16 °C (59–61 °F) in the period from January to April to 26 °C (79 °F) in August. In the 6 months from June to November, the average sea temperature exceeds 20 °C (68 °F). In May and December – the transition months – the average is around 18 °C (64 °F). In the second half of April, which is the beginning of the summer/holiday season the average sea temperature is 17 °C (63 °F). The highest sea temperature is 27 °C (81 °F) in the middle-3rd week of August. In late August and early September the temperature drops to 26 °C (79 °F), and in the second half of September it drops to 25 °C (77 °F). Around mid-October it drops to 24 °C (75 °F), and during the last week of October it drops to 23 °C (73 °F). By early November the temperature drops to 22 °C (72 °F) (data of 2010). Precipitation Water supply poses a problem on Malta, as the summer is both rainless and the time of greatest water use, and the winter rainfall often falls as heavy showers running off to the sea rather than soaking into the ground. Malta depends on underground reserves of fresh water, drawn through a system of water tunnels such as the Ta' Kandja galleries or the Ta' Bakkja tunnels, which average about 97 m below surface and extend like the spokes of a wheel. In the galleries in Malta's porous limestone, fresh water lies in a lens upon brine. More than half the potable water of Malta is produced by desalination, which creates further issues of fossil fuel use and pollution.Malta has an average of 90 precipitation days a year, and experiences from a few to a dozen rainy days per month (≥ 1 mm), ranging from 0.5 of a day in July to around 15 in December. The average annual precipitation is around 600 mm, ranging from ≈0.3 mm in July to ≈110 mm in December. Humidity The annual average relative humidity is high, averaging 76%, ranging from 69% in July (morning: 78% evening: 53%) to 79% in December (morning: 83% evening: 73%). Records Despite the relative stasis of the Maltese climate, historical records present some variations. In the capital city of Valletta, meteorological officials of the time recorded a temperature of 1.2 °C (34.2 °F) on 19 February 1895, which remains a record for the city.Regarding the island as a whole, a temperature of −1.7 °C (28.9 °F) was recorded on 1 February 1962, at Ta' Qali airfield, in the centre of the island, which was accompanied by frozen precipitation (hail), though this temperature is not recognised by the Malta Met Office as it was not an official recording station and didn't use worldwide meteorological standard instruments.Snow is a very rare phenomenon, there was a snowfall reported in January 1858, March 1877 (light snow without accumulation), February 1895 (snow without accumulation), January 1905 (flurries without accumulation), March 1949 (snow recorded in the interior of the island), and 31 January 1962, On 31 December 2014 snow was reported at various locations. though the Met Office later confirmed this was actually Graupel or soft hail. It is thought that many historical reports of "snowfall" were likely also Graupel. That Winter went on to be one of the coldest and stormiest ever experienced in the Maltese Islands.The lowest temperature ever recorded at Luqa International Airport was in January 1981, with 1.4 °C (34.5 °F), and the highest temperature was 43.8 °C (110.8 °F) recorded on 9 August 1999.June 2021 recorded a very rare type of heatwave. For 12 straight days lasting from 20 June until 1 July, maximum temperature exceeded the climate average maximum by more than 5.0 °C (41.0 °F) and it was only due to the turning of the month that the heatwave ceased to be classified as a heatwave. The record maximum temperature was beaten 3 times during that heatwave – on the 24th with 40.2 °C (104.4 °F), the 25th with 41.3 °C (106.3 °F) and on the 30th with 41.5 °C (106.7 °F). Climate data See also Malta 2021 Stratospheric Balloon, upper-atmosphere weather balloon == References ==

climate change policy of california

As the most populous state in the United States, California's climate policies influence both global climate change and federal climate policy. In line with the views of climate scientists, the state of California has progressively passed emission-reduction legislation. California has taken legislative steps in the hope of mitigating the risks of potential effects of climate change in California by incentives and plans for clean cars, renewable energy, and pollution controls on industry. In California, climate change policy has been developed through both the executive and legislative branches of the state government. Many of the policies have specifically targeted greenhouse gas emissions, which have been shown to raise global temperatures and skew natural rhythms.One of the most notable pieces of climate legislation in California was Assembly Bill 32. This landmark piece of legislation required many actors in California’s economy to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020. The bill also appointed the California Air Resources Board (CARB) to devise policies and mechanisms for reaching the goal. CARB ultimately implemented the state’s cap-and-trade program, a type of emissions trading, the first such program in the United States. California was able to reach the emissions target four years ahead of schedule, in 2016. Legislation overview See California Climate Executive Orders for a detailed outline of executive orders signed by California governors that focus on climate change. California lawmakers are among leaders in the U.S. in enacting climate change policy. Starting in the early 2000s, several executive orders focused on climate change were signed by California governors. The California State Legislature has passed numerous bills to enact the changes and regulations that were necessary to meet the goals outlined in those executive orders. These policies address issues in emissions measurement, transportation, waste, and energy in California. The following is a list notable climate change legislation in chronological order: SB 1771 (2000) SB 527 (2001) SB 812 (2002) AB 1493 (2002) AB 1007 (2005) AB 32 (2006) SB 375 (2008) SB 535 (2012) SB 1204 (2014) SB 1275 (2014) SB 1383 (2016) Emissions measurement Climate change is driven by the accelerated amount of greenhouse gas emissions being put into the atmosphere by anthropogenic activity. To combat climate change, national and state governments around the world are struggling to control their emissions levels. Setting emissions reductions goals and using effective emissions-measurement technology is necessary to reduce emissions and keep track of progress across time. According to the 2022 IPCC report, the world needs to cut its emissions in half by the year 2030 to limit warming to 1.5o Celsius. The California legislative body has been paying attention to the importance of cutting emissions ever since the 2000s. SB 1771 (2000) This bill created the California Climate Action Registry, however this organization officially closed in December 2010 and is encouraging its members to report their emissions to the Climate Registry instead. SB 527 (2001) SB 527 was approved in October 2001, authorizing the California Air Resources Board to impose administrative penalties instead of civil penalties for violations of regulations to air pollution control, with a limit of 10,000 per day and 100,000 total. Before this bill was enacted, the California Air Resources Board had to rely on enforcement of their penalties of violations on air pollution regulations through an action by the Attorney General, now they would have the ability to assess and enforce administrative penalties. The California Climate Action Registry is required to record voluntary greenhouse gas emission reductions made by California entities after 1990, but many of its functions were changed with the passage of SB 527 including; ensuring the public can comment on board meetings, requiring protocols for monitoring and reporting emissions to be consistent with California Energy Commission protocols, and remove the requirement to report nationwide emissions in order to focus solely on in-state emissions. AB 32 (2006) In September 2006, the California State Legislature passed AB 32, the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 with the goal of reducing man-made California greenhouse gas emissions (1.4% of global emissions in 2004) back to 1990 emission levels by 2020. The responsibility for implementing, enforcing, and monitoring progress to meet the emission goals was placed on the California Air Resources Board (CARB). Due to the extensive involvement of environmental justice groups, a cap and trade emission scheme was not specifically mandated.Environmental justice proponents advocate for the reversal of the historical trend of dumping pollution on BIPOC, low-income, Hispanic and Latino communities. Communities of color are significantly more likely to live near major polluters, which emit both GHGs and particulate matter into the surrounding air. Environmental justice advocates assert that a cap-and-trade program does not call for sufficient protections for historically marginalized communities. Instead, it allows leaders the flexibility to act on the global issue of climate change without adequately addressing the more local issue of air pollution. Due to these concerns, decisions on what system would be most effective were left up to CARB, with mandated review and revision every five years. This granted CARB enough programmatic flexibility to successfully meet the emission reduction mandate. The emissions goal was reached in 2016, four years ahead of the 2020 deadline.In order to reach emission reduction goals, the California Air Resources Board has adopted a variety of legislation including plans for greener transportation, waste reduction, a cap-and-trade program, the use of new energy efficient technology and the expansion of renewable energy resources.The greenhouse gases that AB 32 targets include: Carbon dioxide Methane Nitrous oxide Hydrofluorocarbons Perfluorocarbons Sulfur hexafluoride Nitrogen trifluoride (was not included in the original AB scoping plan but was later listed as a targeted greenhouse gas via legislation)The emissions target of AB 32 has been updated to a stricter target following Executive Order B-16-12 and B-30-15. Therefore, updates of the AB 32 Scoping Plan continue to introduce new measures in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions even further.Funding for the implementation of AB 32 is collected from greenhouse gas emitters. This includes approximately 250 fee payers from polluters such as electric power plants, oil refineries, cement plants, and other large industries. In addition, the revenue collected from auctioning permits to greenhouse gas emitters through the cap-and-trade system is also used to fund programs under AB 32. Scoping plan Development of the scoping plan is a central requirement of AB 32, which is a bill that calls on California to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020. The required Scoping Plan is intended to outline the approach California will take to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. The comprehensive approach includes both new and existing measures in almost every sector of California's economy. The initial AB 32 scoping plan included a series of proposals that would become law in 2008. The initiatives include implementing a cap-and-trade program on carbon dioxide emissions (that will be developed in conjunction with the Western Climate Initiative, to create a regional carbon market) that will require buildings and appliances to use less energy. Additionally, it requires oil companies to make cleaner fuels, and utilities to provide a third of their energy from renewable sources like wind, solar and geothermal power and proposes to expand and strengthen existing energy efficiency programs. California's Renewable Portfolio Standard created in 2002 through SB 1078, requires electricity providers to use renewable energy for a specified portion of their electricity, which under SB 100 has increased to 44% by 2024, 52% by 2027 and 60% by 2030. The Plan will also encourage development of walkable cities with shorter commutes, high-speed rail as an alternative to air travel, and will require more hybrid vehicles to move goods and people, following the implementation of the California Clean Car law (the Pavley standards).California has also implemented climate-smart agriculture programs including the Healthy Soils Program, the Alternative Manure Management Program, the Sustainable Agricultural Lands Conservation Program, and the State Water Efficiency and Enhancement Program, which all aim to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions produced from agriculture, which include 8% of the states total greenhouse gas emissions and most of the nitrous oxide emissions as well. In addition, the California Green Building Standards Code was implemented in 2009 aiming to reduce the near 25% of the states greenhouse gas emissions from commercial and residential buildings. However, these efficiency standards only apply to new or renovated buildings, leaving existing buildings to fall short of the reduced emission goals of AB 32.Several additional initiatives and measures factor into reaching the required reductions under AB 32. These include: full deployment of the Million Solar Roofs initiative. a fuel efficiency tire program which sets standards for tire pressure and purchasing replacement tires water-related energy efficiency measures; and a range of regulations to reduce emissions from trucks and from ships docked in California ports.A key feature of the scoping olan is that it must be updated by the California Air Resources Board every five years. This is so California can continue reducing greenhouse gas emissions as the government sets stricter standards in recent years (as seen by Executive Order B-16-12 which was issued in 2012 and aims to reduce emissions 80% below 1990 levels by 2050). Multiple public workshops are held every time a new scoping plan is proposed, so that the Board can receive feedback from the public before approving the updated plan. The first update to the scoping plan was approved by the board on May 22, 2014, and builds upon the original scoping plan by outlining new initiatives and recommendations. The update identifies possibilities to invest new and existing funds in low carbon technologies and other opportunities to continue reducing greenhouse gas emissions below 1990 levels in the next five years. These proposed measures focus on nine main sectors including transportation, water, energy, waste management, the cap-and-trade program, the energy efficiency of residential and non-residential buildings, and natural and agricultural lands. Transportation According to the EPA, transportation is the sector with the largest contribution to US greenhouse gas emissions, emitting 27% of the nation's total volume. Vehicles run on fossil fuel burning internal combustion engines, so California legislation is starting to incentivize consumers to invest in cleaner transportation powered by renewables. AB 1493 (2002) It is the successor bill to AB 1058, was enacted on July 22, 2002, by Governor Gray Davis and mandates that the California Air Resources Board (CARB) develop and implement greenhouse gas limits for vehicles beginning in model year 2009. Subsequently, as directed by AB 1493, the CARB on September 24, 2004, approved regulations limiting the amount of greenhouse gas that may be released from new passenger cars, SUVs and pickup trucks sold in California in model year 2009. The automotive industry has sued, claiming this is simply a way to impose gas mileage standards on automobiles—a field already preempted by federal rules. The CARB staff's analysis has concluded that the new rules will result in savings for vehicle buyers through lower fuel expenses that will more than offset the increased initial costs of new vehicles. Critics claim that these will only work if serious reductions are made in automobile and truck sizes. California standard uses grams per mile average CO2-equivalent value, which means that emissions of the various greenhouse gases are weighted to take into account their differing impact on climate change (i.e. maximum 323 g/mi (200 g/km) in 2009 and 205 g/mi (127 g/km) in 2016 for passenger cars).A federal district court ruled on December 12, 2007, that the state and federal laws could co-exist, but on December 19, the EPA denied California's request for the necessary waiver to implement its law, saying the local emissions had little effect on global warming, and that the conditions in California were not "compelling and extraordinary" as required by law. California intends to sue the EPA to force reconsideration, given the precedent of Massachusetts v. EPA, which ruled that carbon dioxide was an air pollutant which EPA had authority to regulate. Arizona, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Utah, Vermont, and Washington are also interested in adopting California's automobile emissions standards. SB 375 (2008) Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008, also known as SB 375, which required urban planners to limit urban sprawl SB 1204 (2014) This bill created the California Clean Truck, Bus and Off-Road Vehicle and Equipment Technology program to fund zero and near-zero emission technologies using some of the Greenhouse Gas Reduction Fund. SB 1275 (2014) This bill created the Charge Ahead California Initiative program with the goals of; placing at least 1 million zero-emission and near-zero-emission vehicles into service by January 1, 2023, especially in low-income communities to ensure that these vehicles are a "viable mainstream option". Alternative Fuel Vehicle Incentive Program The Alternative Fuel Vehicle Incentive Program (abbreviated as AFVIP, also known as Fueling Alternatives) is funded by the California Air Resources Board (CARB), offered throughout the state of California and administered by the California Center for Sustainable Energy (CCSE), established with AB 118. A total of $25 million was appropriated to promote the use and production of vehicles capable of running on alternative fuels. Such alternative energy sources include compressed natural gas and electricity via all-electric vehicles and Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV).Vehicles using alternative fuels include Global Electric Motorcars, Vectrix, and ZAP vehicles. The 2008 Tesla Roadster and 2008 ZENN neighborhood electric vehicle are also on the list of vehicles eligible for rebates under the Fueling Alternatives. PHEV Research Center The PHEV Research Center was launched with fundings from the California Air Resources Board. Fueling Alternatives includes, among others, Global Electric Motorcars, Vectrix and ZAP vehicles. The 2008 Tesla Roadster and 2008 ZENN neighborhood electric vehicle have been added to the list of vehicles eligible for rebates under the Fueling Alternatives [13] . Labeling of new vehicles for sale Since January 2009, all new vehicles sold in California have been required to be labeled with a California Air Resources Board window sticker showing both a Smog Score and a Global Warming Score. The scores are on a 1–10 scale, with 5 being average and with 10 being the best (i.e., emitting the least carbon dioxide). Data comes from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Waste SB 812 (2002) SB 812 was passed in 2014 requiring changes to the Department of Toxic Substance Controls permit approval for hazardous waste facilities including; requiring owners of a hazardous waste facility to submit both a Part A and Part B application for permit renewal at least 2 years before the expiration date of their current permit instead of only 6 months, and requires that the owner of a hazardous waste facility submit a written cost estimate associated with corrective action for hazardous waste under specified circumstances. SB 1383 (2016) SB 1383, officially named California's Short-Lived Climate Pollutant Reduction Law, was passed in 2016 by Governor Brown as an effort to reduce methane emissions released from decomposing organic waste. Methane is one of four well-known short-lived climate pollutants. These are greenhouse gasses that have a shorter lifetime than carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, but have a substantially higher global warming potential than carbon dioxide. Specifically, methane is 28-34 times more potent than carbon dioxide.The new law regulates rates of organic waste disposal and food rescue. Compared to 2014 levels, the law mandates that organic waste disposal in landfills must be cut in half by 2020, and 75% by 2025. Instead of ending up at the landfill, organic waste would be diverted to commercial composting or anaerobic digestion facilities that would capture the methane released. To combat the immense amount of edible food that is wasted at grocery stores and food service establishments, the new law is mandating that at least 20% of edible food gets rescued and redistributed by 2025. Starting in 2022, all counties are expected to provide organic waste collection services to homes and businesses and transport the waste collected to organic waste facilities. Renewable energy AB 1007 (2005) Assembly bill (AB) 1007, (Pavley, Chapter 371, Statutes of 2005) requires the California Energy Commission to prepare a state plan to increase the use of alternative fuels in California (Alternative Fuels Plan). SB 535 was passed in 2012. The bill required that 25% of funding sourced from the GGRF would be allocated to GHG reducing investments that benefitted disadvantaged communities. Another important stipulation was that at least ten percent of the funds had to be invested directly into disadvantaged communities. The responsibility of identifying and locating disadvantaged communities was placed on CalEPA. CalEPA created a tool called CalEnviroScreen in order to map these communities and determine who was most disadvantaged and where funding should be directed. In 2016 AB 1550 was passed in order to expand upon SB 535 and increase the initial 25% investment requirement to 35 percent. SB 100 (2018) SB 100, also known as the 100 Percent Clean Energy Act of 2018, marks California's firm commitment to developing renewable energy infrastructures to replace fossil fuel-powered energy. Its two main goals are: by 2030, 60% of all energy generated from will be from renewable sources by 2045,100% renewable energy for the whole stateThe increasingly affordable costs of wind and solar technologies make these two sources the main focus of renewable energy infrastructure across California. Cap and trade In 2018, California spent $1.4 billion raised from its cap and trade program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, out of $3.4 billion spent cumulatively since 2012; notable projects include California High-Speed Rail and the Clean Vehicle Rebate for low-emission vehicles. Until 2021, the funds are supposed to be used to reduce emissions; however, as of part of the 2019-2020 budget, lawmakers approved a plan to use cap and trade programs for water quality, which raised questions about the connection to global warming. California climate investments California climate investments puts resources of cap and trade auction proceeds to work reducing greenhouse gas emissions, strengthening the economy, improving public health and the environment, and providing meaningful benefits to the most disadvantaged communities, low-income communities, and low-income households. Resilience and adaptation In 2020, the Ocean Protection Council released the Strategic Plan to Protect California's Oceans. This agreement sets a five-year action plan with four main goals and with many subtargets: climate change resilience, ocean access and equity, biodiversity, and the blue economy. Targets include adaption to support 3.5 feet of sea level rise by 2050, the restoration of 10000 acres of wetlands by 2025, and managed retreat for public buildings and infrastructure. The plan relies on existing funding sources for its first two years, and a possible half billion out of the $4.75 billion bond led by Governor Gavin Newsom for the rest.Even as California implements many mitigation policies in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the pre-existing effects of climate change continues to impact the region. This can be seen from frequent wildfires, drought and floods. Therefore, the state issued the 2018 update of the Safeguarding California Plan which outlines over 300 ongoing actions by state agencies to reduce the effects of climate change on infrastructure, public safety and the economy. A few examples of the hundreds of adaptation projects enacted by the state include: enhancing the energy efficiency of public school districts replacing roofs to prevent damage caused by wildfires investing in research on climate change impact models reducing the vulnerability of cities' electrical grids to heat waves reforestation initiatives realigning highways which have been affected by severe coastal erosion; and updating irrigation systems Timeline This is a timeline that encompasses the recent greenhouse gas emissions reduction bills currently into law in California: See also Climate change policy of the United States California Environmental Protection Agency CoolCalifornia.org Pollution in California Effects of global warming Plug-in electric vehicles in California == References ==

rat snake

Rat snakes are members – along with kingsnakes, milk snakes, vine snakes and indigo snakes – of the subfamily Colubrinae of the family Colubridae. They are medium to large constrictors and are found throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere. They feed primarily on rodents. Many species make attractive and docile pets and one, the corn snake, is one of the most popular reptile pets in the world. Like all snakes, they can be defensive when approached too closely, handled, or restrained. However, rat snake bites are not dangerous to humans. Like nearly all colubrids, rat snakes pose no threat to humans. Rat snakes were long believed to be completely nonvenomous, but recent studies have shown that some Old World species do possess small amounts of venom, though the amount is negligible relative to humans.Previously, most rat snakes were assigned to the genus Elaphe, but many have been since renamed following mitochondrial DNA analysis performed in 2002. For the purpose of this article, names will be harmonized with the TIGR Database. Species Old World rat snakes Coelognathus spp. Philippine rat snake, C. erythrurus (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854) Black copper rat snake or yellow striped snake, C. flavolineatus (Schlegel, 1837) Trinket snake, C. helena (Daudin, 1803) Copperhead rat snake, C. radiatus (F. Boie, 1827) Indonesian rat snake, C. subradiatus (Schlegel, 1837)Elaphe spp. Twin-spotted rat snake, Elaphe bimaculata Schmidt, 1925 King rat snake, Elaphe carinata (Günther, 1864) Japanese rat snake, E. climacophora (H. Boie, 1826) David's rat snake, E. davidi (Sauvage, 1884) Dione rat snake, E. dione (Pallas, 1773) Japanese four-lined rat snake, E. quadrivirgata (H. Boie, 1826) Four-lined snake, E. quatuorlineata (Lacépède, 1789) Red-backed rat snake, E. rufodorsata (Cantor, 1842) Eastern four-lined snake, E. sauromates (Pallas, 1811) Russian rat snake, E. schrenckii Strauch, 1873Euprepiophis spp. Japanese forest rat snake, E. conspicillatus (H. Boie, 1826) Mandarin rat snake, E. mandarinus (Cantor, 1842)Gonyosoma spp. Green trinket snake, G. frenatum (Gray, 1853) Celebes black-tailed rat snake, G. jansenii (Bleeker, 1858) Red-tailed green rat snake, G. oxycephalum (F. Boie, 1827)Oreocryptophis spp. Mountain rat snake, O. porphyracea (Cantor, 1839)Orthriophis spp. Cantor's rat snake, O. cantoris (Boulenger, 1894) Hodgson's rat snake, O. hodgsoni (Günther, 1860) 100 flower rat snake, O. moellendorffi (Boettger, 1886) Beauty snake, O. taeniurus (Cope, 1861)Ptyas spp. Keeled rat snake, P. carinata (Günther, 1858) P. dhumnades (Cantor, 1842) Sulawesi black racer, P. dipsas (Schlegel, 1837) White-bellied rat snake, P. fusca (Günther, 1858) Chinese rat snake, P. korros (Schlegel, 1837) P. luzonensis (Günther, 1873) Oriental rat snake, P. mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) Green rat snake, P. nigromarginata (Blyth, 1854)Rhadinophis spp. Green bush snake, R. prasinus (Blyth, 1854)Rhynchophis spp. Rhinoceros ratsnake, R. boulengeri Mocquard, 1897Zamenis spp. Transcaucasian rat snake, Z. hohenackeri (Strauch, 1873) Italian Aesculapian snake, Z. lineatus (Camerano, 1891) Aesculapian snake, Z. longissimus (Laurenti, 1768) Persian rat snake, Z. persicus (F. Werner, 1913) Ladder snake, Z. scalaris (Schinz, 1822) Leopard snake, Z. situla (Linnaeus, 1758) New World rat snakes Bogertophis spp. Baja California rat snake, B. rosaliae (Mocquard, 1899) Trans-Pecos rat snake, B. subocularis (Brown, 1901)Pantherophis spp. Eastern rat snake, P. alleghaniensis (Holbrook, 1836) Baird's rat snake, P. bairdi (Yarrow, 1880) Great Plains rat snake, P. emoryi (Baird & Girard, 1853) Eastern fox snake, P. gloydi (Conant, 1940) Corn snake, P. guttatus (Linnaeus, 1766) Black rat snake, P. obsoletus (Say, 1823) Western fox snake, P. ramspotti (Crother, White, Savage, Eckstut, Graham & Gardner, 2011) Gray rat snake, P. spiloides (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854) Eastern fox snake, P. vulpinus (Baird & Girard, 1853)Pseudelaphe spp. Mexican rat snake, P. flavirufa (Cope, 1867)Senticolis spp. Green rat snake, S. triaspis (Cope, 1866)Spilotes spp. Chicken snake or yellow rat snake, S. pullatus (Linnaeus, 1758)Nota bene: In the above species lists, an authority's name in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a different genus. An authority's name not in parentheses indicates that the species is still assigned to the original genus in which it was described. Taxonomy In recent years, some taxonomic controversy has occurred over the genus of North American rat snakes. Based on mitochondrial DNA, Utiger et al. (2002) showed that North American rat snakes of the genus Elaphe, along with closely related genera such as Pituophis and Lampropeltis, form a monophyletic group separate from Old World members of the genus. They therefore suggested the resurrection of the available name Pantherophis Fitzinger for all North American taxa (north of Mexico). Crother et al. (2008) accepted the taxonomic change to Pantherophis. Venom Like nearly all colubrids, rat snakes pose no threat to humans. Although rat snakes were long believed to be completely nonvenomous, recent studies have shown that some Old World species do possess small amounts of venom, though the amount is negligible relative to humans. Rat snakes usually hunt and kill mice and other small animals by grasping with their teeth to prevent escape, wrapping their body around that of the prey, and suffocating the prey by constriction. In captivity Rat snakes are commonly kept as pets by reptile enthusiasts. The corn snake, one of the most popular pet reptiles, is a rat snake. New World species are generally thought to be more docile in captivity as opposed to Old World rat snakes, of which the opposite is assumed. Effects of climate change on rat snakes Positive impacts All snakes are ectotherm species, meaning they depend on the temperature of the environment to maintain homeostasis. Although it is predicted that the current rate of climate change will be too rapid for many reptiles and amphibian species to adapt or to evolve, studies have suggested that a warmer climate may actually be beneficial to rat snake species. Global warming also poses less threats to rat snakes in temperate zones than in tropical zones as rat snake species in temperate zones can tolerate broader ranges of temperature. Global climate change will increase both day and night time temperatures. This will make the night time environment more thermally suitable for rat snakes to hunt, thereby making them more active at night. Increasing night time activity allows rat snakes to catch larger prey such as birds, since female birds usually incubate their eggs in the nest at night and have decreased ability to detect rat snakes due to poor visibility conditions. Global warming may also lead to changes in predation. Rat snakes are prey species to predators like hawks. While rat snakes are being hunted during the day, being more active at night due to warmer temperatures may allow rat snakes to be less vulnerable to predation from hawks. A warming climate also enhances food digestion in rat snakes thereby making them more efficient, which enables rat snake individuals to grow larger in size and allowing them to consume more prey. In comparison to rat snake species at relatively colder regions, rat snake species at lower latitudes tend to be larger in size due to warmer climate conditions. As the global climate warms, the average body size of rat snakes at higher latitudes will become larger, which will allow the species to catch more prey and thus increase their overall reproductive success. Negative impacts Eastern rat snake species in North America are experiencing negative shifts in their behaviour due to Global Warming and increasing temperatures. These shifts differ between the large distribution of rat snakes that range from Ontario to Texas. The increasing Global Warming can negatively impact this species and can be responsible for population declines in some areas. Rat snake populations from their northern range, such as Ontario, are experiencing a shift in hibernation emergence. The populations in these regions typically emerge from hibernation in late April. However, the increasing variability in temperature may cause rat snakes to emerge on a warm sunny day in the months of February or March. Climate change has caused winters that can have weather turn back very quickly from sunny periods with high temperatures to snow and below freezing temperatures. The early emergence of these rat snakes will begin to expose them to these fatal conditions if a snake cannot return to its hibernaculum in time. Therefore, the fluctuations in temperature affect the thermoregulation that rat snakes need for bodily functions like digestion and movement. The unpredictability of the weather is causing more rat snakes in their northern range to get caught in these cold snaps and freeze to death.Increasing temperatures due to climate change have increased the nocturnal activity of rat snakes, especially in warmer climates such as Texas. This has allowed them to alter their predation habits and feed more on nesting birds and other accessible prey. However, their increased nocturnal activity puts them at risk to a new range of nocturnal predators. Rat snakes may not be used to the presence of nocturnal predators such as raccoons and owls and may be more vulnerable as prey. Until rat snakes are able to adapt to their relatively new predators, populations may be at risk due to heavy predation. Life history alterations in Ontario gray rat snakes As rat snakes are ectothermic species, they require sunlight and heat to maintain their body temperatures. Across their range in North America each species of rat snake has different ideal body temperatures. In Ontario, the average ideal body temperature of a rat snake is 28.1 degrees Celsius with free ranging gravid females tending to require a bit higher in order to meet their thermoregulatory requirements for gestation. With ambient air temperatures over the course of their entire active season (from May to September) almost never reaching the required 28.1 °C, rat snakes in Ontario resort to basking habitats where conditions allow temperatures to rise above normal and up to 43 degrees Celsius at the hottest times of day and year. These habitats include areas such as rock outcrops, bare ground, or edge habitat where they can bask on tree branches fully exposed to the sun. However, with climate change and an associated increase in ambient air temperature by 3 °C, the amount of required time spent by snakes in these habitats will decrease. This will result in alterations in the amount and time of activity of rat snakes in the province. They will have the potential to be generally more active during both the day and night as it will be easier for them to maintain their ideal body temperature. Habitat choices may also shift with increased temperatures. More time could be spent in areas such as forests or barns where the temperatures are currently too low for the snakes to spend most of their time. There will be less of a need to expose themselves in their open basking habitats, causing decreases in predator vulnerability as well as increases in thermoregulatory ability and foraging time. In addition, rat snakes in Ontario have a slower growth and maturation rates due to the cooler climate and shorter active seasons compared to other species of rat snakes further South in North America. This means that Ontario's rat snakes are more vulnerable to population declines. But, with an increase in temperature and an increase in the duration of the active season from climate change, it is possible that the growth and maturation rates of these snakes will increase. See also Black rat snake Beauty rat snake Gray rat snake Texas rat snake Ptyas mucosa == References ==

beef

Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle (Bos taurus). Beef can be prepared in various ways; cuts are often used for steak, which can be cooked to varying degrees of doneness, while trimmings are often ground or minced, as found in most hamburgers. Beef contains protein, iron, and vitamin B12. Along with other kinds of red meat, high consumption is associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer and coronary heart disease, especially when processed. Beef has a high environmental impact, being a primary driver of deforestation with the highest greenhouse gas emissions of any agricultural product. In prehistoric times, humankind hunted aurochs and later domesticated them. Since that time, numerous breeds of cattle have been bred specifically for the quality or quantity of their meat. Today, beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, after pork and poultry. As of 2018, the United States, Brazil, and China were the largest producers of beef. Etymology The word beef is from the Latin word bōs, in contrast to cow which is from Middle English cou (both words have the same Indo-European root *gʷou-). After the Norman Conquest, the French-speaking nobles who ruled England naturally used French words to refer to the meats they were served. Thus, various Anglo-Saxon words were used for the animal (such as nēat, or cu for adult females) by the peasants, but the meat was called boef (ox) (Modern French bœuf) by the French nobles — who did not often deal with the live animal — when it was served to them. This is one example of the common English dichotomy between the words for animals (with largely Germanic origins) and their meat (with Romanic origins) that is also found in such English word-pairs as pig/pork, deer/venison, sheep/mutton and chicken/poultry (also the less common goat/chevon). Beef is cognate with bovine through the Late Latin bovīnus. The rarely used plural form of beef is beeves. History People have eaten the flesh of bovines since prehistoric times; some of the earliest known cave paintings, such as those of Lascaux, show aurochs in hunting scenes. People domesticated cattle to provide ready access to beef, milk, and leather. Cattle have been domesticated at least twice over the course of evolutionary history. The first domestication event occurred around 10,500 years ago with the evolution of Bos taurus. The second was more recent, around 7,000 years ago, with the evolution of Bos indicus in the Indian subcontinent. There is a possible third domestication event 8,500 years ago, with a potential third species Bos africanus arising in Africa.In the United States, the growth of the beef business was largely due to expansion in the Southwest. Upon the acquisition of grasslands through the Mexican–American War of 1848, and later the expulsion of the Plains Indians from this region and the Midwest, the American livestock industry began, starting primarily with the taming of wild longhorn cattle. Chicago and New York City were the first to benefit from these developments in their stockyards and in their meat markets. Production Beef cattle are raised and fed using a variety of methods, including feedlots, free range, ranching, backgrounding and intensive animal farming. Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs), commonly referred to as factory farms, are commonly used to meet the demand of beef production. CAFOs supply 70.4% of cows in the US market and 99% of all meat in the United States supply. Cattle CAFOs can also be a source of E. coli contamination in the food supply due to the prevalence of manure in CAFOs. These E. coli contaminations include one strain, E. coli O157:H7, which can be toxic to humans, because cattle typically hold this strain in their digestive system. Another consequence of unsanitary conditions created by high-density confinement systems is increased use of antibiotics in order to prevent illness. An analysis of FDA sales data by the Natural Resources Defense Council found 42% of medically important antibiotic use in the U.S. was on cattle, posing concerns about the development of antibiotic resistant bacteria. In 2023 production was forecast to peak by 2035. Environmental impact The consumption of beef poses numerous threats to the natural environment. Of all agricultural products, beef requires some of the most land and water, and its production results in the greatest amount of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), air pollution, and water pollution. A 2021 study added up GHG emissions from the entire lifecycle, including production, transportation, and consumption, and estimated that beef contributed about 4 billion tonnes (9%) of anthropogenic greenhouse gases in 2010.: 728  Cattle populations graze around 26% of all land on Earth, not including the large agricultural fields that are used to grow cattle feed. According to FAO, "Ranching-induced deforestation is one of the main causes of loss of some unique plant and animal species in the tropical rainforests of Central and South America as well as carbon release in the atmosphere." Beef is also the primary driver of deforestation in the Amazon, with around 80% of all converted land being used to rear cattle. 91% of Amazon land deforested since 1970 has been converted to cattle ranching. 41% of global deforestation from 2005 to 2013 has been attributed to the expansion of beef production. This is due to the higher ratio of net energy of gain to net energy of maintenance where metabolizable energy intake is higher. The ratio of feed required to produce an equivalent amount of beef (live weight) has been estimated at 7:1 to 43:1, compared with about 2:1 for chicken. However, assumptions about feed quality are implicit in such generalizations. For example, production of a kilogram of beef cattle live weight may require between 4 and 5 kilograms of feed high in protein and metabolizable energy content, or more than 20 kilograms of feed of much lower quality. A simple exchange of beef to soy beans (a common feed source for cattle) in Americans' diets would, according to one estimate, result in meeting between 46 and 74 percent of the reductions needed to meet the 2020 greenhouse gas emission goals of the United States as pledged in 2009. A 2021 CSIRO trial concluded that feeding cattle a 3% diet of the seaweed Asparagopsis taxiformis could reduce the methane component of their emissions by 80%. While such feed options are still experimental, even when looking at the most widely used feeds around the globe, there is high variability in efficiency. One study found that shifting compositions of current feeds, production areas, and informed land restoration could enable greenhouse gas emissions reductions of 34–85% annually (612–1,506 MtCO2e yr−1) without increasing costs to global beef production.Some scientists claim that the demand for beef is contributing to significant biodiversity loss as it is a significant driver of deforestation and habitat destruction; species-rich habitats, such as significant portions of the Amazon region, are being converted to agriculture for meat production. The 2019 IPBES Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services also concurs that the beef industry plays a significant role in biodiversity loss. Around 25% to nearly 40% of global land surface is being used for livestock farming, which is mostly cattle. Certifications Some kinds of beef may receive special certifications or designations based on criteria including their breed (Certified Angus Beef, Certified Hereford Beef), origin (Kobe beef, Carne de Ávila, Belgian Blue), or the way the cattle are treated, fed or slaughtered (organic, grass-fed, Kosher, or Halal beef). Some countries regulate the marketing and sale of beef by observing criteria post-slaughter and classifying the observed quality of the meat. Global statistics In 2018, the United States, Brazil, and China produced the most beef with 12.22 million tons, 9.9 million tons, and 6.46 million tons respectively. The top 3 beef exporting countries in 2019 were Australia (14.8% of total exports), the United States (13.4% of total exports), and Brazil (12.6% of total exports). Beef production is also important to the economies of Japan, Argentina, Uruguay, Canada, Paraguay, Mexico, Belarus and Nicaragua. Top 5 cattle and beef exporting countries As per 2020, Brazil was the largest beef exporter in the world followed by Australia, United States, India (Includes Carabeef only) and Argentina. Brazil, Australia, the United States and India accounted for roughly 61% of the world's beef exports. Top 10 cattle and beef producing countries The world produced 60.57 million metric tons of beef in 2020, down 950K metric tons from the prior year. Major decline for production of beef was from India up to 510k and Australia down to 309K metric tons from the prior year. National cattle herds (Per 1000 Head) Production losses caused by climate change Preparation Cuts Most beef can be used as is by merely cutting into certain parts, such as roasts, short ribs or steak (filet mignon, sirloin steak, rump steak, rib steak, rib eye steak, hanger steak, etc.), while other cuts are processed (corned beef or beef jerky). Trimmings, on the other hand, which are usually mixed with meat from older, leaner (therefore tougher) cattle, are ground, minced or used in sausages. The blood is used in some varieties called blood sausage. Other parts that are eaten include other muscles and offal, such as the oxtail, liver, tongue, tripe from the reticulum or rumen, glands (particularly the pancreas and thymus, referred to as sweetbread), the heart, the brain (although forbidden where there is a danger of bovine spongiform encephalopathy, BSE, commonly referred to as mad cow disease), the kidneys, and the tender testicles of the bull (known in the United States as calf fries, prairie oysters, or Rocky Mountain oysters). Some intestines are cooked and eaten as is, but are more often cleaned and used as natural sausage casings. The bones are used for making beef stock. Meat from younger cows (calves) is called veal. Beef from steers and heifers is similar.Beef is first divided into primal cuts, large pieces of the animal initially separated by butchering. These are basic sections from which steaks and other subdivisions are cut. The term "primal cut" is quite different from "prime cut", used to characterize cuts considered to be of higher quality. Since the animal's legs and neck muscles do the most work, they are the toughest; the meat becomes more tender as distance from hoof and horn increases. Different countries and cuisines have different cuts and names, and sometimes use the same name for a different cut; for example, the cut described as "brisket" in the United States is from a significantly different part of the carcass than British brisket. Aging and tenderization To improve tenderness of beef, it is often aged (i.e., stored refrigerated) to allow endogenous proteolytic enzymes to weaken structural and myofibrillar proteins. Wet aging is accomplished using vacuum packaging to reduce spoilage and yield loss. Dry aging involves hanging primals (usually ribs or loins) in humidity-controlled coolers. Outer surfaces dry out and can support growth of molds (and spoilage bacteria, if too humid), resulting in trim and evaporative losses. Evaporation concentrates the remaining proteins and increases flavor intensity; the molds can contribute a nut-like flavor. After two to three days there are significant effects. The majority of the tenderizing effect occurs in the first 10 days. Boxed beef, stored and distributed in vacuum packaging, is, in effect, wet aged during distribution. Premium steakhouses dry age for 21 to 28 days or wet age up to 45 days for maximum effect on flavor and tenderness. Meat from less tender cuts or older cattle can be mechanically tenderized by forcing small, sharp blades through the cuts to disrupt the proteins. Also, solutions of exogenous proteolytic enzymes (papain, bromelin or ficin) can be injected to augment the endogenous enzymes. Similarly, solutions of salt and sodium phosphates can be injected to soften and swell the myofibrillar proteins. This improves juiciness and tenderness. Salt can improve the flavor, but phosphate can contribute a soapy flavor. Cooking methods These methods are applicable to all types of meat and some other foodstuffs. Dry heat Internal temperature Beef can be cooked to various degrees, from very rare to well done. The degree of cooking corresponds to the temperature in the approximate center of the meat, which can be measured with a meat thermometer. Beef can be cooked using the sous-vide method, which cooks the entire steak to the same temperature, but when cooked using a method such as broiling or roasting it is typically cooked such that it has a "bulls eye" of doneness, with the least done (coolest) at the center and the most done (warmest) at the outside. Frying Meat can be cooked in boiling oil, typically by shallow frying, although deep frying may be used, often for meat enrobed with breadcrumbs as in milanesas or finger steaks. Larger pieces such as steaks may be cooked this way, or meat may be cut smaller as in stir frying, typically an Asian way of cooking: cooking oil with flavorings such as garlic, ginger and onions is put in a very hot wok. Then small pieces of meat are added, followed by ingredients which cook more quickly, such as mixed vegetables. The dish is ready when the ingredients are 'just cooked'. Moist heat Moist heat cooking methods include braising, pot roasting, stewing and sous-vide. These techniques are often used for cuts of beef that are tougher, as these longer, lower-temperature cooking methods have time to dissolve connecting tissue which otherwise makes meat remain tough after cooking. Stewing or simmeringsimmering meat, whole or cut into bite-size pieces, in a water-based liquid with flavorings. This technique may be used as part of pressure cooking.Braisingcooking meats, in a covered container, with small amounts of liquids (usually seasoned or flavored). Unlike stewing, braised meat is not fully immersed in liquid, and usually is browned before the oven step.Sous-videSous-vide, French for "under vacuum", is a method of cooking food sealed in airtight plastic bags in a water bath for a long time—72 hours is not unknown—at an accurately determined temperature much lower than normally used for other types of cooking. The intention is to maintain the integrity of ingredients and achieve very precise control of cooking. Although water is used in the method, only moisture in or added to the food bags is in contact with the food.Meat has usually been cooked in water which is just simmering, such as in stewing; higher temperatures make meat tougher by causing the proteins to contract. Since thermostatic temperature control became available, cooking at temperatures well below boiling, 52 °C (126 °F) (sous-vide) to 90 °C (194 °F) (slow cooking), for prolonged periods has become possible; this is just hot enough to convert the tough collagen in connective tissue into gelatin through hydrolysis, with minimal toughening. With the adequate combination of temperature and cooking time, pathogens, such as bacteria will be killed, and pasteurization can be achieved. Because browning (Maillard reactions) can only occur at higher temperatures (above the boiling point of water), these moist techniques do not develop the flavors associated with browning. Meat will often undergo searing in a very hot pan, grilling or browning with a torch before moist cooking (though sometimes after). Thermostatically controlled methods, such as sous-vide, can also prevent overcooking by bringing the meat to the exact degree of doneness desired, and holding it at that temperature indefinitely. The combination of precise temperature control and long cooking duration makes it possible to be assured that pasteurization has been achieved, both on the surface and the interior of even very thick cuts of meat, which can not be assured with most other cooking techniques. (Although extremely long-duration cooking can break down the texture of the meat to an undesirable degree.) Beef can be cooked quickly at the table through several techniques. In hot pot cooking, such as shabu-shabu, very thinly sliced meat is cooked by the diners at the table by immersing it in a heated pot of water or stock with vegetables. In fondue bourguignonne, diners dip small pieces of beef into a pot of hot oil at the table. Both techniques typically feature accompanying flavorful sauces to complement the meat. Raw beef Steak tartare is a French dish made from finely chopped or ground (minced) raw meat (often beef). More accurately, it is scraped so as not to let even the slightest of the sinew fat get into the scraped meat. It is often served with onions, capers, seasonings such as fresh ground pepper and Worcestershire sauce, and sometimes raw egg yolk. The Belgian or Dutch dish filet américain is also made of finely chopped ground beef, though it is seasoned differently, and either eaten as a main dish or can be used as a dressing for a sandwich. Kibbeh nayyeh is a similar Lebanese and Syrian dish. And in Ethiopia, a ground raw meat dish called tire siga or kitfo is eaten (upon availability). Carpaccio of beef is a thin slice of raw beef dressed with olive oil, lemon juice and seasoning. Often, the beef is partially frozen before slicing to allow very thin slices to be cut. Yukhoe is a variety of hoe, raw dishes in Korean cuisine which is usually made from raw ground beef seasoned with various spices or sauces. The beef part used for yukhoe is tender rump steak. For the seasoning, soy sauce, sugar, salt, sesame oil, green onion, and ground garlic, sesame seed, black pepper and juice of bae (Korean pear) are used. The beef is mostly topped with the yolk of a raw egg. Cured, smoked, and dried beef Bresaola is an air-dried, salted beef that has been aged about two to three months until it becomes hard and a dark red, almost purple, colour. It is lean, has a sweet, musty smell and is tender. It originated in Valtellina, a valley in the Alps of northern Italy's Lombardy region. Bündnerfleisch is a similar product from neighbouring Switzerland. Chipped beef is an American industrially produced air-dried beef product, described by one of its manufacturers as being "similar to bresaola, but not as tasty."Beef jerky is dried, salted, smoked beef popular in the United States. Biltong is a cured, salted, air dried beef popular in South Africa. Pastrami is often made from beef; raw beef is salted, then partly dried and seasoned with various herbs and spices, and smoked. Corned beef is a cut of beef cured or pickled in a seasoned brine. The corn in corned beef refers to the grains of coarse salts (known as corns) used to cure it. The term corned beef can denote different styles of brine-cured beef, depending on the region. Some, like American-style corned beef, are highly seasoned and often considered delicatessen fare. Spiced beef is a cured and salted joint of round, topside, or silverside, traditionally served at Christmas in Ireland. It is a form of salt beef, cured with spices and saltpetre, intended to be boiled or broiled in Guinness or a similar stout, and then optionally roasted for a period after. There are various other recipes for pickled beef. Sauerbraten is a German variant. Consumption Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, accounting for about 25% of meat production worldwide, after pork and poultry at 38% and 30% respectively. Nutritional content Beef is a source of complete protein and it is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of Niacin, Vitamin B12, iron and zinc. Red meat is the most significant dietary source of carnitine and, like any other meat (pork, fish, veal, lamb etc.), is a source of creatine. Creatine is converted to creatinine during cooking. Health impact Cancer Consumption of red meat, and especially processed red meat, is known to increase the risk of bowel cancer and some other cancers. Coronary heart disease A 2010 meta-analysis found that processed red meat (and all processed meat) was correlated with a higher risk of coronary heart disease, although based on studies that separated the two, this meta-analysis found that red meat intake was not associated with higher incidence of coronary heart disease. As of 2020, there is substantial evidence for a link between high consumption of red meat and coronary heart disease. Dioxins Some cattle raised in the United States feed on pastures fertilized with sewage sludge. Elevated dioxins may be present in meat from these cattle. E. coli recalls Ground beef has been subject to recalls in the United States, due to Escherichia coli (E. coli) contamination: January 2011, One Great Burger expands recall. February 2011, American Food Service, a Pico Rivera, Calif. establishment, is recalling approximately 1,440 kg (3,170 lb) of fresh ground beef patties and other bulk packages of ground beef products that may be contaminated with E. coli O157:H7. March 2011, 6,400 kg (14,000 lb) beef recalled by Creekstone Farms Premium Beef due to E. coli concerns. April 2011, National Beef Packaging recalled more than 27,000 kg (60,000 lb) of ground beef due to E. coli contamination. May 2011, Irish Hills Meat Company of Michigan, a Tipton, Mich., establishment is recalling approximately 410 kg (900 lb) of ground beef products that may be contaminated with E. coli O157:H7. September 2011, Tyson Fresh Meats recalled 59,500 kg (131,100 lb) of ground beef due to E. coli contamination. December 2011, Tyson Fresh Meats recalled 18,000 kg (40,000 lb) of ground beef due to E. coli contamination. January 2012, Hannaford Supermarkets recalled all ground beef with sell by dates 17 December 2011 or earlier. September 2012, XL Foods recalled more than 1800 products believed to be contaminated with E. coli 0157:H7. The recalled products were produced at the company's plant in Brooks, Alberta, Canada; this was the largest recall of its kind in Canadian History. Mad cow disease In 1984, the use of meat and bone meal in cattle feed resulted in the world's first outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or, colloquially, mad cow disease) in the United Kingdom.Since then, other countries have had outbreaks of BSE: In May 2003, after a cow with BSE was discovered in Alberta, Canada, the American border was closed to live Canadian cattle, but was reopened in early 2005. In June 2005, Dr. John Clifford, chief veterinary officer for the United States Department of Agriculture animal health inspection service, confirmed a fully domestic case of BSE in Texas. Clifford would not identify the ranch, calling that "privileged information." The 12-year-old animal was alive at the time when Oprah Winfrey raised concerns about cannibalistic feeding practices on her show which aired 16 April 1996.In 2010, the EU, through the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), proposed a roadmap to gradually lift the restrictions on the feed ban. In 2013, the ban on feeding mammal-based products to cattle, was amended to allow for certain milk, fish, eggs, and plant-fed farm animal products to be used. Restrictions Religious and cultural prohibitions Most Indic religions reject the killing and eating of cows. Hinduism prohibits cow beef known as Go-Maans in Hindi. Bovines have a sacred status in India especially the cow, due to their provision of sustenance for families. Bovines are generally considered to be integral to the landscape. However, they do not consider the cow to be a god.Many of India's rural economies depend on cattle farming; hence they have been revered in society. Since the Vedic period, cattle, especially cows, were venerated as a source of milk, and dairy products, and their relative importance in transport services and farming like ploughing, row planting, ridging. Veneration grew with the advent of Jainism and the Gupta period. In medieval India, Maharaja Ranjit Singh issued a proclamation on stopping cow slaughter. Conflicts over cow slaughter often have sparked religious riots that have led to loss of human life and in one 1893 riot alone, more than 100 people were killed for the cause.For religious reasons, the ancient Egyptian priests also refrained from consuming beef. Buddhists and Sikhs are also against wrongful slaughtering of animals, but they do not have a wrongful eating doctrine.In ancient China, the killing of cattle and consumption of beef was prohibited, as they were valued for their role in agriculture. This custom is still followed by a few Chinese families across the world.During the season of Lent, Orthodox Christians and Catholics periodically give up meat and poultry (and sometimes dairy products and eggs) as a religious act. Observant Jews and Muslims may not eat any meat or poultry which has not been slaughtered and treated in conformance with religious laws. Legal prohibition India Most of the North Indian states prohibit the killing of cow and consumption of beef for religious reasons. Certain Hindu castes and sects continue to avoid beef from their diets. Article 48 of the Constitution of India mandates the state may take steps for preserving and improving the bovine breeds, and prohibit the slaughter, of cows and calves and other milch and draught cattle. Article 47 of the Constitution of India provides states must raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health as among its primary duties, based on this a reasonableness in slaughter of common cattle was instituted, if the animals ceased to be capable of breeding, providing milk, or serving as draught animals. The overall mismanagement of India's common cattle is dubbed in academic fields as "India's bovine burden."In 2017, a rule against the slaughter of cattle and the eating of beef was signed into law by presidential assent as a modified version of Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960. The original act, however, did permit the humane slaughter of animals for use as food. Existing meat export policy in India prohibits the export of beef (meat of cow, oxen and calf). Bone-in meat, a carcass, or half carcass of buffalo is also prohibited from export. Only the boneless meat of buffalo, meat of goat and sheep and birds is permitted for export. In 2017, India sought a total "beef ban" and Australian market analysts predicted that this would create market opportunities for leather traders and meat producers there and elsewhere. Their prediction estimated a twenty percent shortage of beef and a thirteen percent shortage of leather in the world market. Nepal The cow is the national animal of Nepal, and slaughter of cattle is prohibited by law. Cuba In 2003, Cuba banned cow slaughter due to severe shortage of milk and milk products. On 14 April 2021, the ban was loosened, allowing ranchers to do as they wish as long as state quotas were met and the health of the herd could be ensured. See also References External links Beef at the Wikibooks Cookbook subproject USDA beef grading standards Archived 1 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine (PDF) Beef State Documentary produced by Nebraska Educational Telecommunications

world climate change conference, moscow

The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3, 2003. The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin, the President of the Russian Federation. The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation, and supported by international bodies including the United Nations [1]. It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences. Comments The conference summary report [2], which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference, October 3, 2003, endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report (TAR) in 2001. A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring, is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols, and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems. Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference.Andreas Fischlin, conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference, saying: However, concerning the scientific content of the conference, we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties. Unfortunately, there were not only leading scientists present, but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal, political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived, scientific insights and thorough understanding. Thereby, I believe, principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes, I am afraid having to say so, even systematically. This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available, peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements, let alone policy recommendations. [3] External links https://web.archive.org/web/20031202202344/http://www.wccc2003.org/index_e.htm - archived copy from The Wayback Machine Afterthoughts On the World Climate Change Conference 2003 Prepared by Andreas Fischlin, conference participant and IPCC author

intertropical convergence zone

The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ ITCH), known by sailors as the doldrums or the calms because of its monotonous windless weather, is the area where the northeast and the southeast trade winds converge. It encircles Earth near the thermal equator though its specific position varies seasonally. When it lies near the geographic Equator, it is called the near-equatorial trough. Where the ITCZ is drawn into and merges with a monsoonal circulation, it is sometimes referred to as a monsoon trough, a usage that is more common in Australia and parts of Asia. Meteorology The ITCZ was originally identified from the 1920s to the 1940s as the Intertropical Front (ITF), but after the recognition in the 1940s and the 1950s of the significance of wind field convergence in tropical weather production, the term Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) was then applied.The ITCZ appears as a band of clouds, usually thunderstorms, that encircle the globe near the Equator. In the Northern Hemisphere, the trade winds move in a southwestward direction from the northeast, while in the Southern Hemisphere, they move northwestward from the southeast. When the ITCZ is positioned north or south of the Equator, these directions change according to the Coriolis effect imparted by Earth's rotation. For instance, when the ITCZ is situated north of the Equator, the southeast trade wind changes to a southwest wind as it crosses the Equator. The ITCZ is formed by vertical motion largely appearing as convective activity of thunderstorms driven by solar heating, which effectively draw air in; these are the trade winds. The ITCZ is effectively a tracer of the ascending branch of the Hadley cell and is wet. The dry descending branch is the horse latitudes. The location of the ITCZ gradually varies with the seasons, roughly corresponding with the location of the thermal equator. As the heat capacity of the oceans is greater than air over land, migration is more prominent over land. Over the oceans, where the convergence zone is better defined, the seasonal cycle is more subtle, as the convection is constrained by the distribution of ocean temperatures. Sometimes, a double ITCZ forms, with one located north and another south of the Equator, one of which is usually stronger than the other. When this occurs, a narrow ridge of high pressure forms between the two convergence zones. ITCZ over oceans vs. land The ITCZ is commonly defined as an equatorial zone where the trade winds converge. Rainfall seasonality is traditionally attributed to the north–south migration of the ITCZ, which follows the sun. Although this is largely valid over the equatorial oceans, the ITCZ and the region of maximum rainfall can be decoupled over the continents. The equatorial precipitation over land is not simply a response to just the surface convergence. Rather, it is modulated by a number of regional features such as local atmospheric jets and waves, proximity to the oceans, terrain-induced convective systems, moisture recycling, and spatiotemporal variability of land cover and albedo. South Pacific convergence zone The South Pacific convergence zone (SPCZ) is a reverse-oriented, or west-northwest to east-southeast aligned, trough extending from the west Pacific warm pool southeastwards towards French Polynesia. It lies just south of the equator during the Southern Hemisphere warm season, but can be more extratropical in nature, especially east of the International Date Line. It is considered the largest and most important piece of the ITCZ, and has the least dependence upon heating from a nearby land mass during the summer than any other portion of the monsoon trough. The southern ITCZ in the southeast Pacific and southern Atlantic, known as the SITCZ, occurs during the Southern Hemisphere fall between 3° and 10° south of the equator east of the 140th meridian west longitude during cool or neutral El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) patterns. When ENSO reaches its warm phase, otherwise known as El Niño, the tongue of lowered sea surface temperatures due to upwelling off the South American continent disappears, which causes this convergence zone to vanish as well. Effects on weather Variation in the location of the intertropical convergence zone drastically affects rainfall in many equatorial nations, resulting in the wet and dry seasons of the tropics rather than the cold and warm seasons of higher latitudes. Longer term changes in the intertropical convergence zone can result in severe droughts or flooding in nearby areas. In some cases, the ITCZ may become narrow, especially when it moves away from the equator; the ITCZ can then be interpreted as a front along the leading edge of the equatorial air. There appears to be a 15 to 25-day cycle in thunderstorm activity along the ITCZ, which is roughly half the wavelength of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO).Within the ITCZ the average winds are slight, unlike the zones north and south of the equator where the trade winds feed. As trans-equator sea voyages became more common, sailors in the eighteenth century named this belt of calm the doldrums because of the calm, stagnant, or inactive winds. Role in tropical cyclone formation Tropical cyclogenesis depends upon low-level vorticity as one of its six requirements, and the ITCZ fills this role as it is a zone of wind change and speed, otherwise known as horizontal wind shear. As the ITCZ migrates to tropical and subtropical latitudes and even beyond during the respective hemisphere's summer season, increasing Coriolis force makes the formation of tropical cyclones within this zone more possible. Surges of higher pressure from high latitudes can enhance tropical disturbances along its axis. In the north Atlantic and the northeastern Pacific oceans, tropical waves move along the axis of the ITCZ causing an increase in thunderstorm activity, and clusters of thunderstorms can develop under weak vertical wind shear. Hazards In the Age of Sail, to find oneself becalmed in this region in a hot and muggy climate could mean death when wind was the only effective way to propel ships across the ocean. Calm periods within the doldrums could strand ships for days or weeks. Even today, leisure and competitive sailors attempt to cross the zone as quickly as possible as the erratic weather and wind patterns may cause unexpected delays. In 2009, thunderstorms along the Intertropical Convergence Zone played a role in the loss of Air France Flight 447, which left Rio de Janeiro–Galeão International Airport on Sunday 31 May, at about 7:00 p.m. local time (6:00 p.m. EDT or 10:00 p.m. UTC) and had been expected to land at Charles de Gaulle Airport near Paris on Monday 1 June 2009, at 11:15 a.m. (5:15 a.m. EDT or 9:15 a.m. UTC). The aircraft crashed with no survivors while flying through a series of large ITCZ thunderstorms, and ice forming rapidly on airspeed sensors was the precipitating cause for a cascade of human errors which ultimately doomed the flight. Most aircraft flying these routes are able to avoid the larger convective cells without incident. Effects of climate change Based on paleoclimate proxies, the position and intensity of the ITCZ varied in prehistoric times along with changes in global climate. During Heinrich events within the last 100 ka, a southward shift of the ITCZ coincided with the intensification of the Northern Hemisphere Hadley cell coincident with weakening of the Southern Hemisphere Hadley cell. The ITCZ shifted north during the mid-Holocene but migrated south following changes in insolation during the late-Holocene towards its current position. The ITCZ has also undergone periods of contraction and expansion within the last millennium. A southward shift of the ITCZ commencing after the 1950s and continuing into the 1980s may have been associated with cooling induced by aerosols in the Northern Hemisphere based on results from climate models; a northward rebound began subsequently following forced changes in the gradient in temperature between the Northern and Southern hemispheres. These fluctuations in ITCZ positioning had robust effects on climate; for instance, displacement of the ITCZ may have led to drought in the Sahel in the 1980s.Atmospheric convection may become stronger and more concentrated at the center of the ITCZ in response to a globally warming climate, resulting in sharpened contrasts in precipitation between the ITCZ core (where precipitation would be amplified) and its edges (where precipitation would be suppressed). Atmospheric reanalyses suggest that the ITCZ over the Pacific has narrowed and intensified since at least 1979, in agreement with data collected by satellites and in-situ precipitation measurements. The drier ITCZ fringes are also associated with an increase in outgoing longwave radiation outward of those areas, particularly over land within the mid-latitudes and the subtropics. This change in the ITCZ is also reflected by increasing salinity within the Atlantic and Pacific underlying the ITCZ fringes and decreasing salinity underlying central belt of the ITCZ. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report indicated "medium agreement" from studies regarding the strengthening and tightening of the ITCZ due to anthropogenic climate change.Less certain are the regional and global shifts in ITCZ position as a result of climate change, with paleoclimate data and model simulations highlighting contrasts stemming from asymmetries in forcing from aerosols, voclanic activity, and orbital variations, as well as uncertainties associated with changes in monsoons and the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation. The climate simulations run as part of Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) did not show a consistent global displacement of the ITCZ under anthropogenic climate change. In contrast, most of the same simulations show narrowing and intensification under the same prescribed conditions. However, simulations in Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) have shown greater agreement over some regional shifts of the ITCZ in response to anthropogenic climate change, including a northward displacement over the Indian Ocean and eastern Africa and a southward displacement over the eastern Pacific and Atlantic oceans. In literature The doldrums are notably described in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (1798) and also provide a metaphor for the initial state of boredom and indifference of Milo, the child hero of Norton Juster's classic children's novel The Phantom Tollbooth. It is also cited in the book Wind, Sand and Stars. See also Asymmetry of the Intertropical Convergence Zone Chemical equator Monsoon trough Horse latitudes Polar front Roaring Forties References External links The ITCZ in Africa via the University of South Carolina "A Shifting Band of Rain", Scientific American (March 2011) Duane E. Waliser and Catherine Gautier, November 1993: "A Satellite-derived Climatology of the ITCZ". J. Climate, 6, 2162–2174.

climate of pakistan

Pakistan's climate varies from a continental type of climate in the north (Kashmir, KPK), a mountainous dry climate in the west (Baluchistan), a wet climate in the East (Punjab) an arid climate in the Thar Desert, to a tropical climate in the southeast (Karachi, Sindh), characterized by extreme variations in temperature, both seasonally and daily, because it is located on a great landmass barely north of the Tropic of Cancer (between latitudes 25° and 37° N). Very high altitudes modify the climate in the cold, snow-covered northern mountains; temperatures on the Balochistan plateau are somewhat higher. Along the coastal strip, the climate is modified by sea breeze. In the rest of the country, temperatures reach great heights in the summer; the mean temperature during June is 38 °C (100 °F) in the plains, the highest temperatures can exceed 53 °C (127 °F). During summer, hot winds called Loo blow across the plains during the day. Trees shed their leaves to avoid loss of moisture. Pakistan recorded one of the highest temperatures in the world, 53.7 °C (128.66 °F) on 28 May 2017, the hottest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan and also the second hottest measured temperature ever recorded in Asia.The dry, hot weather is broken occasionally by dust storms and thunderstorms that temporarily lower the temperature. Evenings are cool; the daily variation in temperature may be as much as 11 °C to 17 °C. Winters are cold, with minimum mean temperatures in Punjab of about 4 °C (39 °F) in January, and sub-zero temperatures in the far north and Balochistan. Climate geography The monsoon and the Western Disturbance are the two main factors which alter the weather over Pakistan; Continental air prevails for the rest of the year. Following are the main factors that influence the weather over Pakistan. Western Disturbances mostly occur during the winter months and cause light to moderate showers in southern parts of the country while moderate to heavy showers with heavy snowfall in the northern parts of the country. These westerly waves are robbed of most of the moisture by the time they reach Pakistan. Fog occurs during the winter season and remains for weeks in upper Sindh, central Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab. Southwest Monsoon occurs in summer from the month of June till September in almost whole Pakistan excluding western Balochistan, FATA, Chitral and Gilgit–Baltistan. Monsoon rains bring much awaited relief from the scorching summer heat. These monsoon rains are quite heavy by nature and can cause significant flooding, even severe flooding if they interact with westerly waves in the upper parts of the country. Tropical Storms usually form during the summer months from late April till June and then from late September till November. They affect the coastal localities of the country. Dust storms occur during summer months with peak in May and June, They are locally known as Andhi. These dust storms are quite violent. Dust storms during the early summer indicate the arrival of the monsoons while dust storms in the autumn indicate the arrival of winter. Heat waves occur during May and June, especially in southern Punjab, central Balochistan and Sindh. Thunderstorms most commonly occur in northern Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Azad Kashmir. Some do occur in Karachi during the monsoon season. Continental air prevails during the period when there is no precipitation in the country.Pakistan has four seasons: a cool and cold winter from December through February; a pleasant spring from March through May; the summer rainy season, or southwest monsoon period, from June through September; and dry autumn period of October and November. The onset and duration of these seasons vary greatly according to location. The climate in the capital city of Islamabad varies from an average daily low of 2 °C in January to an average daily high of 38 °C in June. Half of the annual rainfall occurs in July and August, averaging about 255 millimeters in each of those two months. The remainder of the year has significantly less rain, amounting to about fifty millimeters per month. Hailstorms are common in the spring. Pakistan's largest city, Karachi, which is also the country's industrial center, is more humid than Islamabad but gets less rain. Only April, June, July, August and September average more than 50 millimeters of rain in the Karachi area; the remaining months are rather dry. The temperature is also more uniform in Karachi than in Islamabad, due to its tropical climate, ranging from an average daily low of 13 °C during winter evenings to an average daily high of 34 °C on summer days. Although the summer temperatures do not get as high as those in Punjab, the high humidity causes the residents a great deal of discomfort. In Islamabad, there are cold winds from the north of Pakistan.A high of 53.7 °C (128.66 °F) was recorded in Turbat, Balochistan on 28 May 2017. It was not only the hottest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan but also the second verified hottest temperature ever recorded in Asia and the fourth highest temperature ever recorded on earth. The highest rainfall of 620 millimetres (24 in) was recorded in Islamabad during 24 hours on 24 July 2001. The record-breaking rain fell in just 10 hours. It was the heaviest rainfall in Islamabad in the previous 100 years. Tropical cyclones and tornadoes Each year before the onset of monsoon that is 15 April to 15 July and also after its withdrawal that is 15 September to 15 December, there is always a distinct possibility of the cyclonic storm to develop in the north Arabian Sea. Cyclones form in the Arabian sea often results in strong winds and heavy rainfall in Pakistan's coastal areas. However tornadoes mostly occur during spring season that is March and April usually when a Western Disturbance starts effecting the northern parts of the country. It is also speculated that cycles of tornado years may be correlated to the periods of reduced tropical cyclone activity. Drought The drought has become a frequent phenomenon in the country. Already, the massive droughts of 1998-2002 has stretched the coping abilities of the existing systems to the limit and it has barely been able to check the situation from becoming a catastrophe. The drought of 1998-2002 is considered the worst drought in 50 years. According to the Economic Survey of Pakistan, the drought was one of the most significant factors responsible for the less than anticipated growth performance. The survey terms it as the worst drought in the history of the country. According to the government, 40 percent of the country's water needs went unmet. Floods Pakistan has seen many floods, the worst and most destructive is the recent 2010 Pakistan floods, other floods which caused destruction in the history of Pakistan, include the flood of 1950, which killed 2910 people; on 1 July 1977 heavy rains and flooding in Karachi, killed 248 people, according to Pakistan meteorological department 207 millimetres (8.1 in) of rain fell in 24 hours. In 1992 flooding during Monsoon season killed 1,834 people across the country, in 1993 flooding during Monsoon rains killed 3,084 people, in 2003 Sindh province was badly affected due to monsoon rains causing damages in billions, killed 178 people, while in 2007 Cyclone Yemyin submerged lower part of Balochistan Province in sea water killing 380 people. Before that it killed 213 people in Karachi on its way to Balochistan. 2010 Floods 2010 July floods swept 20% of Pakistan's land, the flood is the result of unprecedented Monsoon rains which lasted from 28 July to 31 July 2010. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and North eastern Punjab were badly affected during the monsoon rains when dams, rivers and lakes overflowed. By mid-August, according to the governmental Federal Flood Commission (FFC), the floods had caused the deaths of at least 1,540 people, while 2,088 people had received injuries, 557,226 houses had been destroyed, and over 6 million people had been displaced. One month later, the data had been updated to reveal 1,781 deaths, 2,966 people with injuries, and more than 1.89 million homes destroyed. The flood affected more than 20 million people exceeding the combined total of individuals affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the 2005 Kashmir earthquake and the 2010 Haiti earthquake. The flood is considered as worst in Pakistan's history affecting people of all four provinces and Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Kashmir region of Pakistan. 2011 Sindh floods The 2011 Sindh floods began during the monsoon season in mid-August 2011, resulting from heavy monsoon rains in Sindh, Eastern Balochistan, and Southern Punjab. The floods have caused considerable damage; an estimated 270 civilians have been killed, with 5.3 million people and 1.2 million homes affected. Sindh is a fertile region and often called the "breadbasket" of the country; the damage and toll of the floods on the local agrarian economy is said to be extensive. At least 1.7 million acres of arable land has been inundated as a result of the flooding. The flooding has been described as the worst since the 2010 Pakistan floods, which devastated the entire country. Unprecedented torrential monsoon rains caused severe flooding in 16 districts of Sindh province. 2022 floods Since June 2022, floods caused by monsoon rains and melting glaciers in Pakistan particularly in the southern regions of Sindh and Balochistan have killed at least 1,128 people, including 340 children and six military officers in a helicopter crash, with over 1,700 more injured. It is the world's deadliest flood since 2017. On 25 August, Pakistan declared a state of emergency because of the flooding. Extreme temperatures Climate change See also Climate of Islamabad Climate of Karachi Climate of Lahore Climate of Faisalabad Climate of Rawalpindi Climate of Peshawar Climate of Quetta Climate of Multan Climate of Hyderabad Climate of Nawabshah Climate of Gwadar == References ==

climate change denial

Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand is a 2011 non-fiction book about climate-change denial, coauthored by Haydn Washington and John Cook, with a foreword by Naomi Oreskes. Washington had a background in environmental science prior to authoring the work; Cook, educated in physics, founded (2007) the website Skeptical Science, which compiles peer-reviewed evidence of global warming. The book was first published in hardcover and paperback formats in 2011 by Earthscan, a division of Routledge. The book presents an in-depth analysis and refutation of climate-change denial, going over several arguments point-by-point and disproving them with peer-reviewed evidence from the scientific consensus for climate change. The authors assert that those denying climate change engage in tactics including cherry picking data purported to support their specific viewpoints, and attacking the integrity of climate scientists. Washington and Cook use social-science theory to examine the phenomenon of climate-change denial in the wider public, and call this phenomenon a form of pathology. The book traces financial support for climate-change denial to the fossil-fuel industry, asserting that its companies have attempted to influence public opinion on the matter. Washington and Cook write that politicians have a tendency to use weasel words as part of a propaganda tactic through the use of spin, as a way to deflect public interest away from climate change and remain passive on the issue. The authors conclude that if the public ceased engaging in denial, the problem of climate change could be realistically addressed. Climate change denial is a serious threat to the planet and needs to be addressed urgently, as the consequences of inaction are dire.For his research on the book, and efforts in communicating the essence of climate-change science to the general public, John Cook won the 2011 Australian Museum Eureka Prize for Advancement of Climate Change Knowledge. Climate Change Denial received a positive reception in reviews from publications including: The Ecologist, ECOS magazine, academic journal Natures Sciences Sociétés, the journal Education published by the New South Wales Teachers Federation. Background The book was coauthored by Australian environmental science researchers Haydn Washington and John Cook. Washington worked for over 30 years as an environmental scientist prior to writing the book. His previously published books on the subject of environmental science include: Ecosolutions (1991), A Sense of Wonder (2002), and The Wilderness Knot (2009). In 2015, Washington was a visiting fellow with the Institute of Environmental Studies at the University of New South Wales.Cook's education includes a background in physics. Prior to his work on the book, Cook founded the website Skeptical Science, which compiles peer-reviewed evidence of climate change. He placed on the site the most common assertions made by individuals arguing against the scientific consensus for climate change, with evidence to refute each point they made. After the publication of Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand, Cook coauthored another book on the subject, Climate Change Science: A Modern Synthesis: Volume 1 – The Physical Climate (2013). In 2015, Cook served as the climate communication fellow at the University of Queensland.Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand was first published in 2011 by Earthscan, a division of Routledge. Both hardcover and paperback editions were released in April 2011. It was released the same year by the publisher in an electronic book format. A second eBook release was published by Routledge in 2012. The book was made available via Kindle by Amazon.com in May 2013. Contents summary Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand presents a detailed analysis and refutation of climate change denial. In her foreword to the book, Naomi Oreskes writes that people fall victim to the phenomenon of denial due to feeling frightened. The book examines several arguments against global warming, and uses peer-reviewed evidence from the scientific consensus to back-up rationale for disputing the validity of each argument. The methodology of those denying climate change is assessed, including: cherry picking data purporting to support their specific viewpoints, maintaining a high bar for evidence of climate change by those denying it, and criticism of the values of climate scientists themselves. The book puts forth an explanation of why certain individuals, and the wider public, have a tendency to deny the scientific consensus for climate change.The authors discuss the broader concept of denial using social science theory, noting its occurrence appears in society when individuals are frightened or ashamed of their actions. They write that these motivations, when expanded from an individual to wider society, present themselves as a form of disease. The book identifies climate change denial itself as a pathology afflicting the culture of the planet. The authors lament that an inverse relationship exists between an increasing scientific consensus regarding climate change, and a simultaneous increase in denial within the greater public about the same issue.The book identifies a corporate underpinning influencing public opinion by way of companies which derive profit from the fossil fuel industry. Washington and Cook write that politicians often use weasel words as a form of spin and propaganda, in order to act as if they are going to do something about climate change, while in actuality remaining passive on the issue. The authors go on to identify a greater level of denial—within the wider public itself. They argue that society enables denial of climate science through inaction and resistance to the scientific consensus. The authors conclude that if the public stopped denying climate change, the problem itself could realistically be significantly addressed. Reception The book's coauthor John Cook won the 2011 Eureka Prize for Advancement of Climate Change Knowledge, awarded by the New South Wales Government as part of the Australian Museum Eureka Prizes, and was honoured for his role in communicating the essence of climate change science to the general public. Director of the University of Queensland Global Change Institute, Professor Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, cited Cook's research and authorship of Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand as the rationale behind him winning the award.The Ecologist reviewed the book and described it as: "well researched and painstakingly footnoted". The review concluded: Climate Change Denial is a wise and timely book. ... It deserves an audience". Writing for ECOS magazine, Mary-Lou Considine wrote that the book "dissects objections to the peer-reviewed science" in "forensic detail". Considine recommended the book to those who had previously visited the website Skeptical Science and subsequently wanted to learn more about the wider topic discussed on the site.In a review of the book by the academic journal Natures Sciences Sociétés, the authors' thesis was praised for its ability to bring reason to their analysis: "This book shows how we can break through denial, accept reality, and thus solve the climate crisis". Natures Sciences Sociétés recommended the work for multiple stakeholders, concluding: "It will engage scientists, university students, climate change activists as well as the general public seeking to roll back denial and act".Janine Kitson reviewed the book for the journal Education, a publication of the New South Wales Teachers Federation. Kitson described the work as timely and important within the context of a need for the public to act before a point of no return: "This is a crucial book to read before runaway climate change is truly beyond our control". Her review concluded: "One can only hope that this book will be read by climate deniers so we can start the challenging journey to an ecologically sustainable future". See also Merchants of Doubt Merchants of Doubt (film) Climate Change Denial Disorder, satirical parody film about a fictional disease Fear, uncertainty and doubt Global warming controversy List of books about the politics of science Media coverage of climate change Watts Up With That?, a blog that promotes climate change skepticism or denial Triumph of Doubt (2020 book) References Further reading Jensen, Derrick; McMillan, Stephanie (2007). As the World Burns: 50 Simple Things You Can Do to Stay in Denial. Seven Stories Press. ISBN 978-1-58322-777-0. OCLC 154705030. Marshall, George (2014). Don't Even Think About It: Why Our Brains Are Wired to Ignore Climate Change. Bloomsbury USA. ISBN 978-1-62040-133-0. OCLC 885302594. Norgaard, Kari Marie (2011). Living in Denial: Climate Change, Emotions, and Everyday Life. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-51585-6. OCLC 727944942. Oreskes, Naomi; Conway, Erik M. (2011). Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming. Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-1-60819-394-3. OCLC 461631066. External links Cook, John (29 April 2011). "Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand". Skeptical Science. Archived from the original on 22 September 2015. Retrieved 31 October 2015. "Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand". CSIRO Publishing. 2015. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 31 October 2015.

climate of zambia

The climate of Zambia in Central and Southern Africa is definitely tropical modified by altitude (elevation). In the Köppen climate classification, most of the country is classified as humid subtropical or tropical wet and dry, with small patches of semi-arid steppe climate in the south-west. Climate and specifically rainfall amount is the chief determinant of type and distribution of the ecoregions of Zambia. So technically, Zambia is a very arid country with a humid and subtropical year with small patches of semi arid steppe. Seasons There are two main seasons: the rainy season (November to April) corresponding to summer, and the dry season (May to October/November), corresponding to winter. The dry season is subdivided into the cool dry season (May to August), and the hot dry season (September to October/November). The modifying influence of altitude gives the country pleasant subtropical weather rather than tropical conditions for most of the year. Rainy season Rainfall varies over a range of 500 to 1,400 mm (19.7 to 55.1 in) per year (most areas fall into the range of 700 to 1,200 mm or 27.6 to 47.2 in). The distinction between rainy and dry seasons is marked with no rain at all falling in June, July and August. Much of the economic, cultural and social life of the country is dominated by the onset and end of the rainy season, and the amount of rain it brings. Failure of the rains causes hunger in most cases. The average temperature in Zambia in the summer season is 30 °C and in the winter (colder season) it can get as low as 5 °C. The rains are brought by the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and are characterised by thunderstorms, occasionally severe, with much lightning and sometimes hail. The ITCZ is located north of Zambia in the dry season. It moves southwards in the second half of the year, and northwards in the first half of the year. In some years, it moves south of Zambia, leading to a "little dry season" in the north of the country for three or four weeks in December.The highest rainfall is in the north, especially the north-west and the north-east, decreasing towards the south; the driest areas are in the far south west and the Luangwa River and middle Zambezi River valleys, parts of which are considered semi-arid. None of the country is considered arid or to be desert.Flooding is an annual event on floodplains, to which people and wildlife are adapted. Flash floods after unusually heavy rain cause damage when they occur in places that do not experience annual floods. Erosion and the washing out of roads and bridges are common. Crops are frequently damaged by flooding and hail. Too much rain when the maize crop is flowering or late in the season when it should be drying off prior to harvest, can be very damaging and promotes rotting of stored grain. Dry season Plant and animal adaptations Deciduous trees which lose leaves in the dry season to conserve water predominate over evergreens which have waxy leaf cuticles for the same purpose. The deciduous trees usually produce fresh green or reddish leaves just before the rainy season. Grasses and some other herbaceous plants dry up above ground but regenerate quickly with the onset of rains from roots and tubers, etc.Except for those living in areas of permanent freshwater, animals are adapted to the long dry season, as seen in migration and breeding patterns. Bushfires In the middle to late dry season, bushfires are prevalent, and smoke is noticeable by smell and as a haze. The fires are ignited by villagers hunting, burning crop residue, and preparing chitemene gardens; or by lightning in the early rainy season. Because such fires happen annually, there is no great buildup of dry fuel in the bush, and so the fires are not usually devastating. They may kill animals, and damage crops if the rains end early and fires happen before harvest. The presence of fire-adapted plants and palaeoecological studies indicate that such fires have happened for millennia. Water sources in the dry season Most rivers, lakes and swamps, except in the far south and south-west, are permanent. In addition, dambos (grasslands which become marshy in the rainy season) are prevalent in most of the country and water is usually available in them from springs or shallow wells. Dambos also release groundwater to streams and rivers towards the end of the dry season, keeping them flowing permanently. Small earth dams are often constructed in dambos as a source of water and as fishponds.For the human population, the location of rural settlements is determined by access to water in the dry season (though boreholes are now commonly used to augment supplies). Traditionally, people have also migrated in the drier areas where rivers dambos are not prevalent. In Barotseland, people move with their livestock, grazing them on the Barotse Floodplain in the dry season and moving to higher ground at the margins during the rainy season.The ability to grow enough food in the rainy season to last the long dry season is also a factor in population distribution. Traditionally some communities have divided the year into farming in the rainy season, and fishing and hunting in the dry season, when herbivores can be found more easily as they visit sources of water, and fires can be set to expose them or drive them into traps. Temperature The elevation of the great plateau on which Zambia is located, typically between 1,000 and 1,300 metres (3,281 and 4,265 ft), modifies temperatures, which are lower than for coastal areas at the same latitude, and pleasant for much of the year. On the plateau (covering about 80% of the country) temperature ranges, depending on location are: Most of the country is frost-free but in some years ground frost occurs. This is restricted to the highest exposed hills, or more widely in the lower humidity areas of the southernmost parts of the country. Temperatures are higher at lower elevations, such as the Luapula-Mweru and Mweru Wantipa/Tanganyika valleys in the north, and highest in the lower Luangwa and Zambezi valleys in the south, typically experiencing 40 °C (104 °F) in October, with rising humidity making for uncomfortable conditions. During the rainy season months of November to April or May some days may be humid, but daily maximum temperatures are usually a little lower than in the hot dry season. The rain can be cooling, unlike in the humid tropics. Examples Wind Prevailing winds in the dry season are generally moderate, but occasionally more severe and may bring cool dust-laden air from distant arid regions. Whirlwinds are very common but not usually destructive. Waterspouts can be seen over lakes. In the rainy season, winds are localised with thunderstorms and may be destructive but usually confined to small areas, such as blowing roofs off buildings. The country does not suffer tornadoes or cyclones of widespread destructive force. Climate change Zambia is considered to be vulnerable to climate change. The main impact pathway of climate change in the country is through increasing variability in rainfall amounts during the agricultural season across the various agroecological regions, and shifts in the duration of the rainy season. Zambia is considered vulnerable to the impacts of climate change because the majority of the population rely on agriculture for their livelihoods - and changes in rainfall patterns has a negative impact due to the rainfed nature of production. Researched evidence suggested that temperature was likely to increase by 1.82oC and rainfall reduce by 0.87 percentage points by 2050. This means that the occurrence of extreme climate events such as droughts and floods would become more frequent. Rainfall intensity results in heavy storms thereby causing floods that cause damage to property and crops. The Government of Zambia, like many other countries, had recognised the need to "integrate gender concerns" into all major policies and plans. This is because vulnerability to climate shocks was engendered. Therefore, a Climate Change Gender Action Plan was published by the government in 2018. The plan is concerned with both the development of gender-responsive actions in response to climate change and the capacity to implement such plans. References Camerapix: "Spectrum Guide to Zambia." Camerapix International Publishing, Nairobi, 1996.

a change of climate

A Change of Climate is a novel by English author Hilary Mantel, first published in 1994 by Viking Books. At the time The Observer described it as the best book she had written. It was published in the United States by Henry Holt in 1997 and was recognised by the New York Times Book Review as one of the notable books of that year. The novel has also been identified as one of the best of the 1990s. Plot introduction A Change of Climate is set in Norfolk in 1980, and concerns Ralph and Anna Eldred, parents of four children, whose family life threatens to disintegrate in the course of one summer, when memories which they have repressed fiercely for twenty years resurface to disrupt the purposive and peaceful lives they have tried to lead since a catastrophic event overtook them early in their married life. The action of the novel moves back to the late 1950s, when they worked for a missionary society in a dangerous and crowded South African township, and then follows the couple to Bechuanaland, where in the loneliness of a remote mission station an unspeakable loss occurs. The novel is about the possibility or impossibility of forgiveness, the clash of ideals and brutality, and the need to acknowledge that lives are broken before they can begin to be mended. Inspiration Mantel states that the idea for the book came in two parts. In Botswana in 1977 she read law reports about medicine murders and the theft of children; later she heard of an 'apparently happily married couple who suddenly split up after doing all the hard work of bringing up a family'. Mantel brought these two parts of the story together to form the novel. She goes on to reveal that the novel was the most difficult she had ever written (as of 2010) as she struggled with its formal plot and structure. Reception complete review concluded that of the reviews it sampled "Most very impressed, but not quite a consensus. Good writing, and most thought she made her points very well". Rebecca Radner in San Francisco Chronicle writing "While the suspense builds as we wait to find out what happened in Africa, the book offers an extremely complex inquiry into the nature of good and evil", Francine Prose in the New York Times Review of Books with "Some readers may find themselves re-examining their own ideas about the artist's right or obligation to render politically uncomfortable truths. Others may elect not to consider any of this at all, and simply to enjoy Hilary Mantel's smart, astringent and marvelously upsetting fiction". However Janet Barron in the New Statesman and Society said "Where the novel disappoints is in its predictability. Once the stories are set in motion, the conclusions seem inevitable, and are indeed signposted throughout... The powerful writing here has been undermined". Publication history 1994, UK, Viking, ISBN 0-670-83051-8, Pub date 31 Mar 1994, Hardback 1995, UK, Penguin, ISBN 0-14-012775-5, Pub date 2 Mar 1995, Paperback 1995, UK, Ulverscroft, ISBN 0-7089-3350-5, Pub date 1 Aug 1995, Large print 1997, US, Owl Books, ISBN 0-8050-5205-4, Pub date Jul 1997, Paperback 2003, US, Picador, ISBN 0-312-42288-1, Pub date Sep 2003, Paperback 2005, UK, Fourth Estate, ISBN 0-00-717290-7, Pub date 4 Mar 2010, Paperback 2010, US, Harper Perennial, ISBN 1-55468-896-5, Paperback 2011, UK, Whole Story Audiobooks, ISBN 1-4074-8838-4, Pub date 1 Sep 2011, Audio CD (read by Sandra Duncan) References External links A Change of Climate at complete review Chapter One online Evil weathered under African skies review from The Independent

climate change in north carolina

Climate change in North Carolina is of concern due to its impacts on the environment, climate, people, and economy of North Carolina. "Most of the state has warmed one-half to one degree (F) in the last century, and the sea is rising about one inch every decade." North Carolina, along with the rest of the Southeastern United States, has warmed less than the rest of the country. Temperature and climate Around the year 2080, "temperatures are likely to rise above 95°F approximately 20 to 40 days per year in most of the state, compared with about 10 days per year" in 2016. If current warming trends continue, by 2080 "North Carolina will likely feel like the Florida Panhandle or possibly like northern Mexico within a generation." The State Climate Office predicts as of 2020 that temperatures will increase 4-10 degrees Fahrenheit by the end of the century. Coastline "The United States Geological Survey estimates that the lightly developed Outer Banks between Nags Head and Ocracoke could be broken up by new inlets or lost to erosion if sea level rises two feet by the year 2100."Rising sea levels will threaten inland areas because storm surges will get higher as sea level rises. Global sea level rise is caused by melting land ice, and also the fact that warmer water occupies a larger volume (thermal expansion). Hurricanes Tropical storms and hurricanes have become more intense in recent years. While warming waters make these storms more intense, "scientists are not sure whether the recent intensification represents a long-term trend." But it is likely that storms will tend to worsen as the climate warms.Ensemble analysis of Hurricane Florence indicated that heightened temperatures led to a more intense hurricane, with higher precipitation (~5% higher) and a wider diameter (~1.5 miles, ~1.6%). Ecosystems With rising sea levels, salt water can make its way farther upstream. The increased salinity can kill some types of trees found in swamp areas. "Salt water also reacts with some wetland soils, which causes the surface of the wetlands to sink below the water, adding to the loss of wetlands." This has already occurred, for example, near Camden Point. Political responses to climate change Though several cities, municipalities, and school have been commended for their responses to climate change, the state as a whole has lagged behind. State action In 2012, in response to a study by the United States Geological Survey which predicts accelerating sea level rise, the legislature of North Carolina "passed a law requiring that projected rates of sea level rise be calculated on historical trends and not include accelerated rates of increase."A July 2019 law revised local land-use and planning requirements. Comprehensive plans that incorporate flood risk will now be required at the local level.In 2020, the North Carolina Office of Recovery and Resiliency Planning is preparing a "resilience quick start guide" for local communities, to "build resilience into routine decisions such as infrastructure upgrades or zoning rulings." Local action The city of Charlotte passed a plan to "emit nearly zero carbon from its buildings and vehicle fleet by 2030 and lower the per-capita carbon emissions from Charlotteans by a factor of six." Two days after the plan was passed by the city council, Michael Bloomberg announced that Charlotte was the winner of the American Cities Climate Challenge.In fall of 2016, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill unrolled the "Three Zeroes Initiative," which is the university's commitment to reduce to zero the net usage of water, the amount of waste in landfills, and the net amount of greenhouse gas emissions. In 2016, the city of Asheville, in cooperation with the University of North Carolina at Asheville's National Environmental Modeling and Analysis Center, began work on a climate resiliency assessment, designed to "lessen the impacts of future extreme weather and climate change." Asheville has earned the moniker the "Climate City" for its housing the headquarters of the National Centers for Environmental Information (the largest repository of environmental data in the world), the U.S. Air Force's 14th Weather Squadron ("which provides climate services to the defense and intelligence communities"), and also The Collider, a nonprofit that "is the first entrepreneurship and innovation center in the nation built to support startups – across almost every sector – that use data to help the world become more resilient to climate change." Public response Following Hurricane Florence, Elon University conducted a poll exploring public opinions on climate change. It found that 80 percent of North Carolinians though that North Carolina's coastal communities would be negatively affected by climate change in the next decade. Sixty-two percent supported consideration of climate change predictions in local planning and ordinances, 72 percent supported restriction of real-estate development in flood-prone areas, and over half agreed that hurricanes were increasing in severity. See also Environmental issues in the United States Climate of North Carolina Plug-in electric vehicles in North Carolina References Further reading Carter, L.; A. Terando; K. Dow; K. Hiers; K.E. Kunkel; A. Lascurain; D. Marcy; M. Osland; P. Schramm (2018). "Southeast". In Reidmiller, D.R.; C.W. Avery; D.R. Easterling; K.E. Kunkel; K.L.M. Lewis; T.K. Maycock; B.C. Stewart (eds.). Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II (Report). Washington, DC, USA: U.S. Global Change Research Program. pp. 872–940. doi:10.7930/NCA4.2018.CH19. -- this chapter of the National Climate Assessment covers Southeast states (Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana). External links "What Climate Change Means for North Carolina" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. August 2016.

heat wave

A heat wave (or heatwave), sometimes known as extreme heat, is a period of abnormally hot weather.: 2911  High humidity often accompanies heat waves. This is especially the case in oceanic climate countries. Definitions vary but are similar. We usually measure a heat wave relative to the usual climate in the area and to normal temperatures for the season.: 2911  Temperatures that people from a hotter climate consider normal can be called a heat wave in a cooler area. This would be the case if the warm temperatures are outside the normal climate pattern for that area. Heat waves have become more frequent, and more intense over land, almost everywhere since the 1950s. This is due to climate change.Heat waves form when a high pressure area in the upper atmosphere strengthens and remains over a region for several days up to several weeks. This traps heat near the ground. Heat waves often have complex effects on human economies. They reduce labour productivity, disrupt agricultural and industrial processes and damage infrastructure not suitable for extreme heat. Severe heat waves have caused catastrophic crop failures and thousands of deaths from hyperthermia. They have increased the risk of wildfires in areas with drought. They can lead to widespread power outages because people use more air conditioning. A heat wave counts as extreme weather. It poses danger to human health because heat and sunlight overwhelm the human body's cooling system. It is usually possible to detect heat waves by using forecasting instruments. This allows the authorities to issue a warning. Definitions There are several definitions of heat waves: The IPCC defines heatwave as "a period of abnormally hot weather, often defined with reference to a relative temperature threshold, lasting from two days to months.": 2911  A definition based on the Heat Wave Duration Index is that a heat wave occurs when the daily maximum temperature of more than five consecutive days exceeds the average maximum temperature by 5 °C (9 °F), the normal period being 1961–1990. The same definition is used by the World Meteorological Organization. A definition from the Glossary of Meteorology is: "A period of abnormally and uncomfortably hot and usually humid weather."We can use the term in two cases. One is variations in hot weather. The other is extraordinary spells of hot weather which may occur only once a century. Definitions by country Europe Denmark defines a national heat wave (hedebølge) as a period of at least 3 consecutive days in which the average maximum temperature across more than half the country exceeds 28 °C (82.4 °F). The Danish Meteorological Institute also has a definition for a "warmth wave" (varmebølge). It defines this as the same criteria for a 25 °C (77.0 °F) temperature. Sweden defines a heat wave as at least five days in a row with a daily high exceeding 25 °C (77.0 °F).In Greece, the Hellenic National Meteorological Service defines a heat wave as three consecutive days at 39 °C (102 °F) or more. In the same period the minimum temperature is 26 °C (79 °F) or more. There are no winds or only weak winds. These conditions occur in a broad area. The Netherlands defines a heat wave as a period of at least five consecutive days in which the maximum temperature in De Bilt exceeds 25 °C (77 °F). During this period the maximum temperature in De Bilt must exceed 30 °C (86 °F) for at least three days. Belgium also uses this definition of a heat wave with Ukkel as a reference point. So does Luxembourg. In the United Kingdom, the Met Office operates a Heat Health Watch system. This places each Local Authority region into one of four levels. Heat wave conditions occur when the maximum daytime temperature and minimum nighttime temperature rise above the threshold for a particular region. The length of time above that threshold determines the level. Level 1 is normal summer conditions. Level 2 occurs when there is a 60% or higher risk that the temperature will be above the threshold levels for two days and the intervening night. Level 3 arises when the temperature has been above the threshold for the preceding day and night, and there is a 90% or higher chance that it will stay above the threshold in the following day. Level 4 is triggered if conditions are more severe than those of the preceding three levels. Each of the first three levels gives rise to a particular state of readiness and response by the social and health services. Level 4 involves a more widespread response. The threshold for a heat wave occurs when there are at least three days above 25 °C (77 °F) across much of the country. Greater London has a threshold of 28 °C (82 °F). Other regions In the United States, definitions also vary by region. They usually involve a period of at least two or more days of excessively hot weather. In the Northeast, a heat wave typically when the temperature reaches or exceeds 90 °F (32.2 °C) for three consecutive days. This is not always the case. This is because the high temperature ties in with humidity levels to determine a heat index threshold. The same does not apply to drier climates. A heat storm is a Californian term for an extended heat wave. Heat storms occur when the temperature reaches 100 °F (37.8 °C) for three or more consecutive days over a wide area (tens of thousands of square miles). The National Weather Service issues heat advisories and excessive heat warnings when it expects unusual periods of hot weather. In Adelaide, South Australia, a heat wave is five consecutive days at or above 35 °C (95 °F). It can also be three consecutive days at or over 40 °C (104 °F). The Australian Bureau of Meteorology defines a heat wave as three or more days of unusual maximum and minimum temperatures. Before this new Pilot Heatwave Forecast there was no national definition for heat waves or measures of heat wave severity. Observations It is possible to compare heat waves in different regions of the World with different climates thanks to a general indicator. This appeared in 2015. With these indicators, experts estimated heat waves at the global scale from 1901 to 2010. They found a substantial and sharp increase in the number of affected areas in the last two decades.In July 2023 the world hit a new record high temperature. Increased wildfires in places such as Spain and Greece can also be attributed to heat waves.The 2021 Western North America heat wave resulted in some of the highest temperatures ever recorded in the region. These included a record 49.6 °C (121.3 °F) for Canada.One study in 2021 investigated 13,115 cities. It found that extreme heat exposure of a wet bulb globe temperature above 30 °C tripled between 1983 and 2016. It increased by about 50% if you exclude the effect of population growth in these cities. Urban areas and living spaces are often significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas. This is partly due to the urban heat island effect. The researchers compiled a comprehensive list of past urban extreme heat events. Causes Heat waves form when a high pressure area at an altitude of 10,000–25,000 feet (3,000–7,600 metres) strengthens and remains over a region for several days and up to several weeks. This is common in summer in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. This is because the jet stream 'follows the sun'. The high pressure area is on the equator side of the jet stream in the upper layers of the atmosphere. Weather patterns are generally slower to change in summer than in winter. So, this upper level high pressure also moves slowly. Under high pressure, the air sinks toward the surface. It warms and dries adiabatically. This inhibits convection and prevents the formation of clouds. A reduction of clouds increases the shortwave radiation reaching the surface. A low pressure area at the surface leads to surface wind from lower latitudes that brings warm air, enhancing the warming. The surface winds could also blow from the hot continental interior towards the coastal zone. This would lead to heat waves on the coast. They could also blow from high towards low elevations. This enhances the subsidence or sinking of the air and therefore the adiabatic warming.In the eastern regions of the United States a heat wave can occur when a high pressure system originating in the Gulf of Mexico becomes stationary just off the Atlantic Seaboard. We usually call this a Bermuda High. Hot humid air masses form over the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. At the same time hot dry air masses form over the desert Southwest and northern Mexico. The southwest winds on the back side of the high continue to pump hot, humid Gulf air northeastwards. This results in a spell of hot and humid weather for much of the eastern United States and into southeastern Canada.In the Western Cape Province of South Africa, a heat wave can occur when low pressure offshore and high pressure inland air combine to form a berg wind. The air warms as it descends from the Karoo interior. The temperature will rise about 10 °C from the interior to the coast. Humidity is usually very low. The temperature can be over 40 °C in summer. The highest temperature recorded in South Africa (51.5 °C) occurred one summer during a berg wind along the Eastern Cape coastline.The level of soil moisture can intensify heat waves in Europe. Low soil moisture leads to a number of complex feedback mechanisms. These in turn can result in increased surface temperatures. One of the main mechanisms is reduced evaporative cooling of the atmosphere. When water evaporates, it consumes energy. So, it will lower the surrounding temperature. If the soil is very dry, then incoming radiation from the sun will warm the air. But there will be little or no cooling effect from moisture evaporating from the soil. Climate change Impacts on human health Heat-related health effects for vulnerable people Mortality Underreporting of fatalities The number of heat fatalities is probably highly underreported. This is due to a lack of reports and to misreporting. If we factor in heat-related illnesses, actual death tolls linked to extreme heat may be six times as high as official figures. This is based on studies of California and Japan.Part of the mortality during a heat wave may be due to short-term forward mortality displacement. In some heat waves there is a decrease in overall mortality in the weeks after a heat wave. These compensatory reductions in mortality suggest that heat affects people who would have died anyway, and brings their deaths forward.Social institutions and structures influence the effects of risks. This factor can also help explain the underreporting of heat waves as a health risk. The deadly French heat wave in 2003 showed that heat wave dangers result from a combination of natural and social factors. Social invisibility is one such factor. Heat-related deaths can occur indoors, for instance among elderly people living alone. In these cases it can be challenging to assign heat as a contributing factor. Heat index for temperature and relative humidity The heat index in the table above is a measure of how hot it feels when relative humidity is factored with the actual air temperature. Psychological and sociological effects Excessive heat causes psychological stress as well as physical stress. This can affect performance. It may also lead to an increase in violent crime. High temperatures are associated with increased conflict between individuals and at the social level. In every society, crime rates go up when temperatures go up. This is particularly the case with violent crimes such as assault, murder and rape. In politically unstable countries, high temperatures can exacerbate factors that lead to civil war.High temperatures also have a significant effect on income. A study of counties in the United States found that the economic productivity of individual days declines by about 1.7% for each degree Celsius above 15 °C (59 °F). Surface ozone (air pollution) High temperatures also make the effects of ozone pollution in urban areas worse. This raises heat-related mortality during heat waves. During heat waves in urban areas, ground level ozone pollution can be 20% higher than usual.One study looked at fine particle concentrations and ozone concentrations from 1860 to 2000. It found that the global population-weighted fine particle concentrations increased by 5% due to climate change. Near-surface ozone concentrations rose by 2%.An investigation to assess the joint mortality effects of ozone and heat during the European heat waves in 2003 concluded that these appear to be reinforce each other and increase mortality when combined. Other impacts Reduced GDP Calculations from 2022 suggest heat waves will shrink the global economy by about 1% decrease by the middle of the 21st century.Heat waves often have complex effects on economies. They reduce labour productivity, disrupt agricultural and industrial processes and damage infrastructure that is not suitable for extreme heat. Reduced agricultural yields heat waves are a big threat to agricultural production. In 2019, heat waves in the Mulanje region of Malawi involved temperatures as high as 40 °C (104 °F). This and a late rain season scorched tea leaves and reduced yields. Wildfires A heat wave occurring during a drought can contribute to bushfires and wildfires. This is because a drought dries out vegetation, so it is more likely to catch fire. During the disastrous heat wave that struck Europe in 2003, fires raged through Portugal. They destroyed over 3,010 square kilometres (1,160 sq mi) of forest and 440 square kilometres (170 sq mi) of agricultural land. They caused about €1 billion worth of damage. High end farmlands have irrigation systems to back up crops. Floods Heat waves can also contribute to flooding. The record-breaking heat wave that afflicted Pakistan beginning in May 2022 led to glacier melt and moisture flow. These were factors in the devastating floods that began in June and claimed over 1,100 lives. Infrastructural damage Heat waves cause roads and highways to buckle and melt, water lines to burst, and power transformers to detonate, causing fires. A heat wave can also damage railways, by buckling and kinking rails. This can slow down or delay traffic. It can even lead to cancellations of service when rails are too dangerous to traverse by trains. Power outages Heat waves often lead to spikes in electricity demand because there is more use of air conditioning. This can create power outages, making the problem worse. During the 2006 North American heat wave, thousands of homes and businesses went without power, especially in California. In Los Angeles, electrical transformers failed, leaving thousands without power for as long as five days. The 2009 South Eastern Australia Heat Wave caused major power disruptions in the city of Melbourne. They left over half a million people without power as the heat wave blew transformers and overloaded a power grid. Options for reducing impacts of heat waves on people A possible public health measure during heat waves is to set up air-conditioned public cooling centres. There are novel designs for cooling systems that are relatively low-cost. They do not use electrical components, are off-grid and store solar energy chemically for use on demand.Adding air conditioning in schools provides a cooler work place. But it can result in additional greenhouse gas emissions unless solar energy is used. Examples by country United States In July 2019, there were over 50 million people in the United States in jurisdictions with heat advisories. Scientists predicted that many records for highest low temperatures would be broken in the days following these warnings. This means the lowest temperature in a 24-hour period will be higher than any low temperature measured before.According to a 2022 study, 107 million people in the US will experience extremely dangerous heat in the year 2053.Heat waves are the most lethal type of weather phenomenon in the United States. Between 1992 and 2001, deaths from excessive heat in the United States numbered 2,190, compared with 880 deaths from floods and 150 from hurricanes. About 400 deaths a year on average are directly due to heat in the United States. The 1995 Chicago heat wave, one of the worst in US history, led to approximately 739 heat-related deaths over 5 days. In the United States, the loss of human life in hot spells in summer exceeds that caused by all other weather events. These include lightning, rain, floods, hurricanes, and tornadoes.About 6,200 Americans need hospital treatment each summer, according to data from 2008. This is due to excessive heat, and those at highest risk are poor, uninsured or elderly.The relationship between extreme temperature and mortality in the United States varies by location. Heat is more likely to increase the risk of death in cities in the northern part of the country than in southern regions. Unusually hot summertime temperatures in Chicago, Denver, or New York City lead to predictions of higher levels of illness and death. Parts of the country that are mild to hot all year have a lower public health risk from excessive heat. Residents of southern cities such as Miami, Tampa, Los Angeles, and Phoenix tend to be acclimatized to hot weather conditions. They are therefore less vulnerable to heat-related deaths. As a whole, people in the United States appear to be adapting to hotter temperatures further north each decade. This might be due to better infrastructure, more modern building design and better public awareness. Society and culture Policymakers, funders and researchers have created the Extreme Heat Resilience Alliance coalition under the Atlantic Council. This advocates for naming heat waves, measuring them, and ranking them to build better awareness of their impacts. See also Cold wave List of heat waves List of severe weather phenomena Urban heat island References External links Social & Economic Costs of Temperature Extremes from NOAA Socioeconomics website initiative, National Centers for Environmental InformationCurrent global map of extreme temperatures The emergence of heat and humidity too severe for human tolerance, American Association for the Advancement of Science research paper Statistical analysis of Met Office Hadley Centre HadISD datasets Global Sub-daily Station HadISD Dataset

the new climate war

The New Climate War: The Fight to Take Back Our Planet is a 2021 book on climate change by the American climatologist and geophysicist Michael E. Mann. In the book, Mann discusses the actions of the fossil fuel industry to delay action on climate change, the responses to climate change that he considers inadequate, and the responses he considers the best. The book received positive reviews. Mann argued in an interview with Rolling Stone's Jeff Goodell that a "clean energy revolution and climate stabilization are achievable with current technology. All we require are policies to incentivize the needed shift." Background Mann's famous "hockey stick" graph led to death threats and online attacks. He later became an expert in disinformation campaigns of the fossil fuel industry. While Goodell said that much of the left had come to view carbon pricing as "basically a kind of neoliberal scheme that will enrich Wall Street and inevitably be corrupted by politics": Mann wrote that "really all of the solutions that we’re talking about are market economics", and also listed the Montreal Protocol in the past as a reason for optimism about carbon pricing. However, the climatologist also stated that humanity may need to rethink the basic conceptual model for modern economies because "[there] is a larger conversation to be had about whether we can continue on this path of increasing resource extraction and consumption in a sustainable manner." He also said the Green New Deal won't occur in 2021 or 2022: "We’ll get past the pandemic. A year or two down the road, it’ll be in our rear-view mirror, but we will still be fully immersed in an even greater crisis, which is the climate crisis. And hopefully, having gone through this pandemic, this crisis will provide us an opportunity to think about how we solve this even larger crisis." Mann criticized the Trump administration but said enough was "happening at the state level, states that support action, companies, cities, municipalities, that we did make some progress [...] we need to make up that lost ground over the next several years. And the Biden administration seems to be doing everything they can to help make that happen." Title Mann explained that the book's title (The New Climate War) comes from his view that there was an old climate war of "assault on the basic science of climate change by fossil fuel interests" and there is now a new climate war (due to the impacts of climate change no longer being subtle), with opponents of climate action having different tactics like "getting climate advocates fighting with each other so that we don’t present a unified voice, demanding change [...] deflecting attention away from the needed systemic solutions or policy solutions to [focus instead on] individual behavior." The old war was 'outright denial'; the new war is 'deception, distraction and delay', including deflection of threats and division of opponents. Summary The New Climate War consists of nine sections, along with acknowledgements, notes, and an index. "The Architects of Misinformation and Misdirection" and "The Climate Wars" outline the history of climate change denial. The third chapter, "The 'Crying Indian’ and the Birth of the Deflection Campaign", details how forces of denial and delay (such as fossil fuel companies, right-wing partisans, media and talking heads, and oil-funded governments) use deflection to defeat disliked policies. "It's YOUR Fault" is about the strategy to "keep the conversation around individual responsibility, not systemic change or corporate culpability", noting such things as Russian trolls' and bots' attacks on Hillary Clinton, and bot-produced tweets to increase the level of denialism in online discourse about climate crisis. The fifth chapter ("Put a Price on It. Or Not.") criticizes the subsidies granted to the fuel industry. Mann advocates a price on carbon emissions as well as supply-side measures like a fracking ban and blocks on pipeline construction. In "Sinking the Competition", he supports incentives for renewable energy and elimination of incentives for fossil fuels. In chapter seven ("The Non-Solution Solution"), the author dismisses responses like natural gas, carbon capture, and geo-engineering as inadequate, and describes a number of notions of opponents of climate action (such as bridge fuels, clean coal, adaptation, and resilience) as "empty promises".In "The Truth Is Bad Enough", Mann criticizes some environmentalists as exaggerating the climate threat. The final chapter, "Meeting the Challenge", contains a four-point plan of: "Disregard the Doomsayers", "A Child Shall Lead Them", "Educate, Educate, Educate", and "Changing the System Requires Systemic Change".Mann argues that individual actions like less meat-eating, less travel, and more recycling are beneficial but insufficient, and that the economy must be decarbonized. The climate scientist also describes himself as cautiously optimistic given youth activism and the rapid development of green technologies. Reception Jeff Masters wrote in Yale Climate Connections that The New Climate War "could benefit from more graphics and cartoons as complements to its 267 pages of text. Overall, though, the book still is a must-read for every climate-savvy and climate-dependent. (Only air breathers need apply!)" New Scientist's Richard Schiffman stated, "With the major COP26 UN climate summit due to be held later this year in Glasgow, UK, Mann’s call to get serious about climate change couldn’t be more timely. Let’s hope he is right that the tide is finally about to turn."Adrienne Hollis wrote that "the book ties together every action and every inaction that has affected the fight to protect Earth from the adverse consequences of climate change. Mann is transparent about times when those who fight for climate action have fallen short". She described the book as "a must read not just for people currently working to address climate change but also for those who are new to the climate fight, the latter of whom will learn much about past challenges, struggles, and attacks".Carolyn Gramling argued in Science News, "The New Climate War's main focus is to combat psychological warfare, and on this front, the book is fascinating and often entertaining. It’s an engrossing mix of footnoted history, acerbic political commentary and personal anecdotes." A reviewer in Kirkus Reviews dubbed it a "blunt, lucid work of climate politics [...] Consistently displaying his comprehensive command of climate science and the attendant politics, he clearly walks readers through the disingenuous arguments about" a number of policies and trends related to climate crisis.The Financial Times short-listed the book for 2021 "business book of the year".It was also longlisted for the 2021 Wainwright Prize. References Further reading Watts, Jonathan (27 February 2021). "Climatologist Michael E Mann: 'Good people fall victim to doomism. I do too sometimes'". the Guardian. Retrieved 31 August 2021.

oceanic climate

An oceanic climate, also known as a marine climate, is the temperate climate sub-type in Köppen classification represented as Cfb, typical of west coasts in higher middle latitudes of continents, generally featuring cool summers and mild winters (for their latitude), with a relatively narrow annual temperature range and few extremes of temperature. Oceanic climates can be found in both hemispheres generally between 45 and 63 latitude, most notably in northwestern Europe, northwestern America, as well as New Zealand. Other varieties of climates usually classified together with these include subtropical highland climates, represented as Cwb or Cfb, and subpolar oceanic or cold subtropical highland climates, represented as Cfc or Cwc. Subtropical highland climates occur in some mountainous parts of the subtropics or tropics, some of which have monsoon influence, while their cold variants and subpolar oceanic climates occur near polar or tundra regions. Precipitation Locations with oceanic climates tend to feature frequent cloudy conditions with precipitation, low hanging clouds, and frequent fronts and storms. Thunderstorms are normally few, since strong daytime heating and hot and cold air masses meet infrequently in the regions, but are more common in subtropical highland climates where these air masses meet more frequently due to the influence of hotter weather in the subtropics or tropics, especially in monsoon-influenced climates. In most areas with an oceanic climate, precipitation comes in the form of rain for the majority of the year. Most oceanic climate zones, or at least a part of them, however, experience at least one snowfall per year. Snowfall is more frequent and commonplace in the subpolar oceanic climates due to the colder weather in those locations. Temperature Overall temperature characteristics of the oceanic climates feature cool temperatures and infrequent extremes of temperature. In the Köppen climate classification, oceanic climates have a mean temperature of 0 °C (32 °F) or higher (or −3 °C (27 °F) or higher) in the coldest month, compared to continental climates where the coldest month has a mean temperature of below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) in the coldest month. Summers are warm but not hot, with the warmest month having a mean temperature below 22 °C (72 °F). Poleward of the latter is a subtype of it and is the subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen Cfc), with long but relatively mild (for their latitude) winters and cool and short summers (average temperatures of at least 10 °C (50 °F) for one to three months). Examples of this climate include parts of coastal Iceland, the coast of Norway north of Bodø, the Scottish Highlands, the mountains of Vancouver Island, and Haida Gwaii in Canada, in the Northern Hemisphere and extreme southern Chile in the Southern Hemisphere (examples include Punta Arenas), the Tasmanian Central Highlands, and parts of New Zealand. Cause Oceanic climates are not necessarily found in coastal locations on the aforementioned parallels; however, in most cases oceanic climates parallel higher middle latitude oceans. The polar jet stream, which moves in a west to east direction across the middle latitudes, advances low pressure systems, storms, and fronts. In coastal areas of the higher middle latitudes (45–60° latitude), the prevailing onshore flow creates the basic structure of most oceanic climates. Oceanic climates are a product and reflection of the cool ocean adjacent to them. In the autumn, winter, and early spring, when the polar jet stream is most active, the frequent passing of marine weather systems creates the frequent fog, cloudy skies, and light drizzle often associated with oceanic climates. The North Atlantic Gulf Stream, a tropical oceanic current that passes north of the Caribbean and up the East Coast of the United States to North Carolina, then heads east-northeast to the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, is thought to greatly modify the climate of northwest Europe. As a result of the North Atlantic Current, west coast areas located in high latitudes like Ireland, the UK, and Norway have much milder winters (for their latitude) than would otherwise be the case. The lowland attributes of western Europe also help drive marine air masses into continental areas, enabling cities such as Dresden, Prague, and Vienna to have maritime climates in spite of being located well inland from the ocean. Locations Europe Oceanic climates in Europe occupy a large stretch of land, from Norway's Atlantic coast and the British Isles, southeast to some parts of Turkey. Most of France (away from the Mediterranean), Belgium, the Netherlands, Austria, Luxembourg, Denmark, western Germany, northwestern Switzerland, south coast and western areas of Norway north to Skrova Lofoten and Southern Sweden below Stockholm. Some parts of Southern Europe also have oceanic climates, such as the north coast of Spain, the western Azores off the coast of Portugal, and parts of northwestern Turkey, including northern Istanbul. Some Eastern European regions such as the north of Croatia and Serbia and some parts of the Czech Republic, also have oceanic climates. Examples of oceanic climates are found in Glasgow, London, Bergen, Amsterdam, Dublin, Berlin, Hamburg, Bilbao, Oviedo, Biarritz, A Coruña, Bayonne, Zürich, Copenhagen, Prague, Skagen, and Paris. With decreasing distance to the Mediterranean Sea, the oceanic climate of northwest Europe gradually changes to the subtropical dry-summer or Mediterranean climate of southern Europe. The line between oceanic and continental climates in Europe runs in a generally west to east direction. For example, western Germany is more impacted by milder Atlantic air masses than eastern Germany. Thus, winters across Europe become colder to the east, and (in some locations) summers become hotter. The line between oceanic Europe and Mediterranean Europe normally runs north to south and is related to changes in precipitation patterns and differences to seasonal temperatures; although intrusions of polar air, remnants of marine air-masses, and higher summer precipitation can create oceanic climates in Eastern Europe and transcontinental regions as far south as 40°N. The Americas The oceanic climate exists in an arc spreading across the northwestern coast of North America from the Alaskan panhandle to northern Washington. In addition, some east coast areas such as Block Island, Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket have a similar climate. An extensive area of oceanic climates distinguishes the coastal regions of southern Chile and extends into bordering Argentina. Africa The only noteworthy area of maritime climate at or near sea-level within Africa is in South Africa from Mossel Bay on the Western Cape coast to Plettenberg Bay (the Garden Route), with additional pockets of this climate inland of the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal coast. It is usually warm most of the year with no pronounced rainy season, but slightly more rain in autumn and spring. The Tristan da Cunha archipelago in the South Atlantic also has an oceanic climate. Asia and Oceania The oceanic climate is prevalent in the more southerly parts of Oceania. A mild maritime climate is in existence in New Zealand. It occurs in a few areas of Australia, namely in the southeast, although average high temperatures during summers there tend to be higher and the summers drier than is typical of oceanic climates, with summer maxima sometimes exceeding 40 °C (104 °F). The climate is found in Tasmania, southern half of Victoria and southeastern New South Wales (southwards from Wollongong). Some parts of the northeastern coast of Honshu, such as Mutsu, Aomori in Japan, feature this climate, although it is rare in Asia due to the lack of a west coast in the middle latitudes. Indian Ocean Île Amsterdam and Île Saint-Paul, both part of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands, are located in the subtropics and have an oceanic climate (akin to Tristan da Cunha; see above). Varieties Marine west coast (Cfb) Temperate oceanic climates, also known as "marine mild winter" climates or simply oceanic climates, are found either at middle latitudes. They are often found on or near the west coast of continents; hence another name for Cfb, "marine west coast climates". In addition to moderate temperatures year-round, one of the characteristics is the absence of a dry season. Except for western Europe, this type of climate is confined to narrow bands of territory, largely in mid or high latitudes, although it can appear in elevated areas of continental terrain in low latitudes, e.g. plateaus in the subtropics. It exists in both hemispheres between 35° and 60°: at low altitudes between Mediterranean, humid continental, and subarctic climates.Western sea breezes ease temperatures and moderates the winter, especially if warm sea currents are present, and cause cloudy weather to predominate. Precipitation is constant, especially in colder months, when temperatures are warmer than elsewhere at comparable latitudes. This climate can occur farther inland if no mountain ranges are present or nearby. As this climate causes sufficient moisture year-round without permitting deep snow cover, vegetation typically prospers in this climate. Deciduous trees are predominant in this climate region. However, conifers such as spruce, pine, and cedar are also common in few areas, and fruits such as apples, pears, and grapes can often be cultivated here. In the hottest month, the average temperature is below 22 °C (72 °F), and at least four months feature average temperatures higher than 10 °C (50 °F). The average temperature of the coldest month must not be colder than −3–0 °C (27–32 °F), or the climate will be classified as continental. The average temperature variations in the year are between 10–15 °C (50–59 °F), with average annual temperatures between 6–13 °C (43–55 °F). Rain values can vary from 50–500 cm (20–197 in), depending on whether mountains cause orographic precipitation. Frontal cyclones can be common in marine west coast regions, with some areas experiencing more than 150 rainy days annually, but strong storms are rare. Cfb climates are predominant in most of Europe except the northeast, as global temperatures became warmer towards late 20th and early 21st century. They are the main climate type in New Zealand and the Australian states of Tasmania, Victoria, and southeastern New South Wales (starting from the Illawarra region). In North America, they are found mainly in Vancouver Island and neighbouring parts of British Columbia, as well as many coastal areas of southeast Alaska. There are pockets of Cfb in most South American countries, mostly in regions of southern Chile and Argentina, parts of the provinces of Chubut, Santa Cruz, and southeast Buenos Aires province in Argentina, the highest elevations of the Brazilian Highlands, and due to variations in rainfall and temperature patterns in some places of the Tropical Andes in Bolivia, Perú, Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela. In Western Asia, the climate can be found close to sea level on the Black Sea coast of northern Turkey and Georgia, often transitional to humid subtropical. While Cfb zones are rare in Africa, one dominates the coastline of the Eastern Cape in South Africa. The climate subtype can also be found in Nantucket, Massachusetts (in the immediate west and northwest in transition for humid continental, the remainder of Cape Cod) Subtropical highland variety (Cfb, Cwb) The subtropical highland climate is a climate variety often grouped together with oceanic climates which exists in some mountainous or elevated portions of the world in either the subtropics or tropics. Despite the latitude, the higher elevations of these regions mean that the climate shares characteristics with oceanic climates.Subtropical highland climates with uniform rainfall (Cfb) usually have rainfall spread relatively evenly throughout the year, similar to other oceanic climates but unlike these climates, they have a high diurnal temperature variation and low humidity, owing to their inland location and relatively high elevation. Subtropical highland climates with monsoon influence (Cwb), have distinctive wet summers and dry winters.In locations outside the tropics, other than the drying trend in the winter, subtropical highland climates tend to be essentially identical to an oceanic climate, with mild summers and noticeably cooler winters, plus, in some instances, some snowfall. In the tropics, a subtropical highland climate typically features spring-like weather year-round. Temperatures there remain relatively constant throughout the year and snowfall is seldom seen due to warmer winters than most oceanic climates. Areas with this climate feature monthly averages below 22 °C (72 °F) but above −3 °C (27 °F) (or 0 °C (32 °F) using American standards). At least one month's average temperature is below 18 °C (64 °F). Without their elevation, many of these regions would likely feature either humid subtropical or tropical climates. This type of climate exists in parts of east, south and southeastern Africa, interior southern Africa and elevated portions of eastern Africa as far north as Ethiopia and of western Africa (west region of Cameroon) up to the southwestern Angola highlands also share this climate type. The exposed areas of High Atlas, some mountainous areas across southern Europe, mountainous sections of North America, including parts of the southern Appalachians and the Central America Volcanic Arc. In South America, it can be found mainly in temperate mountainous areas in the Tropical Andes, Venezuelan Coastal Range, the highest elevations of Serra do Mar in Southeastern Brazil, and tepuis of the Guiana Shield. Most of Yunnan and mountainous areas across Southeast Asia, parts of the Himalayas, parts of Sri Lanka, and parts of the Hawaiian Islands of Maui and Hawaii. In the Caribbean, only the peaks in the highest mountain ranges have this climate (including the Blue Mountains in Jamaica and Cerro Maravilla in Puerto Rico), with only Hispaniola's Cordillera Central and Chaîne de la Selle having significant urban settlements under this climate zone, such as cities like Kenscoff in Haiti and Constanza in the Dominican Republic. Subpolar oceanic and cold subtropical highland varieties (Cfc, Cwc) Areas with subpolar oceanic climates feature an oceanic climate but are usually located closer to polar regions, with long but relatively mild winters and short, cool summers. As a result of their location, these regions tend to be on the cool end of oceanic climates, approaching to polar regions. Snowfall tends to be more common here than in other oceanic climates. Subpolar oceanic climates are less prone to temperature extremes than subarctic climates or continental climates, featuring milder winters than these climates. Subpolar oceanic climates feature only one to three months of average monthly temperatures that are at least 10 °C (50 °F). As with oceanic climates, none of its average monthly temperatures fall below -3.0 °C (26.6 °F) or 0 °C depending on the isotherm used. Typically, these areas in the warmest month experience daytime maximum temperatures below 17 °C (63 °F), while the coldest month features highs slightly above freezing and lows near or just below freezing while keeping the average warm enough. It typically carries a Cfc designation, though very small areas in Argentina and Chile have summers sufficiently short to be Cwc with fewer than four months over 10 °C (50 °F).This variant of an oceanic climate is found in parts of coastal Iceland, the Faroe Islands, upland/mountainous parts of Scotland and Northern England, northwestern coastal areas of Norway (most of Lofoten, Vesterålen, warmest part of Tromsø reaching to 71°N on some islands), uplands/highlands in western Norway, the Aleutian Islands of Alaska and northern parts of the Alaskan Panhandle, the southwest of Argentina and Chile, and a few highland areas of Tasmania, and the Australian and Southern Alps. This type of climate is even found in very remote parts of the New Guinea Highlands. The classification used for this regime is Cfc. In the most marine of those areas affected by this regime, temperatures above 20 °C (68 °F) are extreme weather events, even in the midst of summer. Temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) have been recorded on rare occasions in some areas of this climate, and in winter temperatures down to −20 °C (−4 °F) have seldom been recorded in some areas. Small areas in Yunnan, Sichuan and parts of Bolivia and Peru have summers sufficiently short to be Cwc with fewer than four months over 10 °C (50 °F). However, due to the high altitudes at these locations, these areas feature Cwc climates. This is the cold variant of the monsoon-influenced subtropical highland climate. El Alto, Bolivia, is one of the few confirmed towns that features this variation of the subtropical highland climate. Examples Oceania Ashburton, New Zealand (Cfb) Auckland, New Zealand1 (Cfb) Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia1 (Cfb) Christchurch, New Zealand (Cfb) Hobart, Tasmania, Australia1 (Cfb) Lithgow, New South Wales, Australia (Cfb) Melbourne, Victoria, Australia1 (Cfb) Volcano, Hawaii, United States1 (Cfb) Wabag, Papua New Guinea1 (Cfb) Wellington, New Zealand1 (Cfb) Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia1 (Cfb, bordering on Cfa) South America Bogotá, Colombia1 (Cfb) Caxias do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil1 (Cfb) Chachapoyas, Peru1 (Cfb) Cuenca, Ecuador1 (Cfb) Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil1 (Cfb) La Paz, Bolivia (Cwb, bordering on Cwc) Manizales, Colombia1 (Cfb) Mar del Plata, Argentina1 (Cfb) Mucuchíes, Venezuela1 (Cfb) Osorno, Los Lagos Region, Chile (Cfb) Puerto Montt, Los Lagos Region, Chile (Cfb) Punta del Este, Uruguay1 (Cfb, bordering on Cfa) Quito, Ecuador1 (Cfb) Sucre, Bolivia1 (Cwb) Teresópolis, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil1 (Cfb) Valdivia, Los Ríos Region, Chile1 (Cfb) Southern Indian Ocean Île Amsterdam, French Southern and Antarctic Lands1 (Cfb) Île Saint-Paul, French Southern and Antarctic Lands1 (Cfb) See also Temperate climate Humid temperate climate Subhumid temperate climate Mediterranean climate Köppen climate classification References External links University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point: Marine (Humid) West Coast Climate EPIC Data Collection On-line ocean observational data collection NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer Plot and download ocean observations https://web.archive.org/web/20061206100140/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Climate/Older/Maritime_Climate.html

climate change in kentucky

Climate change in Kentucky encompasses the effects of climate change, attributed to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, in the U.S. state of Kentucky. The United States Environmental Protection Agency reports: "Kentucky's climate is changing. Although the average temperature did not change much during the 20th century, most of the commonwealth has warmed in the last 20 years. Average annual rainfall is increasing, and a rising percentage of that rain is falling on the four wettest days of the year. In the coming decades, the changing climate is likely to reduce crop yields and threaten some aquatic ecosystems. Floods may be more frequent, and droughts may be longer, which would increase the difficulty of meeting the competing demands for water in the Ohio, Tennessee, and Cumberland rivers". In May 2019, The Kansas City Star noted that climate change is suspected in the increasing number of tornadoes in the region, "the band of states in the central United States ... that each spring are ravaged by hundreds of tornadoes — is not disappearing. But it seems to be expanding", resulting in a higher frequency of tornadoes in states including Kentucky. Emissions Precipitation and water resources By 2020, heavy rainfall events had "increased by 20 percent since the early 20th century in eastern Kentucky.""Annual precipitation in Kentucky has increased approximately 5 percent since the first half of the 20th century. But rising temperatures increase evaporation, which dries the soil and decreases the amount of rain that runs off into rivers. Although rainfall during spring is likely to increase during the next 40 to 50 years, the total amount of water running off into rivers or recharging ground water each year is likely to decline 2.5 to 5 percent, as increased evaporation offsets the greater rainfall. Droughts are likely to be more severe, because periods without rain will be longer and very hot days will be more frequent". Flooding, navigation, and hydroelectric power "Flooding is becoming more severe in the Southeast. Since 1958, the amount of precipitation during heavy rainstorms has increased by 27 percent in the Southeast, and the trend toward increasingly heavy rainstorms is likely to continue. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers operate Kentucky Dam, Wolf Creek Dam, and other dams to prevent serious floods on the Ohio, Tennessee, and Cumberland rivers. The agencies release water from the reservoirs behind these dams before the winter flood season. By lowering water levels, these releases provide greater capacity for the reservoirs behind those dams to prevent flooding. Nevertheless, dams and other flood control structures cannot prevent all floods. The Ohio River has flooded Louisville several times, for example, and flash floods have caused property destruction and deaths throughout Kentucky"."Increasingly severe droughts could pose challenges for river transportation. The drought of 2005 closed portions of the lower Ohio River to commercial navigation, which delayed shipments of crops and other products between Kentucky and the Mississippi River. In 2012, a drought caused navigation restrictions on the lower Mississippi River, which cost the region more than $275 million". "Droughts also affect the amount of electricity from hydroelectric dams. During the 2007 drought, total production from the TVA's hydroelectric plants fell by more than 30 percent, which forced the TVA to meet customer demand by using more expensive fuel-burning power plants". According to the Fifth National Climate Assessment published in 2023, "Appalachian states like Kentucky and West Virginia have seen devastating flooding from rainstorms". Aquatic ecosystems "Changing climate can harm aquatic ecosystems. Warmer water lowers the level of dissolved oxygen in surface water, which can severely limit fish populations. Because fish cannot regulate their body temperatures, warmer water can make a stream uninhabitable for fish that require cooler water. Warmer temperatures can also increase the frequency of algal blooms, which can be toxic and further reduce dissolved oxygen. Summer droughts may amplify these effects, while periods of extreme rainfall can increase the impacts of pollution on streams". Agriculture and livestock "Longer frost-free growing seasons and increased concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide tend to increase yields for many crops during an average year. But more severe droughts and more hot days are likely to reduce yields, especially in the western half of Kentucky, which in seventy years is likely to have 15 to 30 more days with temperatures above 95°F than it has today. Even on irrigated fields, higher temperatures are likely to reduce yields of corn, and possibly soybeans. Higher temperatures are also likely to reduce livestock productivity: hot weather causes cows to eat less, grow more slowly, and produce less milk, and it can threaten their health". In addition, "black vultures in Kentucky are moving north due to climate change and killing more cattle every year due to their newly expanded range". Forest resources "Higher temperatures and changes in rainfall are unlikely to substantially reduce forest cover in Kentucky, but the composition of those forests may change. More droughts would reduce forest productivity, and climate change is also likely to increase the damage that insects and diseases cause to forests. Yet longer growing seasons and increased carbon dioxide concentrations could more than offset the losses from those factors. In central Kentucky, the population of maple, beech, and birch trees is likely to decline, in favor of the oak and hickory trees that dominate forests in most of the state". Effect on human health An increase in temperatures can have a negative effect on human health, particularly in people with underlying health conditions. Higher temperatures can increase smog. Ground level ozone found in smog aggravates asthma and other lung conditions. See also List of U.S. states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions Plug-in electric vehicles in Kentucky == References ==

climate of cameroon

The climate of Cameroon is very diverse. Cameroon is generally referred to as the Africa in miniature because it has the major climates and vegetation of the continent. The country is separated in two mains climatic zones: the equatorial climate in the south and the tropical climate in the northern part. Types of climate The equatorial climate The equatorial zone in Cameroon stretches from 2 to 5° N, covering the southern and the mountainous western part of the country. The equatorial zone has 4 seasons 2 dry and 2 wet. The equatorial zone It is characterized by abundant rainfall (more than 1,000 mm of rainfall per year) and especially by the absence of a dry season: we speak here of "dry seasons" for the periods when it rains less (December–January, then July–August, with local variations). The atmosphere is humid all year round: The temperature ranges from 20 to 25 °C and the wettest regions receive more than 400 mm of rainfall per month.This climate has many nuances, classified differently according to the studies, but which all depend on the relief and the proximity of the Atlantic coast. The coastal plain around Douala experiences a so-called “hyperhumid” climate with a total absence of a dry season. Douala is regularly flooded in the rainy season. At the foot of Mount Cameroon, rainfall is at record levels: more than 7,500 mm per year in Limbé. The equatorial climate of the western highlands is “mountain facies” (the relief creates strong variations in rainfall and lowers temperatures). The coastal belt includes some of the wettest places on earth. The coast near Mount Cameroon experiences the most abundant rainfall in the country. The locality of Debundscha for example, has an average annual rainfall of 10,299 mm.The southern Cameroon plateaux and the southern coastal plain experience the so-called Guinean-type climate that characterizes the Congo Basin forest. The Tropical climate From south to north, depending on the latitude with variations due to the relief, the tropical climate has three very different types: A humid tropical climate: at altitude, around the Adamaoua. rainfall here is abundant: around 1,500 mm per year. the temperature is moderate all year round (around 20 °C) and the dry season in Ngaoundéré goes from October to January A tropical Sudanese climate: This climate zone is located around the Bénoué basin. The temperatures in the zone are high and the rains remain abundant (1,300 mm annually in Garoua). However the dry season is getting longer (6 months. Rainfall is much more irregular violent and brief tornadoes, caused by dry winds such as the harmattan. A Sudano-Sahelian tropical climate in the north: This climatic zone is located in the northern desert regions are hot and dry.The temperatures are high but with little rainfall; the dry season lasts 8 months in the extreme North region and the rainy season last 4 months. Climate change The average annual temperature of Cameroon has increased over the past decades going up by 0.86 °C over 46 years, from 24.28 °C in 1974 to 25.14 °C in 2020. On the other hand, the average annual precipitation has decreased by 2.9 millimeters per decade since 1960, with a particularly low average rainfall in 2015.In the northern part the violent winds, floods, landslides, erosion, and increased incidences of drought and desert advancement have scorched large expanses of land, causing Climate change is an imminent threat to Cameroon's development due the country's dependence on natural resources and Cameroonians’ dependence on agriculture. With its heavy rainfall that alternates with a six- to seven-month dry season, the Northern Cameroon seems to be the most vulnerable to climate change. In December 2009, the Cameroonian government created the National Observatory on Climate Change (NOCC), an organisation under the supervision of the Ministry of environment, in charge of monitoring and evaluating the socio- economic and environmental impact of climate change in Cameroon. The NOCC collect climate data and publishes regular reports on the effects of climate change in Cameroon. Extreme weather and hazards Between 1980 and 2020, floods and droughts were the second and third most frequently recurring natural hazard in Cameroon on average, or 32.1 percent and 7.5 percent of total natural hazards. Floods Droughts == References ==

territorial approach to climate change

The Territorial Approach to Climate Change (TACC) works with local level governments (states, provinces, cities, municipalities) in developing countries and countries in transition to increase resilience to climate change impact and reduce their carbon footprint. The TACC is a partnership of five agencies that includes UNEP, UNDP, UNITAR, UN-Habitat and UNCDF.TACC as a global action came into existence after the Saint Malo Declaration. Sub-national authorities recognised that urgent and collective action was needed to respond appropriately to climate change. The United Nations recognised that most investments to reduce Greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climate change take place at the sub-national and local levels. Developing the capacity of sub-national governments in low income countries to create conditions that reduce the perceived investments risks and access new sources of environmental finance was seen as key to addressing climate change.Phase 1 of the programme - Awareness raising and training - was led by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Phase 2 - Analysis, assessment and action plan - was led by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Phase 3 - Projects - was also led by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Initial projects under TACC were conducted in: Uganda Uruguay (the pilot project) Albania Algeria Colombia Ethiopia Peru Senegal == References ==

climate change commission

The Climate Change Commission (Māori: He Pou a Rangi) is an independent Crown entity that advises the New Zealand Government on climate change policy and monitors the government's progress towards New Zealand's emission reduction goals within the framework of the Climate Change Response (Zero Carbon) Amendment Act . The Commission was established as the successor to the Interim Climate Change Committee following the passage of the Zero Carbon Act in November 2019. Mandates and functions The Climate Change Commission advises the New Zealand Government on policy to reduce carbon emissions in line with New Zealand's 2050 emission reduction and adaption goals. It also monitors and reports on government progress against the 2050 target (via emissions budgets and emission reduction plans), the adaptation plan and primary sector commitments.Specific policy the commission provides advice on includes the emissions budgets, emission reduction plan, Emissions Trading Scheme settings and changes to the 2050 target. The Climate Change Minister may also request the commission to provide advice on other matters. When providing advice, the commission by law must consider currently available scientific knowledge, existing and anticipated technology, economic impacts, the circumstances (social, cultural, environmental and ecological), distributional impacts, the crown-Māori relationship, te ao Māori and responses by other parties to the Paris Agreement. Leadership Since its inception, the Climate Change Commission has been chaired by Rod Carr, a former chair and non-executive director of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand and a former vice-chancellor of the University of Canterbury. Other members include: Lisa Tumahai, deputy chairperson of the Commission, former deputy chairperson of the ICCC, and Ngāi Tahu leader Dr Harry Clark, an agricultural greenhouse gas expert and former member of the ICCC Dr Judy Lawrence, former coordinating lead author with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Catherine Leining, climate change mitigation policy adviser and former civil servant Dr James Renwick, climate change scientist and lead author on three IPCC assessment reports Dr Nicola Shadbolt, chairperson of Plant & Food Research and former director of Fonterra and Transit New Zealand.Jo Hendy is the Climate Change Commission's chief executive. She was previously with the secretariat of the Interim Climate Change Committee (ICCC) and is a former director of research and analysis for the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment. History Formation The Climate Change Commission was established as the successor to the Interim Climate Change Committee (ICCC) in November 2019 by the Climate Change Response (Zero Carbon) Amendment Act. The organisation was tasked with developing an evidence-based plan for New Zealand to fulfill its climate change goals within the framework of the Zero Carbon Act.On 24 April 2020, Climate Change Minister James Shaw asked the Climate Commission Change Commission to review New Zealand's emission reduction target under the Paris Agreement, focusing on New Zealand's methane and carbon commitments.In mid-May 2020, Climate Change Commission Chair Rod Carr criticised the 2020 New Zealand budget as insufficient for fulfilling New Zealand's carbon neutral goals. However, Carr welcomed the budget's commitments towards research, forestry, improving bush and wetlands, tightening the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme, rail and home insulation. First report On 31 January 2021, the Climate Change Commission released its draft advice for the first three emission budgets and the first emissions reduction plan. The report proposed phasing out petrol-powered cars, accelerated renewable energy generation, reducing the number of cows, and growing more native forests to meet New Zealand's carbon neutral goals by 2050. Chairman Carr defended the advice as ambitious but claimed it was realistic and advocated "immediate and decisive" action. Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern claimed that the impact of the proposed reforms would not be an economic burden.In response, the Automobile Association's spokesperson Simon Douglas and Z Energy chief executive Mike Bennetts said that more investment was needed to encourage people to use electric vehicles including charging stations and cheaper prices. Gasfitters and plumbers also expressed concern that a proposed ban on new gas installations from 2025 would hurt their economic livelihood and careers. The coal industry also expressed concerns about the Commission's plan to phase out fossil fuels by 2050. Final advice On 9 June 2021, the Climate Commission issued its final advice to the government for the emissions budgets and first emission reduction plan following consultation with the public. The report recommended the reduction of animal numbers at farms, no new household gas connections by 2025, and shifting to electric vehicles within the next decade in order to reduce greenhouse emissions. Prime Minister Ardern and Climate Change Minister James Shaw endorsed the Climate Commission's report. On 14 June, the Government announced that it would introduce subsidies to make electric cars cheaper while raising the price of new petrol and new diesel vehicles. Beginning in July 2021, subsidies for new electric and hybrid vehicles will be up to NZ$8,625 (£4,360) and NZ$3,450 (£1,744) for used cars.In response to the policy announcement, EV City owner David Boot said that it would boost demand for electric cars while expressing concern about the need for educating electric car users. Motor Trade Association chief executive Craig Pomare claimed that the rebate would not be enough to encourage motor users to make the switch to electric cars, while Federated Farmers national president Andrew Hoggard expressed concerns about the lack of electric vehicle alternatives for farmers and tradespersons, advocating a waiver for farmers. On 16 July 2021, the farmers advocacy group Groundswell NZ organised a nationwide Howl of a Protest campaign across 57 towns and cities to protest the government's new regulations. See also Climate Change Committee – the UK entity on which the Climate Change Commission was based Climate change in New Zealand Notes and references External links Official website

climate change in vermont

Climate change in Vermont encompasses the effects of climate change, attributed to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, in the U.S. state of Vermont. The state is already seeing effects of climate change that affect its ecosystems, economy and public health. According to the Vermont state government, rainfall has significantly increased in the last 50 years, storms and flooding have increased, and winters have become warmer and shorter. These changes have led to significant impacts on both the winter tourism industry, and a decline in critical agricultural and woodland industries like maple sugaring.The state openly acknowledges and is developing programs that respond to global warming. Vermont was one of the first states in the United States to adopt greenhouse gas emissions goals in 2006. Effects of climate change According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, "Vermont's climate is changing. The state has warmed by more than two degrees (F) in the last century. Throughout the northeastern United States, spring is arriving earlier and bringing more precipitation, heavy rainstorms are more frequent, and summers are hotter and drier. Severe storms increasingly cause floods that damage property and infrastructure. In the coming decades, changing climate is likely to harm ecosystems, disrupt agriculture and winter recreation, and increase some risks to human health". Rising temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns are likely to increase the intensity of both floods and droughts. Average annual precipitation in the Northeast increased 10 percent from 1895 to 2011, and precipitation from extremely heavy storms has increased 70 percent since 1958. During the next century, average annual precipitation and the frequency of heavy downpours are likely to keep rising. Average precipitation is likely to increase during winter and spring, but not change significantly during summer and fall. Rising temperatures will melt snow earlier in spring and increase evaporation, and thereby dry the soil during summer and fall. So flooding is likely to be worse during winter and spring, and droughts worse during summer and fall. Ecosystems Changing climate threatens ecosystems by disrupting relationships between species. Wildflowers and woody perennials are blooming—and migratory birds are arriving—sooner in spring. Not all species adjust in the same way, however, so the food that one species needs may no longer be available when that species arrives on its migration. Warmer temperatures allow deer populations to increase, leading to a loss of forest underbrush, which makes some animals more vulnerable to predators.Climate change can allow invasive species to expand their ranges. For example, the hemlock woolly adelgid has infested hemlock trees in southern Vermont. Infestation eventually kills almost all hemlock trees, which are replaced by black oaks, black birch, and other hardwoods. Warmer temperatures are likely to enable the woolly adelgid to expand northward. The loss of hemlock trees would remove the primary habitat for the blue-headed vireo and Blackburnian warbler. It could also change stream temperatures and cause streams to run dry more often, harming brook trout and brown trout. Similarly the Emerald ash borer has expanded north into Vermont forests capitalizing on the warming winters.Additionally, whereas previously Lyme disease was not prevalent in Vermont, because the ticks that carry the disease were not common, now it is. Economy Vermont has a largely rural and small town economy, which depends heavily on tourism and agriculture. However, the state's emphasis and early adoption had led to a strong green technology and business sector in the state. Agriculture Changing climate may reduce the output of Vermont's $700-million dairy industry, which provides 70 percent of the state’s farm revenue. Higher temperatures cause cows to eat less and produce less milk. Climate change may also pose challenges for field crops: Some farms may be harmed if more hot days and droughts reduce crop yields, or if more flooding and wetter springs delay their planting dates. Other farms may benefit from a longer growing season and the fertilizing effect of carbon dioxide.Warmer temperatures are likely to shift the suitable habitat for sugar maples farther north into Canada. Scientists do not know whether warming will reduce maple syrup production in Vermont over the next few decades: although Vermont is the nation's leading maple syrup producer, maple syrup is also produced in warmer places in Pennsylvania and southern New York. The maple industry is already seeing a trend of declining production in the state, in part because of the earlier defrost.Vermont's Hardiness zone's are also expected to change shifting most of the state from hardiness zone 4 where it was classified until 2000, into a project hardiness zone 5 for most of the state by 2040. The lack of cool temperatures and "freeze days" will negatively effect crops like blueberries, apples, and balsam firs. Tourism industry Climate change has affected the Vermont skiing industry. Warmer winters bring more rain and less snow to Vermont. The EPA has noted that a decline in snowfall would shorten the season during which the ground is covered with snow, which could harm recreational industries like skiing, snowboarding, and snowmobiling, and local economies that depend on them.Moreover, the autumn foliage is becoming more uncertain. This has had an effect on the flow of visitors in that season as well. Public health The state is already seeing increases in tick-borne and mosquito-born diseases, emergency room visits for heat related illness, and allergens: 2019 was the hottest summer on record in many parts of Vermont, and saw increased heat related illnesses. State response In 2006, the state of Vermont was one of the first states in the United States to set greenhouse gas emission goals. Vermont's green energy programs, such as Efficiency Vermont and incentives for use of clean energy, have been effective at changing the mix of energy used in the state. Green Mountain Power, the main provider of energy in the state, is 60% renewable and 90% carbon free.The state recognizes the need to invest in adaptation, especially since much of the state's infrastructure, housing stock, and economy were developed with much cooler environments. See also Plug-in electric vehicles in Vermont References Further reading Dupigny-Giroux, L.A.; E.L. Mecray; M.D. Lemcke-Stampone; G.A. Hodgkins; E.E. Lentz; K.E. Mills; E.D. Lane; R. Miller; D.Y. Hollinger; W.D. Solecki; G.A. Wellenius; P.E. Sheffield; A.B. MacDonald; C. Caldwell (2018). "Northeast". In Reidmiller, D.R.; C.W. Avery; D.R. Easterling; K.E. Kunkel; K.L.M. Lewis; T.K. Maycock; B.C. Stewart (eds.). Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II (Report). Washington, DC, USA: U.S. Global Change Research Program. pp. 669–742. doi:10.7930/NCA4.2018.CH18.—this chapter of the National Climate Assessment covers Northeast states External links Vermont state government page on climate change in Vermont

international climate change partnership

The International Climate Change Partnership (ICCP) is an organization of oil and chemical companies and trade associations from around the world working to influence international climate change legislation. History The association began from mainly former businesses that had participated in the negotiations of the Montreal Protocol. In the mid-1990s the ICCP was the first major business coalition organization to advocate for market mechanisms as part of what would become the Kyoto Protocol. Although it did not advocate for carbon limits, the ICCP broke from traditional anti-regulatory business coalitions as a pro-regulatory coalition. This allowed the trade association to outcompete other businesses in promoting the coalition's preferred agenda in climate change policy formulation in the First Conference of Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1995. The ICCP preferred an emissions trading scheme over a carbon tax. See also Politics of global warming == References ==

climate change in new york (state)

Climate change in New York encompasses the effects of climate change, attributed to man-made increases in atmospheric greenhouse gases, in the U.S. state of New York. It is of concern due to its impact on the people, ecosystem, and economy of the state. Many parts of the state are already experiencing weather changes, and sea-level rise, and threatening local communities. New York State ranks 46th among the 50 states in the amount of greenhouse gases generated per person. This relative efficient energy usage is primarily due to the dense, compact settlement in the New York City metropolitan area, and the high rate of mass transit use in this area and between major cities. The main sources of greenhouse gases per the state government are transportation, buildings, electricity generation, waste, refrigerants, and agriculture. In 2019 the state pledged to eliminate net greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. In 2021, New York experienced areas of extreme flooding due to Hurricane Ida, which was noted as having characteristics that are probably more common in a warmer climate: the intensity, the rapid intensification, and the amount of rainfall over land. Effects of climate change in New York Temperature The United States Environmental Protection Agency has noted that "[m]ost of the state has warmed one to three degrees (F) (16.1°C) in the last century", and New York State Department of Environmental Conservation has further observed that "[t]he annual average temperature statewide has risen about 2.4°F (16.4°C) since 1970, with winter warming exceeding 4.4°F" (-15.3°C). According to a 2011 report commissioned by the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority, "If carbon emissions continue to increase at their current pace [...], temperatures are expected to rise across the state by 3 degrees Fahrenheit (-16.1 Degrees Celsius) by the 2020s and by as much as 9 degrees (3.8°C) by the 2080s." Climate According to a study published in February 2019, by 2080 the climate of New York City will feel like the climate of Arkansas. Precipitation "During the next century, annual precipitation and the frequency of heavy downpours are likely to keep rising. Precipitation is likely to increase during winter and spring, but not change significantly during summer and fall." Coastal areas "Sea levels along New York's coast have already risen more than a foot since 1900." "Sea level is rising more rapidly along New York’s coast than in most coastal areas because the land surface is sinking. If the oceans and atmosphere continue to warm, tidal waters in New York are likely to rise one to four feet in the next century." According to a 2011 report commissioned by the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority, "there is a high amount of low-income housing that would be in the path of flooding." "Climate change is estimated to cause the sea level along the coast of New York City to rise anywhere from one to three and a half feet by 2080 at a cost of billions of dollars in lost property and assets."Unless action is taken, the United States Geological Survey predicts that by 2100, "the barrier islands in Southampton would be broken up by new inlets or lost to erosion if sea level rises three feet." These concerns about coastal dangers have remained highly consistent over time. As early as 2006, Stern Review, the largest, most comprehensive economic analysis of climate change to that point, projected that warming of 3 or 4 °C (5.4 or 7.2 °F) would lead to serious risks and increasing pressures for coastal protection in New York State. The Great Lakes New York borders Lake Ontario and Lake Erie to the west. "The levels of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario are expected to drop due to increased evaporation and lower recharge rates caused by climate change. Lake Erie levels are expected to decrease by as much as five feet by 2100, threatening wildlife and reducing waters supplies for electricity generation." Warmer temperatures cause algae blooms, "which can be unsightly, harm fish, and degrade water quality."Reduced ice cover on the Great Lakes extends the shipping season, as ice prevents navigation in the Great Lakes. Buffalo and its metropolitan area are described as climate change havens for their weather pattern in Western New York. Agriculture According to a 2011 report, if warming trends continue, "none of the varieties of apples currently grown in New York orchards would be viable. Dairy farms would be less productive as cows faced heat stress. And the state’s forests would be transformed; spruce-fir forests and alpine tundra would disappear as invasive species like kudzu, an aggressive weed, gained more ground." The EPA notes that "increasingly hot summers are likely to reduce yields of corn, the state's most important crop. Higher temperatures cause cows to eat less and produce less milk, so a warming climate could reduce the output of milk and beef, which together account for more than half the state's farm revenues". Ecosystems "Wetlands threatened by rising sea level currently support clapper rail, sharp-tailed sparrow, marsh wren, and the northern harrier, a threatened species.""Striped bass is expected to experience a major loss in habitat as ocean temperatures rise, especially in the southern part of its range"Climate change has also been asserted to be the cause of growing rat infestations in the state, as "[m]ilder winters — the result of climate change — make it easier for rats to survive and reproduce". Adaptation to climate change in New York The Community Risk and Resiliency Act (CRRA), signed into law in September 2014 by New York Governor Andrew Cuomo, requires that applicants to certain state permitting and funding programs "demonstrate that they have taken into account future physical climate risks from storm surges, sea-level rise or flooding." It also "requires the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) to adopt science-based sea-level rise projections into regulation" and "adds mitigation of risk due to sea-level rise, storm surge and flooding to the list of smart-growth criteria to be considered by state public-infrastructure agencies." In December 2019, New York joined consideration for a multi-state gasoline cap-and-trade program. The plan aims to reduce transportation-related tailpipe emissions, and would levy a tax on fuel companies based on carbon dioxide emissions. The most ambitious version of the plan is projected to reduce the area's tailpipe emissions by 25% between 2022 and 2032. The program is in the public comment phase, with individual states determining whether to participate. The program could begin as early as 2022. See also Climate change in New York City Plug-in electric vehicles in New York (state) References Further reading Dupigny-Giroux, L.A.; E.L. Mecray; M.D. Lemcke-Stampone; G.A. Hodgkins; E.E. Lentz; K.E. Mills; E.D. Lane; R. Miller; D.Y. Hollinger; W.D. Solecki; G.A. Wellenius; P.E. Sheffield; A.B. MacDonald; C. Caldwell (2018). "Northeast". In Reidmiller, D.R.; C.W. Avery; D.R. Easterling; K.E. Kunkel; K.L.M. Lewis; T.K. Maycock; B.C. Stewart (eds.). Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II (Report). Washington, DC, USA: U.S. Global Change Research Program. pp. 669–742. doi:10.7930/NCA4.2018.CH18. -- this chapter of the National Climate Assessment covers Northeast states

climate of ghana

The climate of Ghana is tropical. The eastern coastal belt is warm and comparatively dry, the south-west corner of Ghana is hot and humid, and the north of Ghana is hot and dry. Ghana is located on the Gulf of Guinea, only a few degrees north of the Equator, giving it a warm climate. Climate The climate of Ghana is tropical and there are two main seasons: the wet and the dry seasons. North Ghana experiences its rainy season from April to mid-October while South Ghana experiences its rainy season from March to mid-November. The tropical climate of Ghana is relatively mild for its latitude. The harmattan, a dry desert wind, blows in north-east Ghana from December to March, lowering the humidity and causing hotter days and cooler nights in northern part of Ghana. Average daily temperatures range from 30°C (86°F) during the day to 24°C (75°F) at night with a relative humidity between 77 percent and 85 percent. In the southern part of Ghana, there is a bi-modal rainy season: April through June and September through November. Squalls occur in the northern part of Ghana during March and April, followed by occasional rain until August and September, when the rainfall reaches its peak. Rainfall ranges from 78 to 216 centimeters (31 to 85 inches) a year. Climate change in Ghana References External links Ghana – Weather Averages

climate change in wyoming

On a per-person basis, Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country: 276,000 pounds (125,000 kg) of it per capita a year, because of burning coal, which provides nearly all of the state's electrical power.Over the last century, the average temperature in Laramie, Wyoming, has increased 1.5 °F (0.8 °C),.Over the course of the 21st century, climate in Wyoming may change even more. For example, based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre’s climate model (HadCM2), a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols, by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 °F (2 °C) in spring and fall (with a range of 2-7 °F), 5 °F (2.5 °C) in summer (with a range of 2-8 °F), and 6 °F (3 °C) in winter (with a range of 3-11 °F) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer (with a range of 0-10%), increase by 10% in spring and fall (with a range of 5-20%), and increase by 30% in winter (with a range of 10-50%). Other climate models may show different results, especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation. The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase. The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend. It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected, although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible. Impacts Human health Warmer temperatures could increase the incidence of Lyme disease and other tick-borne diseases in Wyoming, because populations of ticks, and their rodent hosts, could increase under warmer temperatures and increased vegetation. Increased runoff from heavy rainfall could increase water-borne diseases such as giardia, cryptosporidia, and viral and bacterial gastroenteritis. Water resources The headwaters of several rivers originate in Wyoming and flow in all directions into the Missouri, Snake, and Colorado River basins. Within the state, water is plentiful in some parts and scarce in others. Winter snow accumulation and spring snowmelt strongly affect many of Wyoming’s rivers. A warmer climate could result in less winter snowfall, more winter rain, and faster, earlier spring snowmelt. In the summer, without increases in rainfall of at least 15-20%, higher temperatures and increased evaporation could lower streamflows and lake levels. Less water would be available to support irrigation, hydropower generation, public water supplies, fish and wildlife habitat, recreation, and mining. Competition for water could increase on the plains, where agricultural and industrial users compete for available water. Similarly, in northeastern Wyoming, which has large deposits of minerals, coal, and petroleum, competition between mining, energy, and other users could intensify for the meager summer streamflows. Groundwater levels in several areas of the state are declining because of increased pumpage for irrigation and urban development. Less spring and summer recharge could lower groundwater levels. Tourism and recreation, important components of Wyoming’s economy, also depend on adequate supplies of clean water. Higher temperatures and lower flows could impair water quality by concentrating pollutants and reducing assimilative capacity. Agriculture Warmer climates and less soil moisture due to increased evaporation may increase the need for irrigation. However, these same conditions could decrease water supplies, which also may be needed by natural ecosystems, urban populations, industry, and other users. Under these conditions, livestock tend to gain less weight and pasture yields decline, limiting forage. Forests With changes in climate, the extent of forested areas in Wyoming could change little or decline by as much as 15-30%.Hotter, drier weather could increase the frequency and intensity of wildfires, threatening both property and forests. Drier conditions would reduce the range and health of ponderosa and lodgepole forests, and increase their susceptibility to fire. Grasslands and rangeland could expand into previously forested areas in the western part of the state. Milder winters could increase the likelihood of insect outbreaks and of subsequent wildfires in the dead fuel left after such an outbreak. Ecosystems Since the massive fires of 1988, when nearly half of Yellowstone National Park burned, scientists have been paying close attention to the possible threats from climate change. Experts agree that the fires of 1988 came about as result of a winter drought, a hot dry summer, and unusually strong winds. Also important were the large areas of highly flammable, old-growth lodgepole pine forest. Under normal conditions, large fires like those of 1988 occur only once in every few generations. But, with approximately 40% of the Yellowstone still vulnerable to large-scale burns, any increased fire risk due to climate change would pose a significant problem. The replacement of old-growth forest stands by younger stands could threaten northern twinflower, Fairy Slipper, pine marten, and goshawk. Outbreaks of defoliating attacks by western spruce budworms could occur more frequently and become much more damaging for the conifer forests. Climate change also poses a threat to the high alpine systems, and this zone could disappear in many areas. Local extinctions of alpine species such as arctic gentian, alpine chaenactis, rosy finch, and water pipit could be expected as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation. Even a modest warming and drying could reduce whitebark pine habitat by up to 90% within 50 years. Whitebark pine nuts and army cutworm moth caterpillars, which are found in these forests, provide vital food for Wyoming’s grizzly bear population. Whitebark pine forest may be replaced with Douglas fir, and on the lower slopes, forest would give way to treeless landscapes dominated by big sagebrush, Idaho fescue, and bluebunch wheatgrass. Action on climate change Renewable energy The Wyoming Infrastructure Authority (WIA) has partnerships to secure tax credit bonds for construction of renewable energy projects. WIA accepted proposals for projects using resources from wind, biomass, geothermal, solar, small irrigation power, trash combustion, certain refined coal production, and certain hydropower projects. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 authorizes $500 million Clean Renewable Energy Bonds (CREBS) for government agencies. The bonds serve as tax credits for the private-sector partners and provide as tax-free capital financing for renewable energy projects. WIA is an organization formed by the Wyoming Legislature in 2004 to encourage economic development in Wyoming through the expansion of the state's electricity transmission capacity. Since the renewable power projects would use the transmission capability managed by WIA, the agency will evaluate proposals that meet its criteria. Geothermal energy In cooperation with the Wyoming Business Council, the Converse Area New Development Organization drafted an initiative to advance geothermal energy development in Wyoming. The state is a prime candidate for geothermal direct use applications such as home heating and cooling, spas, agriculture, aquaculture, greenhouses, and space heating. The Wyoming Geothermal Outreach Program aims to increase public awareness of opportunities in geothermal energy, as it works with government and industry to improve the state's regulatory and economic environment. It will promote environmentally compatible heat and power, industrial growth, and economic development. The program will create geothermal information-sharing tools, including workshops, a Web site, and information packets. Representatives will engage in trade missions to other states to research best practices in geothermal development. Solar The Wyoming Business Council offers grants for homeowners who want to install photovoltaic (PV) systems . Wyoming's Residential Photovoltaic Grant Program promotes the use of PV by granting half the cost of installing a PV system up to $3,000. The grant program has provided matching grants for 139 residential PV installations, which have a combined rated capacity of 80 kilowatts. Twenty-five grants will be awarded this year. Because of the demand for these grants, the program will be using a lottery system to select recipients. Biofuels Wyoming potential biofuel production Gasoline Use: 307 million US gallons (1,160×10^3 m3) Diesel Use: 340 million US gallons (1,300×10^3 m3) Total Cellulosic Biomass: 0.5 million dry T Total Crop Biomass: 0.1 million dry T E85 Stations: 5 Biodiesel Stations: 14 Ethanol Plants: 1 Ethanol Production Capacity: 12 million US gallons (45×10^3 m3). Biodiesel Plants: 0 Biodiesel Production Capacity: 0 million gal Ethanol motor fuel production tax credit Ethanol fuel producers may redeem a tax credit of $0.40 per gallon with the Wyoming Department of Transportation. Ethanol blended motor fuel is defined as a blend of 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline that is used to operate motor vehicles. To be eligible to receive this credit, at least 25% of an ethanol producer's distillation feedstock purchases must be products that originate in Wyoming, excluding water, during the year the tax credits were earned. The total credits redeemed by all ethanol producers may not exceed $4 million per year, and the total credits redeemed by any individual ethanol producer may not exceed $2 million per year. Additionally, an ethanol producer constructing a new ethanol production facility may receive tax credits for a period not to exceed 15 years after the date that construction is completed. Any ethanol producer that expands its production by at least 25% is eligible for tax credits with an increased maximum amount. Qualifying ethanol producers may only receive a tax credit through June 30, 2009. Energy conservation The Wyoming Energy Conservation Improvement Program (WYECIP) is a performance contracting program for energy conservation in public and private nonprofit facilities. These facilities include state agencies, local governments, schools, colleges, hospitals, nursing homes, and other nonprofit agencies. The Wyoming Business Council, which also manages the State Energy Program in Wyoming, has prequalified 10 energy service companies under the program and manages the process of implementing performance contracts for the facility owners. Through performance contracting, participating state and nonprofit agencies can hire the prequalified contractors for energy efficiency upgrades and pay for it with energy savings. See also Almy, Wyoming Coal mining Coal electricity Coal phase out Falsifiability Plug-in electric vehicles in Wyoming References Further reading Conant, R.T.; D. Kluck; M. Anderson; A. Badger; B.M. Boustead; J. Derner; L. Farris; M. Hayes; B. Livneh; S. McNeeley; D. Peck; M. Shulski; V. Smal (2018). "Northern Great Plains". In Reidmiller, D.R.; C.W. Avery; D.R. Easterling; K.E. Kunkel; K.L.M. Lewis; T.K. Maycock; B.C. Stewart (eds.). Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II (Report). Washington, DC, USA: U.S. Global Change Research Program. pp. 941–986. doi:10.7930/NCA4.2018.CH22.—this chapter of the National Climate Assessment covers Montana, Wyoming, South Dakota, North Dakota, and Nebraska External links Wyoming Infrastructure Authority Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy in Wyoming (DOE's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy) Wyoming Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency Small wind turbine in Wyoming

climate of ecuador

The climate of Ecuador is generally tropical and varies with altitude and region, due to differences in elevation and, to a degree, in proximity to the equator. The coastal lowlands in the western part of Ecuador are typically warm with temperatures in the region of 25 °C (77 °F). Coastal areas are affected by ocean currents and are hot and rainy between January and April.The weather in Quito is consistent with that of a subtropical highland climate. The average temperature during the day is 21 °C (70 °F), which generally falls to an average of 10 °C (50 °F) at night. The average temperature annually is 18 °C (64 °F). There are two seasons in the city: dry and wet. The dry season runs from June to September and the wet season is from October to May. Effects of Climate Change Ecuador has a diverse geography and is very vulnerable to climate change. Antisana, Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Cayambe, the Ilinizas (north and south), El Altar, and Carihuairazo are the seven glaciers of Ecuador. These glaciers are all located on volcanic craters that are affected by the greenhouse effect. Because of global warming glacier Carihuairazo has already lost 96% of its glacier surface. With the continued worsening of climate change, Carihuairazo can disappear within five years. By the end of 2018, there was an average nationwide loss of 53% of glacier coverage. Glacier shrinkage is a natural phenomenon that has existed; however, in the last 20 years climate change has exacerbated shrinkage. These glaciers in Ecuador play a major role in the climate because they gather the atmospheric circulation from the Pacific and the humidity of the Amazon region. Examples See also Climate References External links Climate map Description of climates of each regionArchived 13 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine

list of parties to the united nations framework convention on climate change

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), informally known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992. The objective of the treaty is to "stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system".The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms. In that sense, the treaty is considered legally non-binding. Instead, the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties (called "protocols") that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases. The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992, after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992. It entered into force on 21 March 1994. As of July 2022, UNFCCC has 198 parties. Parties As of 2022, the UNFCCC has 198 parties including all United Nations member states, United Nations General Assembly observers the State of Palestine and the Holy See, UN non-member states Niue and the Cook Islands, and the supranational union European Union. Classification of Parties by the Annex Parties to the UNFCCC are classified as: Annex I: There are 43 Parties to the UNFCCC listed in Annex I of the convention, including the European Union. These Parties are classified as industrialized (developed) countries and "economies in transition" (EITs). The 14 EITs are the former centrally-planned (Soviet) economies of Russia and Eastern Europe. Annex II: Of the Parties listed in Annex I of the convention, 24 are also listed in Annex II of the convention, including the European Union. These Parties are made up of members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Annex II Parties are required to provide financial and technical support to the EITs and developing countries to assist them in reducing their greenhouse gas emissions (climate change mitigation) and manage the impacts of climate change (climate change adaptation). Non-Annex I: Parties to the UNFCCC not listed in Annex I of the convention are mostly low-income developing countries. Developing countries may volunteer to become Annex I countries when they are sufficiently developed. Least-developed countries (LDCs): 49 Parties are LDCs, and are given special status under the treaty in view of their limited capacity to adapt to the effects of climate change. Party negotiation groups Like minded parties group themselves in negotiation blocks, who oftentimes take common positions. 12 parties do not belong to any block. SIDS (Small Island Developing States) African Group LDCs (Least Developed Countries) G77 & ChinaAILAC (Independent Alliance of Latin America and the Caribbean) LMDCs (Like-Minded Developing Countries) Arab GroupEIG (Environmental Integrity Group) Umbrella Group EU (European Union) List of parties Notes and references Notes === References ===

sea level

Mean sea level (MSL, often shortened to sea level) is an average surface level of one or more among Earth's coastal bodies of water from which heights such as elevation may be measured. The global MSL is a type of vertical datum – a standardised geodetic datum – that is used, for example, as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation, or, in aviation, as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured to calibrate altitude and, consequently, aircraft flight levels. A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is instead the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location.Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales. Current sea level rise is mainly caused by human-induced climate change. When temperatures rise, mountain glaciers and the polar ice caps melt, increasing the amount of water in water bodies. Because most of human settlement and infrastructure was built in response to a more normalized sea level with limited expected change, populations affected by climate change in connection to sea level rise will need to invest in climate adaptation to mitigate the worst effects or when populations are in extreme risk, a process of managed retreat. The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level (AMSL). The term APSL means above present sea level, comparing sea levels in the past with the level today. Earth's radius at sea level is 6,378.137 km (3,963.191 mi) at the equator. It is 6,356.752 km (3,949.903 mi) at the poles and 6,371.001 km (3,958.756 mi) on average. This variation from a perfect sphere is the geoid of the Earth. It causes a significant depression in the Indian Ocean, about 1,200 km (746 mi) southwest of India, where the surface reaches a depth of 106 m (348 ft) below the global mean sea level. Measurement Precise determination of a "mean sea level" is difficult because of the many factors that affect sea level. Instantaneous sea level varies quite a lot on several scales of time and space. This is because the sea is in constant motion, affected by the tides, wind, atmospheric pressure, local gravitational differences, temperature, salinity, and so forth. The easiest way this may be calculated is by selecting a location and calculating the mean sea level at that point and using it as a datum. For example, a period of 19 years of hourly level observations may be averaged and used to determine the mean sea level at some measurement point.Still-water level or still-water sea level (SWL) is the level of the sea with motions such as wind waves averaged out. Then MSL implies the SWL further averaged over a period of time such that changes due to, e.g., the tides, also have zero mean. Global MSL refers to a spatial average over the entire ocean.One often measures the values of MSL in respect to the land; hence a change in relative MSL can result from a real change in sea level, or from a change in the height of the land on which the tide gauge operates. In the UK, the ordnance datum (the 0 metres height on UK maps) is the mean sea level measured at Newlyn in Cornwall between 1915 and 1921. Before 1921, the vertical datum was MSL at the Victoria Dock, Liverpool. Since the times of the Russian Empire, in Russia and its other former parts, now independent states, the sea level is measured from the zero level of Kronstadt Sea-Gauge. In Hong Kong, "mPD" is a surveying term meaning "metres above Principal Datum" and refers to height of 0.146 m above chart datum and 1.304 m below the average sea level. In France, the Marégraphe in Marseilles measures continuously the sea level since 1883 and offers the longest collated data about the sea level. It is used for a part of continental Europe and the main part of Africa as the official sea level. Spain uses the reference to measure heights below or above sea level at Alicante, and another European vertical elevation reference (European Vertical Reference System) is to the Amsterdam Peil elevation, which dates back to the 1690s. Satellite altimeters have been making precise measurements of sea level since the launch of TOPEX/Poseidon in 1992. A joint mission of NASA and CNES, TOPEX/Poseidon was followed by Jason-1 in 2001 and the Ocean Surface Topography Mission on the Jason-2 satellite in 2008. Height above mean sea level Height above mean sea level (AMSL) is the elevation (on the ground) or altitude (in the air) of an object, relative to the average sea level datum. It is also used in aviation, where some heights are recorded and reported with respect to mean sea level (MSL) (contrast with flight level), and in the atmospheric sciences, and land surveying. An alternative is to base height measurements on an ellipsoid of the entire Earth, which is what systems such as GPS do. In aviation, the ellipsoid known as World Geodetic System 84 is increasingly used to define heights; however, differences up to 100 metres (328 feet) exist between this ellipsoid height and mean tidal height. The alternative is to use a geoid-based vertical datum such as NAVD88 and the global EGM96 (part of WGS84). When referring to geographic features, such as mountains, on a topographic map variations in elevation are shown by contour lines. The elevation of a mountain denotes the highest point or summit and is typically illustrated as a small circle on a topographic map with the AMSL height shown in metres, feet or both.In the rare case that a location is below sea level, the elevation AMSL is negative. For one such case, see Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. Difficulties in use To extend this definition far from the sea means comparing the local height of the mean sea surface with a "level" reference surface, or geodetic datum, called the geoid. In a state of rest or absence of external forces, the mean sea level would coincide with this geoid surface, being an equipotential surface of the Earth's gravitational field which, in itself, does not conform to a simple sphere or ellipsoid and exhibits measurable variations such as those measured by NASA's GRACE satellites to determine mass changes in ice-sheets and aquifers. In reality, this ideal does not occur due to ocean currents, air pressure variations, temperature and salinity variations, etc., not even as a long-term average. The location-dependent, but persistent in time, separation between mean sea level and the geoid is referred to as (mean) ocean surface topography. It varies globally in a range of ± 2 m. Dry land Several terms are used to describe the changing relationships between sea level and dry land. "relative" means change relative to a fixed point in the sediment pile. "eustatic" refers to global changes in sea level relative to a fixed point, such as the centre of the earth, for example as a result of melting ice-caps. "steric" refers to global changes in sea level due to thermal expansion and salinity variations. "isostatic" refers to changes in the level of the land relative to a fixed point in the earth, possibly due to thermal buoyancy or tectonic effects; it implies no change in the volume of water in the oceans.The melting of glaciers at the end of ice ages results in eustatic post-glacial rebound. The subsidence of land due to the withdrawal of groundwater is an isostatic cause of relative sea level rise. Paleoclimatologists can track sea level by examining the rocks deposited along coasts that are very tectonically stable, like the east coast of North America. Areas like volcanic islands are experiencing relative sea level rise as a result of isostatic cooling of the rock which causes the land to sink. On planets that lack a liquid ocean, planetologists can calculate a "mean altitude" by averaging the heights of all points on the surface. This altitude, sometimes referred to as a "sea level" or zero-level elevation, serves equivalently as a reference for the height of planetary features. Change Local and eustatic Local mean sea level (LMSL) is defined as the height of the sea with respect to a land benchmark, averaged over a period of time (such as a month or a year) long enough that fluctuations caused by waves and tides are smoothed out. One must adjust perceived changes in LMSL to account for vertical movements of the land, which can be of the same order (mm/yr) as sea level changes. Some land movements occur because of isostatic adjustment of the mantle to the melting of ice sheets at the end of the last ice age. The weight of the ice sheet depresses the underlying land, and when the ice melts away the land slowly rebounds. Changes in ground-based ice volume also affect local and regional sea levels by the readjustment of the geoid and true polar wander. Atmospheric pressure, ocean currents and local ocean temperature changes can affect LMSL as well. Eustatic sea level change (as opposed to local change) results in an alteration to the global sea levels due to changes in either the volume of water in the world's oceans or net changes in the volume of the oceanic basins. Short-term and periodic changes There are many factors which can produce short-term (a few minutes to 14 months) changes in sea level. Two major mechanisms are causing sea level to rise. First, shrinking land ice, such as mountain glaciers and polar ice sheets, is releasing water into the oceans. Second, as ocean temperatures rise, the warmer water expands. Recent changes Aviation Pilots can estimate height above sea level with an altimeter set to a defined barometric pressure. Generally, the pressure used to set the altimeter is the barometric pressure that would exist at MSL in the region being flown over. This pressure is referred to as either QNH or "altimeter" and is transmitted to the pilot by radio from air traffic control (ATC) or an automatic terminal information service (ATIS). Since the terrain elevation is also referenced to MSL, the pilot can estimate height above ground by subtracting the terrain altitude from the altimeter reading. Aviation charts are divided into boxes and the maximum terrain altitude from MSL in each box is clearly indicated. Once above the transition altitude, the altimeter is set to the international standard atmosphere (ISA) pressure at MSL which is 1013.25 hPa or 29.92 inHg. See also References External links Sea Level Rise:Understanding the past – Improving projections for the future Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Global sea level change: Determination and interpretation Environment Protection Agency Sea level rise reports Properties of isostasy and eustasy Measuring Sea Level from Space Rising Tide Video: Scripps Institution of Oceanography Sea Levels Online: National Ocean Service (CO-OPS) Système d'Observation du Niveau des Eaux Littorales (SONEL) Sea level rise – How much and how fast will sea level rise over the coming centuries?

boreal ecosystem

A boreal ecosystem is an ecosystem with a subarctic climate located in the Northern Hemisphere, approximately between 50° to 70°N latitude. These ecosystems are commonly known as taiga and are located in parts of North America, Europe, and Asia. The ecosystems that lie immediately to the south of boreal zones are often called hemiboreal. There are a variety of processes and species that occur in these areas as well. The Köppen symbols of boreal ecosystems are Dfc, Dwc, Dfd, and Dwd. Boreal ecosystems are some of the most vulnerable to climate change. Both loss of permafrost, reductions in cold weather and increases in summer heat cause significant changes to ecosystems, displacing cold-adapted species, increasing forest fires, and making ecosystems vulnerable to changing to other ecosystem types. These changes can cause Climate change feedback cycles, where thawing permafrost and changing ecosystems release more greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere causing more climate change. Boreal Species The species within boreal ecosystems varies as it consists of both terrestrial and aquatic habitats. The species composition include many generalized and less specialized feeders. From the equator to the poles, species richness decreases, and there is a negative relationship with species richness changes as climate changes.However, despite not being as biodiverse as tropical systems, this area has a variety of species. Boreal ecosystems are filled with a multitude of flora species from black and white spruce, to willows, wildflowers, and alders. Caribou, although not there year round, come down and into these regions during the winter to forage for lichen. A few fish species include salmonids, smelts, sticklebacks, lamprey and sculpins. For salmon these systems are vital: relying on the riparian systems within boreal ecosystems for multiple life stages in both the beginning and the end of their life cycle, sockeye rely on the provided freshwater environments as eggs, fry and adult stages. Succession Success and succession happen in tandem in boreal forests. Primary succession, while part of the original landscape formation, is not vital like secondary succession. Secondary succession consists of varied events: wildfires, flooding, mudslides and even excessive insect foraging act in this progression and cycle of boreal forests. Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study (BOREAS) The Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study (BOREAS) was a major international research field study in the Canadian boreal forest. The main research was completed between the years of 1994-1996, and the program was sponsored by NASA. The primary objectives were to determine how the boreal forest interacts with the atmosphere, how climate change will affect the forest, and how changes in the forest affect weather and climate. Climate change effects Boreal ecosystems display high sensitivity towards both natural and anthropogenic climate change. Due to greenhouse gas emissions, atmospheric warming ultimately leads to a chain reaction of climatic and ecological effects. The initial effects of climate change on the boreal ecosystem can include, but are not limited to, changes in temperature, rainfall, and growing season. Based on studies from the boreal ecosystems in the Yukon, a territory in northwestern Canada, climate change is having an impact on these abiotic factors. As a consequence, these effects drive changes in forest ecotone as well as marshlands or lakes in boreal ecosystems. This also concerns plant productivity and predator-prey interactions, which ultimately leads to habitat loss, fragmentation, and threatens biodiversity.In terms of boreal trees, the poleward limit for any given species is most likely defined by the temperature, whereas the equatorward limit is generally defined by competitive exclusion. As changes in climate occur, change in the corresponding weather variables follows, and ecosystem alterations involving timing for migration, mating, and plant blooming can occur. This can lead to the transition into a different type of ecosystem as the northward shift of plant and animal species has already been observed. Trees may expand towards the tundra; however, they may not survive due to various temperature or precipitation stressors. The rate depends on growth and reproductive rate, and adaptation ability of the vegetation. In addition, the migration of flora may lag behind warming for a few decades to a century, and in most cases warming happens faster than plants can keep up.Due to permafrost thaw and disturbance alterations such as fire and insect outbreaks, certain models have suggested that boreal forests have developed into a net carbon source instead of a net carbon sink. Although the trees in the boreal are aging, they continue to accumulate carbon into their biomass. However, if disturbed, higher than normal amounts of carbon will be lost to the atmosphere.In some areas, boreal ecosystems are located on a layer of permafrost, which is a layer of permanently frozen soil. The underground root systems of boreal trees are stabilized by permafrost, a process which permits the deeper trapping of carbon in the soil and aids in the regulation of hydrology. Permafrost is able to store double the amount of current atmospheric carbon that can be mobilized and released to the atmosphere as greenhouse gases when thawed under a warming climate feedback. Boreal ecosystems contain approximately 338 Pg (petagrams) of carbon in their soil, this is comparable to the amount which is stored in biomass in tropical ecosystems. Ecosystem services In boreal ecosystems, carbon cycling is a major producer of ecosystem services especially timber production and climate regulation. The boreal ecosystem in Canada is one of the largest carbon reservoirs in the world. Moreover, these boreal ecosystems in Canada possess high hydroelectric potential and are thus able to contribute to the resource-based economy. Through ecosystem assessment, inventory data, and modeling, scientists are able to determine the relationships between ecosystem services and biodiversity and human influence.Forests themselves are producers of lumber products, regulation of water, soil and air quality. Within the past decade, the number of studies focusing on the relationships between ecosystem services has been increasing. This is due to the rise of human management of ecosystems through the manipulation of one ecosystem service to utilize its maximum productivity. Ultimately, this results in the supply decline of other ecosystem services. See also Taiga Subarctic climate, also known as "boreal climate" Boreal forest of Canada == References ==

seaweed

Seaweed, or macroalgae, refers to thousands of species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. The term includes some types of Rhodophyta (red), Phaeophyta (brown) and Chlorophyta (green) macroalgae. Seaweed species such as kelps provide essential nursery habitat for fisheries and other marine species and thus protect food sources; other species, such as planktonic algae, play a vital role in capturing carbon, producing at least 50% of Earth's oxygen.Natural seaweed ecosystems are sometimes under threat from human activity. For example, mechanical dredging of kelp destroys the resource and dependent fisheries. Other forces also threaten some seaweed ecosystems; a wasting disease in predators of purple urchins has led to an urchin population surge which destroyed large kelp forest regions off the coast of California.Humans have a long history of cultivating seaweeds for their uses. In recent years, seaweed farming has become a global agricultural practice, providing food, source material for various chemical uses (such as carrageenan), cattle feeds and fertilizers. Because of their importance in marine ecologies and for absorbing carbon dioxide, recent attention has been on cultivating seaweeds as a potential climate change mitigation strategy for biosequestration of carbon dioxide, alongside other benefits like nutrient pollution reduction, increased habitat for coastal aquatic species, and reducing local ocean acidification. The IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate recommends "further research attention" as a mitigation tactic. Taxonomy "Seaweed" lacks a formal definition, but seaweed generally lives in the ocean and is visible to the naked eye. The term refers to both flowering plants submerged in the ocean, like eelgrass, as well as larger marine algae. Generally, it is one of several groups of multicellular algae: red, green and brown. They lack one common multicellular ancestor, forming a polyphyletic group. In addition, bluegreen algae (Cyanobacteria) are occasionally considered in seaweed literature.The number of seaweed species is still discussed among scientists, but most likely there are several thousand species of seaweed. Genera The following table lists a very few example genera of seaweed. Anatomy Seaweed's appearance resembles non-woody terrestrial plants. Its anatomy includes: Thallus: algal body Lamina or blade: flattened structure that is somewhat leaf-like Sorus: spore cluster pneumatocyst, air bladder: a flotation-assisting organ on the blade Kelp, float: a flotation-assisting organ between the lamina and stipe Stipe: stem-like structure, may be absent Holdfast: basal structure providing attachment to a substrate Haptera: finger-like extension of the holdfast that anchors to a benthic substrateThe stipe and blade are collectively known as the frond. Ecology Two environmental requirements dominate seaweed ecology. These are seawater (or at least brackish water) and light sufficient to support photosynthesis. Another common requirement is an attachment point, and therefore seaweed most commonly inhabits the littoral zone (nearshore waters) and within that zone, on rocky shores more than on sand or shingle. In addition, there are few genera (e.g., Sargassum and Gracilaria) which do not live attached to the sea floor, but float freely. Seaweed occupies various ecological niches. At the surface, they are only wetted by the tops of sea spray, while some species may attach to a substrate several meters deep. In some areas, littoral seaweed colonies can extend miles out to sea. The deepest living seaweed are some species of red algae. Others have adapted to live in tidal rock pools. In this habitat, seaweed must withstand rapidly changing temperature and salinity and occasional drying.Macroalgae and macroalgal detritus have also been shown to be an important food source for benthic organisms, because macroalgae shed old fronds. These macroalgal fronds tend to be utilized by benthos in the intertidal zone close to the shore. Alternatively, pneumatocysts (gas filled "bubbles") can keep the macroalgae thallus afloat fronds are transported by wind and currents from the coast into the deep ocean. It has been shown that benthic organisms also at several 100 m tend to utilize these macroalgae remnants.As macroalgae takes up carbon dioxide and release oxygen in the photosynthesis, macroalgae fronds can also contribute to carbon sequestration in the ocean, when the macroalgal fronds drift offshore into the deep ocean basins and sink to the sea floor without being remineralized by organisms. The importance of this process for the Blue Carbon storage is currently discussed among scientists. Biogeographic expansion Nowadays a number of vectors - e.g., transport on ship hulls, exchanges among shellfish farmers, global warming, opening of trans-oceanic canals - all combine to enhance the transfer of exotic seaweeds to new environments. Since the piercing of the Suez Canal,the situation is particularly acute in the Mediterranean Sea, a 'marine biodiversity hotspot' that now registers over 120 newly introduced seaweed species -the largest number in the world. Production As of 2019, 35,818,961ton were produced, of which 97.38% were produced in Asian countries. Farming Uses Seaweed has a variety of uses, for which it is farmed or foraged. Food Seaweed is consumed across the world, particularly in East Asia, e.g. Japan, China, Korea, Taiwan and Southeast Asia, e.g. Brunei, Singapore, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia, as well as in South Africa, Belize, Peru, Chile, the Canadian Maritimes, Scandinavia, South West England, Ireland, Wales, Hawaii and California, and Scotland. Gim (김, Korea), nori (海苔, Japan) and zicai (紫菜, China) are sheets of dried Porphyra used in soups, sushi or onigiri (rice balls). Chondrus crispus ('Irish moss' or carrageenan moss) is used in food additives, along with Kappaphycus and Gigartinoid seaweed. Porphyra is used in Wales to make laverbread (sometimes with oat flour). In northern Belize, seaweed is mixed with milk, nutmeg, cinnamon and vanilla to make "dulce" ("sweet"). Alginate, agar and carrageenan are gelatinous seaweed products collectively known as hydrocolloids or phycocolloids. Hydrocolloids are food additives. The food industry exploits their gelling, water-retention, emulsifying and other physical properties. Agar is used in foods such as confectionery, meat and poultry products, desserts and beverages and moulded foods. Carrageenan is used in salad dressings and sauces, dietetic foods, and as a preservative in meat and fish, dairy items and baked goods. Medicine and herbs Alginates are used in wound dressings (see alginate dressing), and dental moulds. In microbiology, agar is used as a culture medium. Carrageenans, alginates and agaroses, with other macroalgal polysaccharides, have biomedicine applications. Delisea pulchra may interfere with bacterial colonization. Sulfated saccharides from red and green algae inhibit some DNA and RNA-enveloped viruses.Seaweed extract is used in some diet pills. Other seaweed pills exploit the same effect as gastric banding, expanding in the stomach to make the stomach feel more full. Climate change mitigation Other uses Other seaweed may be used as fertilizer, compost for landscaping, or to combat beach erosion through burial in beach dunes.Seaweed is under consideration as a potential source of bioethanol. Alginates are used in industrial products such as paper coatings, adhesives, dyes, gels, explosives and in processes such as paper sizing, textile printing, hydro-mulching and drilling. Seaweed is an ingredient in toothpaste, cosmetics and paints. Seaweed is used for the production of bio yarn (a textile).Several of these resources can be obtained from seaweed through biorefining. Seaweed collecting is the process of collecting, drying and pressing seaweed. It was a popular pastime in the Victorian era and remains a hobby today. In some emerging countries, Seaweed is harvested daily to support communities.Seaweed is sometimes used to build roofs on houses on Læsø in DenmarkSeaweeds are used as animal feeds. They have long been grazed by sheep, horses and cattle in Northern Europe. They are valued for fish production. Adding seaweed to livestock feed can substantially reduce methane emissions from cattle. Health risks Rotting seaweed is a potent source of hydrogen sulfide, a highly toxic gas, and has been implicated in some incidents of apparent hydrogen-sulphide poisoning. It can cause vomiting and diarrhea. The so-called "stinging seaweed" Microcoleus lyngbyaceus is a filamentous cyanobacteria which contains toxins including lyngbyatoxin-a and debromoaplysiatoxin. Direct skin contact can cause seaweed dermatitis characterized by painful, burning lesions that last for days. Threats Bacterial disease ice-ice infects Kappaphycus (red seaweed), turning its branches white. The disease caused heavy crop losses in the Philippines, Tanzania and Mozambique.Sea urchin barrens have replaced kelp forests in multiple areas. They are "almost immune to starvation". Lifespans can exceed 50 years. When stressed by hunger, their jaws and teeth enlarge, and they form "fronts" and hunt for food collectively. See also Algaculture – Aquaculture involving the farming of algae Seaweed fertilizer Algae fuel – Use of algae as a source of energy-rich oils Edible seaweed – Algae that can be eaten and used for culinary purposes Aonori – Type of edible green seaweed Cochayuyo – Species of seaweed, a form of kelp used as a vegetable in Chile Hijiki – Species of seaweed Kombu – Edible kelp Limu Mozuku – Species of seaweed Nori – Edible seaweed species of the red algae genus Pyropia Ogonori – Genus of seaweeds Wakame – Species of seaweed Marine permaculture Sea lettuce – Genus of seaweeds Seaweed cultivator – machine that grows and harvests seaweedPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Seaweed dermatitis – Species of bacterium Seaweed toxins References Further reading Christian Wiencke, Kai Bischof (ed.)(2012). Seaweed Biology: Novel Insights into Ecophysiology, Ecology & Utilization. Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-28450-2 (print); ISBN 978-3-642-28451-9 (eBook). External links Michael Guiry's Seaweed Site information on all aspects of algae, seaweed and marine algal biology SeaweedAfrica, information on seaweed utilisation for the African continent. Seaweed. A chemical industry in Brittany, in the past and today. AlgaeBase, a searchable taxonomic, image, and utilization database of freshwater, marine and terrestrial algae, including seaweed.

climate of vancouver

The city of Vancouver, located in British Columbia, Canada, has a moderate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb) that borders on a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb). Its summer months are typically dry, often resulting in moderate drought conditions, usually in July and August. In contrast, the rest of the year is rainy, especially between October and March. Like the rest of the British Columbia Coast, the city is tempered by the North Pacific Current, which has its origins in the milder Kuroshio Current and is also, to an extent, sheltered by the mountains of Vancouver Island to the west. General conditions The climatology of Vancouver applies to the entire Greater Vancouver region and not just to the City of Vancouver itself. While Vancouver's coastal location serves to moderate its temperatures, sea breezes and mountainous terrain make Greater Vancouver a region of microclimates, with local variations in weather sometimes being more exaggerated than those experienced in other coastal areas. Predicting precipitation in the Greater Vancouver area is particularly complex. It is a rule of thumb that for every rise of 100 m (330 ft) in elevation, there is an additional 100 mm (3.9 in) (30 mm [1.2 in] per 30 m [100 ft]) of precipitation, so places such as the District of North Vancouver on the North Shore Mountains get more rain. Snow is problematic for meteorologists to predict due to temperatures remaining close to freezing during snow events. Temperatures The average annual temperature in Vancouver is 11.0 °C (51.8 °F) downtown and 10.4 °C (50.7 °F) at Vancouver International Airport in Richmond. This is one of the warmest in Canada. Greater Vancouver is in USDA plant hardiness zone 8, similar to other coastal or near-coastal cities such as Seattle, Portland, Amsterdam, and London, as well as places such as Atlanta, Georgia and Raleigh, North Carolina, far to the south (though these locations have far more growing degree days due to their much warmer summers). The semi-mild climate sustains plants such as the Windmill Palm. Vancouver's growing season averages 221 days, from March 29 until November 5. This is 72 days longer than Toronto's, and longer than any other major urban centre in Canada.Despite normally semi-mild winters due to the onshore air flow over the North Pacific Current, occasional cold squamish or Arctic outflow (sinking cold continental air that flows down through the Fraser Valley coastward) in winter can sometimes last a week or more. These Arctic outflows occur on average one to three times per winter. The coldest month on record at Vancouver International Airport was January 1950 when an Arctic air inflow moved in from the Fraser Valley and remained locked over the city, with an average low of −9.7 °C (14.5 °F) and an average high of only −2.9 °C (26.8 °F), making for a daily average of −6.3 °C (20.7 °F), 10 °C (18 °F) colder than normal. The coldest temperature ever recorded in the city was −18.3 °C (−0.9 °F) on December 29, 1968. The coldest temperature across Metro Vancouver, however, is −23.3 °C (−10 °F) recorded in Pitt Meadows on January 23, 1969.With snow being an infrequent occurrence over a typically mild winter, many cold hardy flowers remain in bloom and are common in gardens and office exteriors throughout the winter. The arrival of spring is often first noticed in February with slightly milder temperatures and the return of flowering perennials. It's also not uncommon for cherry trees to begin blooming later in the month, as was seen prominently during the 2010 Winter Olympics. The Greater Vancouver region is also subject to significant variations in summer temperatures, which can differ by as much as 5–10 °C (9–18 °F) between inland areas of the Fraser Valley and the ocean-tempered coastal regions when localized on-shore breezes are in effect. Conversely, winter temperatures tend to be cooler inland by a couple of degrees. Daylight The relatively high latitude of 49° 15′ 0″ N (similar to Paris, France, at 48° 85′ 66″) means sunsets as early as 4:15 pm and sunrises as late as 8:10 am. From November to February, at the sunshine measuring station at the airport in Richmond, on average more than 70% of the already short daytime is completely cloudy. The percentage of cloudiness is higher in Vancouver and especially the North Shore because upslope winds going up the mountainsides lead to the development of clouds. Summers, in contrast, are characterized by a nearly opposite weather pattern, with consistent high pressure and sunshine. July and August are the sunniest months. Near the summer solstice, there are less than 8 hours between sunset and sunrise, with twilight lasting past 10 pm. Statistics Vancouver International Airport 1981–2010 normals 1971–2000 normals 1961–1990 normals 1951–1980 normals 1941–1970 normals Vancouver Harbour 1971–2000 normals 1951–1980 normals Oakridge Precipitation Rain Vancouver is Canada's third most rainy city, with over 161 rainy days per year. As measured at Vancouver Airport in Richmond, Vancouver receives 1,189 mm (46.8 in) of rain per year. In North Vancouver, about 20 km (12 mi) away from the Vancouver airport, the amount of rain received doubles to 2,477 mm (97.5 in) per year as measured at the base of Grouse Mountain.Thunderstorms are rare, with an average of 6.1 thunderstorm days per year. The weather in spring and autumn is usually showery and cool. The grass-cutting season often begins in March and continues through October. Summers can be quite dry, and, as such, grass that has not been watered may not need to be cut for a month or even longer. Some summers may have no rain for five weeks or more, while others might have several very wet days in a row. In addition, Vancouver is one of the driest cities in Canada during the summer season, but the rest of the year the high pressure that locks in during the summer moves out and is replaced by the usual low pressure systems (rainy weather) by fall through to mid-spring. July is historically the driest month in Vancouver and, in fact, Vancouver International Airport recorded no rainfall at all during the whole month of July 2013; the first time ever in recorded history. Many other Julys have recorded less than 1 mm (0.04 in) of rain in Vancouver. Snow Snow falls in the higher-lying areas of Greater Vancouver, such as Burnaby Mountain, Coquitlam, and North and West Vancouver, every winter. It is also common in places close to or at sea level, however in lesser amounts. There is a general misconception among visitors and residents of other parts of Canada that Vancouver does not receive any snow at all, but in fact there has never been a year in which traceable snow has not been observed at Vancouver International Airport. The year 2015 marked an entire year of no measurable snow; only a trace was recorded on December 17, 2015. Environment Canada has ranked Vancouver in 3rd place under the category of "lowest snowfall" among 100 major Canadian cities as the annual average of days with snowfall above 0.2 cm (0.08 in) is only at 8.7 days. Vancouver's coastal climate has nonetheless allowed it to be ranked in 59th place under the category of "Most huge snowfall days (25 cm or more)", placing it above cities like Calgary and Toronto as Vancouver averages 0.13 days annually with snowfall accumulations above 25 cm (9.8 in) (within a calendar day).Snow in Vancouver tends to be quite wet, which, combined with typical winter temperatures rising above and falling below 0 °C (32 °F) throughout the course of the day, can make for icy road conditions. Years or months with snowfall surpassing 100 cm (39 in) are not completely exceptional. Snowfall exceeding 100 cm (39 in) occurred twice during the 1990s, and, in January 1971 alone, there was more than 120 cm (47 in) of snow. The snowiest year on record at Vancouver International Airport was 1971, which received a total of 242.6 cm (95.5 in), and the greatest snow depth reported was 61 cm (24 in) on January 15 of that year. Although the 30–60 cm (12–24 in) which fell across Greater Vancouver and the Lower Mainland in a 24‑hour period in November 2006 was out of the ordinary, snow has in fact accumulated at sea level in all months except for June, July, and August. However, even small amounts of snow in the Vancouver area can cause school closures, as well as produce traffic problems. The low frequency of snowfall makes it hard to justify the public works infrastructure necessary for more effective snow removal, as the city is usually in a thaw situation long before plowing of streets are completed. The City budgets $400,000 per year for the maintenance of snow removal equipment, for the purchasing of de-icing salt, and for the training of staff, but the costs of actual snow removal are funded separately from contingency reserve funds, and vary widely from season to season. For example, $1.1 million was spent in 1998, compared to $0 in 2001. Blizzards are extremely rare, but heavy snowfall events are more common. One such event in 1996 resulted in over 60 cm (24 in) of snow in Vancouver and was responsible for millions of dollars in damage. According to Environment and Climate Change Canada (2011), Vancouver now has a 20% chance of a White Christmas (up from 11%). Vancouver experienced a White Christmas in 2008 after weeks of record breaking cold temperatures and four consecutive snow storms, leaving over 60 cm (24 in) of snow on the ground across Metro Vancouver. New snow also accumulated on Christmas Eve and Christmas Day giving it the title for Canada's whitest Christmas in 2008 with 41 cm (16 in) on ground (48 cm (19 in) at one point on Christmas Eve). Snow was also present for Christmas 2007, when 1 cm (0.39 in) was measured at the Vancouver International Airport. The previous official White Christmas occurred in 1998 when 20 cm (7.9 in) of snow was on the ground on Christmas Day following 31 cm (12 in) of snow and 20 mm (0.79 in) of rain. Despite higher frequency of snow during certain periods of the season (pattern unknown), generally, annual winter snowfall has decreased over the last 20 years. Severe weather Gales are unlikely during the autumn months in Greater Vancouver. Three wind storms in the city's history have knocked down large swathes of trees in the forest of Stanley Park, the first having occurred in October 1934, with a blizzard the following January compounding its impact. The second wind storm to hit Stanley Park was the remnant of Typhoon Freda in 1962 that levelled a 2.4-hectare (6-acre) tract of forest. This is now site of the park's miniature railroad. 2006 storms In November 2006, the Greater Vancouver region experienced above-average levels of rainfall and snowfall, breaking the previously established record of 18.1 cm (7.1 in) when 25.5 cm (10.0 in) of rain fell within the first 16 days of the month. The heavy rain washed sediment into the city's reservoirs, and, as result, many businesses were advised to stop serving beverages prepared from tap water due to water contamination. At Vancouver International Airport, 28 cm (11 in) of snow was recorded from the night of November 25 to the morning of November 27. The temperature dropped to −12 °C (10 °F) on November 28, 1.8 °C (3.2 °F) higher than the record low for the day, which was set in November 1985. On November 29, 10 cm (3.9 in) more snow fell on the city. The snowfall resulted in the closure of a number of public institutions and caused power outages throughout Surrey and Langley. The Hanukkah Eve windstorm of 2006 swept through Greater Vancouver on December 15, 2006, with winds reaching from 70 to 125 km/h (43 to 78 mph). In Stanley Park, it damaged or uprooted over 5,000 trees, and caused mudslides, one of which destroyed a section of the seawall. Insured damages throughout the province were expected to reach CA$40 million and repairs to Stanley Park were expected to cost $9 million. Notes == References ==

the end of the world is just the beginning

The End of the World Is Just the Beginning: Mapping the Collapse of Globalization is a nonfiction book written by Peter Zeihan, a geopolitical strategist who formerly worked for the geopolitical intelligence firm Stratfor. The book was published by Harper Business in June 2022. Background What is currently referred to as deglobalization has been the focus of much of the author's research since 2012, when he left Stratfor and founded his own consulting firm. Summary This book's analysis covers six different economic sectors: Agriculture Energy Finance Manufacturing Materials TransportWithin each of the above sectors, the author investigates the prospects for a number of developed nations. Very often there are some relations or correlations between the prospects of a country across the six sectors. If a country is anticipated to do well in one sector, it is often likely to do well in several other sectors as well.For instance, across all sectors, he expects the US to fare relatively well. It has an extensive network of maritime transportation across very favorable waterways, including optimal access to the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It has the deepest and best integrated capital markets. Because of the shale oil revolution, it has become increasingly independent regarding its energy needs. And, it has a large, dependably productive agricultural sector, being a major food exporter, due to a favorable climate and abundant fertile lands.On the other hand, the author is less enthusiastic about the prospects for both China and Russia across several of the mentioned sectors. They both suffer from an aging demographic profile, less than optimal transportation waterways network, and their respective capital markets are not nearly as deep and integrated as the US (in part due to global sanctions against Russia, and a closed capital market in China). Additionally, China imports much of its petroleum and food requirements. In a deglobalized world, both countries will face major challenges on several fronts, according to the author.Similarly, Europe will face several challenges of its own including ageing demographics, energy dependence vulnerability, and lack of access to domestic industrial raw materials. Africa and India will have numerous problems, including the most existential one, the ability to feed their citizens. Analytical framework Demography. The book examines age pyramids, a country's population aging over time and into the future. This gives him a view of a country's prospect for its labor force growth or contraction over time. In turn, this informs him on the overall economic prospects of a country in terms of economic growth, rising living standards, and other indices. Geography. The book has a particular focus on access to oceans and internal waterways (rivers), as he considers that water transport is by far the cheapest (relative to air transport, rail transport, highway transport); and, therefore, such waterways can provide a material competitive advantage in economics and trade, both domestic and international. History. Since the end of the Second World War, the United States has supported a safe and secure maritime world trading system by patrolling the global seas with the world's most powerful navy. As the US commitment to safeguarding this maritime world trading system wanes, this has the potential to disrupt world trade. He expects the US to fare reasonably well in this deglobalized world, and most other countries and regions to not fare as well. Outlook The book envisions the outlook for specific countries or regions, within the listed sectors (transport, finance, etc.) Across most sectors, it anticipates major challenges. it asserts that the period from the 1950s to the 2020s represented a peak period of rapid economic development and innovation; meanwhile, the present (2022) and future would be associated with a rather abrupt slowing of such developments. In this view, deglobalization leads to deindustrialization, deurbanization, and even depopulation. Quotes The world of the past few decades has been the best it will ever be in our lifetime. Instead of cheap and better and faster, we're rapidly transitioning into a world that's pricier and worse and slower. Because the world ... is breaking apart.[China]...with complete demographic collapse certain to occur within a single generation.There will be no shortage of famines in the post-Order world. Likely, in excess of 1 billion people will starve to death, and another 2 billion will suffer chronic malnutrition. Some two thirds of China's population faces one of those two fates.Deindustrialization doesn't simply mean an end to industry; it means an end to large-scale food production and the return of large-scale famine.The days of long-haul transport are largely over ... For any product that is concentrated in terms of supply or demand, expect market collapse.... the entire export-driven industrial plant ... will be written off completely... Mass-production assembly lines are largely out ... The pace of technological improvement in manufacturing will slow because of the combination of demographic collapse (shortage of skilled workers) and much lessened ability to network among such skilled workers (deglobalization reduces networking of information exchange and related innovation).Even in the best-case scenario, once the world cracks we will go years between iPhone models.The in-progress demographic bust threatens to reduce the human population ... over the next few decades by as much in relative terms as the Black Death effect... we will all need to get by with fewer workers. Agriculture and climate change Zeihan believes that climate change is a major driver affecting the prospects of countries and regions. The book examinies numerous consequences of a heating planet, including not only rising temperature but changes in humidity, precipitation, winds, and regional climatic volatility. He then reviews these consequences' impact on agriculture. As a case-study example he contrasts the prospects for Australia as compared to the prospects for the US state of Illinois. Both face a similar rise in temperature in the 21st century. Because Illinois has, as of 2022, a more temperate, more humid, and less volatile climate, it should, the book claims, experience a net agricultural benefit from climate change, with its agricultural sector likely to become more productive. Australia, with an already hotter, drier, and more volatile climate, is expected to experience a decline in its agricultural sector as a result of climate change.He extends this reasoning to the entire planet, which leads him to conclude that much of the Earth, including areas of major agricultural production, will be negatively affected by climate change. He states, "Conservatively, that adds climatic challenges to the agricultural production zones feeding some 4 billion people." Reception The book debuted at number 12 on The New York Times nonfiction best-seller list for the week ending June 18, 2022.Kirkus Reviews acknowledged the book's points, but regarded its forecast as excessively pessimistic: Zeihan is enthusiastic in his writing, and he covers a great deal of territory, some of it in superficial or questionable fashion. Are countries really going to develop their own pirate fleets to seize supply ships? Will the U.S. establish a quasi-empire of the Americas, using food as a weapon of intimidation? Is China facing collapse within a decade? Predictions of world-ending resource depletion and geopolitical disaster have been made before... The Club of Rome and Paul Ehrlich were saying it in the 1970s, and their fears turned out to be misplaced... The book has entertainment value, but some of the material should be taken with many grains of salt. An early analysis of the book by Liam Denning, from Bloomberg, published in The Washington Post was positive. References External links Peter Zeihan End of the World maps

shadow secretary of state for climate change and net zero

The Shadow Secretary of State for Energy Security and Net Zero is a post in the Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet. The Shadow Secretary originally helped hold the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change and junior ministers to account and is the lead spokesperson on energy and climate change issues for their party. The post currently holds the Secretary of State for Energy Security and Net Zero to account in Parliament. A previous Official Opposition post of Shadow Secretary of State for Energy existed until the Department of Energy was merged into the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) in 1992. In 2008, the Department for Energy and Climate Change was split from the DTI's successor department, effectively reviving the former department and the need for an Opposition shadow. Following Theresa May's appointment as Prime Minister in July 2016, the department was disbanded and merged with the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills to form the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, with the consequent ending of this shadow post. It was revived during the Shadow Cabinet of Keir Starmer and given to Ed Miliband, the former Labour Leader, who was then serving as Shadow Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy before his appointment. Shadow Secretary of State for Energy (1974–1992) Shadow Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change (2008–2016) Shadow Secretary of State for Climate Change and Net Zero (2021-2023) Shadow Secretary of State for Energy Security and Net Zero (2023-present) See also Official Opposition frontbench

climate sensitivity

Climate sensitivity is a measure of how much Earth's surface will warm for a doubling in the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration. In technical terms, climate sensitivity is the average change in global mean surface temperature in response to a radiative forcing, which drives a difference between Earth's incoming and outgoing energy. Climate sensitivity is a key measure in climate science, and a focus area for climate scientists, who want to understand the ultimate consequences of anthropogenic global warming. The Earth's surface warms as a direct consequence of increased atmospheric CO2, as well as increased concentrations of other greenhouse gases such as nitrous oxide and methane. The increasing temperatures have secondary effects on the climate system, such as an increase in atmospheric water vapour, which is itself also a greenhouse gas. Scientists do not know exactly how strong the climate feedbacks are and it is difficult to predict the precise amount of warming that will result from a given increase in greenhouse gas concentrations. If climate sensitivity turns out to be on the high side of scientific estimates, the Paris Agreement goal of limiting global warming to below 2 °C (3.6 °F) will be difficult to achieve.The two primary types of climate sensitivity are the shorter-term "transient climate response", the increase in global average temperature that is expected to have occurred at a time when the atmospheric CO2 concentration has doubled, and "equilibrium climate sensitivity", the higher long-term increase in global average temperature expected to occur after the effects of a doubled CO2 concentration have had time to reach a steady state. Climate sensitivity is typically estimated in three ways: using direct observations of temperature and levels of greenhouse gases taken during the industrial age, using indirectly-estimated temperature and other measurements from the Earth's more distant past, and computer modelling the various aspects of the climate system with computers. Background The rate at which energy reaches Earth as sunlight and leaves Earth as heat radiation to space must balance, or the total amount of heat energy on the planet at any one time will rise or fall, which results in a planet that is warmer or cooler overall. A driver of an imbalance between the rates of incoming and outgoing radiation energy is called radiative forcing. A warmer planet radiates heat to space faster and so a new balance is eventually reached, with a higher temperature and stored energy content. However, the warming of the planet also has knock-on effects, which create further warming in an exacerbating feedback loop. Climate sensitivity is a measure of how much temperature change a given amount of radiative forcing will cause. The conceptual framework is similar to that applied to evaluating the influences of economic externalities. Radiative forcing Radiative forcings are generally quantified as Watts per square meter (W/m2) and averaged over Earth's uppermost surface defined as the top of the atmosphere. The magnitude of a forcing is specific to the physical driver and is defined relative to an accompanying time span of interest for its application. In the context of a contribution to long-term climate sensitivity from 1750 to 2020, the 50% increase in atmospheric CO2 is characterized by a forcing of about +2.1 W/m2. In the context of shorter-term contributions to Earth's energy imbalance (i.e. its heating/cooling rate), time intervals of interest may be as short as the interval between measurement or simulation data samplings, and are thus likely to be accompanied by smaller forcing values. Forcings from such investigations have also been analyzed and reported at decadal time scales.Radiative forcing leads to long-term changes in global temperature. A number of factors contribute radiative forcing: increased downwelling radiation from the greenhouse effect, variability in solar radiation from changes in planetary orbit, changes in solar irradiance, direct and indirect effects caused by aerosols (for example changes in albedo from cloud cover), and changes in land use (deforestation or the loss of reflective ice cover). In contemporary research, radiative forcing by greenhouse gases is well understood. As of 2019, large uncertainties remain for aerosols. Key numbers Carbon dioxide (CO2) levels rose from 280 parts per million (ppm) in the 18th century, when humans in the Industrial Revolution started burning significant amounts of fossil fuel such as coal, to over 415 ppm by 2020. As CO2 is a greenhouse gas, it hinders heat energy from leaving the Earth's atmosphere. In 2016, atmospheric CO2 levels had increased by 45% over preindustrial levels, and radiative forcing caused by increased CO2 was already more than 50% higher than in pre-industrial times because of non-linear effects. Between the 18th-century start of the Industrial Revolution and the year 2020, the Earth's temperature rose by a little over one degree Celsius (about two degrees Fahrenheit). Societal importance Because the economics of climate change mitigation depend greatly on how quickly carbon neutrality needs to be achieved, climate sensitivity estimates can have important economic and policy-making implications. One study suggests that halving the uncertainty of the value for transient climate response (TCR) could save trillions of dollars. Scientists are uncertain about the precision of estimates of greenhouse gas increases on future temperature since a higher climate sensitivity would mean more dramatic increases in temperature, which makes it more prudent to take significant climate action. If climate sensitivity turns out to be on the high end of what scientists estimate, the Paris Agreement goal of limiting global warming to well below 2 °C cannot be achieved, and temperature increases will exceed that limit, at least temporarily. One study estimated that emissions cannot be reduced fast enough to meet the 2 °C goal if equilibrium climate sensitivity (the long-term measure) is higher than 3.4 °C (6.1 °F). The more sensitive the climate system is to changes in greenhouse gas concentrations, the more likely it is to have decades when temperatures are much higher or much lower than the longer-term average. Contributors Radiative forcing is one component of climate change. The radiative forcing caused by a doubling of atmospheric CO2 levels (from the pre-industrial 280 ppm) is approximately 3.7 watts per square meter (W/m2). In the absence of feedbacks, the energy imbalance would eventually result in roughly 1 °C (1.8 °F) of global warming. That figure is straightforward to calculate by using the Stefan–Boltzmann law and is undisputed.A further contribution arises from climate feedback, both exacerbating and suppressing. The uncertainty in climate sensitivity estimates is entirely from the modelling of feedbacks in the climate system, including water vapour feedback, ice–albedo feedback, cloud feedback, and lapse rate feedback. Suppressing feedbacks tend to counteract warming by increasing the rate at which energy is radiated to space from a warmer planet. Exacerbating feedbacks increase warming; for example, higher temperatures can cause ice to melt, which reduces the ice area and the amount of sunlight the ice reflects, which in turn results in less heat energy being radiated back into space. Climate sensitivity depends on the balance between those feedbacks. Measures Depending on the time scale, there are two main ways to define climate sensitivity: the short-term transient climate response (TCR) and the long-term equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS), both of which incorporate the warming from exacerbating feedback loops. They are not discrete categories, but they overlap. Sensitivity to atmospheric CO2 increases is measured in the amount of temperature change for doubling in the atmospheric CO2 concentration.Although the term "climate sensitivity" is usually used for the sensitivity to radiative forcing caused by rising atmospheric CO2, it is a general property of the climate system. Other agents can also cause a radiative imbalance. Climate sensitivity is the change in surface air temperature per unit change in radiative forcing, and the climate sensitivity parameter is therefore expressed in units of °C/(W/m2). Climate sensitivity is approximately the same whatever the reason for the radiative forcing (such as from greenhouse gases or solar variation). When climate sensitivity is expressed as the temperature change for a level of atmospheric CO2 double the pre-industrial level, its units are degrees Celsius (°C). Transient climate response The transient climate response (TCR) is defined as "the change in the global mean surface temperature, averaged over a 20-year period, centered at the time of atmospheric carbon dioxide doubling, in a climate model simulation" in which the atmospheric CO2 concentration increases at 1% per year. That estimate is generated by using shorter-term simulations. The transient response is lower than the equilibrium climate sensitivity because slower feedbacks, which exacerbate the temperature increase, take more time to respond in full to an increase in the atmospheric CO2 concentration. For instance, the deep ocean takes many centuries to reach a new steady state after a perturbation during which it continues to serve as heatsink, which cools the upper ocean. The IPCC literature assessment estimates that the TCR likely lies between 1 °C (1.8 °F) and 2.5 °C (4.5 °F).A related measure is the transient climate response to cumulative carbon emissions (TCRE), which is the globally averaged surface temperature change after 1000 GtC of CO2 has been emitted. As such, it includes not only temperature feedbacks to forcing but also the carbon cycle and carbon cycle feedbacks. Equilibrium climate sensitivity The equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) is the long-term temperature rise (equilibrium global mean near-surface air temperature) that is expected to result from a doubling of the atmospheric CO2 concentration (ΔT2×). It is a prediction of the new global mean near-surface air temperature once the CO2 concentration has stopped increasing, and most of the feedbacks have had time to have their full effect. Reaching an equilibrium temperature can take centuries or even millennia after CO2 has doubled. ECS is higher than TCR because of the oceans' short-term buffering effects. Computer models are used for estimating the ECS. A comprehensive estimate means that modelling the whole time span during which significant feedbacks continue to change global temperatures in the model, such as fully-equilibrating ocean temperatures, requires running a computer model that covers thousands of years. There are, however, less computing-intensive methods.The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) stated that there is high confidence that ECS is within the range of 2.5 °C to 4 °C, with a best estimate of 3 °C.The long time scales involved with ECS make it arguably a less relevant measure for policy decisions around climate change. Effective climate sensitivity A common approximation to ECS is the effective equilibrium climate sensitivity, is an estimate of equilibrium climate sensitivity by using data from a climate system in model or real-world observations that is not yet in equilibrium. Estimates assume that the net amplification effect of feedbacks, as measured after some period of warming, will remain constant afterwards. That is not necessarily true, as feedbacks can change with time. In many climate models, feedbacks become stronger over time and so the effective climate sensitivity is lower than the real ECS. Earth system sensitivity By definition, equilibrium climate sensitivity does not include feedbacks that take millennia to emerge, such as long-term changes in Earth's albedo because of changes in ice sheets and vegetation. It includes the slow response of the deep oceans' warming, which also takes millennia, and so ECS fails to reflect the actual future warming that would occur if CO2 is stabilized at double pre-industrial values. Earth system sensitivity (ESS) incorporates the effects of these slower feedback loops, such as the change in Earth's albedo from the melting of large continental ice sheets, which covered much of the Northern Hemisphere during the Last Glacial Maximum and still cover Greenland and Antarctica). Changes in albedo as a result of changes in vegetation, as well as changes in ocean circulation, are also included. The longer-term feedback loops make the ESS larger than the ECS, possibly twice as large. Data from the geological history of Earth is used in estimating ESS. Differences between modern and long-ago climatic conditions mean that estimates of the future ESS are highly uncertain. Unlike ECS and TCR, the carbon cycle is not included in the definition of the ESS, but all other elements of the climate system are included. Sensitivity to nature of forcing Different forcing agents, such as greenhouse gases and aerosols, can be compared using their radiative forcing, the initial radiative imbalance averaged over the entire globe. Climate sensitivity is the amount of warming per radiative forcing. To a first approximation, the cause of the radiative imbalance does not matter whether it is greenhouse gases or something else. However, radiative forcing from sources other than CO2 can cause a somewhat larger or smaller surface warming than a similar radiative forcing from CO2. The amount of feedback varies mainly because the forcings are not uniformly distributed over the globe. Forcings that initially warm the Northern Hemisphere, land, or polar regions are more strongly systematically effective at changing temperatures than an equivalent forcing from CO2, which is more uniformly distributed over the globe. That is because those regions have more self-reinforcing feedbacks, such as the ice–albedo feedback. Several studies indicate that human-emitted aerosols are more effective than CO2 at changing global temperatures, and volcanic forcing is less effective. When climate sensitivity to CO2 forcing is estimated by using historical temperature and forcing (caused by a mix of aerosols and greenhouse gases), and that effect is not taken into account, climate sensitivity is underestimated. State dependence Climate sensitivity has been defined as the short- or long-term temperature change resulting from any doubling of CO2, but there is evidence that the sensitivity of Earth's climate system is not constant. For instance, the planet has polar ice and high-altitude glaciers. Until the world's ice has completely melted, an exacerbating ice–albedo feedback loop makes the system more sensitive overall. Throughout Earth's history, multiple periods are thought to have snow and ice cover almost the entire globe. In most models of "Snowball Earth,", parts of the tropics were at least intermittently free of ice cover. As the ice advanced or retreated, climate sensitivity must have been very high, as the large changes in area of ice cover would have made for a very strong ice–albedo feedback. Volcanic atmospheric composition changes are thought to have provided the radiative forcing needed to escape the snowball state. Throughout the Quaternary period (the most recent 2.58 million years), climate has oscillated between glacial periods, the most recent one being the Last Glacial Maximum, and interglacial periods, the most recent one being the current Holocene, but the period's climate sensitivity is difficult to determine. The Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, about 55.5 million years ago, was unusually warm and may have been characterized by above-average climate sensitivity.Climate sensitivity may further change if tipping points are crossed. It is unlikely that tipping points will cause short-term changes in climate sensitivity. If a tipping point is crossed, climate sensitivity is expected to change at the time scale of the subsystem that hits its tipping point. Especially if there are multiple interacting tipping points, the transition of climate to a new state may be difficult to reverse.The two most common definitions of climate sensitivity specify the climate state: the ECS and the TCR are defined for a doubling with respect to the CO2 levels in the pre-industrial era. Because of potential changes in climate sensitivity, the climate system may warm by a different amount after a second doubling of CO2 from after a first doubling. The effect of any change in climate sensitivity is expected to be small or negligible in the first century after additional CO2 is released into the atmosphere. Estimates Historical estimates Svante Arrhenius in the 19th century was the first person to quantify global warming as a consequence of a doubling of the concentration of CO2. In his first paper on the matter, he estimated that global temperature would rise by around 5 to 6 °C (9.0 to 10.8 °F) if the quantity of CO2 was doubled. In later work, he revised that estimate to 4 °C (7.2 °F). Arrhenius used Samuel Pierpont Langley's observations of radiation emitted by the full moon to estimate the amount of radiation that was absorbed by water vapour and by CO2. To account for water vapour feedback, he assumed that relative humidity would stay the same under global warming.The first calculation of climate sensitivity that used detailed measurements of absorption spectra, as well as the first calculation to use a computer for numerical integration of the radiative transfer through the atmosphere, was performed by Syukuro Manabe and Richard Wetherald in 1967. Assuming constant humidity, they computed an equilibrium climate sensitivity of 2.3 °C per doubling of CO2, which they rounded to 2 °C, the value most often quoted from their work, in the abstract of the paper. The work has been called "arguably the greatest climate-science paper of all time" and "the most influential study of climate of all time."A committee on anthropogenic global warming, convened in 1979 by the United States National Academy of Sciences and chaired by Jule Charney, estimated equilibrium climate sensitivity to be 3 °C (5.4 °F), plus or minus 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). The Manabe and Wetherald estimate (2 °C (3.6 °F)), James E. Hansen's estimate of 4 °C (7.2 °F), and Charney's model were the only models available in 1979. According to Manabe, speaking in 2004, "Charney chose 0.5 °C as a reasonable margin of error, subtracted it from Manabe's number, and added it to Hansen's, giving rise to the 1.5 to 4.5 °C (2.7 to 8.1 °F) range of likely climate sensitivity that has appeared in every greenhouse assessment since ...." In 2008, climatologist Stefan Rahmstorf said: "At that time [it was published], the [Charney report estimate's] range [of uncertainty] was on very shaky ground. Since then, many vastly improved models have been developed by a number of climate research centers around the world." Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Despite considerable progress in the understanding of Earth's climate system, assessments continued to report similar uncertainty ranges for climate sensitivity for some time after the 1979 Charney report. The 1990 IPCC First Assessment Report estimated that equilibrium climate sensitivity to a doubling of CO2 lay between 1.5 and 4.5 °C (2.7 and 8.1 °F), with a "best guess in the light of current knowledge" of 2.5 °C (4.5 °F). The report used models with simplified representations of ocean dynamics. The IPCC supplementary report, 1992, which used full-ocean circulation models, saw "no compelling reason to warrant changing" the 1990 estimate; and the IPCC Second Assessment Report stated, "No strong reasons have emerged to change [these estimates]," In the reports, much of the uncertainty around climate sensitivity was attributed to insufficient knowledge of cloud processes. The 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report also retained this likely range.Authors of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that confidence in estimates of equilibrium climate sensitivity had increased substantially since the Third Annual Report. The IPCC authors concluded that ECS is very likely to be greater than 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) and likely to lie in the range 2 to 4.5 °C (3.6 to 8.1 °F), with a most likely value of about 3 °C (5.4 °F). The IPCC stated that fundamental physical reasons and data limitations prevent a climate sensitivity higher than 4.5 °C (8.1 °F) from being ruled out, but the climate sensitivity estimates in the likely range agreed better with observations and the proxy climate data.The 2013 IPCC Fifth Assessment Report reverted to the earlier range of 1.5 to 4.5 °C (2.7 to 8.1 °F) (with high confidence), because some estimates using industrial-age data came out low. (See the next section for details.) The report also stated that ECS is extremely unlikely to be less than 1 °C (1.8 °F) (high confidence), and it is very unlikely to be greater than 6 °C (11 °F) (medium confidence). Those values were estimated by combining the available data with expert judgement.When the IPCC began to produce its IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, many climate models began to show a higher climate sensitivity. The estimates for Equilibrium Climate Sensitivity changed from 3.2 °C to 3.7 °C and the estimates for the Transient climate response from 1.8 °C, to 2.0 °C. That is probably because of better understanding of the role of clouds and aerosols. Methods of estimation Using Industrial Age (1750–present) data Climate sensitivity can be estimated using the observed temperature increase, the observed ocean heat uptake, and the modelled or observed radiative forcing. The data are linked through a simple energy-balance model to calculate climate sensitivity. Radiative forcing is often modelled because Earth observation satellites measuring it has existed during only part of the Industrial Age (only since the late 1950's). Estimates of climate sensitivity calculated by using these global energy constraints have consistently been lower than those calculated by using other methods, around 2 °C (3.6 °F) or lower.Estimates of transient climate response (TCR) that have been calculated from models and observational data can be reconciled if it is taken into account that fewer temperature measurements are taken in the polar regions, which warm more quickly than the Earth as a whole. If only regions for which measurements are available are used in evaluating the model, the differences in TCR estimates are negligible.A very simple climate model could estimate climate sensitivity from Industrial Age data by waiting for the climate system to reach equilibrium and then by measuring the resulting warming, ΔTeq (°C). Computation of the equilibrium climate sensitivity, S (°C), using the radiative forcing ΔF (W/m2) and the measured temperature rise, would then be possible. The radiative forcing resulting from a doubling of CO2, F2 × {\displaystyle \times } CO2, is relatively well known, at about 3.7 W/m2. Combining that information results in this equation: S = Δ T e q × F 2 × C O 2 / Δ F {\displaystyle S=\Delta T_{eq}\times F_{2\times CO_{2}}/\Delta F} .However, the climate system is not in equilibrium since the actual warming lags the equilibrium warming, largely because the oceans take up heat and will take centuries or millennia to reach equilibrium. Estimating climate sensitivity from Industrial Age data requires an adjustment to the equation above. The actual forcing felt by the atmosphere is the radiative forcing minus the ocean's heat uptake, H (W/m2) and so climate sensitivity can be estimated: S = Δ T × F 2 × C O 2 / ( Δ F − H ) . {\displaystyle S=\Delta T\times F_{2\times CO_{2}}/(\Delta F-H).} The global temperature increase between the beginning of the Industrial Period, which is (taken as 1750, and 2011 was about 0.85 °C (1.53 °F). In 2011, the radiative forcing from CO2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases (mainly methane, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbon) that have been emitted since the 18th century was roughly 2.8 W/m2. The climate forcing, ΔF, also contains contributions from solar activity (+0.05 W/m2), aerosols (−0.9 W/m2), ozone (+0.35 W/m2), and other smaller influences, which brings the total forcing over the Industrial Period to 2.2 W/m2, according to the best estimate of the IPCC AR5, with substantial uncertainty. The ocean heat uptake estimated by the IPCC AR5 as 0.42 W/m2, yields a value for S of 1.8 °C (3.2 °F). Other strategies In theory, Industrial Age temperatures could also be used to determine a time scale for the temperature response of the climate system and thus climate sensitivity: if the effective heat capacity of the climate system is known, and the timescale is estimated using autocorrelation of the measured temperature, an estimate of climate sensitivity can be derived. In practice, however, the simultaneous determination of the time scale and heat capacity is difficult.Attempts have been made to use the 11-year solar cycle to constrain the transient climate response. Solar irradiance is about 0.9 W/m2 higher during a solar maximum than during a solar minimum, and those effect can be observed in measured average global temperatures from 1959 to 2004. Unfortunately, the solar minima in the period coincided with volcanic eruptions, which have a cooling effect on the global temperature. Because the eruptions caused a larger and less well-quantified decrease in radiative forcing than the reduced solar irradiance, it is questionable whether useful quantitative conclusions can be derived from the observed temperature variations.Observations of volcanic eruptions have also been used to try to estimate climate sensitivity, but as the aerosols from a single eruption last at most a couple of years in the atmosphere, the climate system can never come close to equilibrium, and there is less cooling than there would be if the aerosols stayed in the atmosphere for longer. Therefore, volcanic eruptions give information only about a lower bound on transient climate sensitivity. Using data from Earth's past Historical climate sensitivity can be estimated by using reconstructions of Earth's past temperatures and CO2 levels. Paleoclimatologists have studied different geological periods, such as the warm Pliocene (5.3 to 2.6 million years ago) and the colder Pleistocene (2.6 million to 11,700 years ago), and sought periods that are in some way analogous to or informative about current climate change. Climates further back in Earth's history are more difficult to study because fewer data are available about them. For instance, past CO2 concentrations can be derived from air trapped in ice cores, but as of 2020, the oldest continuous ice core is less than one million years old. Recent periods, such as the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) (about 21,000 years ago) and the Mid-Holocene (about 6,000 years ago), are often studied, especially when more information about them becomes available.A 2007 estimate of sensitivity made using data from the most recent 420 million years is consistent with sensitivities of current climate models and with other determinations. The Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (about 55.5 million years ago), a 20,000-year period during which massive amount of carbon entered the atmosphere and average global temperatures increased by approximately 6 °C (11 °F), also provides a good opportunity to study the climate system when it was in a warm state. Studies of the last 800,000 years have concluded that climate sensitivity was greater in glacial periods than in interglacial periods.As the name suggests, the Last Glacial Maximum was much colder than today, and good data on atmospheric CO2 concentrations and radiative forcing from that period are available. The period's orbital forcing was different from today's but had little effect on mean annual temperatures. Estimating climate sensitivity from the Last Glacial Maximum can be done by several different ways. One way is to use estimates of global radiative forcing and temperature directly. The set of feedback mechanisms active during the period, however, may be different from the feedbacks caused by a present doubling of CO2, which introduces additional uncertainty. In a different approach, a model of intermediate complexity is used to simulate conditions during the period. Several versions of this single model are run, with different values chosen for uncertain parameters, such that each version has a different ECS. Outcomes that best simulate the LGM's observed cooling probably produce the most realistic ECS values. Using climate models Climate models simulate the CO2-driven warming of the future as well as the past. They operate on principles similar to those underlying models that predict the weather, but they focus on longer-term processes. Climate models typically begin with a starting state and then apply physical laws and knowledge about biology to generate subsequent states. As with weather modelling, no computer has the power to model the complexity of the entire planet and so simplifications are used to reduce that complexity to something manageable. An important simplification divides Earth's atmosphere into model cells. For instance, the atmosphere might be divided into cubes of air ten or one hundred kilometers on a side. Each model cell is treated as if it were homogeneous. Calculations for model cells are much faster than trying to simulate each molecule of air separately.A lower model resolution (large model cells and long time steps) takes less computing power but cannot simulate the atmosphere in as much detail. A model cannot simulate processes smaller than the model cells or shorter-term than a single time step. The effects of the smaller-scale and shorter-term processes must therefore be estimated by using other methods. Physical laws contained in the models may also be simplified to speed up calculations. The biosphere must be included in climate models. The effects of the biosphere are estimated by using data on the average behaviour of the average plant assemblage of an area under the modelled conditions. Climate sensitivity is therefore an emergent property of these models. It is not prescribed, but it follows from the interaction of all the modelled processes.To estimate climate sensitivity, a model is run by using a variety of radiative forcings (doubling quickly, doubling gradually, or following historical emissions) and the temperature results are compared to the forcing applied. Different models give different estimates of climate sensitivity, but they tend to fall within a similar range, as described above. Testing, comparisons, and estimates Modelling of the climate system can lead to a wide range of outcomes. Models are often run that use different plausible parameters in their approximation of physical laws and the behaviour of the biosphere, which forms a perturbed physics ensemble, which attempts to model the sensitivity of the climate to different types and amounts of change in each parameter. Alternatively, structurally-different models developed at different institutions are put together, creating an ensemble. By selecting only the simulations that can simulate some part of the historical climate well, a constrained estimate of climate sensitivity can be made. One strategy for obtaining more accurate results is placing more emphasis on climate models that perform well in general.A model is tested using observations, paleoclimate data, or both to see if it replicates them accurately. If it does not, inaccuracies in the physical model and parametrizations are sought, and the model is modified. For models used to estimate climate sensitivity, specific test metrics that are directly and physically linked to climate sensitivity are sought. Examples of such metrics are the global patterns of warming, the ability of a model to reproduce observed relative humidity in the tropics and subtropics, patterns of heat radiation, and the variability of temperature around long-term historical warming. Ensemble climate models developed at different institutions tend to produce constrained estimates of ECS that are slightly higher than 3 °C (5.4 °F). The models with ECS slightly above 3 °C (5.4 °F) simulate the above situations better than models with a lower climate sensitivity.Many projects and groups exist to compare and to analyse the results of multiple models. For instance, the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) has been running since the 1990s.In preparation for the 2021 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, a new generation of climate models have been developed by scientific groups around the world. The average estimated climate sensitivity has increased in Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) compared to the previous generation, with values spanning 1.8 to 5.6 °C (3.2 to 10.1 °F) across 27 global climate models and exceeding 4.5 °C (8.1 °F) in 10 of them. The cause of the increased equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) lies mainly in improved modelling of clouds. Temperature rises are now believed to cause sharper decreases in the number of low clouds, and fewer low clouds means more sunlight is absorbed by the planet and less reflected to space. Models with the highest ECS values, however, are not consistent with observed warming. See also Climate change scenario Climate risk Notes References Sources External links What is 'climate sensitivity'? Met Office How scientists estimate 'climate sensitivity' Carbon Brief

tropical cyclone

A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by different names, including hurricane (), typhoon (), tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, or simply cyclone. A hurricane is a strong tropical cyclone that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific Ocean, and a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. In the Indian Ocean and South Pacific, comparable storms are referred to as "tropical cyclones", and such storms in the Indian Ocean can also be called "severe cyclonic storms". "Tropical" refers to the geographical origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively over tropical seas. "Cyclone" refers to their winds moving in a circle, whirling round their central clear eye, with their surface winds blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The opposite direction of circulation is due to the Coriolis effect. Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water. They derive their energy through the evaporation of water from the ocean surface, which ultimately condenses into clouds and rain when moist air rises and cools to saturation. This energy source differs from that of mid-latitude cyclonic storms, such as nor'easters and European windstorms, which are powered primarily by horizontal temperature contrasts. Tropical cyclones are typically between 100 and 2,000 km (62 and 1,243 mi) in diameter. Every year tropical cyclones affect various regions of the globe including the Gulf Coast of North America, Australia, India, and Bangladesh. The strong rotating winds of a tropical cyclone are a result of the conservation of angular momentum imparted by the Earth's rotation as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation. As a result, they rarely form within 5° of the equator. Tropical cyclones are very rare in the South Atlantic (although occasional examples do occur) due to consistently strong wind shear and a weak Intertropical Convergence Zone. Conversely, the African easterly jet and areas of atmospheric instability give rise to cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea, while cyclones near Australia owe their genesis to the Asian monsoon and Western Pacific Warm Pool. The primary energy source for these storms is warm ocean waters. These storms are therefore typically strongest when over or near water, and they weaken quite rapidly over land. This causes coastal regions to be particularly vulnerable to tropical cyclones, compared to inland regions. Coastal damage may be caused by strong winds and rain, high waves (due to winds), storm surges (due to wind and severe pressure changes), and the potential of spawning tornadoes. Tropical cyclones draw in air from a large area and concentrate the water content of that air (from atmospheric moisture and moisture evaporated from water) into precipitation over a much smaller area. This replenishing of moisture-bearing air after rain may cause multi-hour or multi-day extremely heavy rain up to 40 km (25 mi) from the coastline, far beyond the amount of water that the local atmosphere holds at any one time. This in turn can lead to river flooding, overland flooding, and a general overwhelming of local water control structures across a large area. Although their effects on human populations can be devastating, tropical cyclones may play a role in relieving drought conditions, though this claim is disputed. They also carry heat and energy away from the tropics and transport it towards temperate latitudes, which plays an important role in regulating global climate. Background A tropical cyclone is the generic term for a warm-cored, non-frontal synoptic-scale low-pressure system over tropical or subtropical waters around the world. The systems generally have a well-defined center which is surrounded by deep atmospheric convection and a closed wind circulation at the surface.Historically, tropical cyclones have occurred around the world for thousands of years, with one of the earliest tropical cyclones on record estimated to have occurred in Western Australia in around 4000 BC. However, before satellite imagery became available during the 20th century, there was no way to detect a tropical cyclone unless it impacted land or a ship encountered it by chance.In modern times, on average around 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form each year around the world, over half of which develop hurricane-force winds of 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) or more. Around the world, a tropical cyclone is generally deemed to have formed once mean surface winds in excess of 35 kn (65 km/h; 40 mph) are observed. It is assumed at this stage that a tropical cyclone has become self-sustaining and can continue to intensify without any help from its environment.A study review article published in 2021 in Nature Geoscience concluded that the geographic range of tropical cyclones will probably expand poleward in response to climate warming of the Hadley circulation. Intensity Tropical cyclone intensity is based on wind speeds and pressure; relationships between winds and pressure are often used in determining the intensity of a storm. Tropical cyclone scales such as the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale and Australia's scale (Bureau of Meteorology) only use wind speed for determining the category of a storm. The most intense storm on record is Typhoon Tip in the northwestern Pacific Ocean in 1979, which reached a minimum pressure of 870 hPa (26 inHg) and maximum sustained wind speeds of 165 kn (85 m/s; 305 km/h; 190 mph). The highest maximum sustained wind speed ever recorded was 185 kn (95 m/s; 345 km/h; 215 mph) in Hurricane Patricia in 2015—the most intense cyclone ever recorded in the Western Hemisphere. Factors that influence intensity Warm sea surface temperatures are required in order for tropical cyclones to form and strengthen. The commonly-accepted minimum temperature range for this to occur is 26–27 °C (79–81 °F), however, multiple studies have proposed a lower minimum of 25.5 °C (77.9 °F). Higher sea surface temperatures result in faster intensification rates and sometimes even rapid intensification. High ocean heat content, also known as Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential, allows storms to achieve a higher intensity. Most tropical cyclones that experience rapid intensification are traversing regions of high ocean heat content rather than lower values. High ocean heat content values can help to offset the oceanic cooling caused by the passage of a tropical cyclone, limiting the effect this cooling has on the storm. Faster-moving systems are able to intensify to higher intensities with lower ocean heat content values. Slower-moving systems require higher values of ocean heat content to achieve the same intensity.The passage of a tropical cyclone over the ocean causes the upper layers of the ocean to cool substantially, a process known as upwelling, which can negatively influence subsequent cyclone development. This cooling is primarily caused by wind-driven mixing of cold water from deeper in the ocean with the warm surface waters. This effect results in a negative feedback process that can inhibit further development or lead to weakening. Additional cooling may come in the form of cold water from falling raindrops (this is because the atmosphere is cooler at higher altitudes). Cloud cover may also play a role in cooling the ocean, by shielding the ocean surface from direct sunlight before and slightly after the storm passage. All these effects can combine to produce a dramatic drop in sea surface temperature over a large area in just a few days. Conversely, the mixing of the sea can result in heat being inserted in deeper waters, with potential effects on global climate.Vertical wind shear negatively affects tropical cyclone intensification by displacing moisture and heat from a system's center. Low levels of vertical wind shear are most optimal for strengthening, while stronger wind shear induces weakening. Dry air entraining into a tropical cyclone's core has a negative effect on its development and intensity by diminishing atmospheric convection and introducing asymmetries in the storm's structure. Symmetric, strong outflow leads to a faster rate of intensification than observed in other systems by mitigating local wind shear. Weakening outflow is associated with the weakening of rainbands within a tropical cyclone.The size of tropical cyclones plays a role in how quickly they intensify. Smaller tropical cyclones are more prone to rapid intensification than larger ones. The Fujiwhara effect, which involves interaction between two tropical cyclones, can weaken and ultimately result in the dissipation of the weaker of two tropical cyclones by reducing the organization of the system's convection and imparting horizontal wind shear. Tropical cyclones typically weaken while situated over a landmass because conditions are often unfavorable as a result of the lack of oceanic forcing. The Brown ocean effect can allow a tropical cyclone to maintain or increase its intensity following landfall, in cases where there has been copious rainfall, through the release of latent heat from the saturated soil. Orographic lift can cause an significant increase in the intensity of the convection of a tropical cyclone when its eye moves over a mountain, breaking the capped boundary layer that had been restraining it. Jet streams can both enhance and inhibit tropical cyclone intensity by influencing the storm's outflow as well as vertical wind shear. Formation Tropical cyclones tend to develop during the summer, but have been noted in nearly every month in most tropical cyclone basins. Tropical cyclones on either side of the Equator generally have their origins in the Intertropical Convergence Zone, where winds blow from either the northeast or southeast. Within this broad area of low-pressure, air is heated over the warm tropical ocean and rises in discrete parcels, which causes thundery showers to form. These showers dissipate quite quickly; however, they can group together into large clusters of thunderstorms. This creates a flow of warm, moist, rapidly rising air, which starts to rotate cyclonically as it interacts with the rotation of the earth.Several factors are required for these thunderstorms to develop further, including sea surface temperatures of around 27 °C (81 °F) and low vertical wind shear surrounding the system, atmospheric instability, high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere, enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure center, and a pre-existing low-level focus or disturbance. There is a limit on tropical cyclone intensity which is strongly related to the water temperatures along its path. and upper-level divergence. An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide. Of those, 47 reach strength higher than 119 km/h (74 mph), and 20 become intense tropical cyclones (at least Category 3 intensity on the Saffir–Simpson scale).Climate cycles such as ENSO and the Madden–Julian oscillation modulate the timing and frequency of tropical cyclone development. Rossby waves can aid in the formation of a new tropical cyclone by disseminating the energy of an existing, mature storm. Kelvin waves can contribute to tropical cyclone formation by regulating the development of the westerlies. Cyclone formation is usually reduced 3 days prior to the wave's crest and increased during the 3 days after. Rapid intensification On occasion, tropical cyclones may undergo a process known as rapid intensification, a period in which the maximum sustained winds of a tropical cyclone increase by 30 kn (56 km/h; 35 mph) or more within 24 hours. Similarly, rapid deepening in tropical cyclones is defined as a minimum sea surface pressure decrease of 1.75 hPa (0.052 inHg) per hour or 42 hPa (1.2 inHg) within a 24-hour period; explosive deepening occurs when the surface pressure decreases by 2.5 hPa (0.074 inHg) per hour for at least 12 hours or 5 hPa (0.15 inHg) per hour for at least 6 hours. For rapid intensification to occur, several conditions must be in place. Water temperatures must be extremely high (near or above 30 °C (86 °F)), and water of this temperature must be sufficiently deep such that waves do not upwell cooler waters to the surface. On the other hand, Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential is one of such non-conventional subsurface oceanographic parameters influencing the cyclone intensity. Wind shear must be low; when wind shear is high, the convection and circulation in the cyclone will be disrupted. Usually, an anticyclone in the upper layers of the troposphere above the storm must be present as well—for extremely low surface pressures to develop, air must be rising very rapidly in the eyewall of the storm, and an upper-level anticyclone helps channel this air away from the cyclone efficiently. However, some cyclones such as Hurricane Epsilon have rapidly intensified despite relatively unfavorable conditions. Dissipation There are a number of ways a tropical cyclone can weaken, dissipate, or lose its tropical characteristics. These include making landfall, moving over cooler water, encountering dry air, or interacting with other weather systems; however, once a system has dissipated or lost its tropical characteristics, its remnants could regenerate a tropical cyclone if environmental conditions become favorable.A tropical cyclone can dissipate when it moves over waters significantly cooler than 26.5 °C (79.7 °F). This will deprive the storm of such tropical characteristics as a warm core with thunderstorms near the center, so that it becomes a remnant low-pressure area. Remnant systems may persist for several days before losing their identity. This dissipation mechanism is most common in the eastern North Pacific. Weakening or dissipation can also occur if a storm experiences vertical wind shear which causes the convection and heat engine to move away from the center; this normally ceases the development of a tropical cyclone. In addition, its interaction with the main belt of the Westerlies, by means of merging with a nearby frontal zone, can cause tropical cyclones to evolve into extratropical cyclones. This transition can take 1–3 days.Should a tropical cyclone make landfall or pass over an island, its circulation could start to break down, especially if it encounters mountainous terrain. When a system makes landfall on a large landmass, it is cut off from its supply of warm moist maritime air and starts to draw in dry continental air. This, combined with the increased friction over land areas, leads to the weakening and dissipation of the tropical cyclone. Over a mountainous terrain, a system can quickly weaken; however, over flat areas, it may endure for two to three days before circulation breaks down and dissipates.Over the years, there have been a number of techniques considered to try to artificially modify tropical cyclones. These techniques have included using nuclear weapons, cooling the ocean with icebergs, blowing the storm away from land with giant fans, and seeding selected storms with dry ice or silver iodide. These techniques, however, fail to appreciate the duration, intensity, power or size of tropical cyclones. Methods for assessing intensity A variety of methods or techniques, including surface, satellite, and aerial, are used to assess the intensity of a tropical cyclone. Reconnaissance aircraft fly around and through tropical cyclones, outfitted with specialized instruments, to collect information that can be used to ascertain the winds and pressure of a system. Tropical cyclones possess winds of different speeds at different heights. Winds recorded at flight level can be converted to find the wind speeds at the surface. Surface observations, such as ship reports, land stations, mesonets, coastal stations, and buoys, can provide information on a tropical cyclone's intensity or the direction it is traveling. Wind-pressure relationships (WPRs) are used as a way to determine the pressure of a storm based on its wind speed. Several different methods and equations have been proposed to calculate WPRs. Tropical cyclones agencies each use their own, fixed WPR, which can result in inaccuracies between agencies that are issuing estimates on the same system. The ASCAT is a scatterometer used by the MetOp satellites to map the wind field vectors of tropical cyclones. The SMAP uses an L-band radiometer channel to determine the wind speeds of tropical cyclones at the ocean surface, and has been shown to be reliable at higher intensities and under heavy rainfall conditions, unlike scatterometer-based and other radiometer-based instruments.The Dvorak technique plays a large role in both the classification of a tropical cyclone and the determination of its intensity. Used in warning centers, the method was developed by Vernon Dvorak in the 1970s, and uses both visible and infrared satellite imagery in the assessment of tropical cyclone intensity. The Dvorak technique uses a scale of "T-numbers", scaling in increments of 0.5 from T1.0 to T8.0. Each T-number has an intensity assigned to it, with larger T-numbers indicating a stronger system. Tropical cyclones are assessed by forecasters according to an array of patterns, including curved banding features, shear, central dense overcast, and eye, in order to determine the T-number and thus assess the intensity of the storm. The Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies works to develop and improve automated satellite methods, such as the Advanced Dvorak Technique (ADT) and SATCON. The ADT, used by a large number of forecasting centers, uses infrared geostationary satellite imagery and an algorithm based upon the Dvorak technique to assess the intensity of tropical cyclones. The ADT has a number of differences from the conventional Dvorak technique, including changes to intensity constraint rules and the usage of microwave imagery to base a system's intensity upon its internal structure, which prevents the intensity from leveling off before an eye emerges in infrared imagery. The SATCON weights estimates from various satellite-based systems and microwave sounders, accounting for the strengths and flaws in each individual estimate, to produce a consensus estimate of a tropical cyclone's intensity which can be more reliable than the Dvorak technique at times. Intensity metrics Multiple intensity metrics are used, including accumulated cyclone energy (ACE), the Hurricane Surge Index, the Hurricane Severity Index, the Power Dissipation Index (PDI), and integrated kinetic energy (IKE). ACE is a metric of the total energy a system has exerted over its lifespan. ACE is calculated by summing the squares of a cyclone's sustained wind speed, every six hours as long as the system is at or above tropical storm intensity and either tropical or subtropical. The calculation of the PDI is similar in nature to ACE, with the major difference being that wind speeds are cubed rather than squared. The Hurricane Surge Index is a metric of the potential damage a storm may inflict via storm surge. It is calculated by squaring the dividend of the storm's wind speed and a climatological value (33 m/s or 74 mph), and then multiplying that quantity by the dividend of the radius of hurricane-force winds and its climatological value (96.6 km or 60.0 mi). This can be represented in equation form as: ( v 33 m / s ) 2 × ( r 96.6 k m ) {\displaystyle \left({\frac {v}{33\ m/s}}\right)^{2}\times \left({\frac {r}{96.6\ km}}\right)\,} where v is the storm's wind speed and r is the radius of hurricane-force winds. The Hurricane Severity Index is a scale that can assign up to 50 points to a system; up to 25 points come from intensity, while the other 25 come from the size of the storm's wind field. The IKE model measures the destructive capability of a tropical cyclone via winds, waves, and surge. It is calculated as: ∫ V o l 1 2 p u 2 d v {\displaystyle \int _{Vol}{\frac {1}{2}}pu^{2}d_{v}\,} where p is the density of air, u is a sustained surface wind speed value, and dv is the volume element. Classification and naming Classification Around the world, tropical cyclones are classified in different ways, based on the location (tropical cyclone basins), the structure of the system and its intensity. For example, within the Northern Atlantic and Eastern Pacific basins, a tropical cyclone with wind speeds of over 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) is called a hurricane, while it is called a typhoon or a severe cyclonic storm within the Western Pacific or North Indian oceans. When a hurricane passes west across the International Dateline in the Northern Hemisphere, it becomes known as a typhoon. This happened in 2014 for Hurricane Genevieve, which became Typhoon Genevieve. Within the Southern Hemisphere, it is either called a hurricane, tropical cyclone or a severe tropical cyclone, depending on if it is located within the South Atlantic, South-West Indian Ocean, Australian region or the South Pacific Ocean. The descriptors for tropical cyclones with wind speeds below 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) also vary by tropical cyclone basin and may be further subdivided into categories such as "tropical storm", "cyclonic storm", "tropical depression", or "deep depression". Naming The practice of using given names to identify tropical cyclones dates back to the late 1800s and early 1900s and gradually superseded the existing system—simply naming cyclones based on what they hit. The system currently used provides positive identification of severe weather systems in a brief form, that is readily understood and recognized by the public. The credit for the first usage of personal names for weather systems is generally given to the Queensland Government Meteorologist Clement Wragge who named systems between 1887 and 1907. This system of naming weather systems subsequently fell into disuse for several years after Wragge retired, until it was revived in the latter part of World War II for the Western Pacific. Formal naming schemes have subsequently been introduced for the North and South Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Western and Southern Pacific basins as well as the Australian region and Indian Ocean.At present, tropical cyclones are officially named by one of twelve meteorological services and retain their names throughout their lifetimes to provide ease of communication between forecasters and the general public regarding forecasts, watches, and warnings. Since the systems can last a week or longer and more than one can be occurring in the same basin at the same time, the names are thought to reduce the confusion about what storm is being described. Names are assigned in order from predetermined lists with one, three, or ten-minute sustained wind speeds of more than 65 km/h (40 mph) depending on which basin it originates. However, standards vary from basin to basin with some tropical depressions named in the Western Pacific, while tropical cyclones have to have a significant amount of gale-force winds occurring around the center before they are named within the Southern Hemisphere. The names of significant tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and Australian region are retired from the naming lists and replaced with another name. Tropical cyclones that develop around the world are assigned an identification code consisting of a two-digit number and suffix letter by the warning centers that monitor them. Structure Eye and center At the center of a mature tropical cyclone, air sinks rather than rises. For a sufficiently strong storm, air may sink over a layer deep enough to suppress cloud formation, thereby creating a clear "eye". Weather in the eye is normally calm and free of convective clouds, although the sea may be extremely violent. The eye is normally circular and is typically 30–65 km (19–40 mi) in diameter, though eyes as small as 3 km (1.9 mi) and as large as 370 km (230 mi) have been observed.The cloudy outer edge of the eye is called the "eyewall". The eyewall typically expands outward with height, resembling an arena football stadium; this phenomenon is sometimes referred to as the "stadium effect". The eyewall is where the greatest wind speeds are found, air rises most rapidly, clouds reach their highest altitude, and precipitation is the heaviest. The heaviest wind damage occurs where a tropical cyclone's eyewall passes over land.In a weaker storm, the eye may be obscured by the central dense overcast, which is the upper-level cirrus shield that is associated with a concentrated area of strong thunderstorm activity near the center of a tropical cyclone.The eyewall may vary over time in the form of eyewall replacement cycles, particularly in intense tropical cyclones. Outer rainbands can organize into an outer ring of thunderstorms that slowly moves inward, which is believed to rob the primary eyewall of moisture and angular momentum. When the primary eyewall weakens, the tropical cyclone weakens temporarily. The outer eyewall eventually replaces the primary one at the end of the cycle, at which time the storm may return to its original intensity. Size There are a variety of metrics commonly used to measure storm size. The most common metrics include the radius of maximum wind, the radius of 34-knot (17 m/s; 63 km/h; 39 mph) wind (i.e. gale force), the radius of outermost closed isobar (ROCI), and the radius of vanishing wind. An additional metric is the radius at which the cyclone's relative vorticity field decreases to 1×10−5 s−1. On Earth, tropical cyclones span a large range of sizes, from 100–2,000 km (62–1,243 mi) as measured by the radius of vanishing wind. They are largest on average in the northwest Pacific Ocean basin and smallest in the northeastern Pacific Ocean basin. If the radius of outermost closed isobar is less than two degrees of latitude (222 km (138 mi)), then the cyclone is "very small" or a "midget". A radius of 3–6 latitude degrees (333–670 km (207–416 mi)) is considered "average sized". "Very large" tropical cyclones have a radius of greater than 8 degrees (888 km (552 mi)). Observations indicate that size is only weakly correlated to variables such as storm intensity (i.e. maximum wind speed), radius of maximum wind, latitude, and maximum potential intensity. Typhoon Tip is the largest cyclone on record, with tropical storm-force winds 2,170 km (1,350 mi) in diameter. The smallest storm on record is Tropical Storm Marco of 2008, which generated tropical storm-force winds only 37 km (23 mi) in diameter. Movement The movement of a tropical cyclone (i.e. its "track") is typically approximated as the sum of two terms: "steering" by the background environmental wind and "beta drift". Some tropical cyclones can move across large distances, such as Hurricane John, the second longest-lasting tropical cyclone on record, which traveled 13,280 km (8,250 mi), the longest track of any Northern Hemisphere tropical cyclone, over its 31-day lifespan in 1994. Environmental steering Environmental steering is the primary influence on the motion of tropical cyclones. It represents the movement of the storm due to prevailing winds and other wider environmental conditions, similar to "leaves carried along by a stream".Physically, the winds, or flow field, in the vicinity of a tropical cyclone may be treated as having two parts: the flow associated with the storm itself, and the large-scale background flow of the environment. Tropical cyclones can be treated as local maxima of vorticity suspended within the large-scale background flow of the environment. In this way, tropical cyclone motion may be represented to first-order as advection of the storm by the local environmental flow. This environmental flow is termed the "steering flow" and is the dominant influence on tropical cyclone motion. The strength and direction of the steering flow can be approximated as a vertical integration of the winds blowing horizontally in the cyclone's vicinity, weighted by the altitude at which those winds are occurring. Because winds can vary with height, determining the steering flow precisely can be difficult. The pressure altitude at which the background winds are most correlated with a tropical cyclone's motion is known as the "steering level". The motion of stronger tropical cyclones is more correlated with the background flow averaged across a thicker portion of troposphere compared to weaker tropical cyclones whose motion is more correlated with the background flow averaged across a narrower extent of the lower troposphere. When wind shear and latent heat release is present, tropical cyclones tend to move towards regions where potential vorticity is increasing most quickly.Climatologically, tropical cyclones are steered primarily westward by the east-to-west trade winds on the equatorial side of the subtropical ridge—a persistent high-pressure area over the world's subtropical oceans. In the tropical North Atlantic and Northeast Pacific oceans, the trade winds steer tropical easterly waves westward from the African coast toward the Caribbean Sea, North America, and ultimately into the central Pacific Ocean before the waves dampen out. These waves are the precursors to many tropical cyclones within this region. In contrast, in the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific in both hemispheres, tropical cyclogenesis is influenced less by tropical easterly waves and more by the seasonal movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone and the monsoon trough. Other weather systems such as mid-latitude troughs and broad monsoon gyres can also influence tropical cyclone motion by modifying the steering flow. Beta drift In addition to environmental steering, a tropical cyclone will tend to drift poleward and westward, a motion known as "beta drift". This motion is due to the superposition of a vortex, such as a tropical cyclone, onto an environment in which the Coriolis force varies with latitude, such as on a sphere or beta plane. The magnitude of the component of tropical cyclone motion associated with the beta drift ranges between 1–3 m/s (3.6–10.8 km/h; 2.2–6.7 mph) and tends to be larger for more intense tropical cyclones and at higher latitudes. It is induced indirectly by the storm itself as a result of feedback between the cyclonic flow of the storm and its environment.Physically, the cyclonic circulation of the storm advects environmental air poleward east of center and equatorial west of center. Because air must conserve its angular momentum, this flow configuration induces a cyclonic gyre equatorward and westward of the storm center and an anticyclonic gyre poleward and eastward of the storm center. The combined flow of these gyres acts to advect the storm slowly poleward and westward. This effect occurs even if there is zero environmental flow. Due to a direct dependence of the beta drift on angular momentum, the size of a tropical cyclone can affect the influence of beta drift on its motion; beta drift imparts a greater influence on the movement of larger tropical cyclones than that of smaller ones. Multiple storm interaction A third component of motion that occurs relatively infrequently involves the interaction of multiple tropical cyclones. When two cyclones approach one another, their centers will begin orbiting cyclonically about a point between the two systems. Depending on their separation distance and strength, the two vortices may simply orbit around one another, or else may spiral into the center point and merge. When the two vortices are of unequal size, the larger vortex will tend to dominate the interaction, and the smaller vortex will orbit around it. This phenomenon is called the Fujiwhara effect, after Sakuhei Fujiwhara. Interaction with the mid-latitude westerlies Though a tropical cyclone typically moves from east to west in the tropics, its track may shift poleward and eastward either as it moves west of the subtropical ridge axis or else if it interacts with the mid-latitude flow, such as the jet stream or an extratropical cyclone. This motion, termed "recurvature", commonly occurs near the western edge of the major ocean basins, where the jet stream typically has a poleward component and extratropical cyclones are common. An example of tropical cyclone recurvature was Typhoon Ioke in 2006. Formation regions and warning centers The majority of tropical cyclones each year form in one of seven tropical cyclone basins, which are monitored by a variety of meteorological services and warning centres. Ten of these warning centres worldwide are designated as either a Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre or a Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre by the World Meteorological Organisation's (WMO) tropical cyclone programme. These warning centres issue advisories which provide basic information and cover a systems present, forecast position, movement and intensity, in their designated areas of responsibility. Meteorological services around the world are generally responsible for issuing warnings for their own country, however, there are exceptions, as the United States National Hurricane Center and Fiji Meteorological Service issue alerts, watches and warnings for various island nations in their areas of responsibility. The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center and Fleet Weather Center also publicly issue warnings, about tropical cyclones on behalf of the United States Government. The Brazilian Navy Hydrographic Center names South Atlantic tropical cyclones, however the South Atlantic is not a major basin, and not an official basin according to the WMO. Preparations Ahead of the formal season starting, people are urged to prepare for the effects of a tropical cyclone by politicians and weather forecasters, amongst others. They prepare by determining their risk to the different types of weather, tropical cyclones cause, checking their insurance coverage and emergency supplies, as well as determining where to evacuate to if needed. When a tropical cyclone develops and is forecast to impact land, each member nation of the World Meteorological Organization issues various watches and warnings to cover the expected effects. However, there are some exceptions with the United States National Hurricane Center and Fiji Meteorological Service responsible for issuing or recommending warnings for other nations in their area of responsibility.: 2–4 Effects Natural phenomena caused or worsened by tropical cyclones Tropical cyclones out at sea cause large waves, heavy rain, floods and high winds, disrupting international shipping and, at times, causing shipwrecks. Tropical cyclones stir up water, leaving a cool wake behind them, which causes the region to be less favorable for subsequent tropical cyclones. On land, strong winds can damage or destroy vehicles, buildings, bridges, and other outside objects, turning loose debris into deadly flying projectiles. The storm surge, or the increase in sea level due to the cyclone, is typically the worst effect from landfalling tropical cyclones, historically resulting in 90% of tropical cyclone deaths. Cyclone Mahina produced the highest storm surge on record, 13 m (43 ft), at Bathurst Bay, Queensland, Australia, in March 1899. Other ocean-based hazards that tropical cyclones produce are rip currents and undertow. These hazards can occur hundreds of kilometers (hundreds of miles) away from the center of a cyclone, even if other weather conditions are favorable. The broad rotation of a landfalling tropical cyclone, and vertical wind shear at its periphery, spawns tornadoes. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall. Hurricane Ivan produced 120 tornadoes, more than any other tropical cyclone. Lightning activity is produced within tropical cyclones; this activity is more intense within stronger storms and closer to and within the storm's eyewall. Tropical cyclones can increase the amount of snowfall a region experiences by delivering additional moisture. Wildfires can be worsened when a nearby storm fans their flames with its strong winds. Effect on property and human life Tropical cyclones regularly affect the coastlines of most of Earth's major bodies of water along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. Tropical cyclones have caused significant destruction and loss of human life, resulting in about 2 million deaths since the 19th century. Large areas of standing water caused by flooding lead to infection, as well as contributing to mosquito-borne illnesses. Crowded evacuees in shelters increase the risk of disease propagation. Tropical cyclones significantly interrupt infrastructure, leading to power outages, bridge and road destruction, and the hampering of reconstruction efforts. Winds and water from storms can damage or destroy homes, buildings, and other manmade structures. Tropical cyclones destroy agriculture, kill livestock, and prevent access to marketplaces for both buyers and sellers; both of these result in financial losses. Powerful cyclones that make landfall – moving from the ocean to over land – are some of the most powerful, although that is not always the case. An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide, with 47 reaching hurricane or typhoon strength, and 20 becoming intense tropical cyclones, super typhoons, or major hurricanes (at least of Category 3 intensity).In Africa, tropical cyclones can originate from tropical waves generated over the Sahara Desert, or otherwise strike the Horn of Africa and Southern Africa. Cyclone Idai in March 2019 hit central Mozambique, becoming the deadliest tropical cyclone on record in Africa, with 1,302 fatalities, and damage estimated at US$2.2 billion. Réunion island, located east of Southern Africa, experiences some of the wettest tropical cyclones on record. In January 1980, Cyclone Hyacinthe produced 6,083 mm (239.5 in) of rain over 15 days, which was the largest rain total recorded from a tropical cyclone on record. In Asia, tropical cyclones from the Indian and Pacific oceans regularly affect some of the most populated countries on Earth. In 1970, a cyclone struck Bangladesh, then known as East Pakistan, producing a 6.1 m (20 ft) storm surge that killed at least 300,000 people; this made it the deadliest tropical cyclone on record. In October 2019, Typhoon Hagibis struck the Japanese island of Honshu and inflicted US$15 billion in damage, making it the costliest storm on record in Japan. The islands that comprise Oceania, from Australia to French Polynesia, are routinely affected by tropical cyclones. In Indonesia, a cyclone struck the island of Flores in April 1973, killing 1,653 people, making it the deadliest tropical cyclone recorded in the Southern Hemisphere.Atlantic and Pacific hurricanes regularly affect North America. In the United States, hurricanes Katrina in 2005 and Harvey in 2017 are the country's costliest ever natural disasters, with monetary damage estimated at US$125 billion. Katrina struck Louisiana and largely destroyed the city of New Orleans, while Harvey caused significant flooding in southeastern Texas after it dropped 60.58 in (1,539 mm) of rainfall; this was the highest rainfall total on record in the country. Europe is rarely affected by tropical cyclones; however, the continent regularly encounters storms after they transitioned into extratropical cyclones. Only one tropical depression – Vince in 2005 – struck Spain, and only one subtropical cyclone – Subtropical Storm Alpha in 2020 – struck Portugal. Occasionally, there are tropical-like cyclones in the Mediterranean Sea. The northern portion of South America experiences occasional tropical cyclones, with 173 fatalities from Tropical Storm Bret in August 1993. The South Atlantic Ocean is generally inhospitable to the formation of a tropical storm. However, in March 2004, Hurricane Catarina struck southeastern Brazil as the first hurricane on record in the South Atlantic Ocean. Environmental effects Although cyclones take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they affect, as they may bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions. Their precipitation may also alleviate drought conditions by restoring soil moisture, though one study focused on the Southeastern United States suggested tropical cyclones did not offer significant drought recovery. Tropical cyclones also help maintain the global heat balance by moving warm, moist tropical air to the middle latitudes and polar regions, and by regulating the thermohaline circulation through upwelling. Research on Pacific cyclones has demonstrated that deeper layers of the ocean receive a heat transfer from these powerful storms. The storm surge and winds of hurricanes may be destructive to human-made structures, but they also stir up the waters of coastal estuaries, which are typically important fish breeding locales. Ecosystems, such as saltmarshes and Mangrove forests, can be severely damaged or destroyed by tropical cyclones, which erode land and destroy vegetation. Tropical cyclones can cause harmful algae blooms to form in bodies of water by increasing the amount of nutrients available. Insect populations can decrease in both quantity and diversity after the passage of storms. Strong winds associated with tropical cyclones and their remnants are capable of felling thousands of trees, causing damage to forests.When hurricanes surge upon shore from the ocean, salt is introduced to many freshwater areas and raises the salinity levels too high for some habitats to withstand. Some are able to cope with the salt and recycle it back into the ocean, but others can not release the extra surface water quickly enough or do not have a large enough freshwater source to replace it. Because of this, some species of plants and vegetation die due to the excess salt. In addition, hurricanes can carry toxins and acids onshore when they make landfall. The floodwater can pick up the toxins from different spills and contaminate the land that it passes over. These toxins are harmful to the people and animals in the area, as well as the environment around them. Tropical cyclones can cause oil spills by damaging or destroying pipelines and storage facilities. Similarly, chemical spills have been reported when chemical and processing facilities were damaged. Waterways have become contaminated with toxic levels of metals such as nickel, chromium, and mercury during tropical cyclones.Tropical cyclones can have an extensive effect on geography, such as creating or destroying land. Cyclone Bebe increased the size of Tuvalu island, Funafuti Atoll, by nearly 20%. Hurricane Walaka destroyed the small East Island in 2018, which destroyed the habitat for the endangered Hawaiian monk seal, as well as, threatened sea turtles and seabirds. Landslides frequently occur during tropical cyclones and can vastly alter landscapes; some storms are capable of causing hundreds to tens of thousands of landslides. Storms can erode coastlines over an extensive area and transport the sediment to other locations. Response Hurricane response is the disaster response after a hurricane. Activities performed by hurricane responders include assessment, restoration, and demolition of buildings; removal of debris and waste; repairs to land-based and maritime infrastructure; and public health services including search and rescue operations. Hurricane response requires coordination between federal, tribal, state, local, and private entities. According to the National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster, potential response volunteers should affiliate with established organizations and should not self-deploy, so that proper training and support can be provided to mitigate the danger and stress of response work.Hurricane responders face many hazards. Hurricane responders may be exposed to chemical and biological contaminants including stored chemicals, sewage, human remains, and mold growth encouraged by flooding, as well as asbestos and lead that may be present in older buildings. Common injuries arise from falls from heights, such as from a ladder or from level surfaces; from electrocution in flooded areas, including from backfeed from portable generators; or from motor vehicle accidents. Long and irregular shifts may lead to sleep deprivation and fatigue, increasing the risk of injuries, and workers may experience mental stress associated with a traumatic incident. Additionally, heat stress is a concern as workers are often exposed to hot and humid temperatures, wear protective clothing and equipment, and have physically difficult tasks. Climatology Tropical cyclones have occurred around the world for millennia. Reanalyses and research are being undertaken to extend the historical record, through the usage of proxy data such as overwash deposits, beach ridges and historical documents such as diaries. Major tropical cyclones leave traces in overwash records and shell layers in some coastal areas, which have been used to gain insight into hurricane activity over the past thousands of years. Sediment records in Western Australia suggest an intense tropical cyclone in the 4th millennium BC. Proxy records based on paleotempestological research have revealed that major hurricane activity along the Gulf of Mexico coast varies on timescales of centuries to millennia. In the year 957, a powerful typhoon struck southern China, killing around 10,000 people due to flooding. The Spanish colonization of Mexico described "tempestades" in 1730, although the official record for Pacific hurricanes only dates to 1949. In the south-west Indian Ocean, the tropical cyclone record goes back to 1848. In 2003, the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project examined and analyzed the historical record of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic back to 1851, extending the existing database from 1886.Before satellite imagery became available during the 20th century, many of these systems went undetected unless it impacted land or a ship encountered it by chance. Often in part because of the threat of hurricanes, many coastal regions had sparse population between major ports until the advent of automobile tourism; therefore, the most severe portions of hurricanes striking the coast may have gone unmeasured in some instances. The combined effects of ship destruction and remote landfall severely limit the number of intense hurricanes in the official record before the era of hurricane reconnaissance aircraft and satellite meteorology. Although the record shows a distinct increase in the number and strength of intense hurricanes, therefore, experts regard the early data as suspect. The ability of climatologists to make a long-term analysis of tropical cyclones is limited by the amount of reliable historical data. During the 1940s, routine aircraft reconnaissance started in both the Atlantic and Western Pacific basin during the mid-1940s, which provided ground truth data, however, early flights were only made once or twice a day. Polar-orbiting weather satellites were first launched by the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration in 1960 but were not declared operational until 1965. However, it took several years for some of the warning centres to take advantage of this new viewing platform and develop the expertise to associate satellite signatures with storm position and intensity.Each year on average, around 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form around the world, of which over half develop hurricane-force winds of 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) or more. Worldwide, tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer, when the difference between temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures is the greatest. However, each particular basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide scale, May is the least active month, while September is the most active month. November is the only month in which all the tropical cyclone basins are in season. In the Northern Atlantic Ocean, a distinct cyclone season occurs from June 1 to November 30, sharply peaking from late August through September. The statistical peak of the Atlantic hurricane season is September 10. The Northeast Pacific Ocean has a broader period of activity, but in a similar time frame to the Atlantic. The Northwest Pacific sees tropical cyclones year-round, with a minimum in February and March and a peak in early September. In the North Indian basin, storms are most common from April to December, with peaks in May and November. In the Southern Hemisphere, the tropical cyclone year begins on July 1 and runs all year-round encompassing the tropical cyclone seasons, which run from November 1 until the end of April, with peaks in mid-February to early March.Of various modes of variability in the climate system, El Niño–Southern Oscillation has the largest effect on tropical cyclone activity. Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the subtropical ridge closer to the equator, then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving into the main belt of the Westerlies. When the subtropical ridge position shifts due to El Niño, so will the preferred tropical cyclone tracks. Areas west of Japan and Korea tend to experience much fewer September–November tropical cyclone impacts during El Niño and neutral years. During La Niña years, the formation of tropical cyclones, along with the subtropical ridge position, shifts westward across the western Pacific Ocean, which increases the landfall threat to China and much greater intensity in the Philippines. The Atlantic Ocean experiences depressed activity due to increased vertical wind shear across the region during El Niño years. Tropical cyclones are further influenced by the Atlantic Meridional Mode, the Quasi-biennial oscillation and the Madden–Julian oscillation. Influence of climate change Climate change can affect tropical cyclones in a variety of ways: an intensification of rainfall and wind speed, a decrease in overall frequency, an increase in the frequency of very intense storms and a poleward extension of where the cyclones reach maximum intensity are among the possible consequences of human-induced climate change. Tropical cyclones use warm, moist air as their fuel. As climate change is warming ocean temperatures, there is potentially more of this fuel available. Between 1979 and 2017, there was a global increase in the proportion of tropical cyclones of Category 3 and higher on the Saffir–Simpson scale. The trend was most clear in the North Atlantic and in the Southern Indian Ocean. In the North Pacific, tropical cyclones have been moving poleward into colder waters and there was no increase in intensity over this period. With 2 °C (3.6 °F) warming, a greater percentage (+13%) of tropical cyclones are expected to reach Category 4 and 5 strength. A 2019 study indicates that climate change has been driving the observed trend of rapid intensification of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic basin. Rapidly intensifying cyclones are hard to forecast and therefore pose additional risk to coastal communities.Warmer air can hold more water vapor: the theoretical maximum water vapor content is given by the Clausius–Clapeyron relation, which yields ≈7% increase in water vapor in the atmosphere per 1 °C (1.8 °F) warming. All models that were assessed in a 2019 review paper show a future increase of rainfall rates. Additional sea level rise will increase storm surge levels. It is plausible that extreme wind waves see an increase as a consequence of changes in tropical cyclones, further exacerbating storm surge dangers to coastal communities. The compounding effects from floods, storm surge, and terrestrial flooding (rivers) are projected to increase due to global warming.There is currently no consensus on how climate change will affect the overall frequency of tropical cyclones. A majority of climate models show a decreased frequency in future projections. For instance, a 2020 paper comparing nine high-resolution climate models found robust decreases in frequency in the Southern Indian Ocean and the Southern Hemisphere more generally, while finding mixed signals for Northern Hemisphere tropical cyclones. Observations have shown little change in the overall frequency of tropical cyclones worldwide, with increased frequency in the North Atlantic and central Pacific, and significant decreases in the southern Indian Ocean and western North Pacific. There has been a poleward expansion of the latitude at which the maximum intensity of tropical cyclones occurs, which may be associated with climate change. In the North Pacific, there may also have been an eastward expansion. Between 1949 and 2016, there was a slowdown in tropical cyclone translation speeds. It is unclear still to what extent this can be attributed to climate change: climate models do not all show this feature. Observation and forecasting Observation Intense tropical cyclones pose a particular observation challenge, as they are a dangerous oceanic phenomenon, and weather stations, being relatively sparse, are rarely available on the site of the storm itself. In general, surface observations are available only if the storm is passing over an island or a coastal area, or if there is a nearby ship. Real-time measurements are usually taken in the periphery of the cyclone, where conditions are less catastrophic and its true strength cannot be evaluated. For this reason, there are teams of meteorologists that move into the path of tropical cyclones to help evaluate their strength at the point of landfall.Tropical cyclones are tracked by weather satellites capturing visible and infrared images from space, usually at half-hour to quarter-hour intervals. As a storm approaches land, it can be observed by land-based Doppler weather radar. Radar plays a crucial role around landfall by showing a storm's location and intensity every several minutes. Other satellites provide information from the perturbations of GPS signals, providing thousands of snapshots per day and capturing atmospheric temperature, pressure, and moisture content.In situ measurements, in real-time, can be taken by sending specially equipped reconnaissance flights into the cyclone. In the Atlantic basin, these flights are regularly flown by United States government hurricane hunters. These aircraft fly directly into the cyclone and take direct and remote-sensing measurements. The aircraft also launch GPS dropsondes inside the cyclone. These sondes measure temperature, humidity, pressure, and especially winds between flight level and the ocean's surface. A new era in hurricane observation began when a remotely piloted Aerosonde, a small drone aircraft, was flown through Tropical Storm Ophelia as it passed Virginia's eastern shore during the 2005 hurricane season. A similar mission was also completed successfully in the western Pacific Ocean. Forecasting High-speed computers and sophisticated simulation software allow forecasters to produce computer models that predict tropical cyclone tracks based on the future position and strength of high- and low-pressure systems. Combining forecast models with increased understanding of the forces that act on tropical cyclones, as well as with a wealth of data from Earth-orbiting satellites and other sensors, scientists have increased the accuracy of track forecasts over recent decades. However, scientists are not as skillful at predicting the intensity of tropical cyclones. The lack of improvement in intensity forecasting is attributed to the complexity of tropical systems and an incomplete understanding of factors that affect their development. New tropical cyclone position and forecast information is available at least every six hours from the various warning centers. Geopotential height In meteorology, geopotential heights are used when creating forecasts and analyzing pressure systems. Geopotential heights represent the estimate of the real height of a pressure system above the average sea level. Geopotential heights for weather are divided up into several levels. The lowest geopotential height level is 850 hPa (25.10 inHg), which represents the lowest 1,500 m (5,000 ft) of the atmosphere. The moisture content, gained by using either the relative humidity or the precipitable water value, is used in creating forecasts for precipitation. The next level, 700 hPa (20.67 inHg), is at a height of 2,300–3,200 m (7,700–10,500 ft); 700 hPa is regarded as the highest point in the lower atmosphere. At this layer, both vertical movement and moisture levels are used to locate and create forecasts for precipitation. The middle level of the atmosphere is at 500 hPa (14.76 inHg) or a height of 4,900–6,100 m (16,000–20,000 ft). The 500 hPa level is used for measuring atmospheric vorticity, commonly known as the spin of air. The relative humidity is also analyzed at this height in order to establish where precipitation is likely to materialize. The next level occurs at 300 hPa (8.859 inHg) or a height of 8,200–9,800 m (27,000–32,000 ft). The top-most level is located at 200 hPa (5.906 inHg), which corresponds to a height of 11,000–12,000 m (35,000–41,000 ft). Both the 200 and 300 hPa levels are mainly used to locate the jet stream. Related cyclone types In addition to tropical cyclones, there are two other classes of cyclones within the spectrum of cyclone types. These kinds of cyclones, known as extratropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones, can be stages a tropical cyclone passes through during its formation or dissipation. An extratropical cyclone is a storm that derives energy from horizontal temperature differences, which are typical in higher latitudes. A tropical cyclone can become extratropical as it moves toward higher latitudes if its energy source changes from heat released by condensation to differences in temperature between air masses; although not as frequently, an extratropical cyclone can transform into a subtropical storm, and from there into a tropical cyclone. From space, extratropical storms have a characteristic "comma-shaped" cloud pattern. Extratropical cyclones can also be dangerous when their low-pressure centers cause powerful winds and high seas.A subtropical cyclone is a weather system that has some characteristics of a tropical cyclone and some characteristics of an extratropical cyclone. They can form in a wide band of latitudes, from the equator to 50°. Although subtropical storms rarely have hurricane-force winds, they may become tropical in nature as their cores warm. See also Tropical cyclones in 2023 2023 Atlantic hurricane season 2023 Pacific hurricane season 2023 Pacific typhoon season 2023 North Indian Ocean cyclone season 2023–24 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season 2023–24 Australian region cyclone season 2023–24 South Pacific cyclone season References Further reading Barnes, Jay. Fifteen Hurricanes That Changed the Carolinas: Powerful Storms, Climate Change, and What We Do Next (University of North Carolina Press, 2022) online review Vecchi, Gabriel A., et al. "Changes in Atlantic major hurricane frequency since the late-19th century." Nature communications 12.1 (2021): 1–9. online Weinkle, Jessica, et al. "Normalized hurricane damage in the continental United States 1900–2017." Nature Sustainability 1.12 (2018): 808–813. online External links United States National Hurricane Center – North Atlantic, Eastern Pacific United States Central Pacific Hurricane Center – Central Pacific Japan Meteorological Agency – Western Pacific India Meteorological Department – Indian Ocean Météo-France – La Reunion – South Indian Ocean from 30°E to 90°E Indonesian Meteorological Department – South Indian Ocean from 90°E to 125°E, north of 10°S Australian Bureau of Meteorology – South Indian Ocean and South Pacific Ocean from 90°E to 160°E Papua New Guinea National Weather Service – South Pacific east of 160°E, north of 10°S Fiji Meteorological Service – South Pacific west of 160°E, north of 25° S MetService New Zealand – South Pacific west of 160°E, south of 25°S

climate change in pennsylvania

Climate change in Pennsylvania encompasses the effects of climate change, attributed to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. In 2021, Pennsylvania experienced areas of extreme flooding due to Hurricane Ida, which was noted as having characteristics that are probably more common in a warmer climate: the intensity, the rapid intensification, and the amount of rainfall over land.The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports that Pennsylvania has warmed more than half a degree (F) in the last century, heavy rainstorms are more frequent, and the tidal portion of the Delaware River is rising about one inch every eight years. In the coming decades, changing the climate is likely to increase flooding, harm ecosystems, disrupt farming, and increase some risks to human health. Increasing temperature and changing precipitation The EPA reports that rising temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns are likely to increase the intensity of both floods and droughts. Average annual precipitation in Pennsylvania has increased 5 to 10 percent in the last century, and precipitation from extremely heavy storms has increased 70 percent in the Northeast since 1958. During the next century, annual precipitation and the frequency of heavy downpours are likely to keep rising. Precipitation is likely to increase during winter and spring, but not change significantly during summer and fall. Rising temperatures will melt snow earlier in spring and increase evaporation, and thereby dry the soil during summer and fall. As a result, changing the climate is likely to intensify flooding during winter and spring, and drought during summer and fall. In 2011, Hurricane Irene caused the Schuylkill River to overflow its banks, flooding a rail line, bike path, and other infrastructure in Philadelphia. Higher tides along the Delaware River The EPA reports that sea level is rising more rapidly along Pennsylvania's shoreline than in most coastal areas because the Delaware Valley is sinking. If the oceans and atmosphere continue to warm, the tidal portion of the Delaware River is likely to rise one to four feet in the next century. Parts of Philadelphia International Airport and neighborhoods to the north are within two or three feet above the average high tide on the Delaware River. In downtown Philadelphia, Penn's Landing and the Northeast Corridor railroad tracks at 30th Street Station are currently in the 100-year floodplain. Along the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, a higher sea level could increase the extent of flooding caused by either coastal storms or severe rainstorms, unless communities take measures to hold back the rising rivers.The tidal freshwater wetlands along the Delaware River are likely to capture enough sediment for their land surfaces to keep pace with rising sea level. But both rising sea level and increasing drought enable salt water to mix farther up the Delaware River, which could kill wetland plants. In places where that occurs, wetlands might be replaced by either salt-tolerant wetland plants or shallow waters. Higher salinity could also create problems for Philadelphia's water supply during droughts, if salty water moves upstream to the city's drinking water intake at Torresdale. Inland waters The EPA notes that extraordinarily high river flows occasionally cause problems for commercial navigation along the Ohio and Allegheny rivers, and riverfront communities along the Susquehanna River and smaller tributaries occasionally flood. Heavier storms and greater river flows could make these problems worse. In 2011, heavy rainfall caused record flooding on the Susquehanna and the evacuations of Wilkes-Barre. Conversely, lower summer rainfall and higher evaporation could leave some rivers too shallow for navigaton during droughts.Warmer winters reduce the number of days that ice prevents navigation on rivers and in the Great Lakes. Between 1994 and 2011, reduced ice cover lengthened the shipping season on the Great Lakes by eight additional days. The Great Lakes are likely to warm another 3° to 7°F in the next 70 years, which will further extend the shipping season. The impact of climate change on water quality is less likely to be beneficial. Warmer temperatures tend to cause more algal blooms, which can be unsightly, harm fish, and degrade water quality. Severe storms also increase the amount of pollutants that run off from the land into the water, further increasing the risk of algal blooms. Ecosystems The EPA reports that a changing climate threatens ecosystems by disrupting the existing relationships between species. Wildflowers and woody perennials are blooming—and migratory birds are arriving—sooner in spring. Not all species adjust in the same way, however, so the food that one species needs may no longer be available when that species arrives on its migration. As a result, for example birds in western Pennsylvania have had lower body weights during warm years. Warmer temperatures allow deer populations to increase, leading to a loss of forest underbrush, which, in turn, makes some animals more vulnerable to predators. Rising temperatures also enable invasive species to move into areas that were previously too cold. Agriculture Changing climate will have both beneficial and harmful effects on farming, but the net effect is unknown. Longer frost-free growing seasons and higher concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide would increase yields for many crops during an average year, notably soybeans. But increasingly hot summers are likely to reduce yields of corn, Pennsylvania's most important crop. The earlier arrival of spring may increase populations of major crop pests, such as the corn earworm and aggressive weeds. Higher temperatures cause cows to eat less and produce less milk, so a warming climate could reduce the output of milk and beef, which together account for more than one-third of the commonwealth's farm revenues. See also Plug-in electric vehicles in Pennsylvania == References ==

climate change in mississippi

Climate change in Mississippi encompasses the effects of climate change, attributed to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, in the U.S. state of Mississippi. Studies show that Mississippi is among a string of "Deep South" states that will experience the worst effects of climate change in the United States. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports: "In the coming decades, Mississippi will become warmer, and both floods and droughts may be more severe. Unlike most of the nation, Mississippi did not become warmer during the last 50 to 100 years. But soils have become drier, annual rainfall has increased, more rain arrives in heavy downpours, and sea level is rising about one inch every seven years. The changing climate is likely to increase damages from tropical storms, reduce crop yields, harm livestock, increase the number of unpleasantly hot days, and increase the risk of heat stroke and other heat-related illnesses". Rising seas and retreating shores According to the EPA, "sea level is rising more rapidly in Mississippi than most coastal areas because the land is sinking. If the oceans and atmosphere continue to warm, sea level along the Mississippi coast is likely to rise between twenty inches and four feet in the next century. Rising sea level submerges wetlands and dry land, erodes beaches, and exacerbates coastal flooding. Coastal communities along Mississippi Sound are protected by undeveloped barrier islands, so erosion of those islands could threaten communities on the mainland". Storms, homes, and infrastructure According to the EPA, "tropical storms and hurricanes have become more intense during the past 20 years. Although warming oceans provide these storms with more potential energy, scientists are not sure whether the recent intensification reflects a long-term trend. Nevertheless, hurricane wind speeds and rainfall rates are likely to increase as the climate continues to warm".The EPA further reports that "whether or not storms become more intense, coastal homes and infrastructure will flood more often as sea level rises, because storm surges will become higher as well. Rising sea level is likely to increase flood insurance rates, while more frequent storms could increase the deductible for wind damage in homeowner insurance policies. Many cities, roads, railways, ports, airports, and oil and gas facilities along the Gulf Coast are vulnerable to the combined impacts of storms and sea level rise. People may move from vulnerable coastal communities and stress the infrastructure of the communities that receive them". Flooding and river transportation According to the EPA, "changing the climate is also likely to increase inland flooding. Vicksburg and Natchez are vulnerable to high water levels on the Mississippi River. Since 1958, the amount of precipitation during heavy rainstorms has increased by 27 percent in the Southeast, and the trend toward increasingly heavy rainstorms is likely to continue. Moreover, streamflows in the Midwest are increasing, and the amount of rainfall there is also likely to increase, which could increase flooding in Mississippi, because most of the Midwest drains into the Mississippi River. Droughts create a different set of challenges. During severe droughts in the Mississippi River’s watershed, low flows can restrict commercial navigation. For example, low water in 2012 forced the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to reduce allowable barge sizes on the Mississippi River and close the river at Greenville for more than a week, which delayed approximately 100 barges". Agriculture According to the EPA, "changing the climate will have both harmful and beneficial effects on farming. Seventy years from now, Mississippi is likely to have 30 to 60 days per year with temperatures above 95°F, compared with about 15 days today. Even during the next few decades, hotter summers are likely to reduce yields of corn. But higher concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide increase crop yields, and that fertilizing effect is likely to offset the harmful effects of heat on soybeans, cotton, wheat, and peanuts—if enough water is available. More severe droughts, however, could cause crop failures. Higher temperatures are also likely to reduce livestock productivity, because heat stress disrupts the animals' metabolism". Forest resources According to the EPA, "higher temperatures and changes in rainfall are unlikely to substantially reduce forest cover in Mississippi, although the composition of trees in the forests may change. More droughts would reduce forest productivity, and climate change is also likely to increase the damage from insects and disease. But longer growing seasons and higher carbon dioxide concentrations could more than offset the losses from those factors. Forests cover almost two-thirds of the state. Oak, hickory, and white pine trees are most common in the northern part of the state, except along the Mississippi River delta. In the southern part of the state, loblolly and longleaf pines are most common. As the climate warms, forests in southern Mississippi are likely to have more oaks and white pines, and fewer loblolly and longleaf pines". See also Plug-in electric vehicles in Mississippi References Further reading Carter, L.; A. Terando; K. Dow; K. Hiers; K.E. Kunkel; A. Lascurain; D. Marcy; M. Osland; P. Schramm (2018). "Southeast". In Reidmiller, D.R.; C.W. Avery; D.R. Easterling; K.E. Kunkel; K.L.M. Lewis; T.K. Maycock; B.C. Stewart (eds.). Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II (Report). Washington, DC, USA: U.S. Global Change Research Program. pp. 872–940. doi:10.7930/NCA4.2018.CH19.—this chapter of the National Climate Assessment covers Southeast states (Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana).

anthropocene

The Anthropocene ( AN-thrə-pə-seen, an-THROP-ə-) is a proposed geological epoch dating from the commencement of significant human impact on Earth's geology and ecosystems, including, but not limited to, human-caused climate change. The nature of the effects of humans on Earth can be seen for example in biodiversity loss, climate change, biogeography and nocturnality parameters, changes in geomorphology and stratigraphy (sedimentological record, fossil record, trace elements). Various start dates for the Anthropocene have been proposed, ranging from the beginning of the Agricultural Revolution 12,000–15,000 years ago, to as recently as the 1960s. The ratification process is still ongoing, and thus a date remains to be decided definitively, In May 2019, the Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) voted in favour of submitting a formal proposal to the ICS by 2021, locating potential stratigraphic markers to the mid-20th century of the common era. This time period coincides with the start of the Great Acceleration, a post-WWII time period during which socioeconomic and Earth system trends increase at a dramatic rate, and the Atomic Age. Although the biologist Eugene F. Stoermer is often credited with coining the term anthropocene, it was in informal use in the mid-1970s. Paul J. Crutzen is credited with independently re-inventing and popularising it.As of July 2022, neither the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) nor the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) has officially approved the term as a recognised subdivision of geologic time, although the Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) of the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS) of the ICS voted in April 2016 to proceed towards a formal golden spike (GSSP) proposal to define the Anthropocene epoch in the geologic time scale (GTS) and presented the recommendation to the International Geological Congress in August 2016. Development of the concept An early concept for the Anthropocene was the Noosphere by Vladimir Vernadsky, who in 1938 wrote of "scientific thought as a geological force". Scientists in the Soviet Union appear to have used the term "anthropocene" as early as the 1960s to refer to the Quaternary, the most recent geological period.Ecologist Eugene F. Stoermer subsequently used "anthropocene" with a different sense in the 1980s and the term was widely popularised in 2000 by atmospheric chemist Paul J. Crutzen, who regards the influence of human behavior on Earth's atmosphere in recent centuries as so significant as to constitute a new geological epoch. Stoermer wrote, "I began using the term 'anthropocene' in the 1980s, but never formalised it until Paul contacted me." Crutzen has explained, "I was at a conference where someone said something about the Holocene. I suddenly thought this was wrong. The world has changed too much. So I said: 'No, we are in the Anthropocene.' I just made up the word on the spur of the moment. Everyone was shocked. But it seems to have stuck.": 21 In 2008, the Stratigraphy Commission of the Geological Society of London considered a proposal to make the Anthropocene a formal unit of geological epoch divisions. A majority of the commission decided the proposal had merit and should be examined further. Independent working groups of scientists from various geological societies have begun to determine whether the Anthropocene will be formally accepted into the Geological Time Scale. The term "anthropocene" is informally used in scientific contexts. The Geological Society of America entitled its 2011 annual meeting: Archean to Anthropocene: The past is the key to the future. The new epoch has no agreed start-date, but one proposal, based on atmospheric evidence, is to fix the start with the Industrial Revolution c. 1780, with the invention of the steam engine. Other scientists link the new term to earlier events, such as the rise of agriculture and the Neolithic Revolution (around 12,000 years BP). Evidence of relative human impact – such as the growing human influence on land use, ecosystems, biodiversity, and species extinction – is substantial; scientists think that human impact has significantly changed (or halted) the growth of biodiversity. Those arguing for earlier dates posit that the proposed Anthropocene may have begun as early as 14,000–15,000 years BP, based on geologic evidence; this has led other scientists to suggest that "the onset of the Anthropocene should be extended back many thousand years";: 1  this would make the Anthropocene essentially synonymous with the current term, Holocene. In January 2015, 26 of the 38 members of the International Anthropocene Working Group published a paper suggesting the Trinity test on 16 July 1945 as the starting point of the proposed new epoch. However, a significant minority supports one of several alternative dates. A March 2015 report suggested either 1610 or 1964 as the beginning of the Anthropocene. Other scholars point to the diachronous character of the physical strata of the Anthropocene, arguing that onset and impact are spread out over time, not reducible to a single instant or date of start.A January 2016 report on the climatic, biological, and geochemical signatures of human activity in sediments and ice cores suggested the era since the mid-20th century should be recognised as a geological epoch distinct from the Holocene.The Anthropocene Working Group met in Oslo in April 2016 to consolidate evidence supporting the argument for the Anthropocene as a true geologic epoch. Evidence was evaluated and the group voted to recommend "Anthropocene" as the new geological epoch in August 2016. Should the International Commission on Stratigraphy approve the recommendation, the proposal to adopt the term will have to be ratified by the IUGS before its formal adoption as part of the geologic time scale.In April 2019, the Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) announced that they would vote on a formal proposal to the International Commission on Stratigraphy, to continue the process started at the 2016 meeting. In May 2019, 29 members of the 34 person AWG panel voted in favour of an official proposal to be made by 2021. The AWG also voted with 29 votes in favour of a starting date in the mid 20th century. Ten candidate sites for a Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point have been identified, one of which will be chosen to be included in the final proposal. Possible markers include microplastics, heavy metals, or radioactive nuclei left by tests from thermonuclear weapons.In November 2021, an alternative proposal that the Anthropocene is a geological event, not an epoch, was published and later expanded in 2022. This challenged the assumption underlying the case for the Anthropocene epoch - the idea that it is possible to accurately assign a precise date of start to highly diachronous processes of human-influenced Earth system change. The argument indicated that finding a single GSSP would be impractical, given human-induced changes in the Earth system occurred at different periods, in different places, and spread under different rates. Under this model, the Anthropocene would have many events marking human-induced impacts on the planet, including the mass extinction of large vertebrates, the development of early farming, land clearance in the Americas, global-scale industrial transformation during the Industrial Revolution, and the start of the Atomic Age. The authors are members of the AWG who had voted against the official proposal of a starting date in the mid-20th century, and sought to reconcile some of the previous models (including Ruddiman and Maslin proposals). They cited Crutzen's original concept, arguing that the Anthropocene is much better and more usefully conceived of as an unfolding geological event, like other major transformations in Earth's history such as the Great Oxidation Event. In July 2023, the AWG chose Crawford Lake in Ontario, Canada as a site representing the beginning of the proposed new epoch. The sediment in that lake shows a spike in levels of plutonium from hydrogen bomb tests, a key marker the group chose to place the start of the Anthropocene in the 1950s, along with other elevated markers including carbon particles and nitrates from the burning of fossil fuels and widespread application of chemical fertilizers respectively. If approved, the official declaration of the new Anthropocene epoch will take place in August 2024, and its first age may be named Crawfordian after the lake. Proposed starting point Industrial Revolution Crutzen proposed the Industrial Revolution as the start of Anthropocene. Lovelock proposes that the Anthropocene began with the first application of the Newcomen atmospheric engine in 1712. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change takes the pre-industrial era (chosen as the year 1750) as the baseline related to changes in long-lived, well mixed greenhouse gases. Although it is apparent that the Industrial Revolution ushered in an unprecedented global human impact on the planet, much of Earth's landscape already had been profoundly modified by human activities. The human impact on Earth has grown progressively, with few substantial slowdowns. Mid 20th century (Great Acceleration) In May 2019 the twenty-nine members of the Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) proposed a start date for the Epoch in the mid-twentieth century, as that period saw "a rapidly rising human population accelerated the pace of industrial production, the use of agricultural chemicals and other human activities. At the same time, the first atomic-bomb blasts littered the globe with radioactive debris that became embedded in sediments and glacial ice, becoming part of the geologic record." The official start-dates, according to the panel, would coincide with either the radionuclides released into the atmosphere from bomb detonations in 1945, or with the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963. First atomic bomb (1945) The peak in radionuclides fallout consequential to atomic bomb testing during the 1950s is another possible date for the beginning of the Anthropocene (the detonation of the first atomic bomb in 1945 or the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963). Etymology The name Anthropocene is a combination of anthropo- from the Ancient Greek ἄνθρωπος (anthropos) meaning 'human' and -cene from καινός (kainos) meaning 'new' or 'recent'.As early as 1873, the Italian geologist Antonio Stoppani acknowledged the increasing power and effect of humanity on the Earth's systems and referred to an 'anthropozoic era'. Nature of human effects Biodiversity loss The human impact on biodiversity forms one of the primary attributes of the Anthropocene. Humankind has entered what is sometimes called the Earth's sixth major extinction. Most experts agree that human activities have accelerated the rate of species extinction. The exact rate remains controversial – perhaps 100 to 1000 times the normal background rate of extinction.Anthropogenic extinctions started as humans migrated out of Africa over 60,000 years ago. Increases in global rates of extinction have been elevated above background rates since at least 1500, and appear to have accelerated in the 19th century and further since. Rapid economic growth is considered a primary driver of the contemporary displacement and eradication of other species.According to the 2021 Economics of Biodiversity review, written by Partha Dasgupta and published by the UK government, "biodiversity is declining faster than at any time in human history." A 2022 scientific review published in Biological Reviews confirms that an anthropogenic sixth mass extinction event is currently underway. A 2022 study published in Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, which surveyed more than 3,000 experts, states that the extinction crisis could be worse than previously thought, and estimates that roughly 30% of species "have been globally threatened or driven extinct since the year 1500." According to a 2023 study published in Biological Reviews some 48% of 70,000 monitored species are experiencing population declines from human activity, whereas only 3% have increasing populations. Biogeography and nocturnality Studies of urban evolution give an indication of how species may respond to stressors such as temperature change and toxicity. Species display varying abilities to respond to altered environments through both phenotypic plasticity and genetic evolution. Researchers have documented the movement of many species into regions formerly too cold for them, often at rates faster than initially expected.Permanent changes in the distribution of organisms from human influence will become identifiable in the geologic record. This has occurred in part as a result of changing climate, but also in response to farming and fishing, and to the accidental introduction of non-native species to new areas through global travel. The ecosystem of the entire Black Sea may have changed during the last 2000 years as a result of nutrient and silica input from eroding deforested lands along the Danube River.Researchers have found that the growth of the human population and expansion of human activity has resulted in many species of animals that are normally active during the day, such as elephants, tigers and boars, becoming nocturnal to avoid contact with humans, who are largely diurnal. Climate change One geological symptom resulting from human activity is increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) content. This signal in the Earth's climate system is especially significant because it is occurring much faster, and to a greater extent, than previously. Most of this increase is due to the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas. Geomorphology Changes in drainage patterns traceable to human activity will persist over geologic time in large parts of the continents where the geologic regime is erosional. This involves, for example, the paths of roads and highways defined by their grading and drainage control. Direct changes to the form of the Earth's surface by human activities (quarrying and landscaping, for example) also record human impacts. It has been suggested that the deposition of calthemite formations exemplify a natural process which has not previously occurred prior to the human modification of the Earth's surface, and which therefore represents a unique process of the Anthropocene. Calthemite is a secondary deposit, derived from concrete, lime, mortar or other calcareous material outside the cave environment. Calthemites grow on or under man-made structures (including mines and tunnels) and mimic the shapes and forms of cave speleothems, such as stalactites, stalagmites, flowstone etc. Stratigraphy Sedimentological record Human activities like deforestation and road construction are believed to have elevated average total sediment fluxes across the Earth's surface. However, construction of dams on many rivers around the world means the rates of sediment deposition in any given place do not always appear to increase in the Anthropocene. For instance, many river deltas around the world are actually currently starved of sediment by such dams, and are subsiding and failing to keep up with sea level rise, rather than growing. Fossil record Increases in erosion due to farming and other operations will be reflected by changes in sediment composition and increases in deposition rates elsewhere. In land areas with a depositional regime, engineered structures will tend to be buried and preserved, along with litter and debris. Litter and debris thrown from boats or carried by rivers and creeks will accumulate in the marine environment, particularly in coastal areas, but also in mid-ocean garbage patches. Such human-created artifacts preserved in stratigraphy are known as "technofossils". Changes in biodiversity will also be reflected in the fossil record, as will species introductions. An example cited is the domestic chicken, originally the red junglefowl Gallus gallus, native to south-east Asia but has since become the world's most common bird through human breeding and consumption, with over 60 billion consumed annually and whose bones would become fossilised in landfill sites. Hence, landfills are important resources to find "technofossils". Trace elements In terms of trace elements, there are distinct signatures left by modern societies. For example, in the Upper Fremont Glacier in Wyoming, there is a layer of chlorine present in ice cores from 1960's atomic weapon testing programs, as well as a layer of mercury associated with coal plants in the 1980s.From the late 1940s, nuclear tests have led to local nuclear fallout and severe contamination of test sites both on land and in the surrounding marine environment. Some of the radionuclides that were released during the tests are 137Cs, 90Sr, 239Pu, 240Pu, 241Am, and 131I. These have been found to have had significant impact on the environment and on human beings. In particular, 137Cs and 90Sr have been found to have been released into the marine environment and led to bioaccumulation over a period through food chain cycles. The carbon isotope 14C, commonly released during nuclear tests, has also been found to be integrated into the atmospheric CO2, and infiltrating the biosphere, through ocean-atmosphere gas exchange. Increase in thyroid cancer rates around the world is also surmised to be correlated with increasing proportions of the 131I radionuclide.The highest global concentration of radionuclides was estimated to have been in 1965, one of the dates which has been proposed as a possible benchmark for the start of the formally defined Anthropocene.Human burning of fossil fuels has also left distinctly elevated concentrations of black carbon, inorganic ash, and spherical carbonaceous particles in recent sediments across the world. Concentrations of these components increases markedly and almost simultaneously around the world beginning around 1950. Anthropocene markers A marker that accounts for a substantial global impact of humans on the total environment, comparable in scale to those associated with significant perturbations of the geological past, is needed in place of minor changes in atmosphere composition.A useful candidate for holding markers in the geologic time record is the pedosphere. Soils retain information about their climatic and geochemical history with features lasting for centuries or millennia. Human activity is now firmly established as the sixth factor of soil formation. Humanity affects pedogenesis directly by, for example, land levelling, trenching and embankment building, landscape-scale control of fire by early humans, organic matter enrichment from additions of manure or other waste, organic matter impoverishment due to continued cultivation and compaction from overgrazing. Human activity also affects pedogenesis indirectly by drift of eroded materials or pollutants. Anthropogenic soils are those markedly affected by human activities, such as repeated ploughing, the addition of fertilisers, contamination, sealing, or enrichment with artefacts (in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources they are classified as Anthrosols and Technosols). An example from archaeology would be dark earth phenomena when long-term human habitation enriches the soil with black carbon. Anthropogenic soils are recalcitrant repositories of artefacts and properties that testify to the dominance of the human impact, and hence appear to be reliable markers for the Anthropocene. Some anthropogenic soils may be viewed as the 'golden spikes' of geologists (Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point), which are locations where there are strata successions with clear evidences of a worldwide event, including the appearance of distinctive fossils. Drilling for fossil fuels has also created holes and tubes which are expected to be detectable for millions of years. The astrobiologist David Grinspoon has proposed that the site of the Apollo 11 Lunar landing, with the disturbances and artifacts that are so uniquely characteristic of our species' technological activity and which will survive over geological time spans could be considered as the 'golden spike' of the Anthropocene.An October 2020 study coordinated by University of Colorado at Boulder found that distinct physical, chemical and biological changes to Earth's rock layers began around the year 1950. The research revealed that since about 1950, humans have doubled the amount of fixed nitrogen on the planet through industrial production for agriculture, created a hole in the ozone layer through the industrial scale release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), released enough greenhouse gasses from fossil fuels to cause planetary level climate change, created tens of thousands of synthetic mineral-like compounds that do not naturally occur on Earth, and caused almost one-fifth of river sediment worldwide to no longer reach the ocean due to dams, reservoirs and diversions. Humans have produced so many millions of tons of plastic each year since the early 1950s that microplastics are "forming a near-ubiquitous and unambiguous marker of Anthropocene". The study highlights a strong correlation between global human population size and growth, global productivity and global energy use and that the "extraordinary outburst of consumption and productivity demonstrates how the Earth System has departed from its Holocene state since ~1950 CE, forcing abrupt physical, chemical and biological changes to the Earth's stratigraphic record that can be used to justify the proposal for naming a new epoch—the Anthropocene."A December 2020 study published in Nature found that the total anthropogenic mass, or human-made materials, outweighs all the biomass on earth, and highlighted that "this quantification of the human enterprise gives a mass-based quantitative and symbolic characterization of the human-induced epoch of the Anthropocene." Debates Although the validity of "Anthropocene" as a scientific term remains disputed, its underlying premise, i.e., that humans have become a geological force, or rather, the dominant force shaping the Earth's climate, has found traction among academics and the public. In an opinion piece for Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, Rodolfo Dirzo, Gerardo Ceballos, and Paul R. Ehrlich write that the term is "increasingly penetrating the lexicon of not only the academic socio-sphere, but also society more generally", and is now included as an entry in the Oxford English Dictionary. The University of Cambridge, as another example, offers a degree in Anthropocene Studies. In the public sphere, the term "Anthropocene" has become increasingly ubiquitous in activist, pundit, and political discourses. Some who are critical of the term "Anthropocene" nevertheless concede that "For all its problems, [it] carries power." The popularity and currency of the word has led scholars to label the term a "charismatic meta-category" or "charismatic mega-concept." The term, regardless, has been subject to a variety of criticisms from social scientists, philosophers, Indigenous scholars, and others. The anthropologist John Hartigan has argued that due its status as a charismatic meta-category, the term "Anthropocene" marginalizes competing, but less visible, concepts such as that of "multispecies." The more salient charge is that the ready acceptance of "Anthropocene" is due to its conceptual proximity to the status quo – that is, to notions of human individuality and centrality. Other scholars appreciate the way in which the term "Anthropocene" recognizes humanity as a geological force, but take issue with the indiscriminate way in which it does. Not all humans are equally responsible for the climate crisis. To that end, scholars such as the feminist theorist Donna Haraway and sociologist Jason Moore, have suggested naming the Epoch instead as the "Capitalocene." Such implies capitalism as the fundamental reason for the ecological crisis, rather than just humans in general. However, according to philosopher Steven Best, humans have created "hierarchical and growth-addicted societies" and have demonstrated "ecocidal proclivities" long before the emergence of capitalism. Hartigan, Bould, and Haraway all critique what "Anthropocene" does as a term; however, Hartigan and Bould differ from Haraway in that they criticize the utility or validity of a geological framing of the climate crisis, whereas Haraway embraces it. In addition to "Capitalocene," other terms have also been proposed by scholars to trace the roots of the Epoch to causes other than the human species broadly. Janae Davis, for example, has suggested the "Plantationocene" as a more appropriate term to call attention to the role that plantation agriculture has played in the formation of the Epoch, alongside Kathryn Yusoff's argument that racism as a whole is foundational to the Epoch. The Plantationocene concept traces "the ways that plantation logics organize modern economies, environments, bodies, and social relations." In a similar vein, Indigenous studies scholars such as Métis geographer Zoe Todd have argued that the Epoch must be dated back to the colonization of the Americas, as this "names the problem of colonialism as responsible for contemporary environmental crisis." Potawatomi philosopher Kyle Powys Whyte has further argued that the Anthropocene has been apparent to Indigenous peoples in the Americas since the inception of colonialism because of "colonialism's role in environmental change."Other critiques of "Anthropocene" have focused on the genealogy of the concept. Todd also provides a phenomenological account, which draws on the work of the philosopher Sara Ahmed, writing: "When discourses and responses to the Anthropocene are being generated within institutions and disciplines which are embedded in broader systems that act as de facto 'white public space,' the academy and its power dynamics must be challenged." Other aspects which constitute current understandings of the concept of the "Anthropocene" such as the ontological split between nature and society, the assumption of the centrality and individuality of the human, and the framing of environmental discourse in largely scientific terms have been criticized by scholars as concepts rooted in colonialism and which reinforce systems of postcolonial domination. To that end, Todd makes the case that the concept of "Anthropocene" must be indigenized and decolonized if it is to become a vehicle of justice as opposed to white thought and domination. The scholar Daniel Wildcat, a Yuchi member of the Muscogee Nation of Oklahoma, for example, has emphasized spiritual connection to the land as a crucial tenet for any ecological movement. Similarly, in her study of the Ladakhi people in northern India, the anthropologist Karine Gagné, detailed their understanding of the relation between nonhuman and human agency as one that is deeply intimate and mutual. For the Ladakhi, the nonhuman alters the epistemic, ethical, and affective development of humans – it provides a way of "being in the world." The Ladakhi, who live in the Himalayas, for example, have seen the retreat of the glaciers not just as a physical loss, but also as the loss of entities which generate knowledge, compel ethical reflections, and foster intimacy. Other scholars have similarly emphasized the need to return to notions of relatedness and interdependence with nature. The writer Jenny Odell has written about what Robin Wall Kimmerer calls "species loneliness," the loneliness which occurs from the separation of the human and the nonhuman, and the anthropologist Radhika Govindrajan has theorized on the ethics of care, or relatedness, which govern relations between humans and animals. Scholars are divided on whether to do away with the term "Anthropocene" or co-opt it. "Early anthropocene" model William Ruddiman has argued that the Anthropocene began approximately 8,000 years ago with the development of farming and sedentary cultures. At that point, humans were dispersed across all continents except Antarctica, and the Neolithic Revolution was ongoing. During this period, humans developed agriculture and animal husbandry to supplement or replace hunter-gatherer subsistence. Such innovations were followed by a wave of extinctions, beginning with large mammals and terrestrial birds. This wave was driven by both the direct activity of humans (e.g. hunting) and the indirect consequences of land-use change for agriculture. Landscape-scale burning by prehistoric hunter-gathers may have been an additional early source of anthropogenic atmospheric carbon. Ruddiman also claims that the greenhouse gas emissions in-part responsible for the Anthropocene began 8,000 years ago when ancient farmers cleared forests to grow crops.Ruddiman's work has been challenged with data from an earlier interglaciation ("Stage 11", approximately 400,000 years ago) which suggests that 16,000 more years must elapse before the current Holocene interglaciation comes to an end, and thus the early anthropogenic hypothesis is invalid. Also, the argument that "something" is needed to explain the differences in the Holocene is challenged by more recent research showing that all interglacials are different. Homogenocene Homogenocene (from old Greek: homo-, same; geno-, kind; kainos-, new;) is a more specific term used to define our current epoch, in which biodiversity is diminishing and biogeography and ecosystems around the globe seem more and more similar to one another mainly due to invasive species that have been introduced around the globe either on purpose (crops, livestock) or inadvertently. This is due to the newfound globalism that humans participate in, as species traveling across the world to another region was not as easily possible in any point of time in history as it is today.The term Homogenocene was first used by Michael Samways in his editorial article in the Journal of Insect Conservation from 1999 titled "Translocating fauna to foreign lands: Here comes the Homogenocene."The term was used again by John L. Curnutt in the year 2000 in Ecology, in a short list titled "A Guide to the Homogenocene", which reviewed Alien species in North America and Hawaii: impacts on natural ecosystems by George Cox. Charles C. Mann, in his acclaimed book 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created, gives a bird's-eye view of the mechanisms and ongoing implications of the homogenocene. Society and culture Humanities The concept of the Anthropocene has also been approached via humanities such as philosophy, literature and art. In the scholarly world, it has been the subject of increasing attention through special journals, conferences, and disciplinary reports. The Anthropocene, its attendant timescale, and ecological implications prompt questions about death and the end of civilisation, memory and archives, the scope and methods of humanistic inquiry, and emotional responses to the "end of nature". Some scholars have posited that the realities of the Anthropocene, including "human-induced biodiversity loss, exponential increases in per-capita resource consumption, and global climate change," have made the goal of environmental sustainability largely unattainable and obsolete.Historians have actively engaged the Anthropocene. In 2000, the same year that Paul Crutzen coined the term, world historian John McNeill published Something New Under the Sun, tracing the rise of human societies' unprecedented impact on the planet in the twentieth century. In 2001, historian of science Naomi Oreskes revealed the systematic efforts to undermine trust in climate change science and went on to detail the corporate interests delaying action on the environmental challenge. Both McNeill and Oreskes became members of the Anthropocene Working Group because of their work correlating human activities and planetary transformation. Popular culture In 2019, the English musician Nick Mulvey released a music video on YouTube named "In the Anthropocene". In cooperation with Sharp's Brewery, the song was recorded on 105 vinyl records made of washed-up plastic from the Cornish coast. The Anthropocene Reviewed is a podcast and book by author John Green, where he "reviews different facets of the human-centered planet on a five-star scale". In 2015, the American death metal band Cattle Decapitation released its seventh studio album titled The Anthropocene Extinction. See also Anthropogenic biomes – type of biomPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallbacke Holocene extinction – Ongoing extinction event caused by human activity Human overpopulation – Proposed condition wherein human numbers exceed the carrying capacity of the environment Meghalayan – Third stage of the Holocene Epoch Novel ecosystem – human-built, modified, or engineered niches of the AnthropocenePages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Overconsumption – Resource use exceeding carrying capacityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Planetary boundaries – Limits not to be exceeded if humanity wants to survive in a safe ecosystem References External links The Anthropocene epoch: have we entered a new phase of planetary history?, The Guardian, 2019 Drawing A Line In The Mud: Scientists Debate When 'Age Of Humans' Began. NPR. 17 March 2021. "The Anthropocene: Where on Earth are we Going? [Full]". YouTube. The Royal Society of Victoria. 15 April 2021. (lecture given by Professor Will Steffen in Melbourne, Australia) 8 billion humans: How population growth and climate change are connected as the ‘Anthropocene engine’ transforms the planet. The Conversation. 3 November 2022.

meadow

A meadow ( MED-oh) is an open habitat or field, vegetated by grasses, herbs, and other non-woody plants. Trees or shrubs may sparsely populate meadows, as long as these areas maintain an open character. Meadows can occur naturally under favourable conditions, but are often artificially created from cleared shrub or woodland for the production of hay, fodder, or livestock. Meadow habitats, as a group, are characterized as "semi-natural grasslands", meaning that they are largely composed of species native to the region, with only limited human intervention. Meadows attract a multitude of wildlife, and support flora and fauna that could not thrive in other habitats. They are ecologically important as they provide areas for animal courtship displays, nesting, food gathering, pollinating insects, and sometimes sheltering, if the vegetation is high enough. Intensified agricultural practices (too frequent mowing, use of mineral fertilizers, manure and insecticides), may lead to declines in the abundance of organisms and species diversity. There are multiple types of meadows, including agricultural, transitional, and perpetual – each playing a unique and important part of the ecosystem. Like other ecosystems, meadows will experience increased pressure (including on their biodiversity) due to climate change, especially as precipitation and weather conditions change. However, grasslands and meadows also have an important climate change mitigation potential as carbon sinks; deep-rooted grasses store a substantial amount of carbon in soil. Types Agricultural meadows In agriculture, a meadow is grassland which is not regularly grazed by domestic livestock, but rather allowed to grow unchecked in order to produce hay. Their roots go way back to the Iron Age, when appropriate tools for the hay harvest emerged. The ability to produce livestock fodder on meadows had a significant advantage for livestock production, as animals could be kept in enclosures, simplifying the control over breeding. Surpluses in biomass production during the summer could be stored for the winter, preventing damages to forests and grasslands as there was no longer the need for livestock grazing during the winter.Especially in the United Kingdom and Ireland, the term meadow is commonly used in its original sense to mean a hay meadow, signifying grassland mown annually in the summer for making hay. Agricultural meadows are typically lowland or upland fields upon which hay or pasture grasses grow from self-sown or hand-sown seed. Traditional hay meadows were once common in rural Britain, but are now in decline. Ecologist Professor John Rodwell states that over the past century, England and Wales have lost about 97% of their hay meadows. Fewer than 15,000 hectares (37,000 acres) of lowland meadows remain in the UK and most sites are relatively small and fragmented. 25% of the UK's meadows are found in Worcestershire, with Foster's Green Meadow managed by the Worcestershire Wildlife Trust being a major site.A similar concept to the hay meadow is the pasture, which differs from the meadow in that it is grazed through the summer, rather than being allowed to grow out and periodically be cut for hay. A pasture can also refer to any land used for grazing, and in this wider sense the term refers not only to grass pasture but also to non-grassland habitats such as heathland, moorland and wood pasture. The term, grassland, is used to describe both hay meadows and grass pastures.The specific agricultural practices in relation to the meadow can take on various expressions. As mentioned, this could be hay production or providing food for grazing cattle and livestock but also to give room for orchards or honey production. Meadows are embedded and dependent on a complex web of socio-cultural conditions for their maintenance. Historically, they emerged to increase agricultural efficiency when the necessary tools became available. Today, agricultural practices have shifted and meadows have largely lost their original purpose. Yet, they are appreciated today for their aesthetics and ecological functions. Consequently, the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy subsidizes their management, mostly through grazing. Transitional meadows A transitional meadow occurs when a field, pasture, farmland, or other cleared land is no longer cut or grazed and starts to display luxuriant growth, extending to the flowering and self-seeding of its grass and wildflower species. The condition is however only temporary, because the grasses eventually become shaded out when scrub and woody plants become well-established, being the forerunners of the return to a fully wooded state. A transitional state can be artificially-maintained through a double-field system, in which cultivated soil and meadows are alternated for a period of 10 to 12 years each.In North America prior to European colonization, Algonquians, Iroquois and other Native Americans peoples regularly cleared areas of forest to create transitional meadows where deer and game could find food and be hunted. For example, some of today's meadows originated thousands of years ago, due to regular burnings by Native Americans. Perpetual meadows A perpetual meadow, also called a natural meadow, is one in which environmental factors, such as climatic and soil conditions, are favorable to perennial grasses and restrict the growth of woody plants indefinitely. Types of perpetual meadows may include: Alpine meadows occur at high elevations above the tree line and maintained by harsh climatic conditions. Coastal meadows maintained by salt sprays. Desert meadows restricted by low precipitation or lack of nutrients and humus. Prairies maintained by periods of severe drought or subject to wildfires. Wet meadows (a semi-wetland area) saturated with water throughout much of the year. Urban meadow Recently, urban areas have been thought of as potential biodiversity conservation sites. The shift from urban lawns, that are widely spread habitats in cities, to urban meadows is thought to promote greater refuges for plant and animal communities. Urban lawns require intensive management that puts the life there at risk of losing their habitat, especially due to the mowing frequency. Cutting that mowing frequency has demonstrated to induce a clear positive effect on the plant community's diversity, which allows the switch from urban lawns to urban meadows.Due to increased urbanization, the EU Biodiversity Strategy 2017 decreed that there is a need to protect all ecosystems due to climate change. The majority of the people that live in the urban regions of any country usually get their plant knowledge from visiting parks and or public green infrastructure. Local authorities have the duty of providing the green spaces for the public, but these departments are constantly suffering major budget cuts, making it more difficult for people to admire natural wildlife in the urban sectors and also impairing the local ecosystem. In line with the increasing acceptance of a "messier urban aesthetic", the perennial meadows can be seen as a more realistic alternative to the classic urban lawns as they would also be more cost-efficient to maintain. Factors that managers of urban spaces list as important to regard are: Aesthetics and public reaction Locational context Human Resources and economic sustainability Local politics Communication Biodiversity and existing habitat Physical factors. Human intervention Artificially or culturally conceived meadows emerge from and continually require human intervention to persist and flourish. In many places, the natural, pristine populations of free-roaming large grazers are either extinct or very limited due to human activities. This reduces or removes their natural influence on the surrounding ecology and results in meadows only being created or maintained by human intervention. Existing meadows could potentially and gradually decline, if unmaintained by agricultural practices. Humankind has influenced the ecology and the landscape for millennia in many parts of the world, so it can sometimes be difficult to discern what is natural and what is cultural. Meadows are one example. However, meadows seem to have been sustained historically by naturally occurring large grazers, which kept plant growth in checked and maintained the cleared space.As extensive farming like grazing is diminishing in some parts of the world, the meadow is endangered as a habitat. A number of research projects attempt to restore natural meadow habitats by reintroducing natural, large grazers. These includes deer, elk, goat, wild horse, etc. depending on the location. A more exotic example with a wider scope is the European Tauros Programme.Some environmental organization recommend converting lawns to meadows by stopping or reducing mowing. They claim that meadows can better preserve biodiversity, water, reduce the use of fertilizers. For example, in 2018 environmental organizations with the support of the Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs of England, concerned by the decline in the number of bees worldwide, in the first day of Bees' Needs Week 2018 (9–15 July) give some recommendation how to preserve bees. The recommendations include 1) growing flowers, shrubs, and trees, 2) letting the garden grow wild, 3) cutting grass less often, 4) leaving insect nest and hibernation spots alone, and 5) using careful consideration with pesticides. Impact of tourism The impact of human activity has been noted to increase degradation of meadow soil. This has contributed to landslides in Sholas. E.g. due to skiing activities and urbanization, the meadows of the town of Zakopane, Poland, were noted to have altered soil compositions. The soil's organic material had faded away and was affected due to the chemicals from the artificial melting water from the snow and skiing machinery. Meadows and climate change Ecological consequences Climate changes impact temperature precipitation patterns worldwide. The effects are regionally very different but generally, temperatures tend to increase, snowpacks tend to melt earlier and many places tend to become drier. Many species respond to these changes by slowly moving their habitat upwards. The increased elevation decreases mean temperatures and thus allows for species to largely maintain their original habitat. Another common response to changed environmental conditions are phenological adaptations. These include shifts in the timing of germination or blossoming. Other examples include for example changing migration patterns of birds of passage. These adaptations are primarily influenced by three drivers: Increased temperature Changing precipitation patterns Reduced snowpack and earlier meltingIn the meadows, as water turned out to be all the more scant, that implies less dampness for the plants. The blooming plants do not develop too and hence do not give much food to the creatures. These kinds of changes in the plants could influence population of buffalo just as numerous other more creatures, including bugs and insects. Effects of higher temperatures In response to temperature changes, flowering plants can respond through either spatial or temporal shifts. A spatial shift refers to the migration towards colder areas, often on higher altitudes. A temporal shift means that a plant may alter its phenology to blossom at a different time of the year. By moving towards the early spring or late autumn they can restore their previous temperature conditions. These adaptations are limited through. Spatial shifts may be difficult if the areas are already inhabited by other species, or when the plant is reliant on specific hydrology or soil type. Other authors have shown that higher temperatures can increase total biomass, but temperature shocks and instability seem to have negative impacts on biodiversity. This even appears to be the case for multiyear species, which were previously considered to have a buffering effect on extreme weather events. Effects of changing precipitation patterns There is a variety of hydrological regimes for meadows, ranging from dry to humid, each yielding different plant communities adapted to the respective provider of water. A shift in precipitation patterns has very different effects, depending on the type of meadow. Meadows that are either dry or wet appear to be rather resilient to change, as a moderate increase or decrease in precipitation does not radically alter their character. Meanwhile, mesic meadows, with a moderate supply of water do change their character as it is easier to tip them into a different regime. Dry meadows in particular are threatened by the invasion of shrubs and other woody plants and a decreasing prevalence of flowering forbs, whereas hydric sites tend to lose woody species. Due to the dryer upper soil layers, forbs with shallow roots have difficulties obtaining enough water. Woody plants in contrast with their lower-reaching root systems can still extract water stored in lower soil layers and are able to sustain themselves through longer drought periods with their stored water reserves. In the longer term, changing hydrologic regimes may also facilitate the establishment of invasive species that may be better adapted to the new conditions. The effects are already quite visible, an example is the substitution of Alpine meadows in the southern Himalayas through shrubland. Climate change appears to be an important driver of this process. Wetter winters in contrast might increase total biomass, but favour already competitive species. By harming specialised plants and promoting the prevalence of more generalist species, more unstable precipitation patterns could also reduce ecological biodiversity. Effects of reduced snowpacks Snow covers are directly related to changes in temperature, precipitation and cloud cover. Still, changes in the timing of the snowmelt seem to be, particularly in alpine regions, an important determinant for phenological responses. There is even data suggesting that the impact of snowmelt is even higher than the warming alone. Earlier are not uniformly positive for plants though, as moisture injected through snow-melt might be missing later in the year. Additionally, it might allow for longer periods of seed predation. Problematic is also the lack of the insulating snow cover, springtime frost events might have a larger negative impact. Effects on ecological communities All the drivers mentioned above give rise to complex, non-linear community responses. These responses can be disentangled by looking at multiple climate drivers and species together. As different species show varying degrees of phenological responses, the consequence is a so-called phenological reassembly, where the structure of the ecosystem changes fundamentally. Phenological responses in blossoming periods of certain plants may not coincide with the phenological shifts of their pollinators or growing periods of plant communities relying on each other may start to diverge. A study of meadows in the Rocky Mountains revealed the emergence of a mid-season period with little floral activity. Specifically, the study identified that the typical mid-summer floral peak was composed out of several consecutive peaks in dry, mesic and wet meadow systems. Phenological responses to climate change let these distinct peaks diverge, leading to a gap during mid-summer. This poses a threat to pollinators relying on a continuous supply of floral resources. As ecological communities are often highly adapted to local circumstances which can not be reproduced at higher elevations, Debinski et al. describe the short-term changes observed on meadows "as a shift in the mosaic of the landscape composition". Therefore, it is important to monitor not only how specific species respond to climate change, but to also investigate them in the context of different habitats they occur in. Phenological reassembly Animals as well as plants are changing rapidly to the anthropogenic global warming, and the number of individuals, habitat occupancy, changing reproductive cycles are the strategies to adapt to this severe and unpredictable environment alterations. The different types of meadows all around the planet are different communities of plants (perennial and annual plants) that constantly are interacting with each other to stay alive and reproduce. Timing and duration of flowering is one of the phenological reassembly driven by many different factors like snow melt, temperature and soil moisture to mention a few. All of the changes that a plant or an animal may go through are depending in habitat's topography, altitude, and latitude of a specific organism. It is important to monitor properly the plants because they are one of the best bioindicators of how climate change is affecting the planet.Flowering phenology is one of the most important features of plant in order to survive any type of adversity. Thanks to different modern techniques and constant monitoring we can assure which ecological strategy the plants are using in order to multiply their species. In alpine meadow of the eastern Tibet notorious variances and similarities were observed between annual and perennial plants. Where perennial plants flowering peak date was directly proportional to the duration and inversely proportional in annuals plants. This is just a limited quantity of many relationships on phenology and functional traits interacting with the environment to survive. Extreme weather Climate change is increasing temperatures all over the world, and boreal regions are more susceptible to suffer noticeable changes. An experiment was conducted to monitor the reaction of alpine arctic meadow plants to different patterns of increased temperatures. This experiment was based on vascular plants that live in arctic and subarctic environments within three different levels of vegetation: canopy layer, bottom layer and functional groups. It is crucial to keep in mind that these plants are usually sharing the space and constantly interacting with bryophytes, lichens, arthropods, animals and many other organisms. The result was a clear adaptation of a constant pattern that plants recognized and had time to reach thermal acclimation meaning that they got a net carbon gain by intensifying photosynthesis and slightly increasing respiration thanks to a warmer climate for a reasonable time period. However, plants that suffer changes of any kind (not only temperature rising and falling) in a short period of time are more likely to die because they did not have enough time to reach thermal acclimation. Meadow restorations Carbon storage in meadows Meadows can act as substantial sinks and sources of organic carbon, holding vast quantities of it in the soil. The fluxes of carbon depend mainly on the natural cycle of carbon uptake and efflux, which interplays with seasonal variations (e.g. non-growing vs growing season). The wide range of meadow subtypes have in turn differing attributes (like plant configurations) affecting the area's ability to act as sinks; seagrass meadows are for instant identified as some of the more important sinks in the global carbon cycle. In the instance of seagrass meadows, enhanced production of other greenhouse gases (CH4 and N2O) does occur but the estimated overall effect results in an offset of the total emission. Meanwhile, a usual driver of meadow loss (except for direct alterations due to human development) is climate change, consequently increasing carbon emissions and bringing up the topic of restoration projects which in some cases have prompted initiated meadow restorations (e.g. Zostera marina meadow in Virginia U.S.A). Grassland degradations Where grassland degradation has occurred, significant alterations to the carbon dioxide efflux during the non-growing season may take place. Both climate change and overgrazing factor into the degradation. As exemplified by the alpine wetland meadow on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, there is the potential of being a moderate source of CO2 and a carbon sink, due to high soil organic content and low decomposition. The more the dynamics have been quantified, however, the effects of degradation become more tangible. A strong connection between grassland degradation and soil carbon loss has been seen, pinpointing that carbon dioxide release is being stimulated by this event. This subsequently indicates a climate change mitigation potential by restoring degraded grassland. Cap-and-trade Being a market-based regulation of emissions, the cap-and-trade system can in some instances be found incorporating restoration projects for climate mitigation. For example, the cap-and-trade program in California is looking at how meadow restorations can be incorporated into their system of reducing carbon emissions. The preliminary studies are, as depicted by Audubon, pointing at the potential of storing a substantially increased amount of soil carbon compared to degraded meadows, while boosting the local biodiversity. Most recently though, during the COVID-19 pandemic, difficulties with restoration are beginning to show: During the first years, areas under restoration are vulnerable to outside disruption, like meadow management put on hold when the ecosystem is most sensitive, for example to invasive species. See also References External links Foundation for Restoring European Ecosystems UK Wild Meadows Website Archived 2012-07-09 at the Wayback Machine Irish Wild Meadows Website Meadow Planting A Year in a Meadow (Ottawa, Canada) Grow a Back Yard Meadow (Ottawa, Canada) Adrian Higgins, "Today, 32,000 Seedlings; Tomorrow, a Meadow," Washington Post, May 13, 2004. Link retrieved June 18, 2013.

geography of bangladesh

Bangladesh is a densely populated, low-lying, mainly riverine country located in South Asia with a coastline of 580 km (360 mi) on the northern littoral of the Bay of Bengal. The delta plain of the Ganges (Padma), Brahmaputra (Jamuna), and Meghna Rivers and their tributaries occupy 79 percent of the country. Four uplifted blocks (including the Madhupur and Barind Tracts in the centre and northwest) occupy 9 percent and steep hill ranges up to approximately 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) high occupy 12 percent in the southeast (the Chittagong Hill Tracts) and in the northeast. Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon climate characterised by heavy seasonal rainfall, high temperatures, and high humidity. Natural disasters such as floods and cyclones accompanied by storm surges periodically affect the country. Most of the country is intensively farmed, with rice the main crop, grown in three seasons. Rapid urbanisation is taking place with associated industrial and commercial development. Exports of garments and shrimp plus remittances from Bangladeshis working abroad provide the country's three main sources of foreign exchange income. Physical geography The physical geography of Bangladesh is varied and has an area characterised by two distinctive features: a broad deltaic plain subject to frequent flooding, and a small hilly region crossed by swiftly flowing rivers. The country has an area of 148,460 square kilometres (57,320 sq mi) (according to BBS 2020) or 148,460 square kilometres (57,320 sq mi) (according to CIA World factbook 2021) and extends 820 kilometres (510 mi) north to south and 600 kilometres (370 mi) east to west. Bangladesh is bordered on the west, north, and east by a 4,095 kilometres (2,545 mi) land frontier with India and, in the southeast, by a short land and water frontier (193 kilometres (120 mi)) with Myanmar. On the south is a highly irregular deltaic coastline of about 580 kilometres (360 mi), fissured by many rivers and streams flowing into the Bay of Bengal. The territorial waters of Bangladesh extend 12 nautical miles (22 km), and the exclusive economic zone of the country is 200 nautical miles (370 km). Roughly 80% of the landmass is made up of fertile alluvial lowland called the Bangladesh Plain. The plain is part of the larger Plain of Bengal, which is sometimes called the Lower Gangetic Plain. Although altitudes up to 105 metres (344 ft) above sea level occur in the northern part of the plain, most elevations are less than 10 metres (33 ft) above sea level; elevations decrease in the coastal south, where the terrain is generally at sea level. With such low elevations and numerous rivers, water—and concomitant flooding—is a predominant physical feature. About 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) of the total area of Bangladesh is covered with water, and larger areas are routinely flooded during the monsoon season. The only exceptions to Bangladesh's low elevations are the Chittagong Hills in the southeast, the Low Hills of Sylhet in the northeast, and highlands in the north and northwest. The Chittagong Hills constitute the only significant hill system in the country and, in effect, are the western fringe of the north–south mountain ranges of Myanmar and eastern India. The Chittagong Hills rise steeply to narrow ridgelines, generally no wider than 36 metres (118 ft), with altitudes from 600 to 900 metres (2,000 to 3,000 ft) above sea level. At 1,052 metres (3,451 ft) altitude, the highest elevation in Bangladesh is found at Saka Haphong, in the southeastern part of the hills. Fertile valleys lie between the hill lines, which generally run north–south. West of the Chittagong Hills is a broad plain, cut by rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal, that rises to a final chain of low coastal hills, mostly below 200 metres (660 ft), that attain a maximum elevation of 350 metres (1,150 ft). West of these hills is a narrow, wet coastal plain located between the cities of Chittagong in the north and Cox's Bazar in the south. About 67% of Bangladesh's nonurban land is arable. Permanent crops cover only 2%, meadows and pastures cover 4%, and forests and woodland cover about 16%. The country produces large quantities of quality timber, bamboo, and sugarcane. Bamboo grows in almost all areas, but high-quality timber grows mostly in the highland valleys. Rubber planting in the hilly regions of the country was undertaken in the 1980s, and rubber extraction had started by the end of the decade. A variety of wild animals are found in the forest areas, such as in the Sundarbans on the southwest coast, which is the home of the royal Bengal tiger. The alluvial soils in the Bangladesh Plain are generally fertile and are enriched with heavy silt deposits carried downstream during the rainy season. Human geography Urbanisation is proceeding rapidly, and it is estimated that only 30% of the population entering the labour force in the future will be absorbed into agriculture, although many will likely find other kinds of work in rural areas. The areas around Dhaka and Comilla are the most densely settled. The Sundarbans, an area of coastal tropical jungle in the southwest and last wild home of the Bengal tiger, and the Chittagong Hill Tracts on the southeastern border with Myanmar and India, are the least densely populated. Climate Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon climate characterized by wide seasonal variations in rainfall, high temperatures, and high humidity. Regional climatic differences in this flat country are minor, though some variations can be seen between the weather patterns of the northern and southern regions, as the piedmontal plains of the former have a monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate. According to Bangladesh Meteorological Department, there are six seasons in Bangladesh depending on the temperature, rainfall and direction of wind: mild and cool winter from December to February, hot and sunny summer or pre-monsoon season from March to May, somewhat cooler and very wet monsoon season from June to September and pleasant, shorter and cooler autumn or post-monsoon season in October–November. In general, maximum summer temperatures range between 38 and 41 °C (100.4 and 105.8 °F). April is the hottest month in most parts of the country. January is the coolest month, when the average temperature for most of the country is 16–20 °C (61–68 °F) during the day and around 10 °C (50 °F) at night. Winds are mostly from the north and northwest in the winter, blowing gently at 1 to 3 kilometres per hour (0.6 to 1.9 mph) in northern and central areas and 3 to 6 kilometres per hour (1.9 to 3.7 mph) near the coast. From March to May, violent thunderstorms, called northwesters by local English speakers, produce winds of up to 60 kilometres per hour (37.3 mph). During the intense storms of the early summer and late monsoon season, southerly winds of more than 160 kilometres per hour (99.4 mph) cause waves to crest as high as 6 metres (19.7 ft) in the Bay of Bengal, which brings disastrous flooding to coastal areas.Heavy rainfall is characteristic of Bangladesh, causing it to flood every year. Except for the relatively dry western region of Rajshahi, where the annual rainfall is about 1,600 mm (63.0 in), most parts of the country receive at least 2,300 mm (90.6 in) of rainfall per year. Because of its location just south of the foothills of the Himalayas, where monsoon winds turn west and northwest, the region of Sylhet in northeastern Bangladesh receives the greatest average precipitation. From 1977 to 1986, annual rainfall in that region ranged between 3,280 and 4,780 mm (129.1 and 188.2 in) per year. Average daily humidity ranged from March lows of between 55 and 81% to July highs of between 94 and 100%, based on readings taken at selected stations nationwide in 1986. About 80% of Bangladesh's rain falls during the monsoon season. The monsoons result from the contrasts between low and high air pressure areas that result from differential heating of land and water. During the hot months of April and May, hot air rises over the Indian subcontinent, creating low-pressure areas into which rush cooler, moisture-bearing winds from the Indian Ocean. This is the southwest monsoon, commencing in June and usually lasting through September. Dividing against the Indian landmass, the monsoon flows in two branches, one of which strikes western India. The other travels up the Bay of Bengal and over eastern India and Bangladesh, crossing the plain to the north and northeast before being turned to the west and northwest by the foothills of the Himalayas. Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores—destructive waves or floods caused by flood tides rushing up estuaries—ravage the country, particularly the coastal belt, almost every year. Between 1947 and 1988, 13 severe cyclones hit Bangladesh, causing enormous loss of life and property. In May 1985, for example, a severe cyclonic storm packing 154-kilometre-per-hour (95.7 mph) winds and waves 4 metres (13.1 ft) high swept into southeastern and southern Bangladesh, killing more than 11,000 persons, damaging more than 94,000 houses, killing some 135,000 head of livestock, and damaging nearly 400 kilometres (248.5 mi) of critically needed embankments. Annual monsoon flooding results in the loss of human life, damage to property and communication systems, and a shortage of drinking water, which leads to the spread of disease. For example, in 1988 two-thirds of Bangladesh's 64 districts experienced extensive flood damage in the wake of unusually heavy rains that flooded the river systems. Millions were left homeless and without potable water. Half of Dhaka, including the runway at the Shahjalal International Airport—an important transit point for disaster relief supplies—was flooded. About 2,000,000 tonnes (2,204,623 short tons; 1,968,413 long tons) of crops were reported destroyed, and relief work was rendered even more challenging than usual because the flood made transportation exceedingly difficult. A tornado in April 1989 killed more than 600 people, possibly many more. There are no precautions against cyclones and tidal bores except giving advance warning and providing safe public buildings where people may take shelter. Adequate infrastructure and air transport facilities that would ease the suffering of the affected people had not been established by the late 1980s. Efforts by the government under the Third Five-Year Plan (1985–90) were directed toward accurate and timely forecast capability through agrometeorology, marine meteorology, oceanography, hydrometeorology, and seismology. Necessary expert services, equipment, and training facilities were expected to be developed under the United Nations Development Programme. Cold weather is unusual in Bangladesh. When temperatures decrease to 8 °C (46 °F) or less, people without warm clothing and living in inadequate homes may die from the cold. Climate change River systems The rivers of Bangladesh mark both the physiography of the nation and the life of the people. About 700 in number, these rivers generally flow south. The larger rivers serve as the main source of water for cultivation and as the principal arteries of commercial transportation. Rivers also provide fish, an important source of protein. Flooding of the rivers during the monsoon season causes enormous hardship and hinders development, but fresh deposits of rich silt replenish the fertile but overworked soil. The rivers also drain excess monsoon rainfall into the Bay of Bengal. Thus, the great river system is at the same time the country's principal resource and its greatest hazard. The profusion of rivers can be divided into five major networks. The Jamuna-Brahmaputra is 292 kilometres (181 mi) long and extends from northern Bangladesh to its confluence with the Padma. Originating as the Yarlung Tsangpo River in China's Xizang Autonomous Region (Tibet) and flowing through India's state of Arunachal Pradesh, where it becomes known as the Brahmaputra ("Son of Brahma"), it receives waters from five major tributaries that total some 740 kilometres (460 mi) in length. At the point where the Brahmaputra meets the Tista River in Bangladesh, it becomes known as the Jamuna. The Jamuna is notorious for its shifting subchannels and for the formation of fertile silt islands (chars). No permanent settlements can exist along its banks. The second system is the Padma-Ganges, which is divided into two sections: a 258 kilometres (160 mi) segment, the Ganges, which extends from the western border with India to its confluence with the Jamuna some 72 kilometres (45 mi) west of Dhaka, and a 126 kilometres (78 mi) segment, the Padma, which runs from the Ganges-Jamuna confluence to where it joins the Meghna River at Chandpur. The Padma-Ganges is the central part of a deltaic river system with hundreds of rivers and streams—some 2,100 kilometres (1,300 mi) in length—flowing generally east or west into the Padma. The third network is the Surma-Meghna River System, which courses from the northeastern border with India to Chandpur, where it joins the Padma. The Surma-Meghna, at 669 kilometres (416 mi) by itself the longest river in Bangladesh, is formed by the union of six lesser rivers. Below the city of Kalipur it is known as the Meghna. When the Padma and Meghna join, they form the fourth river system—the Padma-Meghna—which flows 145 kilometres (90 mi) to the Bay of Bengal. This mighty network of four river systems flowing through the Bangladesh Plain drains an area of some 1.5 million square kilometres (580,000 sq mi). The numerous channels of the Padma-Meghna, its distributaries, and smaller parallel rivers that flow into the Bay of Bengal are referred to as the Mouths of the Ganges. Like the Jamuna, the Padma-Meghna and other estuaries on the Bay of Bengal are also known for their many chars. A fifth river system, unconnected to the other four, is the Karnaphuli. Flowing through the region of Chittagong and the Chittagong Hills, it cuts across the hills and runs rapidly downhill to the west and southwest and then to the sea. The Feni, Karnaphuli, Sangu, and Matamuhari—an aggregate of some 420 kilometres (260 mi)—are the main rivers in the region. The port of Chittagong is situated on the banks of the Karnaphuli. The Karnaphuli Reservoir and Karnaphuli Dam are located in this area. The dam impounds the Karnaphuli River's waters in the reservoir for the generation of hydroelectric power. The Ganga–Brahmaputra rivers contribute nearly 1000 million tons/yr of sediment. The sediment contributed from these two rivers forms the Bengal Delta and Submarine fan, a vast structure that extends from Bangladesh to the south of the Equator which is up to 16.5 km thick, and contains at least 1130 trillion tonnes of sediment accumulating over the last 17 million years at an average rate of 665 million tons/yr. The Bay of Bengal used to be deeper than the Mariana Trench, the present deepest ocean point. During the annual monsoon period, the rivers of Bangladesh flow at about 140,000 cubic metres per second (4,900,000 cu ft/s), but during the dry period they diminish to 7,000 cubic metres per second (250,000 cu ft/s). Because water is so vital to agriculture, more than 60% of the net arable land, some 91,000 square kilometres (35,000 sq mi), is cultivated in the rainy season despite the possibility of severe flooding, and nearly 40% of the land is cultivated during the dry winter months. Water resources development has responded to this "dual water regime" by providing flood protection, drainage to prevent over flooding and waterlogging, and irrigation facilities for the expansion of winter cultivation. Major water control projects have been developed by the national government to provide irrigation, flood control, drainage facilities, aids to river navigation and road construction, and hydroelectric power. In addition, thousands of tube wells and electric pumps are used for local irrigation. Despite severe resource constraints, the government of Bangladesh has made it a policy to try to bring additional areas under irrigation without salinity intrusion. Water resources management, including gravity flow irrigation, flood control, and drainage, were largely the responsibility of the Bangladesh Water Development Board. Other public sector institutions, such as the Bangladesh Krishi Bank, the Bangladesh Rural Development Board, the Bangladesh Bank, and the Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation were also responsible for the promotion and development of minor irrigation works in the private sector through government credit mechanisms. Coastal systems Bangladesh coastal areas are covering the south part of Bangladesh. The main rivers of Bangladesh derived from the Himalayas carry a high level of sediment and deposit it across the Bay of Bengal. This has led to major changes in the coastal region between 1989 and 2018. Over 30 years of morphological changes many islands are losing land area. However, there has been an overall net gain in the land area due to the regular acceleration process in other parts of those islands. In the west, new islands were found, but no significant changes were observed. At the mouth of the Meghna estuary, noticeable variable changes have been observed with the formation of many new islands. In 1989, the land area was only 28835 km2 (56.06%), while the water area was 22600 km2 (43.94%) with the region falling among 20° 34’ N to 26°38 N and 88° 01’ E to 92° 41’ E, and with an area of 147,570 km2. In 2018, the land area increased to 29426 km2 (57.21%); an increase of 590 km2 (1.15%). The land area in 1999 and 2009 was 56.49% and 56.68%, respectively, with a total increase of 0.19%. The island reformation tendency showed that the new land area increased every year by an average of 20 km2 (0.038) along the coastal region of Bangladesh. Plant growth has been observed in the newly formed islands over a period of 30 years. In the early stages, the islands are usually muddy waste areas that gradually changed into grasslands and Trees.A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 2,262 km2 of tidal flats in Bangladesh and is therefore ranked 14th in terms of how much tidal flat occurs there. The analysis showed that the tidal flats of the Meghna River estuary have undergone considerable geomorphological change over a 33-year period, from 1984 to 2016, now only occurring in 17.1% of their initial extent despite expanding in area by 20.6%. Area and boundaries Area: total: 146,610 km2country comparison to the world: 85 land: 130,170 km2water: 18,290 km2Land boundaries: total: 4,427 km border countries: Myanmar 271 km, India 4,156 km Coastline: 580 km Maritime claims: territorial sea: 12 nmi (22.2 km; 13.8 mi)contiguous zone: 18 nmi (33.3 km; 20.7 mi) exclusive economic zone: 200 nmi (370.4 km; 230.2 mi) continental shelf: up to the outer limits of the continental margin Elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: Mowdok Taung in the Mowdok range at 1052 m (at N 21°47'12" E 92°36'36"), NOT Keokradong (883 m not 1,230 m) or Tazing Dong (985 m not 1,280 m as sometimes reported) Resources and land use Natural resources: natural gas, arable land, timber, coal Land use: Arable land: 58.96% Permanent crops: 6.53% other: 34.51% (2012) Irrigated land: 50,000 km2 (2008) Total renewable water resources: 1,227 km3 (2011) Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): total: 35.87 km3/yr (10%/2%/88%) per capita: 238.3 m3/yr (2008) Environmental concerns Natural hazards: Much of the country is submerged by floodwater in the monsoon season (and traditional settlements and agriculture are adapted to this); damaging floods occur when rivers rise higher than normal; tropical cyclones (hurricanes) and storm surges; droughts; riverbank erosion along the country's major rivers and in the Meghna estuary; earthquakes; possibly tsunamis.Environment – current issues: Country very densely populated (1,125 per km2); rapid urbanisation taking place; many people landless, and many live on and cultivate land exposed to floods, riverbank erosion or cyclones; groundwater used for drinking water and irrigation is widely contaminated with naturally-occurring arsenic in some floodplain areas; water-borne diseases prevalent; surface water widely polluted by industrial, agricultural and urban effluents, affecting domestic supplies and inland fisheries; intermittent water shortages because of falling water tables in some northern and central parts of the country; increasing water and soil salinity in some coastal areas, especially in the south-west, due to abstraction of river and groundwater upstream; soil degradation due to intensive cropping, depletion of organic matter and unbalanced use of fertilisers; deforestation and soil erosion in hill areas. Environment – international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands See also 2007 South Asian floods Bangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund List of islands of Bangladesh References Attribution Further reading Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics Yearbook of Bangladesh (published periodically online). Brammer, H.T (2012). he Physical Geography of Bangladesh. Dhaka, Bangladesh: University Press. ISBN 978-984-506-049-3. Rashid, Haroun Er (1991). Geography of Bangladesh. Dhaka, Bangladesh: University Press. ISBN 978-984-05-1159-4. External links Soil Maps of Bangladesh, European Digital Archive on the Soil Maps of the world

climate of nigeria

The climate of Nigeria is mostly tropical. Nigeria has three distinct climatic zones, two seasons, and an average temperature ranging between 21 °C and 35 °C. Two major elements determine the temperature in Nigeria: the altitude of the sun and the atmosphere's transparency (as determined by the dual interplay of rainfall and humidity). Its rainfall is mediated by three distinct conditions including convectional, frontal, and orographical determinants. Statistics from the World Bank Group showed Nigeria's annual temperature and rainfall variations, the nation's highest average annual mean temperature was 28.1 °C in 1938, while its wettest year was 1957 with an annual mean rainfall of 1,441.45mm.The climate has a significant impact on the country's agriculture, economy, and society. The rainy season is the most important time for agriculture, as it is the time when most crops are planted and harvested. The dry season is a time of drought, which can lead to water shortages and crop failures. The high temperatures and humidity can also be uncomfortable and can lead to health problems. Nigeria's climate is influenced by its geographical location, topography, and the interactions of various air masses. Nigeria is situated in West Africa, between latitudes 4°N and 14°N, and longitudes 2°E and 14°E. It experiences a tropical climate characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons. Climate of the country Nigeria has three distinct climatic zones. According to the Nigerian Meteorological Agency, it is mainly tropical. It can be categorized into three including the tropical monsoon climate in the southern part, the tropical savannah climate, and Sahelian hot and semi-arid climate in the northern parts of the country. While temperature and rainfall plays key roles in the determination of the country's climate, rainfall has been opined to be the key element based on its relevance and implications for agriculture. Tropical monsoon climate (Am) Tropical monsoon climate can be found in south southern part of the nation. This climate generally has an estimated average annual rainfall of 2000mm which varies for both the coastal areas and the inland regions. During the dry season, regions with this climate have a monthly mean temperature ranging from 23 °C (73 °F) during nighttime to 31 °C (88 °F) at daytime. Port Harcourt, Delta and Bayelsa are examples of regions experiencing Tropical monsoon. The Am climate is found in the northern regions of Nigeria. It is characterized by a shorter wet season and a longer dry season compared to the Aw climate. The average annual rainfall ranges from 600 to 1,200 mm. The wet season usually lasts from May to September, while the dry season extends from October to April. Tropical savannah climate (Aw) The tropical savannah climate is also called tropical wet and dry climate, as they tend to have both wet and dry seasons. It could be either a lengthy dry season and a relatively short wet season; or a lengthy wet season and a relatively short dry season. The tropical savannah climate has a mean annual rainfall of about 1200mm or below, while the monthly mean temperature ranges from 22 °C (72 °F) during nighttime to 33 °C (91 °F) at daytime. Lagos State is an example of a state with this type of climate. However, most central and southern parts of the nation also have this climate. Sahelian hot (BWh) and semiarid climates (BSh) The Sahelian hot and semiarid climates have average daytime temperatures of 35 °C (95 °F) and 21 °C (70 °F) at nighttime. Regions experiencing this climate are majorly part of the Northern part of Nigeria and they experience very low annual mean rainfall below 700mm. Northern states like Kaduna, Jigawa and Sokoto are examples. Seasons Nigeria has two seasons in a year: dry and wet. Dry season The dry season is accompanied by the dusty northeast winds where midday temperatures that can sometimes reach 100F (38C). During the dry season, there are lesser rainfalls, more sun and lower humidity. This period falls between October and April every year. It is normal to experience harmattan and dry spells during this period. The harmattan usually appears from December to January. 1983 holds the record as the driest year Nigeria has ever seen since 1981. Wet season The wet season is also referred to as rainy season. It falls between April and September every year. The wet season is particularly noticeable on the southeastern coast, where annual rainfall reaches about 130 inches (330 cm), where temperatures rarely exceed 90F (32C). 2019 holds the record as the wettest year Nigeria has ever seen since 1981. Temperature Nigeria experiences high temperatures throughout the year, influenced by its location near the equator. The average annual temperature ranges from 25 °C to 32 °C, with regional variations based on factors such as elevation and proximity to water bodies.The average monthly temperature in Nigeria is between 24°C and 30 °C.The highest temperatures are usually seen between February and April during the dry season and are called the hot season. It falls between February and March ranging from 39.5 to 39.9 °C (103.1 to 103.8 °F) in the south, and March to May ranging from 42.9 °C to 44.5 °C in the north. In 2021, this period lasted until May. In 2020, Nigeria saw a slight increase with southern states recording a mean average temperature of 30 °C - 32 °C while northern states had a record of 34 °C to 37 °C. Nigeria recorded 2021 as the year with the highest temperature in 40 years. Climate change Over the years, Nigeria has slowly become prone to various hazards due to change in climate. With the southern and coastal places at a risk of flooding due to rising sea levels. Further, they are also threatened with waterborne disease and vulnerable to more. States in the northern part of the country are experiencing higher temperatures, lesser rainfalls and are threatened by drought, famine, and food scarcity. Climate action Nigeria joined the UN Environment's Climate and Clean Air Coalition in 2012 with the vision of reducing short-lived climate pollutants across ten high-impact sectors. Nigeria's Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) was made with a pledge to reduce GHG emissions by 45 percent conditionally by 2030 after Nigeria adopted the Paris Agreement under the President Buhari regime. Nigeria further passed the Climate Change Bill in November 2021. A bill which shows the country's commitment to a long-term vision of a net zero target for 2050 to 2070. Extreme weather and hazards Heatwaves According to Nigerian Meteorological Agency (NIMET), Nigeria, with an annual mean temperature of 26.9 °C has experienced heatwave with temperatures above 35 °C and with high occurrence rates in the northern part of the country. The northern part is more vulnerable to heat waves due to the hot semi-arid climate. In 2019, Nigeria experienced a heatwave with northern states experiencing high occurrences as Minna had a temperature of 42.2 °C. With 46.4 °C in 2010, the Nigerian city Yola had the highest recorded temperature in the list of countries and territories affected by extreme temperatures. Floods During the wet season, it is not unusual to experience rainfalls that can cause flooding in some parts of the nation. In 2012, the country experienced its worst in 40 years with an estimated loss of N2.6 trillion. A total of 363 people were killed and over 2,100,000 displaced. The 2017 flooding that occurred during the rainy season in Benue state was another disaster that displaced a thousand people. In 2021, 32 out of Nigeria's 36 states had cases of flooding according to the National Emergency Management Agency, reporting 155 lives lost between August and October. Droughts Nigeria was also among the affected countries that suffered severe famine in the 2012 Sahel drought.Prolonged drought in Nigeria has led to desertification and land scarcity for farming and livestock. This forces farmers and herders to migrate to new areas, often resulting in violent conflicts, with over 2,000 casualties in 2018. Despite these challenges, some Plateau State residents are reluctant to leave, rebuilding their communities after destruction. Satellite images from NASA reveal severe desertification, affecting about 900,000 km2 of savanna grassland between the 1960s and 1986. Drought is a recurring issue in Nigeria, particularly in the arid north, with historical famines documented in various years. A recent survey by SBMIntel found that 79% of Nigerian farmers were impacted by drought and flooding in 2020, with 26.3% experiencing significant harvest disruptions. This poses a threat to national food security. See also 2020 African Sahel floods Drought in Nigeria Geography of Nigeria Sustainable Development Goals and Nigeria == References ==

fishery

Fishery can mean either the enterprise of raising or harvesting fish and other aquatic life or, more commonly, the site where such enterprise takes place (a.k.a., fishing grounds). Commercial fisheries include wild fisheries and fish farms, both in freshwater waterbodies (about 10% of all catch) and the oceans (about 90%). About 500 million people worldwide are economically dependent on fisheries. 171 million tonnes of fish were produced in 2016, but overfishing is an increasing problem, causing declines in some populations. Because of their economic and social importance, fisheries are governed by complex fisheries management practices and legal regimes that vary widely across countries. Historically, fisheries were treated with a "first-come, first-served" approach, but recent threats from human overfishing and environmental issues have required increased regulation of fisheries to prevent conflict and increase profitable economic activity on the fishery. Modern jurisdiction over fisheries is often established by a mix of international treaties and local laws. Declining fish populations, marine pollution, and the destruction of important coastal ecosystems have introduced increasing uncertainty in important fisheries worldwide, threatening economic security and food security in many parts of the world. These challenges are further complicated by the changes in the ocean caused by climate change, which may extend the range of some fisheries while dramatically reducing the sustainability of other fisheries. Definitions According to the FAO, "...a fishery is an activity leading to harvesting of fish. It may involve capture of wild fish or raising of fish through aquaculture." It is typically defined in terms of the "people involved, species or type of fish, area of water or seabed, method of fishing, class of boats, purpose of the activities or a combination of the foregoing features".The definition often includes a combination of mammal and fish fishers in a region, the latter fishing for similar species with similar gear types. Some government and private organizations, especially those focusing on recreational fishing include in their definitions not only the fishers, but the fish and habitats upon which the fish depend. The term fish In biology – the term fish is most strictly used to describe any aquatic vertebrate that has gills throughout life and has limbs, if any, in the shape of fins. Many types of aquatic animals commonly referred to as "fish" are not fish in this strict sense; examples include shellfish, cuttlefish, starfish, crayfish and jellyfish. In earlier times, even biologists did not make a distinction—sixteenth century natural historians classified also seals, whales, amphibians, crocodiles, even hippopotamuses, as well as a host of marine invertebrates, as fish. In fisheries – the term fish is used as a collective term, and includes mollusks, crustaceans and any aquatic animal which is harvested. True fish – The strict biological definition of a fish, above, is sometimes called a true fish. True fish are also referred to as finfish or fin fish to distinguish them from other aquatic life harvested in fisheries or aquaculture. Types The fishing industry which harvests fish from fisheries can be divided into three main sectors: commercial, recreational or subsistence. They can be saltwater or freshwater, wild or farmed. Examples are the salmon fishery of Alaska, the cod fishery off the Lofoten islands, the tuna fishery of the Eastern Pacific, or the shrimp farm fisheries in China. Capture fisheries can be broadly classified as industrial scale, small-scale or artisanal, and recreational. Close to 90% of the world's fishery catches come from oceans and seas, as opposed to inland waters. These marine catches have remained relatively stable since the mid-nineties (between 80 and 86 million tonnes). Most marine fisheries are based near the coast. This is not only because harvesting from relatively shallow waters is easier than in the open ocean, but also because fish are much more abundant near the coastal shelf, due to the abundance of nutrients available there from coastal upwelling and land runoff. However, productive wild fisheries also exist in open oceans, particularly by seamounts, and inland in lakes and rivers. Most fisheries are wild fisheries, but farmed fisheries are increasing. Farming can occur in coastal areas, such as with oyster farms, or the aquaculture of salmon, but more typically fish farming occurs inland, in lakes, ponds, tanks and other enclosures. There are commercial fisheries worldwide for finfish, mollusks, crustaceans and echinoderms, and by extension, aquatic plants such as kelp. However, a very small number of species support the majority of the world's fisheries. Some of these species are herring, cod, anchovy, tuna, flounder, mullet, squid, shrimp, salmon, crab, lobster, oyster and scallops. All except these last four provided a worldwide catch of well over a million tonnes in 1999, with herring and sardines together providing a harvest of over 22 million metric tons in 1999. Many other species are harvested in smaller numbers. Economic importance Directly or indirectly, the livelihood of over 500 million people in developing countries depends on fisheries and aquaculture. Overfishing, including the taking of fish beyond sustainable levels, is reducing fish stocks and employment in many world regions. It was estimated in 2014 that global fisheries were adding US$270 billion a year to global GDP, but by full implementation of sustainable fishing, that figure could rise by as much as US$50 billion.In addition to commercial and subsistence fishing, recreational (sport) fishing is popular and economically important in many regions. Production Total fish production in 2016 reached an all-time high of 171 million tonnes, of which 88 percent was utilized for direct human consumption, thanks to relatively stable capture fisheries production, reduced wastage and continued aquaculture growth. This production resulted in a record-high per capita consumption of 20.3 kg in 2016. Since 1961 the annual global growth in fish consumption has been twice as high as population growth. While annual growth of aquaculture has declined in recent years, significant double-digit growth is still recorded in some countries, particularly in Africa and Asia.FAO predicted in 2018 the following major trends for the period up to 2030: World fish production, consumption and trade are expected to increase, but with a growth rate that will slow over time. Despite reduced capture fisheries production in China, world capture fisheries production is projected to increase slightly through increased production in other areas if resources are properly managed. Expanding world aquaculture production, although growing more slowly than in the past, is anticipated to fill the supply–demand gap. Prices will all increase in nominal terms while declining in real terms, although remaining high. Food fish supply will increase in all regions, while per capita fish consumption is expected to decline in Africa, which raises concerns in terms of food security. Trade in fish and fish products is expected to increase more slowly than in the past decade, but the share of fish production that is exported is projected to remain stable. Management Global goals International attention to these issues has been captured in Sustainable Development Goal 14 "Life Below Water" which sets goals for international policy focused on preserving coastal ecosystems and supporting more sustainable economic practices for coastal communities, including in their fishery and aquaculture practices. Law Environmental issues Climate change See also References Free content sources This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from In brief, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2018​, FAO, FAO. External links FAO Fisheries Department The Fishery Resources Monitoring System (FIRMS)

land use, land-use change, and forestry

Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF), also referred to as Forestry and other land use (FOLU) or Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU), is defined as a "greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use such as settlements and commercial uses, land-use change, and forestry activities."LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such, these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide (or, more generally, carbon) from the atmosphere, influencing climate. LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), but is difficult to measure.: 12  Additionally, land use is of critical importance for biodiversity.A related term in the context of climate change mitigation is AFOLU which stands for "agriculture, forestry and other land use".: 65 Development The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Article 4(1)(a) requires all Parties to "develop, periodically update, publish and make available to the Conference of the Parties" as well as "national inventories of anthropogenic emissions by sources" "removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol." Under the UNFCCC reporting guidelines, human-induced greenhouse emissions must be reported in six sectors: energy (including stationary energy and transport); industrial processes; solvent and other product use; agriculture; waste; and land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF).The rules governing accounting and reporting of greenhouse gas emissions from LULUCF under the Kyoto Protocol are contained in several decisions of the Conference of Parties under the UNFCCC. LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).The Kyoto Protocol article 3.3 thus requires mandatory LULUCF accounting for afforestation (no forest for last 50 years), reforestation (no forest on 31 December 1989) and deforestation, as well as (in the first commitment period) under article 3.4 voluntary accounting for cropland management, grazing land management, revegetation and forest management (if not already accounted under article 3.3).This decision sets out the rules that govern how Kyoto Parties with emission reduction commitments (so-called Annex 1 Parties) account for changes in carbon stocks in land use, land-use change and forestry. It is mandatory for Annex 1 Parties to account for changes in carbons stocks resulting from deforestation, reforestation and afforestation (B Article 3.3) and voluntary to account for emissions from forest management, cropland management, grazing land management and revegetation (B. Article 3.4). Climate impacts Land-use change can be a factor in CO2 (carbon dioxide) atmospheric concentration, and is thus a contributor to global climate change. IPCC estimates that land-use change (e.g. conversion of forest into agricultural land) contributes a net 1.6 ± 0.8 Gt carbon per year to the atmosphere. For comparison, the major source of CO2, namely emissions from fossil fuel combustion and cement production, amount to 6.3 ± 0.6 Gt carbon per year.In 2021 the Global Carbon Project estimated annual land-use change emissions were 4.1 ± 2.6 Gt CO2 (CO2 not carbon: 1 Gt carbon = 3.67 Gt CO2 ) for 2011–2020.The land-use sector is critical to achieving the aim of the Paris Agreement to limit global warming to 2 °C (3.6 °F).Land-use change alters not just atmospheric CO2 concentration but also land surface biophysics such as albedo and evapotranspiration, both of which affect climate. The impact of land-use change on the climate is also more and more recognized by the climate modeling community. On regional or local scales, the impact of LUC can be assessed by Regional climate models (RCMs). This is however difficult, particularly for variables, which are inherently noisy, such as precipitation. For this reason, it is suggested to conduct RCM ensemble simulations. Extents and mapping A 2021 study estimated, with higher resolution data, that land-use change has affected 17% of land in 1960–2019, or when considering multiple change events 32%, "around four times" previous estimates. They also investigate its drivers, identifying global trade affecting agriculture as a main driver. Forest modeling Traditionally, earth system modeling has been used to analyze forests for climate projections. However, in recent years there has been a shift away from this modeling towards more of mitigation and adaptation projections. These projections can give researchers a better understanding of what future forest management practices should be employed. Furthermore, this new approach to modeling also allows for land management practices to be analyzed in the model. Such land management practices can be: forest harvest, tree species selection, grazing, and crop harvest. These land management practices are implemented to understand their biophysical and biogeochemical effects on the forest. However, there is a major lack of available data for these practices currently, so there needs to be further monitoring and data collecting to help improve the accuracy of the models. See also Agricultural expansion – Growth of agricultural land in the 21st century Deforestation and climate change – Relationship between deforestation and global warming Land change science – Interdisciplinary study of changes in climate, land use, and land cover Land change modeling – Geographic and ecological field of study Land use – Classification of land resources based on what can be built and on its use Satoyama – Japanese term for the area between flat coastal plains and interior mountain foothills Special Report on Climate Change and Land – IPCC report References External links Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) at UNFCCC IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry

climate of edmonton

Edmonton has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb). It falls into the NRC 4a Plant Hardiness Zone.The city is known for having cold winters. Its average daily temperatures range from a low of −10.4 °C (13.3 °F) in January to a summer peak of 23 °C (73.4 °F) in July. With average maximum of 27 °C (80.6 °F) in July, and minimum of −14.8 °C (5.4 °F) in January. Temperatures can exceed 30.0 °C (86.0 °F) for an average of four to five days anytime from late April to mid-September and fall below −20.0 °C (−4.0 °F) for an average of 24.6 days. On June 30, 2021, at approximately 5:00 pm Edmonton South Campus reached a temperature of 37.4 °C (99.3 °F). This surpasses the previous 37.2 °C (99.0 °F) set on June 29, 1937. On July 2, 2013, a record high humidex of 44 was recorded, due to an unusually humid day with a temperature of 33.9 °C (93.0 °F) and a record high dew point of 23 °C (73.4 °F). The lowest overall temperature ever recorded in Edmonton was −49.4 °C (−56.9 °F), on January 19 and 21, 1886.Summer lasts from late June until early September, and the humidity is seldom uncomfortably high. Winter lasts from November to March and in common with all of Alberta varies greatly in length and severity. Spring and autumn are both short and highly variable. Edmonton's growing season is from May 9 to September 22; Edmonton averages 135–140 frost-free days a year. At the summer solstice, Edmonton receives 17 hours and three minutes of daylight, with an hour and 46 minutes of civil twilight. On average Edmonton receives 2,299 hours of bright sunshine per year and is one of Canada's sunniest cities.The summer of 2006 was a particularly warm one for Edmonton, as temperatures reached 29 °C (84 °F) or higher more than 20 times from mid-May to early September. The winter of 2011–12 was particularly warm; from December 22, 2011, till March 20, 2012, on 53 occasions Edmonton saw temperatures at or above 0.0 °C (32.0 °F) at the City Centre Airport.The winter of 1969 was particularly cold. Between January 7 and February 1, maximum temperatures at Edmonton's Industrial Airport reached highs of −6 °F (−21.1 °C) on two occasions and lows ranged from −14 °F (−25.6 °C) to −39 °F (−39.4 °C). The city's Newspaper, The Journal, issued certificates for residents who lived through 'Edmonton's record cold spell'. Edmonton has a fairly dry climate. On average, it receives 476.9 millimetres (18.78 in) of precipitation, of which 365.7 millimetres (14.40 in) is rain and 111.2 millimetres (4.38 in) is the melt from 123.5 centimetres (48.6 in) of snowfall per annum. Precipitation is heaviest in the late spring, summer, and early autumn. The wettest month is July, while the driest months are February, March, October, and November. In July the mean precipitation is 91.7 mm (3.61 in). Dry spells are not uncommon and may occur at any time of the year. Extremes do occur, such as the 114 mm (4.49 in) of rainfall that fell on July 31, 1953. Summer thunderstorms can be frequent and occasionally severe enough to produce large hail, damaging winds, funnel clouds, and occasionally tornadoes. Twelve tornadoes had been recorded in Edmonton between 1890 and 1989, and eight since 1990. A F4 tornado that struck Edmonton on July 31, 1987, killing 27, was unusual in many respects, including severity, duration, damage, and casualties. It is commonly referred to as Black Friday due both to its aberrant characteristics and the emotional shock it generated. Then-mayor Laurence Decore cited the community's response to the tornado as evidence that Edmonton was a "city of champions," which later became an unofficial slogan of the city.A massive cluster of thunderstorms occurred on July 11, 2004, with large hail and over 100 mm (4 in) of rain reported within the space of an hour in many places. This "1-in-200 year event" flooded major intersections and underpasses and damaged both residential and commercial properties. The storm caused extensive damage to West Edmonton Mall; a small glass section of the roof collapsed under the weight of the rainwater, causing water to drain onto the mall's indoor ice rink. As a result, the mall was evacuated as a precautionary measure. Classification Data Recent data 1981-2010 Old data 1971-2000 1961-1990 Climate change By 2018, 73% of the city's residents were concerned about climate change. In the same year the city hosted the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC): Cities and Climate Change Science Conference. Edmonton has been working on the energy efficiency plan for both civilian and business people. David Dodge, co-chair of its energy transition advisory committee, said Edmonton currently emits 20 tonnes of carbon per person. There was also the financing of solar panels. US $ 3.2 billion would be the impact of climate change in Edmonton by 2050, at which point the city will experience approximately sixteen days per year with temperatures exceeding 30°C and an average high of around 35°C, resulting in more heat waves. The annual average temperature of 2.1°C would rise to 5.6°C or up to 8°C by 2080, with no correction according to the Climate Resilient report Edmonton: Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan. Storms, gusts of wind and freezing rain would be more frequent and cause more damage. Notes == References ==

ministry of natural resources, environment and climate change (malaysia)

The Ministry of Natural Resources, Environment and Climate Change (Malay: Kementerian Sumber Asli, Alam Sekitar dan Perubahan Iklim), is a ministry of the Government of Malaysia that is responsible for energy, natural resources, environment, climate change, land, mines, minerals, geoscience, biodiversity, wildlife, national parks, forestry, surveying, mapping and geospatial data. Organisation Minister of Natural Resources, Environment and Climate Change Deputy Minister of Natural Resources, Environment and Climate Change Secretary-General Under the Authority of Secretary-General Internal Audit Unit Legal Advisory Unit Corporate Communication Unit Integrity Unit Key Performance Indicator Unit Strategic Planning and International Division Deputy Secretary-General (Natural Resources) Land, Survey and Geospatial Division Minerals and Geoscience Division Biodiversity Management dan Forestry Division REDD Plus Unit Deputy Secretary-General (Energy) Energy Supply Division Sustainable Energy Division Senior Under-Secretary (Management Services) Administration and Finance Division Information Management Division Human Resources Management Division Development Division Account Division Federal departments Department of Director General of Lands and Mines (Federal), or Jabatan Ketua Pengarah Tanah dan Galian Persekutuan (JKPTG). (Official site) Department of Survey and Mapping Malaysia, or Jabatan Ukur dan Pemetaan Malaysia (JUPEM). (Official site) Department of Mineral and Geoscience Malaysia, or Jabatan Mineral dan Geosains Malaysia (JMG). (Official site) Forestry Department of Peninsular Malaysia, or Jabatan Perhutanan Semenanjung Malaysia (JPSM). (Official site) Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia, or Jabatan Perlindungan Hidupan Liar Dan Taman Negara Semenanjung Malaysia (PERHILITAN). (Official site) National Institute of Land and Survey, or Institut Tanah dan Ukur Negara (INSTUN). (Official site) Department of Environment (DOE), or Jabatan Alam Sekitar (JAS). (Official site) Malaysian Meteorological Department, or Jabatan Meteorologi Malaysia (METMalaysia). (Official site) Statutory Bodies Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), or Institut Penyelidikan Perhutanan Malaysia. (Official site) Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA) Malaysia, or Pihak Berkuasa Pembangunan Tenaga Lestari Malaysia (SEDA). (Official site) The Tin Industry (Research And Development) Board, or Lembaga (Penyelidikan & Kemajuan) Perusahaan Timah. (Official site) Professional Institution Board of Geologists Malaysia (BoG), or Lembaga Ahli Geologi. (Official site) Land Surveyors Board Peninsular Malaysia, or Lembaga Juruukur Tanah. (site) Key legislation The Ministry of Natural Resources, Environment and Climate Change is responsible for administration of several key Acts: LandsContinental Shelf Act 1966 [Act 83] Small Estates (Distribution) Act 1955 [Act 98] Aboriginal Peoples Act 1954 [Act 134] Strata Titles Act 1985 [Act 318] Federal Lands Commissioner Act 1957 [Act 349] Stamp Act 1949 [Act 378] Land Conservation Act 1960 [Act 385] Interpretation Acts 1948 and 1967 (Consolidated and Revised 1989) [Act 388] Land Acquisition Act 1960 [Act 486] Padi Cultivators (Control of Rent and Security of Tenure) Act 1967 [Act 528] Land (Group Settlement Areas) Act 1960 [Act 530] National Land Code (Validation) Act 2003 [Act 625]Mineral and GeoscienceGeological Survey Act 1974 [Act 129] Mineral Development Act 1994 [Act 525]ForestryNational Forestry Act 1984 [Act 313] Wood-based Industries (State Legislatures Competency) Act 1984 [Act 314] Malaysian Forestry Research and Development Board Act 1985 [Act 319] International Trade in Endangered Species Act 2008 [Act 686]BiodiversityAccess to Biological Resources and Benefit Sharing Act 2017 [Act 795] National Parks Act 1980 [Act 226] Fisheries Act 1985 [Act 317] Fees (Marine Parks Malaysia) (Validation) Act 2004 [Act 635] Biosafety Act 2007 [Act 678] Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716]EnvironmentEnvironmental Quality Act 1974 [Act 127] Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1984 [Act 311]WaterDrainage Works Act 1954 [Act 354] Waters Act 1920 [Act 418] Water Supply (Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur) Act 1998 [Act 581] Water Services Industry Act 2006 [Act 655] Policy Priorities of the Government of the Day National Water Resources Policy National Mineral Policy National Forestry Policy National Biodiversity Policy National Biological Diversity 2016-2025 See also Minister of Natural Resources, Environment and Climate Change (Malaysia) References External links Official website Ministry of Natural Resources, Environment and Climate Change on Facebook

carboniferous

The Carboniferous ( KAR-bə-NIF-ər-əs) is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic that spans 60 million years from the end of the Devonian Period 358.9 million years ago (mya), to the beginning of the Permian Period, 298.9 mya. The name Carboniferous means "coal-bearing", from the Latin carbō ("coal") and ferō ("bear, carry"), and refers to the many coal beds formed globally during that time.The first of the modern 'system' names, it was coined by geologists William Conybeare and William Phillips in 1822, based on a study of the British rock succession. The Carboniferous is often treated in North America as two geological periods, the earlier Mississippian and the later Pennsylvanian.Terrestrial animal life was well established by the Carboniferous Period. Tetrapods (four limbed vertebrates), which had originated from lobe-finned fish during the preceding Devonian, became pentadactylous in and diversified during the Carboniferous, including early amphibian lineages such as temnospondyls, with the first appearance of amniotes, including synapsids (the group to which modern mammals belong) and reptiles during the late Carboniferous. The period is sometimes called the Age of Amphibians, during which amphibians became dominant land vertebrates and diversified into many forms including lizard-like, snake-like, and crocodile-like.Insects underwent a major radiation during the late Carboniferous. Vast swaths of forest covered the land, which eventually fell and became the coal beds characteristic of the Carboniferous stratigraphy evident today. The later half of the period experienced glaciations, low sea level, and mountain building as the continents collided to form Pangaea. A minor marine and terrestrial extinction event, the Carboniferous rainforest collapse, occurred at the end of the period, caused by climate change. Etymology and history The development of a Carboniferous chronostratigraphic timescale began in the late 18th century. The term "Carboniferous" was first used as an adjective by Irish geologist Richard Kirwan in 1799, and later used in a heading entitled "Coal-measures or Carboniferous Strata" by John Farey Sr. in 1811. Four units were originally ascribed to the Carboniferous, in ascending order, the Old Red Sandstone, Carboniferous Limestone, Millstone Grit and the Coal Measures. These four units were placed into a formalised Carboniferous unit by William Conybeare and William Phillips in 1822, and then into the Carboniferous System by Phillips in 1835. The Old Red Sandstone was later considered Devonian in age.The similarity in successions between the British Isles and Western Europe led to the development of a common European timescale with the Carboniferous System divided into the lower Dinantian, dominated by carbonate deposition and the upper Silesian with mainly siliciclastic deposition. The Dinantian was divided into the Tournaisian and Viséan stages. The Silesian into the Namurian, Westphalian and Stephanian stages. The Tournaisian is the same length as the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) stage, but the Viséan is longer, extending into the lower Serpukhovian. North American geologists recognised a similar stratigraphy, but divided it into two systems rather than one. These are the lower carbonate-rich sequence of the Mississippian System and the upper siliciclastic and coal-rich sequence of the Pennsylvanian. The United States Geological Survey officially recognised these two systems in 1953. In Russia, in the 1840’s British and Russian geologists divided the Carboniferous into the Lower, Middle and Upper series based on Russian sequences. In the 1890’s these became the Dinantian, Moscovian and Uralian stages. The Serpukivian was proposed as part of the Lower Carboniferous, and the Upper Carboniferous was divided into the Moscovian and Gzhelian. The Bashkirian was added in 1934.In 1975, the ICS formally ratified the Carboniferous System, with the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian subsystems from the North American timescale, the Tournaisian and Visean stages from the Western European and the Serpukhovian, Bashkirian, Moscovian, Kasimovian and Gzhelian from the Russian. With the formal ratification of the Carboniferous System, the Dinantian, Silesian, Namurian, Westphalian and Stephanian became redundant terms, although the latter three are still in common use in Western Europe. Geology Stratigraphy The Carboniferous is divided into two subsystems; the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian. These are divided into three series and seven stages. The Tournaisian, Visean and Serpukhovian stages equate to the Lower, Middle and Upper series of the Mississippian respectively. The Bashkirian and Moscovian stages, the Lower and Middle Pennsylvanian and the Kasimovian and Gzhelian stages the Upper Pennsylvanian.Stages can be defined globally or regionally. For global stratigraphic correlation, the ICS ratify global stages based on a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) from a single formation (a stratotype) identifying the lower boundary of the stage. Only the boundaries of the Carboniferous System and three of the stage bases are defined by global stratotype sections and points because of the complexity of the geology. The ICS subdivisions from youngest to oldest are as follows: Mississippian The Mississippian was proposed by Alexander Winchell in 1870 named after the extensive exposure of Lower Carboniferous limestone in the upper Mississippi valley. During the Mississippian, there was a marine connection between the Paleo-Tethys and Panthalassa through the Rheic Ocean resulting in the near worldwide distribution of marine faunas and so allowing widespread correlations using marine biostratigraphy. However, there are few Mississippian volcanic rocks and so obtaining radiometric dates is difficult. The Tournaisian Stage is named after the Belgian city of Tournai. It was introduced in scientific literature by Belgian geologist André Dumont in 1832. The GSSP for the base of the Carboniferous System, Mississippian Subsystem and Tournaisian Stage is located at the La Serre section in Montagne Noire, southern France. It is defined by the first appearance of the conodont Siphonodella sulcata within the evolutionary lineage from Siphonodella praesulcata to Siphonodella sulcata. This was ratified by the ICS in 1990. However, in 2006 further study revealed the presence of Siphonodella sulcata below the boundary, and the presence of Siphonodella praesulcata and Siphonodella sulcata together above a local unconformity. This means the evolution of one species to the other, the definition of the boundary, is not seen at the La Serre site making precise correlation difficult.The Viséan Stage was introduced by André Dumont in 1832 and is named after the city of Visé, Liège Province, Belgium. In 1967, the base of the Visean was officially defined as the first black limestone in the Leffe facies at the Bastion Section in the Dinant Basin. These changes are now thought to be ecologically driven rather than due to evolutionary change, and so this has not been used as the location for the GSSP. Instead, the GSSP for the base of the Visean is located in Bed 83 of the sequence of dark grey limestones and shales at the Pengchong section, Guangxi, southern China. It is defined by the first appearance of the fusulinid Eoparastaffella simplex in the evolutionary lineage Eoparastaffella ovalis – Eoparastaffella simplex and was ratified in 2009.The Serpukhovian Stage was proposed in 1890 by Russian stratigrapher Sergei Nikitin. It is named after the city of Serpukhov, near Moscow. The Serpukhovian Stage currently lacks a defined GSSP. The Visean-Serpukhovian boundary coincides with a major period of glaciation. The resulting sea level fall and climatic changes led to the loss of connections between marine basins and endemism of marine fauna across the Russian margin. This means changes in biota are environmental rather than evolutionary making wider correlation difficult. Work is underway in the Urals and Nashui, Guizhou Province, southwestern China for a suitable site for the GSSP with the proposed definition for the base of the Serpukhovian as the first appearance of conodont Lochriea ziegleri. Pennsylvanian The Pennsylvanian was proposed by J.J.Stevenson in 1888, named after the widespread coal-rich strata found across the state of Pennsylvania. The closure of the Rheic Ocean and formation of Pangea during the Pennsylvanian, together with widespread glaciation across Gondwana led to major climate and sea level changes, which restricted marine fauna to particular geographic areas thereby reducing widespread biostratigraphic correlations. Extensive volcanic events associated with the assembling of Pangea means more radiometric dating is possible relative to the Mississippian.The Bashkirian Stage was proposed by Russian stratigrapher Sofia Semikhatova in 1934. It was named after Bashkiria, the then Russian name of the republic of Bashkortostan in the southern Ural Mountains of Russia. The GSSP for the base of the Pennsylvanian Subsystem and Bashkirian Stage is located at Arrow Canyon in Nevada, US and was ratified in 1996. It is defined by the first appearance of the conodont Declinognathodus noduliferus. Arrow Canyon lay in a shallow, tropical seaway which stretched from Southern California to Alaska. The boundary is within a cyclothem sequence of transgressive limestones and fine sandstones, and regressive mudstones and brecciated limestones.The Moscovian Stage is named after shallow marine limestones and colourful clays found around Moscow, Russia. It was first introduced by Sergei Nikitin in 1890. The Moscovian currently lacks a defined GSSP. The fusulinid Aljutovella aljutovica can be used to define the base of the Moscovian across the northern and eastern margins of Pangea, however, it is restricted in geographic area, which means it cannot be used for global correlations. The first appearance of the conodonts Declinognathodus donetzianus or Idiognathoides postsulcatus have been proposed as a boundary marking species and potential sites in the Urals and Nashui, Guizhou Province, southwestern China are being considered.The Kasimovian is the first stage in the Upper Pennsylvanian. It is named after the Russian city of Kasimov, and was originally included as part of Nikitin's 1890 definition of the Moscovian. It was first recognised as a distinct unit by A.P. Ivanov in 1926, who named it the "Tiguliferina" Horizon after a type of brachiopod. The boundary covers of period of globally low sea level, which has resulted in disconformities within many sequences of this age. This has created difficulties in finding suitable marine fauna that can used to correlate boundaries worldwide. The Kasimovian currently lacks a defined GSSP and potential sites in the southern Urals, southwest USA and Nashui, Guizhou Province, southwestern China are being considered.The Gzhelian Stage is the second stage in the Upper Pennsylvanian. It is named after the Russian village of Gzhel, near Ramenskoye, not far from Moscow. The name and type locality were defined by Sergei Nikitin in 1890. The restricted geographic distribution of fauna is again a problem in defining the Kasimovian-Gzhelian boundary and the base of the Gzhelian currently lacks a defined GSSP. The first appearance of the fusulinid Rauserites rossicus and Rauserites stuckenbergi can be used in the Boreal Sea and Paleo-Tethyan regions but not eastern Pangea or Panthalassa margins. Potential sites in the Urals and Nashui, Guizhou Province, southwestern China for the GSSP are being considered.The GSSP for the base of the Permian is located in the Aidaralash River valley near Aqtöbe, Kazakhstan and was ratified in 1996. The beginning of the stage is defined by the first appearance of the conodont Streptognathodus postfusus. Cyclothems A cyclothem is a succession of non-marine and marine sedimentary rocks, deposited during a single sedimentary cycle, with an erosional surface at its base. Whilst individual cyclothems are often only metres to a few tens of metres thick, cyclothem sequences can be many hundreds to thousands of metres thick, and contain tens to hundreds of individual cyclothems. Cyclothems were deposited along continental shelves where the very gentle gradient of the shelves meant even small changes in sea level led to large advances or retreats of the sea. Cyclothem lithologies vary from mudrock and carbonate-dominated to coarse siliciclastic sediment-dominated sequences depending on the paleo-topography, climate and supply of sediments to the shelf. The main period of cyclothem deposition occurred during the Late Paleozoic Ice Age (LPIA) from the Late Mississippian to Early Permian, when the waxing and waning of ice sheets led to rapid changes in eustatic sea level. The growth of ice sheets led global sea levels to fall as water was lock away in glaciers. Falling sea levels exposed large tracts of the continental shelves across which river systems eroded channels and valleys and vegetation broke down the surface to form soils. The non-marine sediments deposited on this erosional surface form the base of the cyclothem. As sea levels began to rise, the rivers flowed through increasingly water-logged landscapes of swamps and lakes. Peat mires developed in these wet and oxygen-poor conditions, leading to coal formation. With continuing sea level rise, coastlines migrated landward and deltas, lagoons and esturaries developed; their sediments deposited over the peat mires. As fully marine conditions were established, limestones succeeded these marginal marine deposits. The limestones were in turn overlain by deep water black shales as maximum sea levels were reached. Ideally, this sequence would be reversed as sea levels began to fall again, however, sea level falls tend to be protracted, whilst sea level rises are rapid - ice sheets grow slowly, but melt quickly. Therefore, the majority of a cyclothem sequence occurred during falling sea levels, when rates of erosion were high, meaning they were often periods of non-deposition. Erosion during sea level falls could also result in the full or partial removal of previous cyclothem sequences. Individual cyclothems are generally less than 10 m thick because the speed at which sea level rose gave only limited time for sediments to accumulate.During the Pennsylvanian, cyclothems were deposited in shallow, epicontinental seas across the tropical regions of Laurussia (present day western and central US, Europe, Russia and central Asia) and the North and South China cratons. The rapid sea levels fluctuations they represent correlate with the glacial cycles of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age. The advance and retreat of ice sheets across Gondwana followed a 100 kyr Milankovitch cycle and so each cyclothem represents a cycle of sea level fall and rise over a 100 kyr period. Coal formation The Carboniferous coal beds provided much of the fuel for power generation during the Industrial Revolution and are still of great economic importance. The large coal deposits of the Carboniferous owe their existence primarily to two factors. The first is the appearance of wood tissue and bark-bearing trees. The evolution of the wood fiber lignin and the bark-sealing, waxy substance suberin variously opposed decay organisms so effectively that dead materials accumulated long enough to fossilise on a large scale. The second factor was the lower sea levels that occurred during the Carboniferous as compared to the preceding Devonian Period. This fostered the development of extensive lowland swamps and forests. Based on a genetic analysis of basidiomycetes, it is proposed that large quantities of wood were buried during this period because animals and decomposing bacteria and fungi had not yet evolved enzymes that could effectively digest the resistant phenolic lignin polymers and waxy suberin polymers. They suggest fungi that could break those substances down effectively became dominant only towards the end of the period, making subsequent coal formation much rarer. The delayed fungal evolution hypothesis has been challenged by other researchers, who conclude that tectonic and climatic conditions during the formation of Pangaea, which created water filled basins alongside developing mountain ranges, resulted in the development of widespread humid, tropical conditions and the burial of massive quantities of organic matter, were responsible for the high rate of coal formation, with large amounts of coal also being formed during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic well after lignin digesting fungi had become well established, and that fungal degradation of lignin had likely already evolved by the end of the Devonian, even if the specific enzymes used by basidiomycetes had not. Palaeogeography During the Carboniferous, there was an increased rate in tectonic plate movements as the supercontinent of Pangea assembled. The continents themselves formed a near circle around the opening Paleo-Tethys Ocean, with the massive Panthalassic Ocean beyond. The largest continent, Gondwana (modern day Africa, Arabia, South America, India, Madagascar, West Australia and East Antarctica), covered the south polar region. To its northwest was Laurussia (modern day North America, Greenland, Scandinavia, and much of Western Europe). These two continents slowly collided to form the core of Pangea. To the north of Laurussia lay Siberia and Amuria (central Mongolia). To the east of Siberia, Kazakhstania, North China and South China formed the northern margin of the Paleo-Tethys, with Annamia (Mainland Southeast Asia) laying to the south. An Early Carboniferous global marine transgression resulted in the widespread deposition of limestones in the warm, shallow seas of equatorial regions. Sea levels then dropped as the Late Paleozoic Ice Age (LPIA) intensified in the Pennsylvanian, exposing large areas of continental shelf. As glaciers waxed and waned repeated rises and falls in sea levels produced a distinctive pattern of terrestrial and marine sediments known as cyclothems. These consist of river channel and delta deposits with peat mires, followed by estuarine, coastal and offshore marine deposits as river deltas and wetlands built out across the continental shelves, only to be drowned as sea levels rose again. Variscan-Alleghanian-Ouachita Orogeny Today the Variscan-Alleghanian-Ouachita Orogen stretches over 10,000 km from the present day Gulf of Mexico in the east to Turkey in the west. It formed between the Middle Devonian and Early Permian as a series of continental collisions between Laurussia, Gondwana and the Armorican Terrane Assemblage (much of modern day Central and Western Europe including Iberia) as the Rheic Ocean closed and Pangea formed.The Armorican terranes rifted away from Gondwana during the Late Ordovician. As they drifted northwards the Rheic Ocean closed in front of them and they began to collide with southeastern Laurussia in the Middle Devonian. The resulting Variscan Orogeny involved a complex series of oblique collisions with associated metamorphism, igneous activity, and large-scale deformation between these terranes and Laurussia, which continued into the Carboniferous.During the mid Carboniferous, the South American sector of Gondwana collided obliquely with Laurussia’s southern margin resulting in the Ouachita Orogeny. The major strike-slip faulting that occurred between Laurussia and Gondwana extended eastwards into the Appalachian Mountains where early deformation in the Alleghanian Orogeny was predominantly strike-slip. As the West African sector of Gondwana collided with Laurussia, during the Late Pennsylvanian, deformation along the Alleghanian orogen became northwesterly-directed compression. Uralian Orogeny The Ural Orogen is a north-south trending fold and thrust belt that forms the western edge of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt. The Uralian Orogeny began in the Late Devonian and continued, with some hiatuses, into the Jurassic. From the Late Devonian to Early Carboniferous, the Magnitogorsk island arc, which lay between Kazakhstania and Laurussia in the Palaeo-Uralian Ocean, collided with the passive margin of northeastern Laurussia (Baltica craton). The suture zone between the former island arc complex and the continental margin formed the Main Uralian Fault, a major structure that runs for more than 2000 km along the orogen.(6) Accretion of the island arc was complete by the Tournaisian, but subduction of the Paleo-Ural Ocean between Kazakhstania and Laurussia continued until the Bashkirian when the ocean finally closed and continental collision began. Significant strike-slip movement along this zone indicates the collision was oblique. Deformation continued into the Permian and during the Late Carboniferous and Permian the region was extensively intruded by granites. Laurussia The Laurussian continent was formed by the collision between Laurentia, Baltica and Avalonia during the Devonian. At the beginning of the Carboniferous it lay at low latitude in the southern hemisphere and drifted north during the Carboniferous, crossing the equator during the mid-to-Late Carboniferous and reaching low latitudes in the northern hemisphere by the end of the Carboniferous. The Variscan-Appalachian-Ouachita mountain ranges drew in moist air from the Paleo-Tethys resulting in heavy precipitation and a tropical wetland environment. Extensive coaldeposits developed within the cyclothem sequences that dominated the Pennsylvanian sedimentary basins associated with the growing orogenic belt.Whilst the southern and southeastern margins of Laurussia were dominated by the Variscan-Alleghanian-Ouachita Orogeny and the northeasterly margin by the Uralian Orogeny, subduction of the Panthalassic oceanic plate along its western margin resulted in the Antler Orogeny in the Late Devonian to early Mississippian. Further north along the margin, slab roll-back, beginning in the early Mississippian, led to the rifting of the Yukon-Tanana terrane and the opening of the Slide Mountain Ocean. Along the northern margin of Laurussia, orogenic collapse of the Late Devonian to early Mississippian Ellesmerian or Innuitian Orogeny led to the development of the Sverdrup Basin. Gondwana Much of Gondwana lay in the southern polar region during the Carboniferous. As the plate moved, the South Pole drifted from southern Africa in the Early Carboniferous to East Antarctica by the end of the period. Glacial deposits are widespread across Gondwana and indicate multiple ice centres and long distance movement of ice.The northern to northeastern margin of Gondwana (Northeast Africa, Arabia, India and northeastern West Australia) was a passive margin along the southern edge of the Paleo-Tethys with cyclothem deposition including, during more temperate intervals, coal swamps in Western Australia. The Mexican terranes along the northwestern Gondwanan margin, were affected by the subduction of the Rheic Ocean. However, they lay to west of the Ouachita Orogeny and were not impacted by continental collision, but became part of the active margin of the Pacific. The Moroccan margin was affected by periods of widespread dextral strike-slip deformation, magmatism and metamorphism associated with the Variscan Orogeny.Towards the end of the Carboniferous, extension and rifting across the northern margin of Gondwana would led to the breaking away of the Cimmerian Terrane (parts of present-day Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tibet, China, Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia) during the early Permian and the opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean.Along the southeastern and southern margin of Gondwana (eastern Australia and Antarctica), northward subduction of Panthalassa continued. Changes in the relative motion of the plates resulted in the Early Carboniferous Kanimblan Orogeny. Continental arc magmatism continued into the Late Carboniferous and extended round to connect with the developing proto-Andean subduction zone along the western South American margin of Gondwana. Siberia and Amuria Shallow seas covered much of the Siberian craton in the Early Carboniferous. These retreated as sea levels fell in the Pennsylvanian and as the continent drifted north into more temperate zones extensive coal deposits formed in the Kuznetsk Basin.The northwest to eastern margins of Siberia were passive margins along the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean on the far side of which lay Amuria. From the mid Carboniferous, subduction zones with associated magmatic arcs developed along both margins of the ocean.The southwestern margin of Siberia was the site of the long lasting and complex accretionary orogen. The Devonian to Early Carboniferous Siberian and South Chinese Altai accretionary complexes developed above an east-dipping subduction zone, whilst further south, the Zharma-Saur arc formed along the northeastern margin of Kazakhstania. By the Late Carboniferous, all these complexes had accreted to the Siberian craton as shown by the intrusion of post-orogenic granites across the region. As Kazakhstania had already accreted to Laurussia, Siberia was effectively part of Pangea by 310Ma, although major transcurrent movements continued between it and Laurussia into the Permian. Central and East Asia The Kazakhstanian microcontinent is composed of a series of Devonian and older accretionary complexes. It was strongly deformed during the Carboniferous as its western margin collided with Laurussia during the Uralian Orogen and its northeastern margin collided with Siberia. Continuing transcurrent motion between Laurussia and Siberia led the formerly elongate microcontinent to bend into an orocline.During the Carboniferous, the Tarim craton lay along the northwestern edge of North China. Subduction along the Kazakhstanian margin of the Turkestan Ocean resulted in collision between northern Tarim and Kazakhstania during the mid Carboniferous as the ocean closed. The South Tian Shan fold and thrust belt, which extends over 2000 km from Uzbekistan to Northwest China, is the remains of this accretionary complex and forms the suture between Kazakhstania and Tarim. A continental magmatic arc above a south-dipping subduction zone lay along the northern North China margin, consuming the Paleoasian Ocean. Northward subduction of the Paleo-Tethys beneath the southern margins of North China and Tarim continued during the Carboniferous, with the South Qinling block accreted to North China during the mid to Late Carboniferous.No sediments are preserved from the Early Carboniferous in North China. However, bauxite deposits immediately above the regional mid Carboniferous unconformity indicate warm tropical conditions and are overlain by cyclothems including extensive coals.South China and Annamia (Mainland Southeast Asia) rifted from Gondwana during the Devonian. During the Carboniferous, they were separated from each other and North China by the Paleoasian Ocean with the Paleo-Tethys to the southwest and Panthalassa to the northeast. Cyclothem sediments with coal and evaporites were deposited across the passive margins that surrounded both continents. Offshore eastern South China the proto-Japanese islands lay above a subduction zone consuming the Panthalassic Ocean. Climate Average global temperatures in the Early Carboniferous Period were high: approximately 20 °C (68 °F). However, cooling during the Middle Carboniferous reduced average global temperatures to about 12 °C (54 °F). Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels fell during the Carboniferous Period from roughly 8 times the current level in the beginning, to a level similar to today's at the end. The Carboniferous is considered part of the Late Palaeozoic Ice Age, which began in the latest Devonian with the formation of small glaciers in Gondwana. During the Tournaisian the climate warmed, before cooling, there was another warm interval during the Viséan, but cooling began again during the early Serpukhovian. At the beginning of the Pennsylvanian around 323 million years ago, glaciers began to form around the South Pole, which grew to cover a vast area of Gondwana. This area extended from the southern reaches of the Amazon basin and covered large areas of southern Africa, as well as most of Australia and Antarctica. Cyclothems, which began around 313 million years ago, and continue into the following Permian indicate that the size of the glaciers were controlled by Milankovitch cycles akin to recent ice ages, with glacial periods and interglacials. Deep ocean temperatures during this time were cold due to the influx of cold bottom waters generated by seasonal melting of the ice cap.Although it is often asserted that Carboniferous atmospheric oxygen concentrations were signficiantly higher than today, at around 30% of total atmospheric concentration, prehistoric atmospheric oxygen concentration estimates are highly uncertain, with other estimates suggesting that the amount of oxygen was actually lower than that present in todays atmosphere.The cooling and drying of the climate led to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse (CRC) during the late Carboniferous. Tropical rainforests fragmented and then were eventually devastated by climate change. Life Plants Early Carboniferous land plants, some of which were preserved in coal balls, were very similar to those of the preceding Late Devonian, but new groups also appeared at this time. The main Early Carboniferous plants were the Equisetales (horse-tails), Sphenophyllales (scrambling plants), Lycopodiales (club mosses), Lepidodendrales (scale trees), Filicales (ferns), Medullosales (informally included in the "seed ferns", an assemblage of a number of early gymnosperm groups) and the Cordaitales. These continued to dominate throughout the period, but during late Carboniferous, several other groups, Cycadophyta (cycads), the Callistophytales (another group of "seed ferns"), and the Voltziales, appeared. The Carboniferous lycophytes of the order Lepidodendrales, which are cousins (but not ancestors) of the tiny club-moss of today, were huge trees with trunks 30 meters high and up to 1.5 meters in diameter. These included Lepidodendron (with its cone called Lepidostrobus), Anabathra, Lepidophloios and Sigillaria. The roots of several of these forms are known as Stigmaria. Unlike present-day trees, their secondary growth took place in the cortex, which also provided stability, instead of the xylem. The Cladoxylopsids were large trees, that were ancestors of ferns, first arising in the Carboniferous. The fronds of some Carboniferous ferns are almost identical with those of living species. Probably many species were epiphytic. Fossil ferns and "seed ferns" include Pecopteris, Cyclopteris, Neuropteris, Alethopteris, and Sphenopteris; Megaphyton and Caulopteris were tree ferns.The Equisetales included the common giant form Calamites, with a trunk diameter of 30 to 60 cm (24 in) and a height of up to 20 m (66 ft). Sphenophyllum was a slender climbing plant with whorls of leaves, which was probably related both to the calamites and the lycopods.Cordaites, a tall plant (6 to over 30 meters) with strap-like leaves, was related to the cycads and conifers; the catkin-like reproductive organs, which bore ovules/seeds, is called Cardiocarpus. These plants were thought to live in swamps. True coniferous trees (Walchia, of the order Voltziales) appear later in the Carboniferous, and preferred higher drier ground. Marine invertebrates In the oceans the marine invertebrate groups are the Foraminifera, corals, Bryozoa, Ostracoda, brachiopods, ammonoids, hederelloids, microconchids and echinoderms (especially crinoids). The diversity of brachiopods and fusilinid foraminiferans, surged beginning in the Visean, continuing through the end of the Carboniferous, although cephalopod and nektonic conodont diversity declined. This evolutionary radiation was known as the Carboniferous-Earliest Permian Biodiversification Event. For the first time foraminifera take a prominent part in the marine faunas. The large spindle-shaped genus Fusulina and its relatives were abundant in what is now Russia, China, Japan, North America; other important genera include Valvulina, Endothyra, Archaediscus, and Saccammina (the latter common in Britain and Belgium). Some Carboniferous genera are still extant. The first true priapulids appeared during this period.The microscopic shells of radiolarians are found in cherts of this age in the Culm of Devon and Cornwall, and in Russia, Germany and elsewhere. Sponges are known from spicules and anchor ropes, and include various forms such as the Calcispongea Cotyliscus and Girtycoelia, the demosponge Chaetetes, and the genus of unusual colonial glass sponges Titusvillia. Both reef-building and solitary corals diversify and flourish; these include both rugose (for example, Caninia, Corwenia, Neozaphrentis), heterocorals, and tabulate (for example, Chladochonus, Michelinia) forms. Conularids were well represented by Conularia Bryozoa are abundant in some regions; the fenestellids including Fenestella, Polypora, and Archimedes, so named because it is in the shape of an Archimedean screw. Brachiopods are also abundant; they include productids, some of which reached very large for brachiopods size and had very thick shells (for example, the 30 cm (12 in)-wide Gigantoproductus), while others like Chonetes were more conservative in form. Athyridids, spiriferids, rhynchonellids, and terebratulids are also very common. Inarticulate forms include Discina and Crania. Some species and genera had a very wide distribution with only minor variations. Annelids such as Serpulites are common fossils in some horizons. Among the mollusca, the bivalves continue to increase in numbers and importance. Typical genera include Aviculopecten, Posidonomya, Nucula, Carbonicola, Edmondia, and Modiola. Gastropods are also numerous, including the genera Murchisonia, Euomphalus, Naticopsis. Nautiloid cephalopods are represented by tightly coiled nautilids, with straight-shelled and curved-shelled forms becoming increasingly rare. Goniatite ammonoids such as Aenigmatoceras are common. Trilobites are rarer than in previous periods, on a steady trend towards extinction, represented only by the proetid group. Ostracoda, a class of crustaceans, were abundant as representatives of the meiobenthos; genera included Amphissites, Bairdia, Beyrichiopsis, Cavellina, Coryellina, Cribroconcha, Hollinella, Kirkbya, Knoxiella, and Libumella. Crinoids were highly numerous during the Carboniferous, though they suffered a gradual decline in diversity during the middle Mississippian. Dense submarine thickets of long-stemmed crinoids appear to have flourished in shallow seas, and their remains were consolidated into thick beds of rock. Prominent genera include Cyathocrinus, Woodocrinus, and Actinocrinus. Echinoids such as Archaeocidaris and Palaeechinus were also present. The blastoids, which included the Pentreinitidae and Codasteridae and superficially resembled crinoids in the possession of long stalks attached to the seabed, attain their maximum development at this time. Freshwater and lagoonal invertebrates Freshwater Carboniferous invertebrates include various bivalve molluscs that lived in brackish or fresh water, such as Anthraconaia, Naiadites, and Carbonicola; diverse crustaceans such as Candona, Carbonita, Darwinula, Estheria, Acanthocaris, Dithyrocaris, and Anthrapalaemon. The eurypterids were also diverse, and are represented by such genera as Adelophthalmus, Megarachne (originally misinterpreted as a giant spider, hence its name) and the specialised very large Hibbertopterus. Many of these were amphibious. Frequently a temporary return of marine conditions resulted in marine or brackish water genera such as Lingula, Orbiculoidea, and Productus being found in the thin beds known as marine bands. Terrestrial invertebrates Fossil remains of air-breathing insects, myriapods and arachnids are known from the Carboniferous. Their diversity when they do appear, however, shows that these arthropods were both well-developed and numerous. Some arthropods grew to large sizes with the up to 2.6-meter-long (8.5 ft) millipede-like Arthropleura being the largest-known land invertebrate of all time. Among the insect groups are the huge predatory Protodonata (griffinflies), among which was Meganeura, a giant dragonfly-like insect and with a wingspan of ca. 75 cm (30 in)—the largest flying insect ever to roam the planet. Further groups are the Syntonopterodea (relatives of present-day mayflies), the abundant and often large sap-sucking Palaeodictyopteroidea, the diverse herbivorous Protorthoptera, and numerous basal Dictyoptera (ancestors of cockroaches). Many insects have been obtained from the coalfields of Saarbrücken and Commentry, and from the hollow trunks of fossil trees in Nova Scotia. Some British coalfields have yielded good specimens: Archaeoptilus, from the Derbyshire coalfield, had a large wing with 4.3 cm (2 in) preserved part, and some specimens (Brodia) still exhibit traces of brilliant wing colors. In the Nova Scotian tree trunks land snails (Archaeozonites, Dendropupa) have been found. Fish Many fish inhabited the Carboniferous seas; predominantly Elasmobranchs (sharks and their relatives). These included some, like Psammodus, with crushing pavement-like teeth adapted for grinding the shells of brachiopods, crustaceans, and other marine organisms. Other groups of elasmobranchs, like the ctenacanthiformes grew to large sizes, with some genera like Saivodus reaching around 6-9 meters (20-30 feet). Other fish had piercing teeth, such as the Symmoriida; some, the petalodonts, had peculiar cycloid cutting teeth. Most of the other cartilaginous fish were marine, but others like the Xenacanthida, and several genera like Bandringa invaded fresh waters of the coal swamps. Among the bony fish, the Palaeonisciformes found in coastal waters also appear to have migrated to rivers. Sarcopterygian fish were also prominent, and one group, the Rhizodonts, reached very large size. Most species of Carboniferous marine fish have been described largely from teeth, fin spines and dermal ossicles, with smaller freshwater fish preserved whole. Freshwater fish were abundant, and include the genera Ctenodus, Uronemus, Acanthodes, Cheirodus, and Gyracanthus. Chondrichthyes (especially holocephalans like the Stethacanthids) underwent a major evolutionary radiation during the Carboniferous. It is believed that this evolutionary radiation occurred because the decline of the placoderms at the end of the Devonian Period caused many environmental niches to become unoccupied and allowed new organisms to evolve and fill these niches. As a result of the evolutionary radiation Carboniferous holocephalans assumed a wide variety of bizarre shapes including Stethacanthus which possessed a flat brush-like dorsal fin with a patch of denticles on its top. Stethacanthus's unusual fin may have been used in mating rituals. Other groups like the eugeneodonts filled in the niches left by large predatory placoderms. These fish were unique as they only possessed one row of teeth in their upper or lower jaws in the form of elaborate tooth whorls. The first members of the helicoprionidae, a family eugeneodonts that were characterized by the presence of one circular tooth whorl in the lower jaw, appeared during the lower Carboniferous. Perhaps the most bizarre radiation of holocephalans at this time was that of the iniopterygiformes, an order of holocephalans that greatly resembled modern day flying fish that could have also "flown" in the water with their massive, elongated pectoral fins. They were further characterized by their large eye sockets, club-like structures on their tails, and spines on the tips of their fins. Tetrapods Carboniferous amphibians were diverse and common by the middle of the period, more so than they are today; some were as long as 6 meters, and those fully terrestrial as adults had scaly skin. They included a number of basal tetrapod groups classified in early books under the Labyrinthodontia. These had long bodies, a head covered with bony plates and generally weak or undeveloped limbs. The largest were over 2 meters long. They were accompanied by an assemblage of smaller amphibians included under the Lepospondyli, often only about 15 cm (6 in) long. Some Carboniferous amphibians were aquatic and lived in rivers (Loxomma, Eogyrinus, Proterogyrinus); others may have been semi-aquatic (Ophiderpeton, Amphibamus, Hyloplesion) or terrestrial (Dendrerpeton, Tuditanus, Anthracosaurus). The Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse slowed the evolution of amphibians who could not survive as well in the cooler, drier conditions. Amniotes, however, prospered due to specific key adaptations. One of the greatest evolutionary innovations of the Carboniferous was the amniote egg, which allowed the laying of eggs in a dry environment, as well as keratinized scales and claws, allowing for the further exploitation of the land by certain tetrapods. These included the earliest sauropsid reptiles (Hylonomus), and the earliest known synapsid (Archaeothyris). Synapsids quickly became huge and diversified in the Permian, only for their dominance to stop during the Mesozoic Era. Sauropsids (reptiles, and also, later, birds) also diversified but remained small until the Mesozoic, during which they dominated the land, as well as the water and sky, only for their dominance to stop during the Cenozoic Era. Reptiles underwent a major evolutionary radiation in response to the drier climate that preceded the rainforest collapse. By the end of the Carboniferous Period, amniotes had already diversified into a number of groups, including several families of synapsid pelycosaurs, protorothyridids, captorhinids, saurians and araeoscelids. Fungi As plants and animals were growing in size and abundance in this time (for example, Lepidodendron), land fungi diversified further. Marine fungi still occupied the oceans. All modern classes of fungi were present in the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian Epoch).During the Carboniferous, animals and bacteria had great difficulty with processing the lignin and cellulose that made up the gigantic trees of the period. Microbes had not evolved that could process them. The trees, after they died, simply piled up on the ground, occasionally becoming part of long-running wildfires after a lightning strike, with others very slowly degrading into coal. White rot fungus were the first organisms to be able to process these and break them down in any reasonable quantity and timescale. Thus, some have proposed that fungi helped end the Carboniferous Period, stopping accumulation of undegraded plant matter, although this idea remains highly controversial. Extinction events Romer's gap The first 15 million years of the Carboniferous had very limited terrestrial fossils. This gap in the fossil record is called Romer's gap after the American palaentologist Alfred Romer. While it has long been debated whether the gap is a result of fossilisation or relates to an actual event, recent work indicates the gap period saw a drop in atmospheric oxygen levels, indicating some sort of ecological collapse. The gap saw the demise of the Devonian fish-like ichthyostegalian labyrinthodonts, and the rise of the more advanced temnospondyl and reptiliomorphan amphibians that so typify the Carboniferous terrestrial vertebrate fauna. Carboniferous rainforest collapse Before the end of the Carboniferous Period, an extinction event occurred. On land this event is referred to as the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse (CRC). Vast tropical rainforests collapsed suddenly as the climate changed from hot and humid to cool and arid. This was likely caused by intense glaciation and a drop in sea levels.The new climatic conditions were not favorable to the growth of rainforest and the animals within them. Rainforests shrank into isolated islands, surrounded by seasonally dry habitats. Towering lycopsid forests with a heterogeneous mixture of vegetation were replaced by much less diverse tree-fern dominated flora. Amphibians, the dominant vertebrates at the time, fared poorly through this event with large losses in biodiversity; reptiles continued to diversify due to key adaptations that let them survive in the drier habitat, specifically the hard-shelled egg and scales, both of which retain water better than their amphibian counterparts. See also List of Carboniferous tetrapods Carboniferous rainforest collapse Important Carboniferous Lagerstätten Granton Shrimp Bed; 359 mya; Edinburgh, Scotland East Kirkton Quarry; c. 350 mya; Bathgate, Scotland Bear Gulch Limestone; 324 mya; Montana, US Mazon Creek; 309 mya; Illinois, US Hamilton Quarry; 300 mya; Kansas, US List of fossil sites (with link directory) References Sources Beerling, David (2007). The Emerald Planet: How Plants Changed Earth's History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192806024. "The Carboniferous Period". www.ucmp.berkeley.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-02-10. Biello, David (28 June 2012). "White Rot Fungi Slowed Coal Formation". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 30 June 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2013. Blackwell, Meredith; Vilgalys, Rytas; James, Timothy Y.; Taylor, John W. (2008). "Fungi. Eumycota: mushrooms, sac fungi, yeast, molds, rusts, smuts, etc". Archived from the original on 2008-09-24. Retrieved 2008-06-25. 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"Atmospheric Oxygen, Giant Paleozoic Insects and the Evolution of Aerial Locomotor Performance" (PDF). The Journal of Experimental Biology. 201 (Pt 8): 1043–1050. doi:10.1242/jeb.201.8.1043. PMID 9510518. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 January 2013. Floudas, D.; Binder, M.; Riley, R.; Barry, K.; Blanchette, R. A.; Henrissat, B.; Martinez, A. T.; et al. (28 June 2012). "The Paleozoic Origin of Enzymatic Lignin Decomposition Reconstructed from 31 Fungal Genomes". Science. 336 (6089): 1715–1719. Bibcode:2012Sci...336.1715F. doi:10.1126/science.1221748. hdl:10261/60626. OSTI 1165864. PMID 22745431. S2CID 37121590. Garwood, Russell J.; Edgecombe, Gregory (2011). "Early terrestrial animals, evolution and uncertainty". Evolution: Education and Outreach. 4 (3): 489–501. doi:10.1007/s12052-011-0357-y. Garwood, Russell J.; Dunlop, Jason A.; Sutton, Mark D. (2009). "High-fidelity X-ray micro-tomography reconstruction of siderite-hosted Carboniferous arachnids". 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Menning, M.; Alekseev, A.S.; Chuvashov, B.I.; Davydov, V.I.; Devuyst, F.X.; Forke, H.C.; Grunt, T.A.; et al. (2006). "Global time scale and regional stratigraphic reference scales of Central and West Europe, East Europe, Tethys, South China, and North America as used in the Devonian–Carboniferous–Permian Correlation Chart 2003 (DCP 2003)". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 240 (1–2): 318–372. Bibcode:2006PPP...240..318M. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.03.058. Monastersky, Richard (13 May 1995). "Ancient Animals Got a Rise out of Oxygen". Science News. Archived from the original on 3 January 2013. Retrieved 1 May 2018. Ogg, Jim (June 2004). "Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)". Archived from the original on April 23, 2006. Retrieved April 30, 2006. Paproth, Eva; Feist, Raimund; Flajs, Gerd (December 1991). "Decision on the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary stratotype" (PDF). Episodes. 14 (4): 331–336. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/1991/v14i4/004. 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ipcc (disambiguation)

The IPCC, or Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, is a scientific body under the auspices of the United Nations. IPCC may also refer to: Other organisations Independent Police Complaints Commission, defunct public body in England and Wales Independent Police Complaints Council of the Hong Kong Government Independent Police Conduct Commission, Malaysian oversight body Irish Peatland Conservation Council, charity to preserve bogs Other uses Integrated Professional Competency Course, a course of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India Interworld Police Coordinating Company, a fictional organization in Jack Vance's novels

ipcc first assessment report

The First Assessment Report (FAR) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was completed in 1990. It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This report had effects not only on the establishment of the UNFCCC, but also on the first conference of the parties (COP), held in Berlin in 1995. The executive summary of the WG I Summary for Policymakers report that said they were certain that emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases, resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth's surface. They calculated with confidence that CO2 had been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect. They predicted that under a "business as usual" (BAU) scenario, global mean temperature would increase by about 0.3 °C per decade during the [21st] century. They judged that global mean surface air temperature had increased by 0.3 to 0.6 °C over the last 100 years, broadly consistent with prediction of climate models, but also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability. The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect was not likely for a decade or more. The 1992 supplementary report was an update, requested in the context of the negotiations on the UNFCCC at the Earth Summit (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did "not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment". It noted that transient (time-dependent) simulations, which had been very preliminary in the FAR, were now improved, but did not include aerosol or ozone changes. Overview The report was issued in three main sections, corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established. Working Group I: Scientific Assessment of Climate Change, edited by J.T. Houghton, G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II: Impacts Assessment of Climate Change, edited by W.J. McG. Tegart, G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III:The IPCC Response StrategiesEach section included a summary for policymakers. This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports. The executive summary of the policymakers' summary of the WG I report includes: We are certain of the following: there is a natural greenhouse effect...; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases: CO2, methane, CFCs and nitrous oxide. These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect, resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth's surface. The main greenhouse gas, water vapour, will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it. We calculate with confidence that: ...CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60% to stabilise their concentrations at today's levels... Based on current models, we predict: under [BAU] increase of global mean temperature during the [21st] century of about 0.3 °C per decade (with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 °C per decade); this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls, rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 °C [to] about 0.1 °C per decade. There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing, magnitude and regional patterns of climate change, due to our incomplete understanding of: sources and sinks of GHGs; clouds; oceans; polar ice sheets. Our judgement is that: global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 °C over the last 100 years...; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models, but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability. Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming. The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more. under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario, an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century (with an uncertainty range of 3 – 10 cm per decade), mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice. The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030, and 65 cm by the end of the next century. Controversies When discussing the politicisation of IPCC assessment reports climatologist Kevin E. Trenberth stated:The SPM [Summary for policymakers] was approved line by line by governments ... The argument here is that the scientists determine what can be said, but the governments determine how it can best be said. Negotiations occur over wording to ensure accuracy, balance, clarity of message, and relevance to understanding and policy. The IPCC process is dependent on the good will of the participants in producing a balanced assessment. However, in Shanghai, it appeared that there were attempts to blunt, and perhaps obfuscate, the messages in the report, most notably by Saudi Arabia. This led to very protracted debates over wording on even bland and what should be uncontroversial text ... The most contentious paragraph in the IPCC (2001) SPM was the concluding one on attribution. After much debate, the following was carefully crafted: "In the light of new evidence, and taking into account the remaining uncertainties, most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is likely to have been due to the increase in greenhouse-gas concentrations." See also Avoiding dangerous climate change Business action on climate change Energy conservation Energy policy Global climate model Individual and political action on climate change Precautionary principle World energy resources and consumption References External links IPCC 1990 FAR - Working Group I: Scientific Assessment of Climate Change IPCC 1990 FAR - Working Group II: Impacts Assessment of Climate Change IPCC 1990 FAR - Working Group III: The IPCC Response Strategies

ipcc list of greenhouse gases

This is a list of the most influential long-lived, well-mixed greenhouse gases, along with their tropospheric concentrations and direct radiative forcings, as identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Abundances of these trace gases are regularly measured by atmospheric scientists from samples collected throughout the world. Since the 1980s, their forcing contributions (relative to year 1750) are also estimated with high accuracy using IPCC-recommended expressions derived from radiative transfer models.This list excludes: water vapor which is responsible overall for about half of all atmospheric gas forcing. Water vapor and clouds are more dynamic atmospheric constituents and contribute strong climate change feedback influences. other short-lived gases (e.g. carbon monoxide, NOx) and aerosols (e.g. mineral dust, black carbon) that also vary more strongly over location and time. Ozone has warming influences comparable to nitrous oxide and CFCs, and is longer lived and more abundant in the stratosphere than in the troposphere. many refrigerants and other halogenated gases that have been mass-produced in smaller quantities. Most are long-lived and well-mixed. Some are also listed in Appendix 8A of the 2013 IPCC Assessment Report.: 731–738  and Annex III of the 2021 IPCC WG1 Report: 4–9  oxygen, nitrogen, argon, and other gases that are less influenced by human activity and interact relatively little with Earth's thermal radiation. Combined Summary from IPCC Assessment Reports (TAR, AR4, AR5, AR6) Mole fractions: μmol/mol = ppm = parts per million (106); nmol/mol = ppb = parts per billion (109); pmol/mol = ppt = parts per trillion (1012). A The IPCC states that "no single atmospheric lifetime can be given" for CO2.: 731  This is mostly due to the rapid growth and cumulative magnitude of the disturbances to Earth's carbon cycle by the geologic extraction and burning of fossil carbon. As of year 2014, fossil CO2 emitted as a theoretical 10 to 100 GtC pulse on top of the existing atmospheric concentration was expected to be 50% removed by land vegetation and ocean sinks in less than about a century, as based on the projections of coupled models referenced in the AR5 assessment. A substantial fraction (20-35%) was also projected to remain in the atmosphere for centuries to millennia, where fractional persistence increases with pulse size.B Values are relative to year 1750. AR6 reports the effective radiative forcing which includes effects of rapid adjustments in the atmosphere and at the surface. Gases from IPCC Fourth Assessment Report The following table has its sources in Chapter 2, p. 141, Table 2.1. of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Climate Change 2007 (AR4), Working Group 1 Report, The Physical Science Basis. Gases from IPCC Third Assessment Report The following table has its sources in Chapter 6, p. 358, Table 6.1. of the IPCC Third Assessment Report, Climate Change 2001 (TAR), Working Group 1, The Scientific Basis. Gases relevant to radiative forcing only Gases relevant to radiative forcing and ozone depletion See also List of refrigerants == References ==

hockey stick graph (global temperature)

Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records. These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century, with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures. The term hockey stick graph was popularized by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman, to describe the pattern shown by the Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1999 (MBH99) reconstruction, envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick's "shaft" followed by a sharp, steady increase corresponding to the "blade" portion. The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports as evidence of global warming. Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science.Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century, and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s. In the 1960s, Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300, followed by Little Ice Age. This was the basis of a "schematic diagram" featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global. The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed, and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional. Bradley & Jones 1993 introduced the "Composite Plus Scaling" (CPS) method which, as of 2009, was still being used by most large-scale reconstructions. Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995. In 1998 Michael E. Mann, Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1998 (MBH98), the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction (CFR). This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature, and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties (to two standard error limits) were much greater in earlier centuries. Jones et al. 1998 independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years, and Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1999 (MBH99) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000.A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR), which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that, in the Northern Hemisphere, the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years. The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional. In 2003, as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified, a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy. Later in 2003, Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published McIntyre & McKitrick 2003b disputing the data used in MBH98 paper. In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph, though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small. In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99. Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including Huybers 2005 and Wahl & Ammann 2007 which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology. Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the United States National Research Council, their North Report in 2006 supported Mann's findings with some qualifications, including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result.More than two dozen reconstructions, using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records, support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph, with variations in how flat the pre-20th century "shaft" appears. The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions, 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer, to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years. Further reconstructions, including Mann et al. 2008 and PAGES 2k Consortium 2013, have supported these general conclusions. Origins: the first paleoclimate reconstructions Paleoclimatology influenced the 19th century physicists John Tyndall and Svante Arrhenius who found the greenhouse gas effect of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere to explain how past ice ages had ended. From 1919 to 1923, Alfred Wegener did pioneering work on reconstructing the climate of past eras in collaboration with Milutin Milanković, publishing Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit ("The Climates of the Geological Past") together with Wladimir Köppen, in 1924. In the 1930s Guy Stewart Callendar compiled temperature records to look for changes. Wilmot H. Bradley showed that annual varves in lake beds showed climate cycles, and A. E. Douglass found that tree rings could track past climatic changes but these were thought to only show random variations in the local region. It was only in the 1960s that accurate use of tree rings as climate proxies for reconstructions was pioneered by Harold C. Fritts. In 1965 Hubert Lamb, a pioneer of historical climatology, generalised from temperature records of central England by using historical, botanical and archeological evidence to popularise the idea of a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300, followed by a cold epoch culminating between 1550 and 1700. In 1972 he became the founding director of the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) in the University of East Anglia (UEA), which aimed to improve knowledge of climate history in both the recent and far distant past, monitor current changes in global climate, identify processes causing changes at different timescales, and review the possibility of advising about future trends in climate. During the cold years of the 1960s, Lamb had anticipated that natural cycles were likely to lead over thousands of years to a future ice age, but after 1976 he supported the emerging view that greenhouse gas emissions caused by humanity would cause detectable global warming "by about A.D. 2000".The first quantitative reconstruction of Northern Hemisphere (NH) annual mean temperatures was published in 1979 by Brian Groveman and Helmut Landsberg. They used "a short-cut method" based on their earlier paper which showed that 9 instrumental stations could adequately represent an extensive gridded instrumental series, and reconstructed temperatures from 1579 to 1880 on the basis of their compilation of 20 time-series. These records were largely instrumental but also included some proxy records including two tree-ring series. Their method used nested multiple regression to allow for records covering different periods, and produced measures of uncertainty. The reconstruction showed a cool period extending beyond the Maunder Minimum, and warmer temperatures in the 20th century. After this around a decade elapsed before Gordon Jacoby and Rosanne D'Arrigo produced the next quantitative NH reconstruction, published in 1989. This was the first based entirely on non-instrumental records, and used tree rings. They reconstructed northern hemisphere annual temperatures since 1671 on the basis of boreal North American tree ring data from 11 distinct regions. From this, they concluded that recent warming was anomalous over the 300-year period, and went as far as speculating that these results supported the hypothesis that recent warming had human causes. IPCC First Assessment Report, 1990, supplement, 1992 Publicity over the concerns of scientists about the implications of global warming led to increasing public and political interest, and the Reagan administration, concerned in part about the political impact of scientific findings, successfully lobbied for the 1988 formation of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to produce reports subject to detailed approval by government delegates. The IPCC First Assessment Report in 1990 noted evidence that Holocene climatic optimum around 5,000-6,000 years ago had been warmer than the present (at least in summer) and that in some areas there had been exceptional warmth during "a shorter Medieval Warm Period (which may not have been global)", the "Medieval Climatic Optimum" from the "late tenth to early thirteenth centuries (about AD 950-1250)", followed by a cooler period of the Little Ice Age which ended only in the middle to late nineteenth century. The report discussed the difficulties with proxy data, "mainly pollen remains, lake varves and ocean sediments, insect and animal remains, glacier termini" but considered tree ring data was "not yet sufficiently easy to assess nor sufficiently integrated with indications from other data to be used in this report." A "schematic diagram" of global temperature variations over the last thousand years has been traced to a graph based loosely on Lamb's 1965 paper, nominally representing central England, modified by Lamb in 1982. Mike Hulme describes this schematic diagram as "Lamb's sketch on the back of an envelope", a "rather dodgy bit of hand-waving".In Bradley 1991, a working group of climatologists including Raymond S. Bradley, Malcolm K. Hughes, Jean Jouzel, Wibjörn Karlén, Jonathan Overpeck and Tom Wigley proposed a project to improve understanding of natural climatic variations over the last two thousand years so that their effect could be allowed for when evaluating human contributions to climate change. Climate proxy temperature data was needed at seasonal or annual resolution covering a wide geographical area to provide a framework for testing the part climate forcings had played in past variations, look for cycles in climate, and find if debated climatic events such as the Little Ice Age and Medieval Warm Period were global. Reconstructions were to be made of key climate systems, starting with three climatically sensitive regions: the Asian monsoon region, the El Niño–Southern Oscillation region and the Atlantic region. Areas where more data was needed were to be identified, and there was a need for improved data exchange with computer-based archiving and translation to give researchers access to worldwide paleoclimate information.The IPCC supplementary report, 1992, reviewed progress on various proxies. These included a study of 1,000 years of tree ring data from Tasmania which, like similar studies, did not allow for possible overestimate of warming due to increased CO2 levels having a fertilisation effect on tree growth. It noted the suggestion of Bradley et al. 1991 that instrumental records in specific areas could be combined with paleoclimate data for increased detail back to the 18th century. Composite plus scaling (CPS) reconstructions Bradley and Jones 1993 Archives of climate proxies were developed: in 1993 Raymond S. Bradley and Phil Jones composited historical records, tree-rings and ice cores for the Northern Hemisphere from 1400 up to the 1970s to produce a decadal reconstruction. Like later reconstructions including the MBH "hockey stick" studies, the Bradley & Jones 1993 reconstruction indicated a slow cooling trend followed by an exceptional temperature rise in the 20th century. Their study also used the modern instrumental temperature record to evaluate how well the regions covered by proxies represented the northern hemisphere average, and compared the instrumental record with the proxy reconstruction over the same period. It concluded that the "Little Ice Age" period was complex, with evidence suggesting the influence of volcanic eruptions. It showed that temperatures since the 1920s were higher than earlier in the 500-year period, an indication of other factors which could most probably be attributed to human caused changes increasing levels of greenhouse gases.This paper introduced the "Composite Plus Scaling" (CPS) method which was subsequently used by most large-scale climate reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures. In this method, also known as "Composite Plus Scale", selected climate proxy records were standardized before being averaged (composited), and then centred and scaled to provide a quantitative estimate of the target temperature series for the climate of the region or hemisphere over time. This method was implemented in various ways, including different selection processes for the proxy records, and averaging could be unweighted, or could be weighted in relation to an assessment of reliability or of area represented. There were also different ways of finding the scaling coefficient used to scale the proxy records to the instrumental temperature record.John A. Eddy had earlier tried to relate the rarity of sunspots during the Maunder Minimum to Lamb's estimates of past climate, but had insufficient information to produce a quantitative assessment. The problem was reexamined by Bradley in collaboration with solar physicists Judith Lean and Juerg Beer, using the findings of Bradley & Jones 1993. The Lean, Beer & Bradley 1995 paper confirmed that the drop in solar output appeared to have caused a temperature drop of almost 0.5 °C during the Little Ice Age, and increased solar output might explain the rise in early 20th century temperatures. A reconstruction of Arctic temperatures over four centuries by Overpeck et al. 1997 reached similar conclusions, but both these studies came up against the limitations of the climate reconstructions at that time which only resolved temperature fluctuations on a decadal basis rather than showing individual years, and produced a single time series so did not show a spatial pattern of relative temperatures for different regions. IPCC Second Assessment Report The IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR) of 1996 featured Figure 3.20 showing the Bradley & Jones 1993 decadal summer temperature reconstruction for the northern hemisphere, overlaid with a 50-year smoothed curve and with a separate curve plotting instrumental thermometer data from the 1850s onwards. It stated that in this record, warming since the late 19th century was unprecedented. The section proposed that "The data from the last 1000 years are the most useful for determining the scales of natural climate variability". Recent studies including the 1994 reconstruction by Hughes and Diaz questioned how widespread the Medieval Warm Period had been at any one time, thus it was not possible "to conclude that global temperatures in the Medieval Warm Period were comparable to the warm decades of the late 20th century." The SAR concluded, "it appears that the 20th century has been at least as warm as any century since at least 1400 AD. In at least some areas, the recent period appears to be warmer than has been the case for a thousand or more years".Tim Barnett of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography was working towards the next IPCC assessment with Phil Jones, and in 1996 told journalist Fred Pearce "What we hope is that the current patterns of temperature change prove distinctive, quite different from the patterns of natural variability in the past".A divergence problem affecting some tree ring proxies after 1960 had been identified in Alaska by Taubes 1995 and Jacoby & d'Arrigo 1995. Tree ring specialist Keith Briffa's February 1998 study showed that this problem was more widespread at high northern latitudes, and warned that it had to be taken into account to avoid overestimating past temperatures. Climate field reconstruction (CFR) methods; MBH 1998 and 1999 Variations on the "Composite Plus Scale" (CPS) method continued to be used to produce hemispheric or global mean temperature reconstructions. From 1998 this was complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction (CFR) methods which could show how climate patterns had developed over large spatial areas, making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models. The CFR method made more use of climate information embedded in remote proxies, but was more dependent than CPS on assumptions that relationships between proxy indicators and large-scale climate patterns remained stable over time.Related rigorous statistical methods had been developed for tree ring data, with Harold C. Fritts publishing a 1991 study and a 1991 book showing methodology and examples of how to produces maps showing climate developments in North America over time. These methods had been used for regional reconstructions of temperatures, and other aspects such as rainfall.As part of his PhD research, Michael E. Mann worked with seismologist Jeffrey Park on developing statistical techniques to find long term oscillations of natural variability in the instrumental temperature record of global surface temperatures over the last 140 years; Mann & Park 1993 showed patterns relating to the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, and Mann & Park 1994 found what was later termed the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. They then teamed up with Raymond S. Bradley to use these techniques on the dataset from his Bradley & Jones 1993 study with the aim of finding long term oscillations of natural variability in global climate. The resulting reconstruction went back to 1400, and was published in November as Mann, Park & Bradley 1995. They were able to detect that the multiple proxies were varying in a coherent oscillatory way, indicating both the multidecadal pattern in the North Atlantic and a longer term oscillation of roughly 250 years in the surrounding region. Their study did not calibrate these proxy patterns against a quantitative temperature scale, and a new statistical approach was needed to find how they related to surface temperatures in order to reconstruct past temperature patterns. Mann, Bradley and Hughes 1998 For his postdoctoral research Mann joined Bradley and tree ring specialist Malcolm K. Hughes to develop a new statistical approach to reconstruct underlying spatial patterns of temperature variation combining diverse datasets of proxy information covering different periods across the globe, including a rich resource of tree ring networks for some areas and sparser proxies such as lake sediments, ice cores and corals, as well as some historical records.Their global reconstruction was a major breakthrough in evaluation of past climate dynamics, and the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction (CFR) incorporating multiple climate proxy data sets of different types and lengths into a high-resolution global reconstruction. To relate this data to measured temperatures, they used principal component analysis (PCA) to find the leading patterns, or principal components, of instrumental temperature records during the calibration period from 1902 to 1980. Their method was based on separate multiple regressions between each proxy record (or summary) and all of the leading principal components of the instrumental record. The least squares simultaneous solution of these multiple regressions used covariance between the proxy records. The results were then used to reconstruct large-scale patterns over time in the spatial field of interest (defined as the empirical orthogonal functions, or EOFs) using both local relationships of the proxies to climate and distant climate teleconnections. Temperature records for almost 50 years prior to 1902 were analysed using PCA for the important step of validation calculations, which showed that the reconstructions were statistically meaningful, or skillful.A balance was required over the whole globe, but most of the proxy data came from tree rings in the Northern mid latitudes, largely in dense proxy networks. Since using all of the large numbers of tree ring records in would have overwhelmed the sparse proxies from the polar regions and the tropics, they used principal component analysis (PCA) to produce PC summaries representing these large datasets, and then treated each summary as a proxy record in their CFR analysis. Networks represented in this way included the North American tree ring network (NOAMER) and Eurasia.The primary aim of CFR methods was to provide the spatially resolved reconstructions essential for coherent geophysical understanding of how parts of the climate system varied and responded to radiative forcing, so hemispheric averages were a secondary product. The CFR method could also be used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere mean temperatures, and the results closely resembled the earlier CPS reconstructions including Bradley & Jones 1993. Mann describes this as the least scientifically interesting thing they could do with the rich spatial patterns, but also the aspect that got the most attention. Their original draft ended in 1980 as most reconstructions only went that far, but an anonymous peer reviewer of the paper suggested that the curve of instrumental temperature records should be shown up to the present to include the considerable warming that had taken place between 1980 and 1998.The Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1998 (MBH98) multiproxy study on "Global-scale temperature patterns and climate forcing over the past six centuries" was submitted to the journal Nature on 9 May 1997, accepted on 27 February 1998 and published on 23 April 1998. The paper announced a new statistical approach to find patterns of climate change in both time and global distribution, building on previous multiproxy reconstructions. The authors concluded that "Northern Hemisphere mean annual temperatures for three of the past eight years are warmer than any other year since (at least) AD1400", and estimated empirically that greenhouse gases had become the dominant climate forcing during the 20th century. In a review in the same issue, Gabriele C. Hegerl described their method as "quite original and promising", which could help to verify model estimates of natural climate fluctuations and was "an important step towards reconstructing space–time records of historical temperature patterns". Publicity and controversy on publication of MBH98 Release of the paper on 22 April 1998 was given exceptional media coverage, including questioning as to whether it proved that human influences were responsible for global warming. Mann would only agree that it was "highly suggestive" of that inference. He said that "Our conclusion was that the warming of the past few decades appears to be closely tied to emission of greenhouse gases by humans and not any of the natural factors". Most proxy data are inherently imprecise, and Mann said "We do have error bars. They are somewhat sizable as one gets farther back in time, and there is reasonable uncertainty in any given year. There is quite a bit of work to be done in reducing these uncertainties." Climatologist Tom Wigley welcomed the progress made in the study, but doubted if proxy data could ever be wholly convincing in detecting the human contribution to changing climate.Phil Jones of the UEA Climatic Research Unit told the New York Times he was doubtful about adding the 150-year thermometer record to extend the proxy reconstruction, and compared this with putting together apples and oranges; Mann et al. said they used a comparison with the thermometer record to check that recent proxy data were valid. Jones thought the study would provide important comparisons with the findings of climate modeling, which showed a "pretty reasonable" fit to proxy evidence. A commentary on MBH98 by Jones was published in Science on 24 April 1998. He noted that it used almost all the available long term proxy climate series, "and if the new multivariate method of relating these series to the instrumental data is as good as the paper claims, it should be statistically reliable." He discussed some of the difficulties, and emphasised that "Each paleoclimatic discipline has to come to terms with its own limitations and must unreservedly admit to problems, warts and all."The study was disputed by contrarian Pat Michaels with the claim that all of the warming took place between 1920 and 1935, before increased human greenhouse gas emissions. The George C. Marshall Institute alleged that MBH98 was deceptive in only going back to 1400, and so not covering the Medieval Warm Period which predated industrial greenhouse gas emissions. The same criticisms were made by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas. Pollack, Huang and Shen, Jones et al. 1998 In October 1998 the borehole reconstruction published by Pollack, Huang and Shen gave independent support to the conclusion that 20th century warmth was exceptional for the past 500 years.Jones, Keith Briffa, Tim P. Barnett and Simon Tett had independently produced a "Composite Plus Scale" (CPS) reconstruction extending back for a thousand years, comparing tree ring, coral layer, and glacial proxy records, but not specifically estimating uncertainties. Jones et al. 1998 was submitted to The Holocene on 16 October 1997; their revised manuscript was accepted on 3 February and published in May 1998. As Bradley recalls, Mann's initial view was that there was too little information and too much uncertainty to go back so far, but Bradley said "Why don't we try to use the same approach we used in Nature, and see if we could push it back a bit further?" Within a few weeks, Mann responded that to his surprise, "There is a certain amount of skill. We can actually say something, although there are large uncertainties." Mann, Bradley and Hughes 1999 In considering the 1998 Jones et al. reconstruction which went back a thousand years, Mann, Bradley and Hughes reviewed their own research and reexamined 24 proxy records which extended back before 1400. Mann carried out a series of statistical sensitivity tests, removing each proxy in turn to see the effect its removal had on the result. He found that certain proxies were critical to the reliability of the reconstruction, particularly one tree ring dataset collected by Gordon Jacoby and Rosanne D'Arrigo in a part of North America Bradley's earlier research had identified as a key region. This dataset only extended back to 1400, and though another proxy dataset from the same region (in the International Tree-Ring Data Bank) went further back and should have given reliable proxies for earlier periods, validation tests only supported their reconstruction after 1400. To find out why, Mann compared the two datasets and found that they tracked each other closely from 1400 to 1800, then diverged until around 1900 when they again tracked each other. He found a likely reason in the CO2 "fertilisation effect" affecting tree rings as identified by Graybill and Idso, with the effect ending once CO2 levels had increased to the point where warmth again became the key factor controlling tree growth at high altitude. Mann used comparisons with other tree ring data from the region to produce a corrected version of this dataset. Their reconstruction using this corrected dataset passed the validation tests for the extended period, but they were cautious about the increased uncertainties.The Mann, Bradley and Hughes reconstruction covering 1,000 years (MBH99) was submitted in October 1998 to Geophysical Research Letters which published it in March 1999 with the cautious title Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the past millennium: inferences, uncertainties, and limitations to emphasise the increasing uncertainty involved in reconstructions of the period before 1400 when fewer proxies were available. A University of Massachusetts Amherst news release dated 3 March 1999 announced publication in the 15 March issue of Geophysical Research Letters, "strongly suggesting that the 1990s were the warmest decade of the millennium, with 1998 the warmest year so far." Bradley was quoted as saying "Temperatures in the latter half of the 20th century were unprecedented", while Mann said "As you go back farther in time, the data becomes sketchier. One can't quite pin things down as well, but, our results do reveal that significant changes have occurred, and temperatures in the latter 20th century have been exceptionally warm compared to the preceding 900 years. Though substantial uncertainties exist in the estimates, these are nonetheless startling revelations." While the reconstruction supported theories of a relatively warm medieval period, Hughes said "even the warmer intervals in the reconstruction pale in comparison with mid-to-late 20th-century temperatures." The New York Times report had a colored version of the graph, distinguishing the instrumental record from the proxy evidence and emphasising the increasing range of possible error in earlier times, which MBH said would "preclude, as yet, any definitive conclusions" about climate before 1400.The reconstruction found significant variability around a long-term cooling trend of –0.02 °C per century, as expected from orbital forcing, interrupted in the 20th century by rapid warming which stood out from the whole period, with the 1990s "the warmest decade, and 1998 the warmest year, at moderately high levels of confidence." This was illustrated by the time series line graph Figure 2(a) which showed their reconstruction from AD 1000 to 1980 as a thin line, wavering around a thicker dark 40-year smoothed line. This curve followed a downward trend (shown as a thin dot-dashed line) from a Medieval Warm Period (about as warm as the 1950s) down to a cooler Little Ice Age before rising sharply in the 20th century. Thermometer data shown with a dotted line overlapped the reconstruction for a calibration period from 1902 to 1980, then continued sharply up to 1998. A shaded area showed uncertainties to two standard error limits, in medieval times rising almost as high as recent temperatures. When Mann gave a talk about the study to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, Jerry Mahlman nicknamed the graph the "hockey stick", with the slow cooling trend the "stick", and the anomalous 20th century warming the "blade". Critique and independent reconstructions Briffa and Tim Osborn critically examined MBH99 in a May 1999 detailed study of the uncertainties of various proxies. They raised questions later adopted by critics of Mann's work, including the point that bristlecone pines from the Western U.S. could have been affected by pollution such as rising CO2 levels as well as temperature. The temperature curve was supported by other studies, but most of these shared the limited well dated proxy evidence then available, and so few were truly independent. The uncertainties in earlier times rose as high as those in the reconstruction at 1980, but did not reach the temperatures of later thermometer data. They concluded that although the 20th century was almost certainly the warmest of the millennium, the amount of anthropogenic warming remains uncertain."With work progressing on the next IPCC report, Chris Folland told researchers on 22 September 1999 that a figure showing temperature changes over the millennium "is a clear favourite for the policy makers' summary". Two graphs competed: Jones et al. (1998) and MBH99. In November, Jones produced a simplified figure for the cover of the short annual World Meteorological Organization report, which lacks the status of the more important IPCC reports. Two fifty-year smoothed curves going back to 1000 were shown, from MBH99 and Jones et al. (1998), with a third curve to 1400 from Briffa's new paper, combined with modern temperature data bringing the lines up to 1999: in 2010 the lack of a clarity about this change of data was criticised as misleading.Briffa's paper as published in the January 2000 issue of Quaternary Science Reviews showed the unusual warmth of the last century, but cautioned that the impact of human activities on tree growth made it subtly difficult to isolate a clear climate message. In February 2000 Thomas J. Crowley and Thomas S. Lowery's reconstruction incorporated data not used previously. It reached the conclusion that peak Medieval warmth only occurred during two or three short periods of 20 to 30 years, with temperatures around 1950s levels, refuting claims that 20th century warming was not unusual. An analysis by Crowley published in July 2000 compared simulations from an energy balance climate model with reconstructed mean annual temperatures from MBH99 and Crowley & Lowery (2000). While earlier reconstructed temperature variations were consistent with volcanic and solar irradiation changes plus residual variability, very large 20th-century warming closely agreed with the predicted effects of greenhouse gas emissions.Reviewing twenty years of progress in palaeoclimatology, Jones noted the reconstructions by Jones et al. (1998), MBH99, Briffa (2000) and Crowley & Lowery (2000) showing good agreement using different methods, but cautioned that use of many of the same proxy series meant that they were not independent, and more work was needed. IPCC Third Assessment Report, 2001 The Working Group 1 (WG1) part of the IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR) included a subsection on multi-proxy synthesis of recent temperature change. This noted five earlier large-scale palaeoclimate reconstructions, then discussed the Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1998 reconstruction going back to 1400 AD and its extension back to 1000 AD in Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1999 (MBH99), while emphasising the substantial uncertainties in the earlier period. The MBH99 conclusion that the 1990s were likely to have been the warmest decade, and 1998 the warmest year, of the past millennium in the Northern Hemisphere, with "likely" defined as "66-90% chance", was supported by reconstructions by Crowley & Lowery 2000 and by Jones et al. 1998 using different data and methods. The Pollack, Huang & Shen 1998 reconstruction covering the past 500 years gave independent support for this conclusion, which was compared against the independent (extra-tropical, warm-season) tree-ring density NH temperature reconstruction of Briffa 2000.Its Figure 2.21 showed smoothed curves from the MBH99, Jones et al. and Briffa reconstructions, together with modern thermometer data as a red line and the grey shaded 95% confidence range from MBH99. Above it, figure 2.20 was adapted from MBH99. Figure 5 in WG1 Technical Summary B (as shown to the right) repeated this figure without the linear trend line declining from AD 1000 to 1850.This iconic graph adapted from MBH99 was featured prominently in the WG1 Summary for Policymakers under a graph of the instrumental temperature record for the past 140 years. The text stated that it was "likely that, in the Northern Hemisphere, the 1990s was the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year" in the past 1,000 years. Versions of these graphs also featured less prominently in the short Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers, which included a sentence stating that "The increase in surface temperature over the 20th century for the Northern Hemisphere is likely to have been greater than that for any other century in the last thousand years", and the Synthesis Report - Questions.The Working Group 1 scientific basis report was agreed unanimously by all member government representatives in January 2001 at a meeting held in Shanghai, China. A large poster of the IPCC illustration based on the MBH99 graph formed the backdrop when Sir John T. Houghton, as co-chair of the working group, presented the report in an announcement shown on television, leading to wide publicity. Scientific debates The Huang, Pollack & Shen 2000 borehole temperature reconstruction covering the past five centuries supported the conclusion that 20th century warming was exceptional.In a perspective commenting on MBH99, Wallace Smith Broecker argued that the Medieval Warm Period (MWP) was global. He attributed recent warming to a roughly 1500-year cycle which he suggested related to episodic changes in the Atlantic's conveyor circulation.A March 2002 tree ring reconstruction by Jan Esper et al. noted the debate, and Broecker's criticism that MBH99 did not show a clear MWP. They concluded that the MWP was likely to have been widespread in the extratropical northern hemisphere, and seemed to have approached late 20th century temperatures at times. In an interview, Mann said the study did not contradict MBH as it dealt only with extratropical land areas, and stopped before the late 20th century. He reported that Edward R. Cook, a co-author on the paper, had confirmed agreement with these points, and a later paper by Cook, Esper and D'Arrigo reconsidered the earlier paper's conclusions along these lines.Lonnie Thompson published a paper on "Tropical Glacier and Ice Core Evidence of Climate Change" in January 2003, featuring Figure 7 showing graphs based on ice cores closely resembling a graph based on the MBH99 reconstruction, combined with thermometer readings from Jones et al. 1999. RegEM climate field reconstruction In March 2001 Tapio Schneider published his regularized expectation–maximization (RegEM) technique for analysis of incomplete climate data. The original MBH98 and MBH99 papers avoided undue representation of large numbers of tree ring proxies by using a principal component analysis step to summarise these proxy networks, but from 2001 Mann stopped using this method and introduced a multivariate Climate Field Reconstruction (CFR) technique based on the RegEM method which did not require this PCA step. In May 2002 Mann and Scott Rutherford published a paper on testing methods of climate reconstruction which discussed this technique. By adding artificial noise to actual temperature records or to model simulations they produced synthetic datasets which they called "pseudoproxies". When the reconstruction procedure was used with these pseudoproxies, the result was then compared with the original record or simulation to see how closely it had been reconstructed. The paper discussed the issue that regression methods of reconstruction tended to underestimate the amplitude of variation. Controversy after IPCC Third Assessment Report While the IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR) drew on five reconstructions to support its conclusion that recent Northern Hemisphere temperatures were the warmest in the past 1,000 years, it gave particular prominence to an IPCC illustration based on the MBH99 paper. The hockey stick graph was subsequently seen by mass media and the public as central to the IPCC case for global warming, which had actually been based on other unrelated evidence. From an expert viewpoint the graph was, like all newly published science, preliminary and uncertain, but it was widely used to publicise the issue of global warming, and it was targeted by those opposing ratification of the Kyoto Protocol on global warming.A literature review by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas, published in the relatively obscure journal Climate Research on 31 January 2003, used data from previous papers to argue that the Medieval Warm Period had been warmer than the 20th century, and that recent warming was not unusual. In March they published an extended paper in Energy & Environment, with additional authors. The Bush administration's Council on Environmental Quality chief of staff Philip Cooney inserted references to the papers in the draft first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment, and removed all references to reconstructions showing world temperatures rising over the last 1,000 years. In the Soon and Baliunas controversy, two scientists cited in the papers said that their work was misrepresented, and the Climate Research paper was criticised by many other scientists, including several of the journal's editors. On 8 July Eos featured a detailed rebuttal of both papers by 13 scientists including Mann and Jones, presenting strong evidence that Soon and Baliunas had used improper statistical methods. Responding to the controversy, the publisher of Climate Research upgraded Hans von Storch from editor to editor in chief, but von Storch decided that the Soon and Baliunas paper was seriously flawed and should not have been published as it was. He proposed a new editorial system, and though the publisher of Climate Research agreed that the paper should not have been published uncorrected, he rejected von Storch's proposals to improve the editorial process, and von Storch with three other board members resigned. Senator James M. Inhofe stated his belief that "manmade global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people", and a hearing of the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works which he convened on 29 July 2003 heard the news of the resignations.Stephen McIntyre downloaded datasets for MBH99, and obtained MBH98 datasets by request to Mann in April 2003. At the suggestion of Sonja Boehmer-Christiansen, editor of the social science journal Energy & Environment, McIntyre wrote an article with the assistance of University of Guelph economics professor Ross McKitrick, which Energy & Environment published on 27 October 2003. The McIntyre & McKitrick 2003b paper (MM03) said that the Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1998 (MBH98) "hockey stick" shape was "primarily an artefact of poor data handling and use of obsolete proxy records." Their criticism was comprehensively refuted by Wahl & Ammann 2007, which showed errors in the methods used by McIntyre and McKitrick.The statistical methods used in the MBH reconstruction were questioned in a 2004 paper by Hans von Storch with a team including Eduardo Zorita, which said that the methodology used to average the data and the wide uncertainties might have hidden abrupt climate changes, possibly as large as the 20th century spike in measured temperatures. They used the pseudoproxy method which Mann and Rutherford had developed in 2002, and like them found that regression methods of reconstruction tended to underestimate the amplitude of variation, a problem covered by the wide error bars in MBH99. It was a reasonable critique of nearly all the reconstructions at that time, but MBH were singled out. Other researchers subsequently found that the von Storch paper had an undisclosed additional step which, by detrending data before estimating statistical relationships, had removed the main pattern of variation. The von Storch et al. view that the graph was defective overall was refuted by Wahl, Ritson and Ammann (2006).In 2004 McIntyre and McKitrick tried unsuccessfully to get an extended analysis of the hockey stick into the journal Nature. At this stage Nature contacted Mann, Bradley, and Hughes, about minor errors in the online supplement to MBH98. In a corrigendum published on 1 July 2004 they acknowledged that McIntyre and McKitrick had pointed out errors in proxy data that had been included as supplementary information, and supplied a full corrected listing of the data. They included a documented archive of all the data used in MBH98, and expanded details of their methods. They stated that "None of these errors affect our previously published results."The McIntyre and McKitrick comment was accepted for publication by Geophysical Research Letters. McIntyre & McKitrick 2005 (MM05) reported a technical statistical error in the Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1998 (MBH98) method, which they said would produce hockey stick shapes from random data. This claim was given widespread publicity and political spin. Scientists found that the issues raised by McIntyre and McKitrick were minor and did not affect the main conclusions of MBH98 or Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1999. Mann himself had already stopped using the criticised statistical method in 2001, when he changed over to the RegEM climate field reconstruction method. To balance dense networks of tree-ring proxies against sparse proxy temperature records such as lake sediments, ice cores or corals, MBH 1998 (and 1999) used principal component analysis (PCA) to find the leading patterns of variation (PC1, PC2, PC3 etc.), with an objective method establish how many significant principal components should be kept so that the patterns put together characterized the original dataset. McIntyre and McKitrick highlighted the effect of centering over the 1902–1980 period rather than the whole 1400–1980 period which would have changed the order of principal components so that the warming pattern of high altitude tree ring data was demoted from PC1 to PC4, but instead of recalculating the objective selection rule which increased the number of significant PCs from two to five, they only kept PC1 and PC2. This removed the significant 20th century warming pattern of PC4, discarding data that produced the "hockey stick" shape, Subsequent investigation showed that the "hockey stick" shape remained with the correct selection rule.The MM05 paper claimed that 1902–1980 centering would produce hockey stick shapes from "persistent red noise", but their methods exaggerated the effect. Tests of the MBH98 methodology on pseudoproxies formed with noise varying from red noise to white noise found that this effect caused only very small differences which were within the uncertainty range and had no significance for the final reconstruction. McIntyre and McKitrick's code selected 100 simulations with the highest "hockey stick index" from the 10,000 simulations they had carried out, and their illustrations were taken from this pre-selected 1%.On 23 June 2005, Rep. Joe Barton, chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce wrote joint letters with Ed Whitfield, Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations, referring to the publicity and demanding full records on climate research, as well as personal information about their finances and careers, from the three scientists Mann, Bradley and Hughes. Sherwood Boehlert, chairman of the House Science Committee, told his fellow Republican Joe Barton it was a "misguided and illegitimate investigation" apparently aimed at intimidating scientists. The U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS) president Ralph J. Cicerone proposed that the NAS should appoint an independent panel to investigate. Barton dismissed this offer, but following Boehlert's November 2005 request, the National Academy of Science arranged for its National Research Council to set up a special committee chaired by Gerald North, to investigate and report.The North Report went through a rigorous review process, and was published on 22 June 2006. It concluded "with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries", justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies, but "Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600". It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies which had subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records, while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods. The contested principal component analysis methodology had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended, but it had little influence on the final reconstructions, and other methods produced similar results.Barton's staffer contacted statistician Edward Wegman who produced the Wegman report with his graduate student Yasmin H. Said, and statistician David W. Scott, all statisticians with no expertise in climatology or other physical sciences. The Wegman report was announced on 14 July 2006 in the Wall Street Journal, and discussed at hearings of the United States House Energy Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations on 19 July 2006, and 27 July 2006. The report was not properly peer reviewed. It reiterated McIntyre and McKitrick's claims on statistical failings in the MBH studies, but did not quantify whether correcting these points had any significant effect. It included a social network analysis to allege a lack of independent peer review of Mann's work: this analysis has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism. Reconstructions 2003–2006 Using various high-resolution proxies including tree rings, ice cores and sediments, Mann and Jones published reconstructions in August 2003 which indicated that "late 20th century warmth is unprecedented for at least roughly the past two millennia for the Northern Hemisphere. Conclusions for the Southern Hemisphere and global mean temperature are limited by the sparseness of available proxy data in the Southern Hemisphere at present." They concluded that "To the extent that a 'Medieval' interval of moderately warmer conditions can be defined from about AD 800 – 1400, any hemispheric warmth during that interval is dwarfed in magnitude by late 20th century warmth."Borehole climate reconstructions in a paper by Pollack and Smerdon, published in June 2004, supported estimates of a surface warming of around 1 °C (1.8 °F) over the period from 1500 to 2000.In a study published in November 2004 Edward R. Cook, Jan Esper and Rosanne D'Arrigo re-examined their 2002 paper, and now supported MBH. They concluded that "annual temperatures up to AD 2000 over extra-tropical NH land areas have probably exceeded by about 0.3 °C the warmest previous interval over the past 1162 years".A study by Anders Moberg et al. published on 10 February 2005 used a wavelet transform technique to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere temperatures over the last 2,000 years, combining low-resolution proxy data such as lake and ocean sediments for century-scale or longer changes, with tree ring proxies only used for annual to decadal resolution. They found there had been a peak of temperatures around AD 1000 to 1100 similar to those reached in the years before 1990, and supported the basic conclusion of MBH99 by stating "We find no evidence for any earlier periods in the last two millennia with warmer conditions than the post-1990 period".At the end of April 2005 Science published a reconstruction by J. Oerlemans based on glacier length records from different parts of the world, and found consistent independent evidence for the period from 1600 to 1990 supporting other reconstructions regarding magnitude and timing of global warming.On 28 February 2006 Wahl & Ammann 2007 was accepted for publication, and an "in press" copy was made available on the internet. Two more reconstructions were published, using different methodologies and supporting the main conclusions of MBH. Rosanne D'Arrigo, Rob Wilson and Gordon Jacoby suggested that medieval temperatures had been almost 0.7 °C cooler than the late 20th century but less homogenous, Osborn and Briffa found the spatial extent of recent warmth more significant than that during the medieval warm period. They were followed in April by a third reconstruction led by Gabriele C. Hegerl. IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, 2007 The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) published in 2007 included a chapter on Paleoclimate, with a section on the last 2,000 years. This featured a graph showing 12 proxy based temperature reconstructions, including the three highlighted in the IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR); Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1999 as before, Jones et al. 1998 and Briffa 2000 had both been calibrated by newer studies. In addition, analysis of the Medieval Warm Period cited reconstructions by Crowley & Lowery 2000 (as cited in the TAR) and Osborn & Briffa 2006. Ten of these 14 reconstructions covered 1,000 years or longer. Most reconstructions shared some data series, particularly tree ring data, but newer reconstructions used additional data and covered a wider area, using a variety of statistical methods. The section discussed the divergence problem affecting certain tree ring data.It concluded that "The weight of current multi-proxy evidence, therefore, suggests greater 20th-century warmth, in comparison with temperature levels of the previous 400 years, than was shown in the TAR. On the evidence of the previous and four new reconstructions that reach back more than 1 kyr, it is likely that the 20th century was the warmest in at least the past 1.3 kyr." The SPM statement in the IPCC TAR of 2001 had been that it was "likely that, in the Northern Hemisphere, the 1990s was the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year" in the past 1,000 years. The AR4 SPM statement was that "Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely the highest in at least the past 1,300 years. Some recent studies indicate greater variability in Northern Hemisphere temperatures than suggested in the TAR, particularly finding that cooler periods existed in the 12th to 14th, 17th and 19th centuries. Warmer periods prior to the 20th century are within the uncertainty range given in the TAR." Mann et al., 2008 and 2009 Further reconstructions were published, using additional proxies and different methodology. Juckes et al. 2007 and Lee, Zwiers & Tsao 2008 compared and evaluated the various statistical approaches. In July 2008 Huang, Pollack and Shen published a suite of borehole reconstructions covering 20,000 years. They showed warm episodes in the mid-Holocene and the Medieval period, a little ice age and 20th century warming reaching temperatures higher than Medieval Warm Period peak temperatures in any of the reconstructions: they described this finding as consistent with the IPCC AR4 conclusions.In a paper published by PNAS on 9 September 2008, Mann and colleagues produced updated reconstructions of Earth surface temperature for the past two millennia. This reconstruction used a more diverse dataset that was significantly larger than the original tree-ring study, at more than 1,200 proxy records. They used two complementary methods, both of which showed a similar "hockey stick" graph with recent increases in northern hemisphere surface temperature are anomalous relative to at least the past 1300 years. Mann said, "Ten years ago, the availability of data became quite sparse by the time you got back to 1,000 AD, and what we had then was weighted towards tree-ring data; but now you can go back 1,300 years without using tree-ring data at all and still get a verifiable conclusion." In a PNAS response, McIntyre and McKitrick said that they perceived a number of problems, including that Mann et al used some data with the axes upside down. Mann et al. replied that McIntyre and McKitrick "raise no valid issues regarding our paper" and the "claim that 'upside down' data were used is bizarre", as the methods "are insensitive to the sign of predictors." They also said that excluding the contentious datasets has little effect on the result.A study of the changing climate of the Arctic over the last 2,000 years, by an international consortium led by Darrell Kaufman of Northern Arizona University, was published on 4 September 2009. They examined sediment core records from 14 Arctic lakes, supported by tree ring and ice core records. Their findings showed a long term cooling trend consistent with cycles in the Earth's orbit which would be expected to continue for a further 4,000 years but had been reversed in the 20th century by a sudden rise attributed to greenhouse gas emissions. The decline had continued through the Medieval period and the Little Ice Age. The most recent decade, 1999–2008, was the warmest of the period, and four of the five warmest decades occurred between 1950 and 2000. Scientific American described the graph as largely replicating "the so-called 'hockey stick,' a previous reconstruction".Further support for the "hockey stick" graph came from a new method of analysis using Bayesian statistics developed by Martin Tingley and Peter Huybers of Harvard University, which produced the same basic shape, albeit with more variability in the past, and found the 1990s to have been the warmest decade in the 600-year period the study covered. 2010 onwards A 2,000 year extratropical Northern Hemisphere reconstruction by Ljungqvist published by Geografiska Annaler in September 2010 drew on additional proxy evidence to show both a Roman Warm Period and a Medieval Warm Period with decadal mean temperatures reaching or exceeding the reference 1961–1990 mean temperature level. Instrumental records of the period 1990–2010 were possibly above any temperature in the reconstruction period, though this did not appear in the proxy records. They concluded that their "reconstruction agrees well with the reconstructions by Moberg et al. (2005) and Mann et al. (2008) with regard to the amplitude of the variability as well as the timing of warm and cold periods, except for the period c. ad 300–800, despite significant differences in both data coverage and methodology."A 2010 opinion piece by David Frank, Jan Esper, Eduardo Zorita and Rob Wilson (Frank et al. 2010) noted that by then over two dozen large-scale climate reconstructions had been published, showing a broad consensus that there had been exceptional 20th century warming after earlier climatic phases, notably the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age. There were still issues of large-scale natural variability to be resolved, especially for the lowest frequency variations, and they called for further research to improve expert assessment of proxies and to develop reconstruction methods explicitly allowing for structural uncertainties in the process.As several studies had noted, regression-based reconstruction methods tended to underestimate low-frequency variability. Bo Christiansen designed a new method (LOC) to overcome this problem, and with Ljungqvist used LOC to produce a 1,000 year reconstruction published in 2011. This showed more low frequency variability and a colder Little Ice Age than previous studies. They then extended the LOC reconstruction back using selected proxies which had a documented relation to temperature and passed a screening procedure. This 2,000 year reconstruction, published in 2012, again showed more variability than earlier reconstructions. It found a homogenous Little Ice Age from 1580 to 1720 showing colder conditions in all areas, and a well defined but possibly less homogenous Medieval Warm Period peak around 950–1050, reaching or slightly exceeding mid 20th century temperatures as indicated by previous studies including Mann et al. 2008 and 2009.Ljungqvist et al. 2012 used a larger network of proxies than previous studies, including use low-resolution proxy data with as few as two data points per century, to produce a reconstruction showing centennial patterns of temperature variability in space and time for northern hemisphere land areas over the last 1,200 years. At this broad scale, they found widespread warmth from the 9th to 11th centuries approximating to the 20th century mean, with dominant cooling from the 16th to 18th centuries. The greatest warming occurred from the 19th to the 20th centuries, and they noted that instrumental records of recent decades were much warmer than the 20th century mean. Their spatial reconstruction showed similarities to the Mann et al. 2009 climate field reconstruction, though the different resolution meant these were not directly comparable. The results were robust, even when significant numbers of proxies were removed.Marcott et al. 2013 used seafloor and lake bed sediment proxies, which were completely independent of those used in earlier studies, to reconstruct global temperatures over the past 11,300 years, covering the entire Holocene, and showing over the last 1,000 years confirmation of the original MBH99 hockey stick graph. Temperatures had slowly risen from the last ice age to reach a level which lasted from 10,000 to 5,000 years ago, then in line with Milankovitch cycles had begun a slow decline, interrupted by a small rise during the Medieval Warm Period, to the Little Ice Age. That decline had then been interrupted by a uniquely rapid rise in the 20th century to temperatures which were already the warmest for at least 4,000 years, within the range of uncertainties of the highest temperatures in the whole period, and on current estimates were likely to exceed those temperatures by 2100. See also Description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports Global warming controversy Temperature record of the past 1000 years Citations == References in chronological sequence ==

walloon platform for the ipcc

The Walloon platform for the IPCC (Plateforme Wallonne pour le GIEC) was established with the assistance of the Walloon government in Belgium to facilitate contacts between the IPCC, the scientific world and politicians. GIEC is the French acronym of IPCC. Activities Monthly thematic information folder List of experts who can advice authorities, organisations and citizens Monitoring the impacts of climate change Wallonia Responsible person Professor Jean-Pascal van Ypersele References External links Official website

fuel

A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases energy as thermal energy or to be used for work. The concept was originally applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy, such as nuclear energy (via nuclear fission and nuclear fusion). The heat energy released by reactions of fuels can be converted into mechanical energy via a heat engine. Other times, the heat itself is valued for warmth, cooking, or industrial processes, as well as the illumination that accompanies combustion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a process known as cellular respiration, where organic molecules are oxidized to release usable energy. Hydrocarbons and related organic molecules are by far the most common source of fuel used by humans, but other substances, including radioactive metals, are also utilized. Fuels are contrasted with other substances or devices storing potential energy, such as those that directly release electrical energy (such as batteries and capacitors) or mechanical energy (such as flywheels, springs, compressed air, or water in a reservoir). History The first known use of fuel was the combustion of firewood by Homo erectus nearly two million years ago. Throughout most of human history only fuels derived from plants or animal fat were used by humans. Charcoal, a wood derivative, has been used since at least 6,000 BCE for melting metals. It was only supplanted by coke, derived from coal, as European forests started to become depleted around the 18th century. Charcoal briquettes are now commonly used as a fuel for barbecue cooking.Crude oil was distilled by Persian chemists, with clear descriptions given in Arabic handbooks such as those of Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi. He described the process of distilling crude oil/petroleum into kerosene, as well as other hydrocarbon compounds, in his Kitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets). Kerosene was also produced during the same period from oil shale and bitumen by heating the rock to extract the oil, which was then distilled. Rāzi also gave the first description of a kerosene lamp using crude mineral oil, referring to it as the "naffatah".The streets of Baghdad were paved with tar, derived from petroleum that became accessible from natural fields in the region. In the 9th century, oil fields were exploited in the area around modern Baku, Azerbaijan. These fields were described by the Arab geographer Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī in the 10th century, and by Marco Polo in the 13th century, who described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads.With the development of the steam engine in the United Kingdom in 1769, coal came into more common use, the combustion of which releases chemical energy that can be used to turn water into steam. Coal was later used to drive ships and locomotives. By the 19th century, gas extracted from coal was being used for street lighting in London. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the primary use of coal is to generate electricity, providing 40% of the world's electrical power supply in 2005.Fossil fuels were rapidly adopted during the Industrial Revolution, because they were more concentrated and flexible than traditional energy sources, such as water power. They have become a pivotal part of our contemporary society, with most countries in the world burning fossil fuels in order to produce power, but are falling out of favor due to the global warming and related effects that are caused by burning them.Currently the trend has been towards renewable fuels, such as biofuels like alcohols. Chemical Chemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with substances around them, most notably by the process of combustion. Chemical fuels are divided in two ways. First, by their physical properties, as a solid, liquid or gas. Secondly, on the basis of their occurrence: primary (natural fuel) and secondary (artificial fuel). Thus, a general classification of chemical fuels is: Solid fuel Solid fuel refers to various types of solid material that are used as fuel to produce energy and provide heating, usually released through combustion. Solid fuels include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, hexamine fuel tablets, and pellets made from wood (see wood pellets), corn, wheat, rye and other grains. Solid-fuel rocket technology also uses solid fuel (see solid propellants). Solid fuels have been used by humanity for many years to create fire. Coal was the fuel source which enabled the industrial revolution, from firing furnaces, to running steam engines. Wood was also extensively used to run steam locomotives. Both peat and coal are still used in electricity generation today. The use of some solid fuels (e.g. coal) is restricted or prohibited in some urban areas, due to unsafe levels of toxic emissions. The use of other solid fuels as wood is decreasing as heating technology and the availability of good quality fuel improves. In some areas, smokeless coal is often the only solid fuel used. In Ireland, peat briquettes are used as smokeless fuel. They are also used to start a coal fire. Liquid fuels Liquid fuels are combustible or energy-generating molecules that can be harnessed to create mechanical energy, usually producing kinetic energy. They must also take the shape of their container; the fumes of liquid fuels are flammable, not the fluids. Most liquid fuels in widespread use are derived from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to heat and pressure inside the Earth's crust. However, there are several types, such as hydrogen fuel (for automotive uses), ethanol, jet fuel and bio-diesel, which are all categorized as liquid fuels. Emulsified fuels of oil in water, such as orimulsion, have been developed as a way to make heavy oil fractions usable as liquid fuels. Many liquid fuels play a primary role in transportation and the economy. Some common properties of liquid fuels are that they are easy to transport and can be handled easily. They are also relatively easy to use for all engineering applications and in home use. Fuels like kerosene are rationed in some countries, for example in government-subsidized shops in India for home use. Conventional diesel is similar to gasoline in that it is a mixture of aliphatic hydrocarbons extracted from petroleum. Kerosene is used in kerosene lamps and as a fuel for cooking, heating, and small engines. Natural gas, composed chiefly of methane, can only exist as a liquid at very low temperatures (regardless of pressure), which limits its direct use as a liquid fuel in most applications. LP gas is a mixture of propane and butane, both of which are easily compressible gases under standard atmospheric conditions. It offers many of the advantages of compressed natural gas (CNG) but is denser than air, does not burn as cleanly, and is much more easily compressed. Commonly used for cooking and space heating, LP gas and compressed propane are seeing increased use in motorized vehicles. Propane is the third most commonly used motor fuel globally. Fuel gas Fuel gas is any one of a number of fuels that are gaseous under ordinary conditions. Many fuel gases are composed of hydrocarbons (such as methane or propane), hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or mixtures thereof. Such gases are sources of potential heat energy or light energy that can be readily transmitted and distributed through pipes from the point of origin directly to the place of consumption. Fuel gas is contrasted with liquid fuels and from solid fuels, though some fuel gases are liquefied for storage or transport. While their gaseous nature can be advantageous, avoiding the difficulty of transporting solid fuel and the dangers of spillage inherent in liquid fuels, it can also be dangerous. It is possible for a fuel gas to be undetected and collect in certain areas, leading to the risk of a gas explosion. For this reason, odorizers are added to most fuel gases so that they may be detected by a distinct smell. The most common type of fuel gas in current use is natural gas. Biofuels Biofuel can be broadly defined as solid, liquid, or gas fuel consisting of, or derived from biomass. Biomass can also be used directly for heating or power—known as biomass fuel. Biofuel can be produced from any carbon source that can be replenished rapidly e.g. plants. Many different plants and plant-derived materials are used for biofuel manufacture. Perhaps the earliest fuel employed by humans is wood. Evidence shows controlled fire was used up to 1.5 million years ago at Swartkrans, South Africa. It is unknown which hominid species first used fire, as both Australopithecus and an early species of Homo were present at the sites. As a fuel, wood has remained in use up until the present day, although it has been superseded for many purposes by other sources. Wood has an energy density of 10–20 MJ/kg.Recently biofuels have been developed for use in automotive transport (for example bioethanol and biodiesel), but there is widespread public debate about how carbon neutral these fuels are. Fossil fuels Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid petroleum or natural gas), formed from the fossilized remains of ancient plants and animals by exposure to high heat and pressure in the absence of oxygen in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. Commonly, the term fossil fuel also includes hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are not derived entirely from biological sources, such as tar sands. These latter sources are properly known as mineral fuels. Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include coal, petroleum, and natural gas. They range from volatile materials with low carbon:hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields, alone, associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates. Fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years. This biogenic theory was first introduced by German scholar Georg Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century. It was estimated by the Energy Information Administration that in 2007 primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0%, coal 27.4%, natural gas 23.0%, amounting to an 86.4% share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world. Non-fossil sources in 2006 included hydroelectric 6.3%, nuclear 8.5%, and others (geothermal, solar, tidal, wind, wood, waste) amounting to 0.9%. World energy consumption was growing about 2.3% per year. Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form, and reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made. So we must conserve these fuels and use them judiciously. The production and use of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. A global movement toward the generation of renewable energy is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44⁄12 (this is the ratio of the molecular/atomic weights) or 3.7 tonnes of CO2. Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which the vast majority of climate scientists agree will cause major adverse effects. Fuels are a source of energy. Energy The amount of energy from different types of fuel depends on the stoichiometric ratio, the chemically correct air and fuel ratio to ensure complete combustion of fuel, and its specific energy, the energy per unit mass. Notes1 MJ ≈ 0.28 kWh ≈ 0.37 HPh. (The fuel-air ratio (FAR) is the reciprocal of the air-fuel ratio (AFR).) λ is the air-fuel equivalence ratio, and λ=1 means that it is assumed that the fuel and the oxidising agent (oxygen in air) are present in exactly the correct proportions so that they are both fully consumed in the reaction. Nuclear Nuclear fuel is any material that is consumed to derive nuclear energy. In theory, a wide variety of substances could be a nuclear fuel, as they can be made to release nuclear energy under the right conditions. However, the materials commonly referred to as nuclear fuels are those that will produce energy without being placed under extreme duress. Nuclear fuel can be "burned" by nuclear fission (splitting nuclei apart) or fusion (combining nuclei together) to derive nuclear energy. "Nuclear fuel" can refer to the fuel itself, or to physical objects (for example bundles composed of fuel rods) composed of the fuel material, mixed with structural, neutron moderating, or neutron-reflecting materials. Nuclear fuel has the highest energy density of all practical fuel sources. Fission The most common type of nuclear fuel used by humans is heavy fissile elements that can be made to undergo nuclear fission chain reactions in a nuclear fission reactor; nuclear fuel can refer to the material or to physical objects (for example fuel bundles composed of fuel rods) composed of the fuel material, perhaps mixed with structural, neutron moderating, or neutron reflecting materials. When some of these fuels are struck by neutrons, they are in turn capable of emitting neutrons when they break apart. This makes possible a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled rate in a nuclear reactor, or at a very rapid uncontrolled rate in a nuclear weapon. The most common fissile nuclear fuels are uranium-235 (235U) and plutonium-239 (239Pu). The actions of mining, refining, purifying, using, and ultimately disposing of nuclear fuel together make up the nuclear fuel cycle. Not all types of nuclear fuels create energy from nuclear fission. Plutonium-238 and some other elements are used to produce small amounts of nuclear energy by radioactive decay in radioisotope thermoelectric generators and other types of atomic batteries. Fusion In contrast to fission, some light nuclides such as tritium (3H) can be used as fuel for nuclear fusion. This involves two or more nuclei combining together into larger nuclei. Fuels that produce energy by this method are currently not utilized by humans, but they are the main source of fuel for stars. Fusion fuels are light elements such as hydrogen whose nucleii will combine easily. Energy is required to start fusion by raising the temperature so high that nuclei can collide togehter with enough energy that they stick together before repelling due to electric charge. This process is called fusion and it can give out energy. In stars that undergo nuclear fusion, fuel consists of atomic nuclei that can release energy by the absorption of a proton or neutron. In most stars the fuel is provided by hydrogen, which can combine to form helium through the proton-proton chain reaction or by the CNO cycle. When the hydrogen fuel is exhausted, nuclear fusion can continue with progressively heavier elements, although the net energy released is lower because of the smaller difference in nuclear binding energy. Once iron-56 or nickel-56 nuclei are produced, no further energy can be obtained by nuclear fusion as these have the highest nuclear binding energies. Any nucleii heavier than 56Fe and 56Ni would thus absorb energy instead of giving it off when fused. Therefore, fusion stops and the star dies. In attempts by humans, fusion is only carried out with hydrogen (2H (deuterium) or 3H (tritium)) to form helium-4 as this reaction gives out the most net energy. Electric confinement (ITER), inertial confinement (heating by laser) and heating by strong electric currents are the popular methods. Liquid fuels for transportation Most transportation fuels are liquids, because vehicles usually require high energy density. This occurs naturally in liquids and solids. High energy density can also be provided by an internal combustion engine. These engines require clean-burning fuels. The fuels that are easiest to burn cleanly are typically liquids and gases. Thus, liquids meet the requirements of being both energy-dense and clean-burning. In addition, liquids (and gases) can be pumped, which means handling is easily mechanized, and thus less laborious. As there is a general movement towards a low carbon economy, the use of liquid fuels such as hydrocarbons is coming under scrutiny. See also Footnotes Works cited References Ratcliff, Brian; et al. (2000). Chemistry 1. Cambridge University press. ISBN 978-0-521-78778-9. Further reading "Directive 1999/94/EC of the European Parliament and of the council of 13 December 1999, relating to the availability of consumer information on fuel economy and CO2 emissions in respect of the marketing of new passenger cars" (PDF). (140 KB). Council Directive 80/1268/EEC Fuel consumption of motor vehicles.