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10.1192/bjp.158.3.323

The British journal of psychiatry : the journal of mental science

Br J Psychiatry

Motor, volitional and behavioural disorders in schizophrenia. 1: Assessment using the Modified Rogers Scale.

The assessment of catatonic symptoms, unlike that of other schizophrenia symptoms, has not acquired accuracy and phenomenological rigour, and their distinction from extrapyramidal side-effects is not always easy. The Modified Rogers Scale can rate abnormalities in movement, volition, speech, and overall behaviour in schizophrenia. It is detailed, reliable and valid, and permits the isolation of a score for non-extrapyramidal and hence presumably catatonic phenomena.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

The Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law

Bull Am Acad Psychiatry Law

Volition, deception, and the evolution of justice.

Criminal justice is inextricably associated with the attributive concept of volition. Although the voluntary-involuntary distinction is subjectively vivid, causal research shows its poles to be inseparable, i.e., the dichotomy is deceptive. Why a bulwark of civilization should be founded on paradox, may be clarified by examining the role of self-deception in man's evolutionary heritage. Natural selection for an optimal degree of self-deception probably occurred, both to facilitate deception of others and to foster human cooperation. This contributed to the evolution of psychiatric disorders, the voluntary-involuntary continuum, and large scale social systems. Society and its members reach an equilibrium within the truth-deception continuum, manifest in individuals by conscious versus unconscious and voluntary versus involuntary, and in society by tension between what actually occurs (realism) and its organizing ideals (idealism). Three legal models of criminal justice are understood in this context: The (1) utilitarian, most realistic, is essential to social survival but vulnerable to abuse; (2) rehabilitative, at an opposite idealistic pole, better supports the image of social beneficence that helps to bind society's members; (3) retributive, most heavily grounded in volition, puts greater emphasis on individual autonomy, and reciprocally modulates the other models. All are legitimized by evolutionary traditions that antedate homo sapiens, and none is sufficient in itself. Elements of all three models necessarily coexist within any existing society, their relative strength varying with its collective values, prosperity, and perceived safety.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1002/1097-4679(199011)46:6<891::aid-jclp2270460631>3.0.co;2-8

Journal of clinical psychology

J Clin Psychol

Client reasons and experiences in treatment that influence termination of psychotherapy.

Thirty-one male and female university counseling center clients completed questionnaires that identified reasons for termination and experiences in psychotherapy. Early terminators responded that they ended therapy because of situational constraints and discomfort with services more often than did late terminators. Late terminators said they stopped treatment because of improvement attributed to therapy more often than did early terminators. Late terminators also reported higher levels of belief that the therapist respected them, therapist warmth, and therapist competency than did early terminators. It was concluded that motivational factors in which volition plays a greater (reasons for termination) and lesser (client experiences) role combine to influence psychotherapy termination.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.5014/ajot.44.11.1008

The American journal of occupational therapy : official publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association

Am J Occup Ther

Use of the Role Checklist with the patient with multiple personality disorder.

A paucity of occupational therapy evaluation tools exists for use with patients with multiple personality disorder. The Model of Human Occupation (Kielhofner & Burke, 1980), particularly the volition and habituation subsystems within this model, proved useful for the identification of the many facets of patients with multiple personality disorder on a short-term treatment unit. The Role Checklist (Oakley, Kielhofner, Barris, & Richler, 1986), a tool derived from the Model of Human Occupation, was adapted for use with this population and was found to be beneficial in the identification of common goals held by most of the personalities of each patient with multiple personality disorder. The use of the Role Checklist is illustrated with a case example.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Investigative ophthalmology & visual science

Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci

Human presaccadic spike potentials. Of central or peripheral origin?

Electroencephalographic (EEG) activity associated with voluntary and spontaneous saccades were analyzed in 12 normal subjects to determine the influence of volition upon the presaccadic spike potentials (SPs). In addition, two different electrode configurations, of a temporal and a parietal derivation, and two different filter bandwidths were simultaneously analyzed to clarify issues regarding the structure, function, and origin of SPs. An off-line averaging of the pre- and postsaccadic EEG epochs showed distinct spike potentials associated with spontaneous saccades in both the temporal and the parietal locations. Subsequent statistical analyses indicated that the amplitude of the SPs associated with spontaneous saccades was not significantly different from the respective amplitude of SPs preceding voluntary saccades. Independent effects of filter bandwidth and electrode derivation are suggestive of a complex late presaccadic EEG activity.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.3109/02699059009026174

Brain injury

Brain Inj

The ataxic subgroup: a discrete outcome after traumatic brain injury.

We have observed five individuals who appear to represent a unique subgroup of patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Because of the prominence of severe ataxia, this group has been labelled the 'ataxic subgroup'. These individuals are distinguished by both clinical course and outcome, including severe ataxia, prolonged coma and prolonged post-traumatic amnesia (PTA). They distinguish themselves from other severely impaired TBI patients in that they spend a relatively longer length of time prior to the establishment of volition, but progress rapidly through the period of confusion. We hypothesized that this group is unique in that they have suffered Grade III diffuse axonal injury (DAI) with no or minimal complications due to other primary or secondary brain damage. In order to investigate these hypotheses, a retrospective file review of a selected group of 72 patients was undertaken to determine the specificity and sensitivity of two diagnostic criteria. The existence of severe Grade III DAI without other primary or secondary brain damage was presumed if severe ataxia was present in conjunction with normal CT scans. Results of this review indicated that 33% of the population demonstrated severe ataxia, although only 11% also had normal CT scans. These dual criteria were neither adequately sensitive nor specific to define the five patients who comprised the 'ataxic subgroup'. When rate of clearing the confused period of PTA was added to the diagnostic criteria, specificity improved. Although this attempt to define this subgroup empirically was not entirely successful, further attempts to delineate this group are important in that prognosis for clearing PTA is good despite early indicators of poor outcome.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1016/0165-1781(90)90035-4

Psychiatry research

Psychiatry Res

Psychometric deviance in offspring at risk for schizophrenia: I. Initial delineation of a distinct subgroup.

Psychometric signs from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), which measure substantive disturbances in thinking, social relatedness, volition, and affective expressivity, were evaluated as possible indicators of transmissible liability specific to schizophrenia. Children of three criterion groups in the New York High-Risk Project--offspring at high risk (HR) for schizophrenia, psychiatric comparison (PC) offspring at risk for affective disorders, and normal comparison (NC) offspring not at augmented risk for psychiatric morbidity--were tested before the expression of schizophrenic psychopathology, when the subjects ranged in age from 13 to 26 years. The rate of psychometric deviance in the HR group (23%) was significantly higher than that in either the PC (7%) or NC (2%) groups, and profile analyses showed that the HR subgroup could be delineated by qualitative distinctions in personality functioning. Our results support the utility of MMPI indicators in etiologic investigations of schizophrenia.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.2466/pms.1990.70.3.801

Perceptual and motor skills

Percept Mot Skills

Some comments on the Peschels' model of biologically-based brain disease.

The model of treatment of mental disorders described by Peschel and Peschel (1990) raises the problem of medical patriarchy. The model does not consider the marked impact of cognition, volition, and affect on the physical realm. While a model of treatment based on a psychological matriarchy is no better, a model of training in health promotion with an appropriate balance of the physical, mental, and spiritual aspects of life gives more hope of training professionals who can see the larger picture of their patients' lives and a better record of success than presently exists.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1212/wnl.40.4.657

Neurology

Neurology

Diagonistic dyspraxia: case report and movement-related potentials.

We report unusual motor behavior of the left hand dissociated from conscious volition in a 51-year-old right-handed man. This patient had sustained damage to the anterior two-thirds of the corpus callosum, the rostral and lower parts of the right medial frontal lobe, and a small portion of the left medial frontal lobe. He subsequently showed 4 types of abnormal motor behavior in the left hand that were triggered by voluntary activities of the right hand: symmetric or antagonistic left hand movements; irrelevant movements of the left hand to the right hand; and a tendency to close the fingers of the left hand into a fist. Recordings of movement-related potentials revealed a marked attenuation of the Bereitschaftspotential (BP) over the right hemisphere observed only when the patient initiated voluntary activity with the right hand. Since the BP is believed to represent a cerebral cortical activity preparatory for voluntary movement, we infer that the level of dysfunction in this patient is at the motor preparatory level caused by a disconnection of the right hemisphere from the left.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

[Nihon koshu eisei zasshi] Japanese journal of public health

Nihon Koshu Eisei Zasshi

[A six-year follow-up study of childhood behavior problems].

In order to study the outcome of childhood behavior problems and to investigate relationships between those behavior problems and mental health problems in later years, a survey which was conducted in 1977 was repeated after six years. Subjects were randomly selected children aged from three to seven years living in Bunkyo-ku in Tokyo in 1977. Out of 279 children, responses to the questionnaire were obtained for 201 children, with 39 refusing to co-operate and 39 having left the area. The main results were as follows: 1. Comparison of prevalence rates of individual behavior problems occurring in early childhood (from 3 to 7 years old), showed that behaviors such as overactivity, "difficult to control", persistence, stubbornness and poor relations with unfamiliar persons decreased rapidly with age. On the other hand, hypoactivity, withdrawal and shyness increased. For problems occurring in late childhood (from 9 to 13 years old), the prevalence of poor concentration and passive behavior problems increased with age, while aggressive behaviors decreased. Behaviors such as thumb-sucking, nail-biting, bed-wetting and tics decreased. 2. Over the six years of this study, many behavior problems in areas of activity, mood, volition, human relations and abnormal symptoms showed significant persistence, although the degree of the persistence was not very strong. 3. Significant relationships between behavior problems observed at age three to seven years and mental health problems such as refusal to attend school and antisocial behaviors after six years were not seen.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.3950/jibiinkoka.93.282

Nihon Jibiinkoka Gakkai kaiho

Nihon Jibiinkoka Gakkai Kaiho

[A study of factors affecting the communication ability of aphasics].

Standard Language Test of Aphasia (SLTA) may not represent sufficiently about communication ability of aphasic patients. Therefore authors studied factors affecting the communication ability of aphasic patients. Subjects were 66 aphasic patients treated in the Department of Communication Clinic, Atami General Hospital. These patients were divided into 2 groups; good communication (41 cases) and bad communication groups (25 cases) according to the result of communication ability test. Factors affecting the communication ability are then examined by quantitative analysis class 2. Nine factors, severity of aphasia, self-modification in speech, memorization disorder, disturbance of volition ability, the time elapsed since onset, disturbance of concentration and continuation ability, depressive state, shyness, positiveness are revealed to be greatly affecting the communication ability of aphasic patients.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Adolescence

Adolescence

Social adjustment and symptomatology in two types of homeless adolescents: runaways and throwaways.

Previous research on homeless adolescents has largely ignored the distinction between those who have left home on their own volition (runaways), and those who have been forced to leave (throwaways). Fifty-two homeless adolescents in Brisbane, Australia, were assessed to compare male and female runaways and throwaways for social adjustment and symptomatology. Differences for social adjustment (antisocial tendencies and aggression) and symptomatology (social isolation and depression) were predicted. Results indicated that male runaways were significantly more hostile than male throwaways (p less than .001), and significantly more socially isolated than female runaways (p less than .025). Female throwaways, however, were significantly more hostile than male throwaways (p less than .025) and female runaways (p less than .025). Yet homeless males overall had a significantly stronger urge to act out hostility than homeless females (p less than .025). In addition, female throwaways were significantly more antisocial than male throwaways (p less than .001). There were no significant differences for depression. A theory of inner social control (Hirschi, 1969), postulating absence of bonding in earlier socialization, was supported.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1080/00332747.1989.11024463

Psychiatry

Psychiatry

The anatomy of the ego.

There is a curious behavior observed in the human split-brain experiments in which the subject demonstrates a reflexive and obligatory ownership of the actions initiated by the silent right brain even though the speaking self is ignorant of that volition. If you add to this observation the results of another experiment, revealing the existence of a boundary to the verbal mental system in the intact brain, then--with the knowledge of certain facts about cerebral laterality--you may come to a startling conclusion: There exists a governing mental system that occupies the verbally dominant hemisphere and is responsible for mental unity, volition, and consciousness. I contend that this anatomical brain agency is the substrate for the ego. If this is true, then it can be seen that the ego, in its development, function, and integrity, is intimately involved in the brain dynamics of obligatory unity, cerebral dominance, and laterality.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.3143/geriatrics.26.608

Nihon Ronen Igakkai zasshi. Japanese journal of geriatrics

Nihon Ronen Igakkai Zasshi

[The relationship between the physical features and medications in Reye-like syndrome in elderly patients].

With the increase in the aged population, it is expected that the number of debilitated aged people will increase and that the number of patients receiving many medications will increase. However, there have been few reports of clinical pharmacological studies on blood pharmacokinetics, metabolism, adverse effects, etc, of drugs used in debilitated aged people who have lowered physical and mental functions complicated by many diseases. Thus, for the large part, pharmacokinetics in these patients remains unelucidated. We experienced eight cases of marked hypoglycemia of unknown cause in patients who had not taken any hypoglycemic drugs or insulin and examined the relationships between the event and the physical features and medications of the patients. The eight patients included both males and females aged 66 to 88 years (mean: 78.5 years). The eight patients were all aged and showed cerebral infarction, reduced volition, etc. The onset of hypoglycemia was preceded by decreased appetite and an abrupt manifestation of severely disturbed consciousness a few days previously. Laboratory tests revealed marked hypoglycemia in 8 cases, leucocytosis in 7 cases (not examined in one case), metabolic acidosis in 3 cases, elevated GOT in 5 cases, elevated GPT in 2 cases, increased BUN in 1 case, and positive CRP in 4 cases. The patients had been taking an agent to activate brain metabolism/improve mental symptoms (Hopantene calcium: 7 cases; Idebenone: 1 case). The Idebenone-treated patient had received Hopantene calcium for eleven months prior to receiving Idebenone. Furthermore, the findings resembled those of Reye's syndrome often noted in children.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1080/00332747.1989.11024464

Psychiatry

Psychiatry

The anatomy of mental unity and volition: an alternate view.

The preceding paper, by Louis Tinnin, challenges us to consider that there is a brain agency responsible for mental unity, volition and consciousness, which the author labels a "governing mental system" (GMS), or "ego," and that the neural substrate for this GMS is Wernicke's Area. The primary evidence in support of this position comes from three sources: a review of brain and language development in normal and abnormal individuals (e.g., deaf children); studies of patients who have undergone corpus callosum section for intractable epilepsy; and some observations of memory processing during the intracarotid sodium amytal (Wada) procedure. Our comments address two issues. The first is an analysis of the adequacy of these three sources as evidence for Tinnin's position. The second is a description of an alternative model to account for the mental system we agree exists but do not yet understand.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1016/0278-2626(89)90078-x

Brain and cognition

Brain Cogn

The nature of voluntary action.

This paper extends the microgenetic theory of action to the problem of volition and the nature of free will and responsibility. Volition is interpreted as an elaboration of the action structure without causal or agentive status in relation to the action. The implications of this approach for philosophy of mind are explored.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

The Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law

Bull Am Acad Psychiatry Law

Spontaneous hypnosis in the forensic context.

"Hypnosis" denotes either specific phenomena (altered volition, perception, cognition, and recall) or interpersonal transactions that often elicit them. Basic research leads to paradox: hypnosis is validated, and shown to be dissociative in essence, at the same time that neither its phenomena nor transactions can be separated from those of everyday living without logical absurdity. This paradox can be resolved by assuming that consciousness and volition are complex, occurring simultaneously at many levels in the same waking individual. Hypnotic-like phenomena and transactions occur spontaneously, in either covert or overt forms. The former are pervasive, whereas the latter are often associated with psychological trauma. Forensic implications are twofold: for criminal responsibility, and the reliability of eyewitness testimony. Hypnotic-like states and transactions are rarely affirmed as an insanity defense because at some level these subjects are aware of what they are doing and why. Diminished capacity and mitigation of sentence are more appropriate defense strategies. Several conflicted traditions of case law have evolved to protect eyewitness testimony from hypnotic-like distortions in cognition, perception, and memory that can occur either during or outside of formal hypnotic procedures. These include the admissibility of posthypnotic testimony, due process safeguards at eyewitness identification procedures, and the admissibility of expert testimony on the findings of eyewitness research. These areas are inseparable from one another and demand a systematic coordinated approach.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

The International journal of psycho-analysis

Int J Psychoanal

Action theory within the structural view.

This paper presents a summary of a cohesive theme coursing through a group of selected papers written by the author over four decades. Purpose, intention, choice and decision are seen as firmly anchored within structural metapsychological theory. These constitute a cohesive and operative psychoanalytic theory of action, which Hartmann stated did not exist within psychoanalytic theory. The exposure and inclusion of this unconscious series of intrapsychic events obviates the need for many alternative theories which have been erected to give a place to these very functions. Unconscious decision, ego will and volition, the unconscious initiation and execution of action, operate during waking life, with as complete and complex secondary process mentation as secondary revision organizes the final shape and contents of a dream during sleep. These conceptual changes and advances have important psychosociolegal implications. Man not only does not know why he acts; he also does not always know that he acts. The mainstream itself is not monolithic and has also resisted the development of many of these advances. Factors responsible for this lag or block are adduced, which include anti-scientism or intellectuality, as well as, most importantly, a resistance to an increase of responsibility and accountability.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1136/bmj.297.6655.1014

BMJ (Clinical research ed.)

BMJ

Normal muscle strength and fatigability in patients with effort syndromes.

To examine fatigue mechanisms in an unselected series of patients with excess fatigue ("effort syndromes") their muscle function was compared with that of normal subjects. Voluntary performance was assessed with a cycle ergometer to exhaustion and by maximal isometric contractions of the quadriceps femoris. The mean maximal heart rate in patients during ergometry was 89% of the predicted rate, and quadriceps strength was either normal or was inappropriate for the available muscle, which suggested submaximal effort. Contractile performance was examined in the absence of volition with stimulated contractions of the adductor pollicis. During stimulated fatiguing activity patients were neither weaker nor more fatigable than controls; thus the excess fatigue experienced by the patients was not due to a defect of the contractile apparatus. The increased perception of effort must therefore be due to impairment of central rather than peripheral mechanisms. The optimal approach to treatment of effort syndromes combines physical and psychological techniques.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

The Psychiatric clinics of North America

Psychiatr Clin North Am

On some roots of creativity.

The possibility has to be considered that the infant, in danger of overwhelming himself with his own excitement, forms object-representations in ways dictated by expediency. It is necessary for survival to establish in one's mind an all-powerful and loving object-representation that contains in it major parts of the self-representation. In fact, all the vital and affective functions are attributed to the parenting object and are used only under a "franchise-like" illusion. From infancy we are just like the "hypnotized" person or the patient who has received a placebo and carries out self-caring or self-soothing functions under the illusion that he/she is not doing it on their own but the transference object is doing it. In considering the challenge of creating a coherent self-representation within the amazing world of perceptions and affects, it can be readily seen that it is very easy to overwhelm oneself, even for an adult just trying to imagine it. It is most helpful to use Stern's suggestion that probably a sense of self emerges gradually from the consolidation of various nuclear clusters of self-views. He listed (1) a self-agency, representing the recognition of one's volition and capacity to act; (2) a sense of self-coherence, representing a sentience of what remains constant within one's own purveyance; (3) a sense of self-affectivity, representing the recognition of feelings, that is, the subjective aspect of affective living; and (4) a sense of self-history, representing a registration of continuity and a recognition of what "goes on being." In our perusal of what we can learn by confronting the alexithymia picture lessons from developmental psychobiology and direct observations of infant behavior, we get useful clues to the origins of creativity. The epigenetic history of affects and the development of affect tolerance show us how these functions evolve in the context of the interaction of the infant and mother. The success in containing one's own excitement and keeping one's affects in manageable intensity so that they are useful for information processing is made possible by congruent responses of the mothering parent. This situation prolongs the illusions of symbiosis and omnipotence to their optimal duration, permitting a period of guilt-free practicing of self-soothing and self-gratification. By not forcing the conscious recognition of mother's externality and the confrontation with one's own rage and helplessness, the mother helps the infant to avoid a premature formation of an "external" object-representation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1007/BF00247533

Experimental brain research

Exp Brain Res

Changes in muscle and cutaneous cerebral potentials during standing.

The cerebral potentials produced by electrical stimulation of mechanoreceptive afferents from the foot were recorded in the sitting and standing postures to determine whether transmission to cortex was altered by the postural change. The latencies of the early components of the cerebral potentials produced by muscle afferents (posterior tibial nerve) and cutaneous afferents (sural nerve) did not change with posture. Standing was associated with an approximately 25-35% decline in amplitude of the earliest components of the posterior tibial cerebral potential (N38-P40, P40-N50) for a stimulus intensity associated with a submaximal afferent volley. The amplitude of the equivalent N38-P40 and P40-N50 components produced by sural afferents also declined during quiet stance. In most experiments the subcortical component (P32-N38) was not reduced by stance so that the amplitude attenuation probably occurs in part at cortical level. Qualitatively similar changes in the cerebral potentials were documented for a range of stimulus intensities, including those which evoked a maximal initial component in the nerve volley. For a similar reduction in the initial (N38-P40) component of the cerebral potential, voluntary plantar flexion in the sitting position produced less attenuation in subsequent components than did standing. Thus, attenuation of the cerebral potential during standing may involve specific posture-related factors in addition to those related to volition.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Archiv fur Psychologie

Arch Psychol (Frankf)

[Motivation and volition. Remarks and questions on the revival of motivational psychology].

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1001/archneur.1987.00520230024008

Archives of neurology

Arch Neurol

Basal forebrain infarction. A clinicopathologic correlation.

Following the repair of a ruptured anterior communicating artery aneurysm, a patient had a severe anterograde amnesia with sparing of other intellectual functions, apathy and loss of volition, altered arousal, and partial diabetes insipidus. Postmortem examination of the brain revealed bilateral destruction of the septal gray, nucleus accumbens, and nucleus of the diagonal band of Broca. Also involved in the lesion were inferior portions of the anterior limb of the internal capsule and globus pallidus. Discrete, microinfarcts were present in the paraventricular hypothalamic gray. Long-term therapy with desaminoarginine vasopressin nasal spray had no effect on the patient's neuropsychologic deficits.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

No to shinkei = Brain and nerve

No To Shinkei

[The groping phenomena in a case of Alzheimer type dementia].

We reported a case of senile dementia, Alzheimer type, with groping in response to a visual stimulus ("visual groping"). T.S. was a right-handed woman, 69 years old. In the beginning she displayed "visual groping" of the right hand, besides aphasia, lowered registration and Casteigne's "Motor neglect" of the right upper extremity. As the disease progressed, "visual groping" of the left hand developed, followed by "forced grasping" of the left hand. When the patient was 62 years old, she first showed decreased volition and lowered registration. Later poor finger movement and lessened speech were marked. At the age of 69, she was admitted to our hospital with aphasia and reduced registration. The patient showed preservation in naming and drawing tests. She also displayed a "visual groping" phenomenon of the right hand. This phenomenon was revealed when an examiner displayed something about 50 cm in front of the patient, and then she extended the upper extremity gropingly. We considered this phenomenon as "groping in response to a visual stimulus" of Denny-Brown. At the same time, the motor or praxic disorder of this patient consisted of paucity of movement. When she was told to imitate, her right upper extremity was hardly utilized, although later movements could be realized by her practice. When she was told to pour water from one glass into another, she used her left hand, although she used her right hand for spontaneous actions. So we considered this dyspraxia as a motor neglect of Casteigne.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1007/BF00255245

Experimental brain research

Exp Brain Res

Voluntary smooth eye movements with foveally stabilized targets.

We investigated the capacity of 6 humans to make voluntary smooth eye movements with a horizontally stabilized foveal point target. When the target was viewed on a dark field, all subjects were able to make smooth oscillatory eye movements when they attempted to imitate their own normal pursuit of sinusoidal target movement (0.2-0.7 Hz) directly preceding the stabilization on the fovea. The frequency of the imitating eye movement was in general lower than the frequency of normal pursuit by 2-35%. While fixating a foveally stabilized point target superimposed on a large, sinusoidally moving non-stabilized background, all subjects were able to make either no eye movements, eye movements nearly in phase with or eye movements nearly in counterphase with the background movement depending on the instruction to imagine the target as head-stationary, moving in phase, or moving in counterphase with the background. The accuracy of the frequency of the smooth eye movement with the stabilized target on the moving background was higher than during imitation of pursuit on the dark field but the precision of the frequency was lower than during normal pursuit. When the background moved pseudo-randomly all subjects could voluntarily inhibit their smooth eye movements or could make smooth eye movements in phase with the background. Only 2 subjects showed a limited ability to make smooth eye movements opposite to the pseudo-random background movement. The results suggest that with predictable background movement the volition of the subject rather than the movement of the background determines the eye movements when the subject looks at the foveally stabilized target.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.5014/ajot.40.4.278

The American journal of occupational therapy : official publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association

Am J Occup Ther

The relationships between volition, activity pattern, and life satisfaction in the elderly.

This study examines the relationships between the volition subsystem, activity pattern, and life satisfaction of 60 elderly individuals. The volition subsystem includes an individual's interests, values, and personal causation. The Occupational Questionnaire (OQ) was developed to measure volition subsystems and activity patterns, and it was pilot tested for reliability and validity. Scores on the OQ were compared with measures of subjects' life satisfaction. Results of the study identified several aspects of the subjects' occupations that were related to their level of life satisfaction. The most important findings were the positive correlations between the degree of interest, value, and personal causation in occupation and life satisfaction. Time spent in work and leisure was found to be correlated more highly with high levels of life satisfaction than was time spent in daily living tasks and rest. Although further verification of these results is needed, these findings indicate that occupational therapists may enhance the life satisfaction of their elderly patients by emphasizing interests, values, personal causation, work, and leisure in their treatment programs.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1212/wnl.36.3.340

Neurology

Neurology

Why do frontal lobe symptoms predominate in vascular dementia with lacunes?

We studied 30 necropsy cases of vascular dementia with a lacunar state. Manifestations included dementia, lack of volition, emotional lability, small-stepped gait, dysarthria, urinary incontinence, grasp reflex, pyramidal signs, paraplegia in flexion, and akinetic mutism. Pathologically, there was diffuse incomplete softening of white matter in all cases. Both lacunes and diffuse softening were found predominantly in the frontal lobes. The prominent clinical features were therefore frontal lobe symptoms, with good correlation between the symptoms and the distribution of pathologic lesions.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1111/j.1440-1819.1985.tb02901.x

Folia psychiatrica et neurologica japonica

Folia Psychiatr Neurol Jpn

Movement-related cerebral potentials in schizophrenics.

Measures concerning the P2 component of movement-related cerebral potentials (MPs) (the time from the trigger produced by key-tapping to the onset of P2: T-N latency, the width of P2: N-P interval, and the amplitude of P2: N-P amplitude) and various clinical factors of 36 schizophrenics were studied and statistically compared with those of 35 normal subjects. Concerning the P2 component, 22/36 of the schizophrenics showed abnormal findings. These three measures, especially the N-P interval, are significantly related to various clinical symptoms at the stage when the MPs were recorded but are not related to the previous worst stage. The chronicity of schizophrenic illness influenced each measure of the T-N latency and N-P interval, both of which were significantly longer than those of the normal subjects. The pressure strength, the velocity of key-tapping, the duration of muscular contraction, (namely the manner of key-tapping) and the daily dosage of neuroleptics did not affect the P2 component. These results suggest that 1) the P2 component of MPs is related to certain brain functions as a signal of information processing concerning action and not to the peripheral feed-back mechanism and 2) abnormal waveforms of the MPs found in pathological psychiatric conditions of schizophrenia may be a reflection of disturbances of the central mechanism concerning action, attention and volition.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1093/schbul/11.3.409

Schizophrenia bulletin

Schizophr Bull

Symptomatic and neuropsychological components of defect states.

The distinction between positive and negative symptoms has gained prominence in schizophrenia research, but the construct has not been unequivocally validated. The authors report preliminary findings of investigations in which symptomatic and neuropsychological assessments were conducted in a sample of 32 chronic schizophrenic inpatients. Three distinct clusters of symptoms were identified in correlative analyses. One cluster of symptoms (alogia, attentional impairment, positive formal though disorder, and bizarre behavior) appeared to reflect primarily a disorganization of though independent of current definitions of the positive/negative symptom construct. A second cluster of symptoms (affective flattening, avolition/apathy, and anhedonia) appeared to reflect predominantly blunting of affect and volition. A third cluster (delusions, hallucinations, and "breadth of psychosis") seemed to represent only the florid psychotic features. The first and (to a lesser extent) second clusters of symptoms were selectively associated with neuropsychological impairment. The patterns of neuropsychological deficits correlated with the first cluster of symptoms appeared to be consistent with a process characterized by failure in the development of a normal repertoire of cognitive abilities. It is suggested that the "defect state" may not be a monothetic construct, and that within the domain of "type II" schizophrenia, disturbances of thought may be distinguished from those of affect and motivation.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Acta oto-laryngologica

Acta Otolaryngol

Eye movements in patients with speech dyspraxia.

Saccades, smooth pursuit and angular acceleration induced nystagmus were analysed quantitatively in 10 patients with speech dyspraxia. The saccades were less accurate, had a prolonged reaction time and showed a tendency to reduced peak velocity, though only contralateral to the lesion. Smooth pursuit was imparied, with a reduction in maximum velocity gain. The vestibular responses tended to be hyperactive, indicating facilitated brain-stem reflexes. The findings show that a lesion in the frontal eye field can produce various oculomotor disturbances, in which the triggering of eye movements and their control, and pacing of the various movement sequences are disturbed. In addition, anticipation of a movement pattern requiring volition may be greatly impaired.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.2466/pms.1984.58.1.100

Perceptual and motor skills

Percept Mot Skills

Perceived task quality and estimated interval: foundation for temporal attributions.

48 subjects listened to both a boring and an interesting tape. After listening, subjects rated each tape and estimated the duration of each--the order of the evaluation was manipulated. Choice was also varied regarding task involvement by assigning subjects to either with or without volition group. Altered temporal judgments did not independently reduce dissonance. A distinctive relationship between the subjective duration of the task and its perceived quality also affected subjects' attributions regarding a task.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1007/BF01064475

The Psychiatric quarterly

Psychiatr Q

Janet's Obsessions and Psychasthenia: a synopsis.

Pierre Janet's Lés Obsessions et la Psychasthénie, Vol. 1 (1903) still stands as the most authoritative work on obsessional and related disorders yet written, but it remains unavailable to an English readership. This article presents an English synopsis of the French original. Janet considers the central problem to be a special mental state which he terms psychasthenia, entailing low psychological tension and an impotence of adaptation to reality. Especially affected are the reality functions of attention, volition, and present-related emotion. Their failure leads through diversion of mental energy to the forced agitations, i.e., mental manias, ruminations, tics, phobias, and anxiety. Obsessions are a late and variable development, when present they symbolize the underlying mental state of incompleteness. The full significance of Janet's contribution may have yet to be established by developments in the neurosciences.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1136/jnnp.46.11.1052

Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry

J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry

Non-paralytic motor disturbances and speech disorders: the role of the supplementary motor area.

A right-handed patient with a lesion demonstrated by CT to involve the right medial frontal cortex is described. He exhibited a strong contralateral grasp reflex, motor perseveration and the presence of purposeful movements that appeared to be dissociated from conscious volition. In addition, there was a disorder of speech consisting of a lack of spontaneous speech production, with preserved ability to imitate. It is suggested that these disorders are due to damage to the supplementary motor area.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Seishin shinkeigaku zasshi = Psychiatria et neurologia Japonica

Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi

[A clinical and psychopathological consideration on elective mutism in adolescence: five cases who have poor volition to seek socialization (author's transl)].

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1001/archneur.1981.00510110043004

Archives of neurology

Arch Neurol

Medial frontal cortex infarction and the alien hand sign.

Two right-handed patients with infarction involving the left medial frontal cortex are described. Both patients exhibited a form of transcortical motor aphasia and a psychomotor disturbance involving the right arm characterized by forced grasping, motor perseveration, and the presence of apparently purposeful movements that appeared to be dissociated from conscious volition. The latter feature is noted to be identical to the alien hand sign as described in the left arm of commissurotomized patients and patients with callosal neoplasm or infarction. It is suggested that the observed dissociation of conscious intention from purposeful movement may be related to dysfunction of the medial frontal cortex contralateral to the impaired extremity as much as to hemispheric disconnection.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Gaceta medica de Mexico

Gac Med Mex

[Cerebral organization for conscience and volition].

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Indian journal of psychology

Indian J Psychol

Connotative meaning of abortion and attitude towards M.T.P.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Research publications - Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease

Res Publ Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis

Current investigations in headache.

The responses of supraorbital (SA), superficial temporal (TA), and digital (F) arterial beds and heart rate were studied in 5 normal subjects and 10 migraineurs when hand temperature was increased by volition and/or by heat. In normal subjects, volitional digital arterial dilation coincided with vasoconstriction in SA and TA. In migraineurs, the response varied. Bradycardia resulted in most subjects except in unimproved migraineurs. Heat-induced hand vasodilation led to dilation in SA and TA and to tachycardia. In the 8 migraineurs who improved clinically, the finger temperature feedback training apparently did not result in conditioning of a single autonomic response (i.e. digital vasocilation), but in a general decrease of the sympathetic tonic outflow. Improvement in migraine could also be correlated with improvement in psychological tests, with MMPI scores indicative of neurosis, significantly improving in those patients who learned and practiced the BF technique. A pilot study aimed at detection of serum complement alterations in migraine does not suggest a diminished level of the inhibitor of the first component and further inquiry into the possible serum complement abnormalities in migraineurs is in process. The possible relationships between the vasomotor changes in migraine, the reduction in sympathetic tonic outflow evoked by biofeedback, and their psycho-physiological significance have been discussed. An integrated, interpretative fusion of these data is proposed. A new conditioned vasomotor reflex, which we have termed the relaxation reflex, has been described. It should be explored whether BF has more wide applications in the treatment of other "psychosomatic" disorders characterized by vasomotor abnormalities and increased sympathetic tone.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1017/s0033291700021528

Psychological medicine

Psychol Med

Mental disorder, criminal responsibility and the social history of theories of volition.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

L'Encephale

Encephale

[Symptomatology of inhibition].

This essentially descriptive paper deals with inhibition as a symptom or as a behavior pattern and studies the different areas of; inhibition of the intellect (i.e. a decrease in though production witnessed by disorders of language flow), reduced attention span (distractability, inability to concentrate), inhibition of volition (abulia, indecisiveness), memory inhibition (in the sense of selective amnesias, post-crisis amnesias, cyclical amnesias), restriction of the basic drives (which can touch the life principle, the need for sleep, hunger, sexual drive), emotional inhibition including a feeling of inferiority and self-doubt which affects interpersonal relations: in this sense inhibition can also manifest itself in experiences of estrangement and depersonalization. A dynamic study of inhibition should first deal with the presumed relationship between the symptom and a specific pathological process and analysis of the underlying inconscious mecanisms.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1001/archpsyc.1977.01770190072007

Archives of general psychiatry

Arch Gen Psychiatry

First-rank symptoms of schizophrenia in Schneider-oriented German centers.

First-rank symptoms of schizophrenia, such as thought insertion, thought broadcasting, "made" volition, and delusional perception, were introduced for purposes of diagnosis into a German university clinic. Such "Schneiderian" criteria were evaluated in 210 case records. Ratings employed formal definitions. Of 210 records examined, 69 (33%) of the schizophrenic patients had first-rank symptoms. The frequency of finding such symptoms in a group of schizophrenics is compared to other reports. There are considerable differences in frequency of individual symptoms as well as total number of such symptoms across centers, but the use of precisely agreed on definitions of first-rank symptoms may lead to better agreement.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Zhurnal nevropatologii i psikhiatrii imeni S.S. Korsakova (Moscow, Russia : 1952)

Zh Nevropatol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova

[Insufficient excitation for speech in focal lesions of non-specific brain structures].

On the basis of a study of 150 patients with focal lesions of the mesencephalo-diencephalic brain areas the authors discuss speech disorders, appearing due to disturbances in the functions of the activating nonspecific systems. They indicate that these speech disorders are conditioned by an insufficiency of speech volition. However, in communicative important situations for the patient they can be overcome. In development of mesencephalodiencephalic pathology the syndrome of insufficient speech volition may be transmitted into a clinical picture of akinetic mutism. The problem of differentiation of insufficiency speech volition is being discussed in relation to lesions on different levels of the activizing nonspecific system and the accompanying drop of speech activity of the motor-aphatic and disarthric disorders.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Zhurnal nevropatologii i psikhiatrii imeni S.S. Korsakova (Moscow, Russia : 1952)

Zh Nevropatol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova

[Speech disorders in tumors of the left frontal lobe].

The paper deals with a description of speech activity or dynamic aphasia seen in 9 patients with tumors of the left frontal lobe. A weakening of volition to speech was combined with disorders of naming, verbal memory, logic thinking. All these disturbances were accompanied by general motor inhibition. Among the 9 studied patients in 8 cases the focus of lesion was situated on the medial surface of the hemisphere, corresponding to the supplementary Penfield speech zone.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Bollettino della Societa italiana di biologia sperimentale

Boll Soc Ital Biol Sper

Neurobiology of aggressive behavior.

Causality, neurological mechanisms, and behavioral manifestations may be heterogeneous in different forms of aggressive behavior, but some elements are shared by all forms of violence, including the necessity of sensory inputs, the coding and decoding of information according to acquired frames of reference, and the activation of pre-established patterns of response. Understanding and prevention of violence requires a simultaneous study of its social, cultural, and economic aspects, at parity with an investigation of its neurological mechanisms. Part of the latter information may be obtained through animal experimentation, preferably in non-human primates. Feline predatory behavior has no equivalent in man, and therefore its hypothalamic representation probably does not exist in the human brain. Codes of information, frames of reference for sensory perception, axis to evaluate threats, and formulas for aggressive performance are not established genetically but must be learned individually. We are born with the capacity to learn aggressive behavior, but not with established patterns of violence. Mechanisms for fighting which are acquired by individual experience may be triggered in a similar way by sensory cues, volition, and by electrical stimulation of specific cerebral areas. In monkeys, aggressive responses may be modified by changing the hierarchical position of the stimulated animal, indicating the physiological quality of the neurological mechanisms electrically activated.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1159/000286999

Psychotherapy and psychosomatics

Psychother Psychosom

Dysthymia: an atypical protracted depression. A preliminary report.

The author reports on 86 cases of protracted disorders - without significant changed consciousness - which he named dysthymia. The clinical manifestations were characterized by peculiar emotional disorders, polymorphous autonomic and vascular shifts. These states occurred in the majority of cases after some somatic diseases in conjunction with other physical or psychological stresses in individuals with anxiety traits and 'neurocirculatory asthenia'. The first phase of the disease was accompanied by anxiety, restlessness, autonomic and vascular paroxysms, anorexia, insomnia and disturbances of other physiological functions. Subsequently dysphoric mood, somatic concerns, pseudoneurotic and neurotic syndromes appeared. The outcome of the disorders was either with slow practical recovery or with a relatively stable personality change in the form of weakened volition, a reduction of energy, and a narrowing of the 'zone of comfort' due to the impairment of homeostatic functions. Often hypochondriasis could develop on the background of such features. Dysthymia is viewed as a special entity which must not be included either in the group of neuroses or in the group of typical organic brain syndromes, or in the group of endogenous psychoses.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Acta neurologica

Acta Neurol (Napoli)

[Do we know the neural bases of volition? Evolutionist and neurodynamic approach].

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Nihon Jibiinkoka Gakkai kaiho

Nihon Jibiinkoka Gakkai Kaiho

[The problem of volition in optokinetic nystagmus--optokinetic nystagmography using the "hiragana"].

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Archivio di psicologia, neurologia e psichiatria

Arch Psicol Neurol Psichiatr

[CONSIDERATIONS ON THE LIMITS OF THE VOLUNTARITY OF HYSTERICAL SYMPTOM].

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Praxis der Kinderpsychologie und Kinderpsychiatrie

Prax Kinderpsychol Kinderpsychiatr

[STRONG-WILLED AND WEAK-WILLED CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS].

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Seishin shinkeigaku zasshi = Psychiatria et neurologia Japonica

Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi

[AN ANALYSIS OF MENTAL STATES IN THE EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS OF AN ESTIMATION OF LAPSE OF TIME. FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF MENTAL DISORDERS BY RESPONSE PERFORMANCE].

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Deutsche Zeitschrift fur die gesamte gerichtliche Medizin

Dtsch Z Gesamte Gerichtl Med

[PROBLEMS OF FREE WILL FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF BOTH BIOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY].

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Deutsche Zeitschrift fur die gesamte gerichtliche Medizin

Dtsch Z Gesamte Gerichtl Med

[MEDICOPSYCHOLOGICAL VIEWPOINTS ON THE SIGNIFICANCE OF "SUBCONSCIOUS" DRIVES IN INTENTIONAL ACTS].

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Deutsche Zeitschrift fur die gesamte gerichtliche Medizin

Dtsch Z Gesamte Gerichtl Med

[FREEDOM OF WILL AND RESPONSIBILITY].

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Wiener medizinische Wochenschrift (1946)

Wien Med Wochenschr

[CLINICAL ASPECTS OF SMOKING].

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1037/h0041125

Journal of abnormal psychology

J Abnorm Psychol

CONJUNCTIVE AND DISJUNCTIVE CONFLICT: A THEORY OF NEED CONFLICT.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1080/00207146308409249

The International journal of clinical and experimental hypnosis

Int J Clin Exp Hypn

ON WUNDT'S THEORY OF HYPNOSIS.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Der Nervenarzt

Nervenarzt

[FREEDOM OF WILL AND RESPONSIBILITY].

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Topical problems of psychotherapy

Top Probl Psychother

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1016/s0010-440x(61)80024-2

Comprehensive psychiatry

Compr Psychiatry

Volition and value: a study based on catatonic schizophrenia.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Fortschritte der Neurologie, Psychiatrie, und ihrer Grenzgebiete

Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr Grenzgeb

[The capacity of volition as a problem of forensic psychiatry].

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

Archivio di psicologia, neurologia e psichiatria

Arch Psicol Neurol Psichiatr

[A selective application of clinical psychology: legal evaluation of capacity for judgment and volition of minors (Art. 98 of the Penal Code)].

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1093/brain/72.3.312

Brain : a journal of neurology

Brain

Sensation and volition.

CognitiveConstruct

Volition

10.1021/acsomega.1c02837

ACS omega

ACS Omega

Cause Analysis of the Large-Scale LPG Explosion Accident Based on Key Investigation Technology: A Case Study.

Blending dimethyl ether (DME) into liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) has become a common phenomenon. On December 3, 2019, an LPG/DME explosion occurred in Beijing, resulting in 4 deaths and 10 injuries. To deeply investigate the cause and explosion process of the explosion accident, the accident investigation method combining on-site inspection, material evidence analysis, experimental verification, and logical reasoning was used. In addition, the location of the ignition point, the explosive substances, the cause of the gas leakage, the process and the distribution characteristics of the gas leakage, and the ignition process were successively reasoned and analyzed in detail. The results show that the LPG/DME-blended gas can effectively corrode silicone flange gaskets, forming laminar fractures and radial cracks on the gasket. As a result, the tensile strength of the gasket decreased. Under the action of the gas pressure inside the pipeline, the gasket was torn and a leakage hole was formed. The leaked combustible gas formed at least 305 m of the explosive gas mixture inside and outside the refrigerated storage. The investigation and research results have important scientific guiding significance for revealing the cause and preventing similar accidents.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1016/j.bbagrm.2021.194745

Biochimica et biophysica acta. Gene regulatory mechanisms

Biochim Biophys Acta Gene Regul Mech

Sequence Ontology terminology for gene regulation.

The Sequence Ontology (SO) is a structured, controlled vocabulary that provides terms and definitions for genomic annotation. The Gene Regulation Ensemble Effort for the Knowledge Commons (GREEKC) initiative has gathered input from many groups of researchers, including the SO, the Gene Ontology (GO), and gene regulation experts, with the goal of curating information about how gene expression is regulated at the molecular level. Here we discuss recent updates to the SO reflecting current knowledge. We have developed more accurate human-readable terms (also known as classes), including new definitions, and relationships related to the expression of genes. New findings continue to give us insight into the biology of gene regulation, including the order of events, and participants in those events. These updates to the SO support logical reasoning with the current understanding of gene expression regulation at the molecular level.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.3389/fpsyt.2021.690121

Frontiers in psychiatry

Front Psychiatry

fNIRS Evaluation of Frontal and Temporal Cortex Activation by Verbal Fluency Task and High-Level Cognition Task for Detecting Anxiety and Depression.

Anxiety and depression are widespread psychosis which are believed to affect cerebral metabolism, especially in frontal and temporal cortex. The comorbidity patients of anxiety and depression (A&D) have more serious clinical symptoms. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a noninvasive modality used to monitor human brain oxygenation, and it could be considered as a potential tool to detect psychosis which may lead to abnormal cerebral oxygen status when the brain is activated. However, how sensitive the cerebral oxygenation response to the cortex activation and whether these responses are consistent at different stages of A&D or different regions still remains unclear. In this study, a conventional physiological paradigm for cortex activation, i.e., verbal fluency task (VFT), and a relatively new paradigm, i.e., high-level cognition task (HCT), were compared to detect A&D through a longitudinal measurement of cerebral oxygen status by fNIRS. The A&D patients at the acute, consolidation and maintenance stages as well as the healthy subjects participated in the VFT and HCT paradigms, respectively. For the VTF paradigm, the subject was instructed to answer questions of phrase constructions within 60 s. For the HCT paradigm, the subject was instructed to categorize items, logical reasoning, and comprehensive judgment and write down the answers within 60 s. For most of the subjects, the oxy-Hb is found to increase remarkably, accompanied with a relatively small reduction in deoxy-Hb when subject to both paradigms. The statistical analyses show a relatively large variability within any group, leading to the significant difference that was only found between A&D at the acute stage and healthy subjects in the temporal lobe region ( < 0.001). Nevertheless, HCT would activate more oxygen increment when compared with the VFT, with a large integral value in oxy-Hb. On average, the oxy-Hb integral value of the A&D patients differs substantially at different stages when subject to HCT paradigm. Moreover, the prefrontal lobe and temporal lobe responses were more consistent to the HCT paradigm rather than the VFT paradigm. Under the VFT paradigm, however, no remarkable difference in integral value was found among the three stages, either at the prefrontal lobe or at the temporal lobe. This study indicated that HCT, which is intensively involved in brain function, would activate more oxygenation changes in the cerebral cortex. Additionally, with good performance at distinguishing different stages according to the oxy-Hb criterion, the HCT has the potential to evaluate the therapeutic effects for A&D patients.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1002/bmb.21554

Biochemistry and molecular biology education : a bimonthly publication of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

Biochem Mol Biol Educ

Practicing logical reasoning through Drosophila segmentation gene mutants.

Laboratory practical sessions are critical to scientific training in biology but usually fail to promote logical and hypothesis-driven reasoning and rely heavily on the teacher's instructions. This paper describes a 2-day laboratory practicum in which students prepare and analyze larval cuticle preparations of Drosophila segmentation gene mutant strains. Embryonic segmentation involves three major classes of genes according to their loss-of-function phenotypes: the establishment of broad regions by gap genes, the specification of the segments by the pair-rule genes, and the compartments within segments by the segment polarity genes. Students are asked to sort undefined segmentation mutants into gap, pair-rule, or segment polarity categories based on their knowledge of the Drosophila segmentation process and the microscopic anatomical traits they are capable of finding in the sample preparations. This technically simple practicum prompts students to pay attention to detailed observation to detect anatomic markers of intrasegmental compartments and thorax versus abdomen cuticle, and promote their logical reasoning in hypothesizing to which segmentation type a given mutant fits best.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.3389/fpsyg.2021.546178

Frontiers in psychology

Front Psychol

The Self-Regulation of Conformity: Mental Contrasting With Implementation Intentions (MCII).

The self-regulation of conformity has received little attention in previous research. This is surprising because group majorities can exert social strong pressure on people, leading them to overlook the pursuit of their own goals. We investigated if self-regulation by mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII) can reduce people's tendency to conform and facilitate their own goal-pursuit despite deviant majority influence. In a computer-based logical reasoning task, we exposed participants to a conformity manipulation, where we presented bogus diagrams showing the supposedly correct answers of a majority ingroup. Compared to participants who were not given a self-regulation strategy (Studies 1, 2, and 4) or who were in an active control group (Study 3), MCII helped participants to self-regulate conforming behavior in trying to solve the task and to independently solve the logical reasoning task, as indicated by increases in correct answers in the task. The findings suggest that MCII is an effective strategy to regulate people's tendency to conform and supports them to attain their goal despite deviant majority influence.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1007/s10339-021-01029-2

Cognitive processing

Cogn Process

Decision-making, cognitive functions, impulsivity, and media multitasking expectancies in high versus low media multitaskers.

In several studies, individuals who reported to frequently multitask with different media displayed reduced cognitive performance, for example in fluid intelligence and executive functioning. These cognitive functions are relevant for making advantageous decisions under both objective risk (requiring reflection and strategical planning) and ambiguous risk (requiring learning from feedback). Thus, compared to low media multitaskers (LMMs), high media multitaskers (HMMs) may perform worse in both types of decision situations. The current study investigated HMMs and LMMs in a laboratory setting with the Game of Dice Task (GDT; objective risk), the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT; ambiguous risk), various tests quantifying cognitive functions (logical reasoning, working memory, information processing, general executive functions), and self-report measures of impulsivity, media multitasking expectancies, and problematic Internet use. From 182 participants, 25 HMMs and 19 LMMs were identified using the Media Multitasking Index. Results show that HMMs compared to LMMs performed weaker on the IGT but not on the GDT. Furthermore, HMMs had slightly decreased performance in tests of logical reasoning and working memory capacity. HMMs tended to increased information processing speed but this difference was not significant. Furthermore, HMMs have more positive expectancies regarding media multitasking and reported higher tendencies toward problematic Internet use. HMMs and LMMs did not differ significantly with respect to impulsivity and executive functions. The results give a first hint that HMMs may have difficulties in decision-making under ambiguous but not under objective risk. HMMs may be more prone to errors in tasks that require feedback processing. However, HMMs appear not to be impaired in aspects of long-term strategic decision-making.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1016/j.neuron.2021.04.024

Neuron

Neuron

How does hemispheric specialization contribute to human-defining cognition?

Uniquely human cognitive faculties arise from flexible interplay between specific local neural modules, with hemispheric asymmetries in functional specialization. Here, we discuss how these computational design principles provide a scaffold that enables some of the most advanced cognitive operations, such as semantic understanding of world structure, logical reasoning, and communication via language. We draw parallels to dual-processing theories of cognition by placing a focus on Kahneman's System 1 and System 2. We propose integration of these ideas with the global workspace theory to explain dynamic relay of information products between both systems. Deepening the current understanding of how neurocognitive asymmetry makes humans special can ignite the next wave of neuroscience-inspired artificial intelligence.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1097/PR9.0000000000000929

Pain reports

Pain Rep

Is clinical, musculoskeletal pain associated with poorer logical reasoning?

It has been hypothesized that pain disrupts system 2 processes (eg, working memory) presumed to underlie logical reasoning. A recent study examining the impact of experimentally induced pain on logical reasoning found no evidence of an effect. The aim of this study was to examine whether clinical pain, which is qualitatively different from experimental pain, would lower the ability to reason logically. Ninety-six participants completed a questionnaire containing 3 different logical reasoning tasks (the cognitive reflection test, the belief bias syllogisms task, and the conditional inference task), questions about pain variables (present pain intensity, pain intensity during the last 24 hours, the influence of pain on daily activities, pain duration, and pain persistence), questions about other pain-related states (anxiety, depression, and fatigue), and pain-relieving medication. Correlations between the logical reasoning tasks and the pain variables were calculated. For 2 of the 3 logical reasoning tasks (the cognitive reflection test and the belief bias syllogisms task), clinical pain was unrelated to logical reasoning. Performance on context-free logical reasoning showed a significant negative correlation with present pain intensity, but not with the other pain variables. This finding that logical reasoning ability is largely unrelated to clinical pain is highly consistent with previous research on experimentally induced pain. Pain should probably not constitute a significant barrier to logical reasoning in everyday life.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.2147/PGPM.S304420

Pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine

Pharmgenomics Pers Med

Towards a Clinical Efficacy Evaluation System Adapted for Personalized Medicine.

The rise of precision medicine (PM) has initiated the transition of mainstream medicine from disease-based medicine to personalized medicine, alongside which the US FDA has begun to establish a clinical trial and efficacy evaluation (CTEE) system compatible with personalized medicine based on biological markers. Outside of modern medicine, however, there has always existed a personalized medical system, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), that is, a personalized medical system built at the organism level with a similar concept and method to today's complexity science. However, under the current CTEE system, TCM has not usually been shown to be effective. The CTEE system of modern medicine has now begun to embrace personalized medicine at the microlevel. Therefore, there is no reason to continue to reject TCM, which is a type of personalized medicine at the organism level. This paper analyzes and compares the commonality and differences between a personalized medical system based on biomarkers established by PM and a personalized medical system based on syndromes in TCM; the results clearly reveal structural relationships between the two medical systems. On this basis, through rigorous logical reasoning, the feasibility of applying the CTEE method which is used in PM to evaluate the efficacy of TCM treatments is demonstrated. The relationship among biomarkers by which PM describes personalized states and modern medical diseases and the relationship among TCM syndromes and diseases are completely consistent. Because of this consistency, the new CTEE system established by the US FDA to promote the development of PM is fully applicable to the clinical trial and efficacy evaluation of TCM treatment methods. Clinical trials and efficacy evaluations based on this system can scientifically prove the effectiveness of TCM, and TCM is expected to be incorporated into the modern medical system based on scientific norms.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.7554/eLife.64457

eLife

Elife

The causal role of auditory cortex in auditory working memory.

Working memory (WM), the ability to actively hold information in memory over a delay period of seconds, is a fundamental constituent of cognition. Delay-period activity in sensory cortices has been observed in WM tasks, but whether and when the activity plays a functional role for memory maintenance remains unclear. Here, we investigated the causal role of auditory cortex (AC) for memory maintenance in mice performing an auditory WM task. Electrophysiological recordings revealed that AC neurons were active not only during the presentation of the auditory stimulus but also early in the delay period. Furthermore, optogenetic suppression of neural activity in AC during the stimulus epoch and early delay period impaired WM performance, whereas suppression later in the delay period did not. Thus, AC is essential for information encoding and maintenance in auditory WM task, especially during the early delay period.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1109/TNNLS.2021.3072166

IEEE transactions on neural networks and learning systems

IEEE Trans Neural Netw Learn Syst

Breaking Neural Reasoning Architectures With Metamorphic Relation-Based Adversarial Examples.

The ability to read, reason, and infer lies at the heart of neural reasoning architectures. After all, the ability to perform logical reasoning over language remains a coveted goal of Artificial Intelligence. To this end, models such as the Turing-complete differentiable neural computer (DNC) boast of real logical reasoning capabilities, along with the ability to reason beyond simple surface-level matching. In this brief, we propose the first probe into DNC's logical reasoning capabilities with a focus on text-based question answering (QA). More concretely, we propose a conceptually simple but effective adversarial attack based on metamorphic relations. Our proposed adversarial attack reduces DNCs' state-of-the-art accuracy from 100% to 1.5% in the worst case, exposing weaknesses and susceptibilities in modern neural reasoning architectures. We further empirically explore possibilities to defend against such attacks and demonstrate the utility of our adversarial framework as a simple scalable method to improve model adversarial robustness.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1016/j.aprim.2021.102053

Atencion primaria

Aten Primaria

[Long-term effect analysis of a cognitive stimulation program in mild cognitive impairment elderly in Primary Care: A randomized controlled trial].

To provide evidence about the efficacy of a community health intervention through a cognitive stimulation program at long term in older people with mild cognitive impairment. Randomized controlled trial (CONSORT group norms). San José Norte-Centro Primary Care Center and La Caridad Foundation (Zaragoza, Spain). Twenty-nine people over 65 years old with a 24-27 MEC score that completed 48 months follow up. They were randomized between the intervention group (15) and the control group (14). The intervention was applied in 10 sessions of 45min for 10 weeks using the red notebook tool for mental activation that works memory, orientation, language, praxis, gnosis, calculation, perception, logical reasoning, attention and executive functions. The main outcome variables were MEC-35, Set-test, Barthel index, Lawton-Brody scale, Goldberg anxiety scale and Yesavage geriatric depression scale short form. Increases of the main result variable over the baseline level of MEC-35 were analyzed. On average, the intervention group obtained higher scores than control: 3.14 points post intervention, 3.76 points after 6 months and 2.26 points more than control group after 12 months. All the differences were statistically significant. After 48 months the intervention group obtained 2 points more than control group. The intervention did not improve verbal fluency, activity daily living and mood. Our cognitive stimulation program seems to improve cognitive performance, measured with the variable MEC-35 at post intervention, 6, 12 and 48 months. There is no evidence of improvement in verbal fluency, activity daily livings and mood. Clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT03831061.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.3389/fneur.2021.625359

Frontiers in neurology

Front Neurol

The Effect of Transcranial Random Noise Stimulation on Cognitive Training Outcome in Healthy Aging.

Aging is associated with a decline in attentional and executive abilities, which are linked to physiological, structural, and functional brain changes. A variety of novel non-invasive brain stimulation methods have been probed in terms of their neuroenhancement efficacy in the last decade; one that holds significant promise is transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS) that delivers an alternate current at random amplitude and frequency. The aim of this study was to investigate whether repeated sessions of tRNS applied as an add-on to cognitive training (CT) may induce long-term near and far transfer cognitive improvements. In this sham-controlled, randomized, double-blinded study forty-two older adults (age range 60-86 years) were randomly assigned to one of three intervention groups that received 20 min of 0.705 mA tRNS ( = 14), 1 mA tRNS ( = 14), or sham tRNS ( = 19) combined with 30 min of CT of executive functions (cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, working memory). tRNS was applied bilaterally over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortices for five sessions. The primary outcome (non-verbal logical reasoning) and other cognitive functions (attention, memory, executive functions) were assessed before and after the intervention and at a 1-month follow-up. Non-verbal logical reasoning, inhibitory control and reaction time improved significantly over time, but stimulation did not differentially affect this improvement. These changes occurred during CT, while no further improvement was observed during follow-up. Performance change in logical reasoning was significantly correlated with age in the group receiving 1 mA tRNS, indicating that older participants profited more from tRNS than younger participants. Performance change in non-verbal working memory was significantly correlated with age in the group receiving sham tRNS, indicating that in contrast to active tRNS, older participants in the sham group declined more than younger participants. CT induced cognitive improvements in all treatment groups, but tRNS did not modulate most of these cognitive improvements. However, the effect of tRNS depended on age in some cognitive functions. We discuss possible explanations leading to this result that can help to improve the design of future neuroenhancement studies in older populations.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1038/s41562-021-01057-0

Nature human behaviour

Nat Hum Behav

A rational model of the Dunning-Kruger effect supports insensitivity to evidence in low performers.

Evaluating one's own performance on a task, typically known as 'self-assessment', is perceived as a fundamental skill, but people appear poorly calibrated to their abilities. Studies seem to show poorer calibration for low performers than for high performers, which could indicate worse metacognitive ability among low performers relative to others (the Dunning-Kruger effect). By developing a rational model of self-assessment, we show that such an effect could be produced by two psychological mechanisms, in either isolation or conjunction: influence of prior beliefs about ability or a relation between performance and skill at determining correctness on each problem. To disentangle these explanations, we conducted a large-scale replication of a seminal paper with approximately 4,000 participants in each of two studies. Comparing the predictions of two variants of our rational model provides support for low performers being less able to estimate whether they are correct in the domains of grammar and logical reasoning.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1093/database/baab004

Database : the journal of biological databases and curation

Database (Oxford)

Converting disease maps into heavyweight ontologies: general methodology and application to Alzheimer's disease.

Omics technologies offer great promises for improving our understanding of diseases. The integration and interpretation of such data pose major challenges, calling for adequate knowledge models. Disease maps provide curated knowledge about disorders' pathophysiology at the molecular level adapted to omics measurements. However, the expressiveness of disease maps could be increased to help in avoiding ambiguities and misinterpretations and to reinforce their interoperability with other knowledge resources. Ontology is an adequate framework to overcome this limitation, through their axiomatic definitions and logical reasoning properties. We introduce the Disease Map Ontology (DMO), an ontological upper model based on systems biology terms. We then propose to apply DMO to Alzheimer's disease (AD). Specifically, we use it to drive the conversion of AlzPathway, a disease map devoted to AD, into a formal ontology: Alzheimer DMO. We demonstrate that it allows one to deal with issues related to redundancy, naming, consistency, process classification and pathway relationships. Furthermore, we show that it can store and manage multi-omics data. Finally, we expand the model using elements from other resources, such as clinical features contained in the AD Ontology, resulting in an enriched model called ADMO-plus. The current versions of DMO, ADMO and ADMO-plus are freely available at http://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/ADMO.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.3389/fped.2020.599571

Frontiers in pediatrics

Front Pediatr

The Understanding of Peak Oxygen Uptake in Children Aged 8-16.

To examine the understanding of the concept peak oxygen uptake (peak VO) among children and adolescents at different ages from a developmental perspective. A total of 549 children and adolescents aged 8 to 16 were recruited and instructed to fill in a 20-item developed with reference to the research literature on peak VO. We presented the participants with twenty scenarios and asked them to indicate whether peak VO would "remain unchanged," "increase," or "decrease," or that there was "insufficient information for a definite answer." The cross-sectional data was analyzed by employing a series of ANOVA analyses and chi-square association tests. Additional statistical analyses were performed to examine the error patterns and if there were gender differences. Except for the 8-year-old group, the overall accuracy rate did not improve with age. Age-related differences in the choice of answers ("increase," "decrease," "unchanged," and "uncertain") for determining the resulting peak VO after a change of antecedent were observed. Error analysis by item showed that prefactual thinking that is important to understand the concept was emerging rather than fully developed in our child and adolescent samples. The mastery of peak VO is not subject to age-related maturation but might demand the acquisition of specific logical reasoning skill such as perfactual thinking. Early introduction of peak VO and related concepts is advocated and should be emphasized on the reasoning rather than providing model answers in physical literacy education.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1007/s13218-020-00674-7

Kunstliche intelligenz

Kunstliche Intell (Oldenbourg)

Ontology-Mediated Querying with Horn Description Logics.

An ontology-mediated query (OMQ) consists of a database query paired with an ontology. When evaluated on a database, an OMQ returns not only the answers that are already in the database, but also those answers that can be obtained via logical reasoning using rules from ontology. There are many open questions regarding the complexities of problems related to OMQs. Motivated by the use of ontologies in practice, new reasoning problems which have never been considered in the context of ontologies become relevant, since they can improve the usability of ontology enriched systems. This thesis deals with various reasoning problems that emerge from ontology-mediated querying and it investigates the computational complexity of these problems. We focus on ontologies formulated in Horn description logics, which are a popular choice for ontologies in practice. In particular, the thesis gives results regarding the data complexity of OMQ evaluation by completely classifying complexity and rewritability questions for OMQs based on an EL ontology and a conjunctive query. Furthermore, the query-by-example problem, and the expressibility and verification problem in ontology-based data access are introduced and investigated.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.3390/s20247205

Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)

Sensors (Basel)

A Multitask-Aided Transfer Learning-Based Diagnostic Framework for Bearings under Inconsistent Working Conditions.

Rolling element bearings are a vital part of rotating machines and their sudden failure can result in huge economic losses as well as physical causalities. Popular bearing fault diagnosis techniques include statistical feature analysis of time, frequency, or time-frequency domain data. These engineered features are susceptible to variations under inconsistent machine operation due to the non-stationary, non-linear, and complex nature of the recorded vibration signals. To address these issues, numerous deep learning-based frameworks have been proposed in the literature. However, the logical reasoning behind crack severities and the longer training times needed to identify multiple health characteristics at the same time still pose challenges. Therefore, in this work, a diagnosis framework is proposed that uses higher-order spectral analysis and multitask learning (MTL), while also incorporating transfer learning (TL). The idea is to first preprocess the vibration signals recorded from a bearing to look for distinct patterns for a given fault type under inconsistent working conditions, e.g., variable motor speeds and loads, multiple crack severities, compound faults, and ample noise. Later, these bispectra are provided as an input to the proposed MTL-based convolutional neural network (CNN) to identify the speed and the health conditions, simultaneously. Finally, the TL-based approach is adopted to identify bearing faults in the presence of multiple crack severities. The proposed diagnostic framework is evaluated on several datasets and the experimental results are compared with several state-of-the-art diagnostic techniques to validate the superiority of the proposed model under inconsistent working conditions.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1187/cbe.20-03-0054

CBE life sciences education

CBE Life Sci Educ

Student Behaviors and Interactions Influence Group Discussions in an Introductory Biology Lab Setting.

Past research on group work has primarily focused on promoting change through implementation of interventions designed to increase performance. Recently, however, education researchers have called for more descriptive analyses of group interactions. Through detailed qualitative analysis of recorded discussions, we studied the natural interactions of students during group work in the context of a biology laboratory course. We analyzed multiple interactions of 30 different groups as well as data from each of the 91 individual participants to characterize the ways students engage in discussion and how group dynamics promote or prevent meaningful discussion. Using a set of codes describing 15 unique behaviors, we determined that the most common behavior seen in student dialogue was analyzing data, followed by recalling information and repeating ideas. We also classified students into one of 10 different roles for each discussion, determined by their most common behaviors. We found that, although students cooperated with one another by exchanging information, they less frequently fully collaborated to explain their conclusions through the exchange of reasoning. Within this context, these findings show that students working in groups generally choose specific roles during discussions and focus on data analysis rather than constructing logical reasoning chains to explain their conclusions.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1038/s41467-020-19734-5

Nature communications

Nat Commun

Infants recruit logic to learn about the social world.

When perceptually available information is scant, we can leverage logical connections among hypotheses to draw reliable conclusions that guide our reasoning and learning. We investigate whether this function of logical reasoning is present in infancy and aid understanding and learning about the social environment. In our task, infants watch reaching actions directed toward a hidden object whose identity is ambiguous between two alternatives and has to be inferred by elimination. Here we show that infants apply a disjunctive inference to identify the hidden object and use this logical conclusion to assess the consistency of the actions with a preference previously demonstrated by the agent and, importantly, also to acquire new knowledge regarding the preferences of the observed actor. These findings suggest that, early in life, preverbal logical reasoning functions as a reliable source of evidence that can support learning by offering a logical route for knowledge acquisition.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1093/schizbullopen/sgaa051

Schizophrenia bulletin open

Schizophr Bull Open

Personality Traits as Markers of Psychosis Risk in Kenya: Assessment of Temperament and Character.

Specific personality traits have been proposed as a schizophrenia-related endophenotype and confirmed in siblings at risk for psychosis. The relationship of temperament and character with psychosis has not been previously investigated in Africa. The study was conducted in Kenya, and involved participants at clinical high-risk (CHR) for psychosis ( = 268) and controls ( = 251), aged 15-25 years. CHR status was estimated using the Structured Interview of Psychosis-Risk Syndromes (SIPS) and the Washington Early Psychosis Center Affectivity and Psychosis (WERCAP) Screen. Student's -tests were used to assess group differences on the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). Neurocognitive functioning, stress severity, and substance use were correlated with the TCI, correcting for psychosis severity. CHR participants were more impulsive (ie, higher novelty seeking [NS]) and asocial (ie, lower reward dependence) than controls. They were also more schizotypal (ie, high self-transcendence [ST] and lower self-directedness [SD] and cooperativeness [CO] than controls). CO was related to logical reasoning, abstraction, and verbal memory. Stress severity correlated with high HA and schizotypal character traits. Lifetime tobacco use was related to NS, and lifetime marijuana use to high NS, low SD and high ST. Temperament and character of Kenyan CHR youth is similar to that observed in schizophrenia. Psychosis risk in Kenya is associated with impulsive, asocial, and schizotypal traits. CHR adolescents and young adults with schizophrenia-specific personality traits may be most at risk for developing a psychotic disorder and to require early intervention to improve outcomes.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1016/j.jcm.2019.08.002

Journal of chiropractic medicine

J Chiropr Med

Influences of Dual-Task Training on Walking and Cognitive Performance of People With Relapsing Remitting Multiple Sclerosis: Randomized Controlled Trial.

We sought to investigate whether there is any additional effect of coupled cognitive and physical rehabilitation compared to exercise training alone on walking and cognitive performance in individuals with relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). A randomized controlled trial was conducted from March to November 2015 with 30 individuals with RRMS (aged 20 to 50 years; 21 women, 9 men), who underwent detailed medical and neurologic examination. They were randomly allocated using sealed envelopes to either the study group, who received physical and cognitive rehabilitation (dual-task training), or the control group, who received physical rehabilitation alone. Participants (in both groups) were assessed twice (8 weeks apart), before and after rehabilitation. Assessment tools were the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), the Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS), neuropsychological evaluation (using RehaCom), and walking tests. After training, the control group significantly improved regarding MMSE, attention/concentration test, and 10-meter walking test, whereas the scores of the study group significantly improved in all studied parameters (Expanded Disability Status Scale, MMSE, logical reasoning, and attention/concentration and walking tests). The differential (delta) scores from before to after rehabilitation were significantly higher in the study group for logical reasoning, attention/concentration, and 2-minute walking distance scores. Coupled physical and cognitive (dual-task) training showed concurrent improvement in cognitive and walking abilities in individuals with RRMS which exceeded that achieved by physical training alone.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1007/s12144-020-01154-9

Current psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.)

Curr Psychol

The influence of classroom seating arrangement on children's cognitive processes in primary school: the role of individual variables.

To date, despite the great debate regarding the best seating arrangement for learning in classrooms, no empirical studies have examined the direct effects of different seating arrangements on children's cognitive processes. This is particularly important nowadays that the COVID-19 measures include maintaining distance in the classroom. Aim of this study was experimentally investigating the effect of changing the seating arrangement (clusters vs. single desks), on logical reasoning, creativity and theory of mind, in children attending primary school. Furthermore, some individual characteristics (e.g., gender, loneliness, popularity) were analysed as potential moderators. Results on 77 participants showed that, when children were seated in single desks, their score in logical reasoning was globally higher. Furthermore, when seated in single desks, girls showed a better performance in the theory of mind, and lonelier children performed better in theory of mind and creativity. This on field experimental study suggests the importance of considering both the nature of the task and children's individual characteristics when deciding on a seating arrangement in the classroom.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1016/j.media.2020.101872

Medical image analysis

Med Image Anal

Unifying neural learning and symbolic reasoning for spinal medical report generation.

Automated medical report generation in spine radiology, i.e., given spinal medical images and directly create radiologist-level diagnosis reports to support clinical decision making, is a novel yet fundamental study in the domain of artificial intelligence in healthcare. However, it is incredibly challenging because it is an extremely complicated task that involves visual perception and high-level reasoning processes. In this paper, we propose the neural-symbolic learning (NSL) framework that performs human-like learning by unifying deep neural learning and symbolic logical reasoning for the spinal medical report generation. Generally speaking, the NSL framework firstly employs deep neural learning to imitate human visual perception for detecting abnormalities of target spinal structures. Concretely, we design an adversarial graph network that interpolates a symbolic graph reasoning module into a generative adversarial network through embedding prior domain knowledge, achieving semantic segmentation of spinal structures with high complexity and variability. NSL secondly conducts human-like symbolic logical reasoning that realizes unsupervised causal effect analysis of detected entities of abnormalities through meta-interpretive learning. NSL finally fills these discoveries of target diseases into a unified template, successfully achieving a comprehensive medical report generation. When employed in a real-world clinical dataset, a series of empirical studies demonstrate its capacity on spinal medical report generation and show that our algorithm remarkably exceeds existing methods in the detection of spinal structures. These indicate its potential as a clinical tool that contributes to computer-aided diagnosis.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.3758/s13421-020-01108-3

Memory & cognition

Mem Cognit

Reasoning strategies predict use of very fast logical reasoning.

The dual strategy model proposes that people use one of two potential ways of processing information when making inferences. The statistical strategy generates a rapid probabilistic estimate based on associative access to a wide array of information, while the counterexample strategy uses a more focused representation, allowing for a search for potential counterexamples. In the following studies, we explore the hypothesis that individual differences in strategy use are related to the ability to make rapid intuitive logical judgments. In Study 1, we show that this is the case for rapid judgments requiring a distinction between simple logical form and for a novel form of judgment, the ability to identify inferences that are not linked to their premises (non sequiturs). In Study 2, we show that strategy use is related to the ability to make the kinds of rapid logical judgments previously examined over and above contributions of working memory capacity. Study 3 shows that strategy use explains individual variability in rapid logical responding with belief-biased inferences over and above the contribution of IQ. The results of Studies 2 and 3 indicate that under severe time constraint cognitive capacity is a very poor predictor of reasoning, while strategy use becomes a stronger predictor. These results extend the notion that people can make rapid intuitive "logical" judgments while highlighting the importance of strategy use as a key individual difference variable.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1109/TVCG.2020.3030449

IEEE transactions on visualization and computer graphics

IEEE Trans Vis Comput Graph

HypoML: Visual Analysis for Hypothesis-based Evaluation of Machine Learning Models.

In this paper, we present a visual analytics tool for enabling hypothesis-based evaluation of machine learning (ML) models. We describe a novel ML-testing framework that combines the traditional statistical hypothesis testing (commonly used in empirical research) with logical reasoning about the conclusions of multiple hypotheses. The framework defines a controlled configuration for testing a number of hypotheses as to whether and how some extra information about a "concept" or "feature" may benefit or hinder an ML model. Because reasoning multiple hypotheses is not always straightforward, we provide HypoML as a visual analysis tool, with which, the multi-thread testing results are first transformed to analytical results using statistical and logical inferences, and then to a visual representation for rapid observation of the conclusions and the logical flow between the testing results and hypotheses. We have applied HypoML to a number of hypothesized concepts, demonstrating the intuitive and explainable nature of the visual analysis.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.3389/fpsyg.2020.558520

Frontiers in psychology

Front Psychol

Effects of Occupational Fatigue on Cognitive Performance of Staff From a Train Operating Company: A Field Study.

Occupational fatigue is a key issue in the rail industry that can endanger staff, passenger, and train safety. There is a need to demonstrate the relationship between workload, fatigue, and performance among rail staff. The present study, conducted in the workplace in realistic situations, integrating both subjective and objective measurements, aimed at demonstrating the relationship between workload, fatigue, and cognitive performance with a rail staff sample. The "After-Effect" technique was applied in the current study. Online diaries and cognitive performance tasks were used to assess the fatigue, work experiences, and performance of rail staff before and after work on the first and last days of one working week. Reported fatigue was greater after work on both the first and last day of the working week. There were large individual differences in the change in fatigue and workload ratings. Analysis of covariance with age and the pre-work performance score as covariates and the post-work performance score as the dependent variable showed that high levels of fatigue were associated with impaired performance on both the visual search and logical reasoning tasks. Workload had fewer effects on performance than fatigue. This field study provided evidence for the relationship between work-related fatigue and performance impairment. The findings show the need for future work on predicting fatigue-related performance decrements, and the necessity of providing interventions and support so that the risk to safety can be reduced.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104420

Cognition

Cognition

Thinking in a foreign language distorts allocation of cognitive effort: Evidence from reasoning.

Bilinguals, in their foreign language, are spared from several decision-making biases. We examined this "Foreign Language Effect" in the context of logical reasoning, in which reasoners are required to track the logical status of a syllogism, ignoring its believability. Across three experiments, we found the reverse Foreign Language Effect; foreign language reasoners are less able to evaluate the logical structure of syllogisms, but no less biased by their believability. One path to succeeding in reasoning tasks is always engaging in reflective processing. A more efficient strategy is metacognitively tracking whether belief-based intuitions conflict with logic-based intuitions and only reflecting when such conflict is present. We provide evidence that foreign language reasoners are less accurate because they struggle to detect belief-logic conflict, and in turn fail to engage in reflective processing when necessary to override the incorrect, intuitive response. We propose that foreign language reasoners are less able to detect belief-logic conflict either due to weakened intuitions or due to a more conservative threshold for the detection of conflict between multiple competing intuitions. Data for the experiments can be accessed publicly at https://osf.io/phbuq/.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1007/s10339-020-00995-3

Cognitive processing

Cogn Process

Class inclusion versus quantifiers comprehension tasks: an experimental study with school-aged children.

Literature in developmental psychology pays special attention to the difficulties met by preschool children when confronted with (universal vs. existential) quantified sentences. According to the pivotal Piagetian view, the difficulties exhibited in quantifier comprehension during the preoperational period (age 2-6) derive from the same limitations in logical reasoning that cause bad performance outcomes in class inclusion problems. Nevertheless, as far as we know, a direct comparison between the two tasks has never been produced. In this research we tested the logical hypotheses concerning the failure in quantifier comprehension of preschool children by administering a sentence-picture matching task to two groups of children (5-6 vs. 7-8 years old). Pictures, obtained by partially pairing two entity sets, one of which outnumbers the other, were presented to participants. After each picture, children were asked to answer questions involving quantified versus class inclusion contents. Main findings showed that younger children performed the quantifier task worse than older children and their performance in that task was also worse with respect to the class inclusion task. This difference was not observed with older children who obtained better results than younger children in both tasks. These findings suggest that the specific abilities involved in solving the two problems evolve independently from each other during cognitive development. The results have been discussed in the light of the recent developmental theories.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1037/xge0000954

Journal of experimental psychology. General

J Exp Psychol Gen

Explaining the implicit negations effect in conditional inference: Experience, probabilities, and contrast sets.

Psychologists are beginning to uncover the rational basis for many of the biases revealed over the last 50 years in deductive and causal reasoning, judgment, and decision making. In this article, it is argued that a manipulation, experiential learning, shown to be effective in judgment and decision making, may elucidate the rational underpinning of the implicit negation effect in conditional inference. In three experiments, this effect was created and removed by using probabilistically structured contrast sets acquired during a brief learning phase. No other theory of the implicit negations effect predicts these results, which can be modeled using Bayes nets as in causal approaches to category structure. It is also shown how these results relate to a recent development in the psychology of reasoning called "inferentialism." It is concluded that many of the same cognitive mechanisms that underpin causal reasoning, judgment and decision making may be common to logical reasoning, which may require no special purpose machinery or module. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.3390/diagnostics10090646

Diagnostics (Basel, Switzerland)

Diagnostics (Basel)

Elaboration of Screening Scales for Mental Development Problems Detection in Russian Preschool Children: Psychometric Approach.

computer-based screenings are usually used for early detection of a child's mental development problems. However, there are no such screenings in Russia yet. This study aimed to elaborate scales for rapid monitoring of mental development of 3-year-olds. 863 children took part in the study, among them 814 children of the group Norm, 49 children with developmental delay (DD), including 23 children with symptoms of autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). The multifactor study of mental development tool was used as a part of a software complex for longitudinal research for data collection. This study used a set of 233 tasks that were adequate for 3-year-olds. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis was used for the elaboration and factor validation of the scales. The structure of the relationship between scales and age was refined using structural equation modeling. as a result of the research, screening scales were elaborated: "Logical reasoning", "Motor skills", "General awareness", "Executive functions". The factor validity and reliability of scales were proved. The high discriminability of the scales in distinguishing the "Norm" and "DD" samples was revealed. The developed test norms take into account the child's age in days and allow identifying a "risk group" with an expected forecast accuracy of at least 90%. The obtained scales meet psychometric requirements for their application and allow creating an online screening system for wide application.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1007/s12262-020-02386-6

The Indian journal of surgery

Indian J Surg

Ignac Semmelweis-Father of Hand Hygiene.

Hungarian obstetrician Ignac Semmelweis (1818-1865) was one of the earliest clinical investigators of modern medical science. In nineteenth century Europe, puerperal fever (childbed fever) was a major clinical and public health problem with very high maternal mortality. It was thought to be caused by miasma, epidemicity, or the Will of Providence. Apart from bloodletting, there was no cure for it. Semmelweis cared for the childbed fever women during their illness, and when they died, he did autopsies on them. Astute clinical observations and logical reasoning goaded Semmelweis to suspect the role of "unholy" hands of "holy" physicians in the transmission of puerperal fever. He enforced a hand-washing policy for physicians. Those with unwashed hands were disallowed into labor room. The hand-washing practice for 1 year led to unprecedented decrease in maternal mortality. It enabled Semmelweis to establish a strong, specific, temporal causal association between unclean hands and puerperal fever. Although not accepted during his lifetime, this causal hypothesis contributed significantly to the understanding of etiopathophysiology of not only puerperal fever but also many other communicable diseases. Clinical hand washing, since then, has prevented millions of deaths of humankind. In the present times too, his idea of hand hygiene plays a central role in COVID-19 pandemic management. Authors present a brief account of life and work of this maverick genius, who was born "too early in the darkness." He is also called the "Father of infection control" and "Savior of mothers."

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1111/anec.12793

Annals of noninvasive electrocardiology : the official journal of the International Society for Holter and Noninvasive Electrocardiology, Inc

Ann Noninvasive Electrocardiol

"Unreasonable" ventricular pacings.

A 66-year-old man, implanted Abbott dual-chamber pacemaker, was admitted to our hospital due to recurrent palpitation. ECG was recorded on admission, which created a diagnostic confusion: What accounts for the appearance of the VP in the setting of a stable intrinsic atrioventricular (AV) conduction? In this case, we will focus on the logical reasoning in the analysis of Pacing ECG.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01710

Frontiers in psychology

Front Psychol

Is There a Rise in the Importance of Socioemotional Skills in the Labor Market? Evidence From a Trend Study Among College Graduates.

In this study, we examine whether socioemotional skills have become more important in the labor market within the past 14 years. To this end, we analyze data from a unique dataset on recent graduates from Dutch professional colleges ( = 67,000). Two different indicators of skill change are investigated, namely changes in the skill level required in the labor market and changes in the wage returns to these skills. The results indicate that socioemotional skills related to knowledge and innovation such as logical reasoning and information gathering, as well as skills related to working to plan and collaboration, have undergone a significant increase in terms of labor market requirements. We also observe an increase in the required level of the work-related skills digital literacy and occupation-specific knowledge. However, significant increases in wage returns are only observed for socioemotional skills related to knowledge and innovation. The labor market importance of socioemotional skills appears to be only modestly affected by business cycle effects.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.3390/ijerph17165776

International journal of environmental research and public health

Int J Environ Res Public Health

The Impact of Natural Elements on Environmental Comfort in the Iranian-Islamic Historical City of Isfahan.

Cities directly influence microclimates. As the urbanization expands, and the green spaces diminish, the heat islands begin to emerge. An old technique used during the past centuries-in both hot and dry climates of the central cities of Iran-was the moderation of microclimates via water and plants. With a diachronic approach to the study of the historical Chahar Bagh Street in Isfahan, this paper investigates the impact of the structural changes on its microclimate in three different scenarios, i.e., the street with its features during the Safavid Era (from 1501 to 1736); the street in its current status; and finally a probable critical condition resulting from complete elimination of natural elements from the environment. The mixed strategy used in this study relies on logical reasoning and software-assisted evaluation for comparing the three scenarios. The predicted mean vote (PMV) model was used for measuring thermal comfort. The results indicate that the evaluated comfort-providing area in the Safavid scenario is 7-17 times more favorable than the others. Moreover, the temperature in the contemporary era was found to be 1.5 degrees Celsius cooler than that of the critical status scenario.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1097/JXX.0000000000000464

Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners

J Am Assoc Nurse Pract

Integrating strategies for improving diagnostic reasoning and error reduction.

Errors of diagnostic reasoning contribute significantly to patient harm. Students, novice diagnosticians, and even experienced clinicians often have difficulty understanding or describing the processes of diagnostic reasoning. Inappropriate use of cognitive heuristics and poor logical reasoning by novice or experienced diagnosticians may result in missed or delayed diagnoses. Reduction of diagnostic errors through knowledge acquisition, self-reflection, and check lists has individually demonstrated some improvements in diagnostic reasoning. Implementing the diagnostic and reasoning tool (DaRT), a method of reasoning which integrates the evidence-based strategies of knowledge acquisition, metacognition, and logical reasoning skills throughout the patient encounter, results in improvement in diagnostic reasoning in advanced practice nurses. Use of the DaRT in one university setting resulted in significant improvement in advanced health assessment skills and diagnostic reasoning abilities as demonstrated by improvements of 28-55% end-of-program Health Education Systems Incorporated scores. Translation into practice settings may further support the use of this multiple-modality tool.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1371/journal.pone.0236153

PloS one

PLoS One

Does mathematics training lead to better logical thinking and reasoning? A cross-sectional assessment from students to professors.

Mathematics is often promoted as endowing those who study it with transferable skills such as an ability to think logically and critically or to have improved investigative skills, resourcefulness and creativity in problem solving. However, there is scant evidence to back up such claims. This project tested participants with increasing levels of mathematics training on 11 well-studied rational and logical reasoning tasks aggregated from various psychological studies. These tasks, that included the Cognitive Reflection Test and the Wason Selection Task, are of particular interest as they have typically and reliably eluded participants in all studies, and results have been uncorrelated with general intelligence, education levels and other demographic information. The results in this study revealed that in general the greater the mathematics training of the participant, the more tasks were completed correctly, and that performance on some tasks was also associated with performance on others not traditionally associated. A ceiling effect also emerged. The work is deconstructed from the viewpoint of adding to the platform from which to approach the greater, and more scientifically elusive, question: are any skills associated with mathematics training innate or do they arise from skills transfer?

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning

10.1016/j.nedt.2020.104542

Nurse education today

Nurse Educ Today

Using unfolding case studies to develop critical thinking skills in baccalaureate nursing students: A pilot study.

Research has consistently demonstrated that new graduate nurses do not possess sufficient critical thinking skills when they transition to clinical practice. Unfolding case studies encourage students to participate in a number of critical thinking skills including information-seeking, logical reasoning, and analyzing of clinical data. The aim of this study was to determine how the use of unfolding case studies as a learning modality affected baccalaureate students' critical thinking skills in their Adult Health Theory course. The researcher compared course examination scores earned by nursing students who were taught using traditional case studies to scores obtained by nursing students who completed unfolding case studies. The pilot study took place at a moderate-sized comprehensive university in Wisconsin. A non-experimental correlational design using course examination scores data was employed to examine how the use of unfolding case studies as a learning modality affected baccalaureate students' critical thinking skills in their Adult Health Theory course. A total of 160 students comprised the intervention group while an additional 142 students represented the control group in the study. An independent-samples t-test was performed to explore differences in mean scores between the intervention and control groups. Results of the t-test indicate that mean examination scores were significantly higher for the intervention group (M = 234.9, SD = 13.1) than for the control group (M = 228.2, SD = 13.3); t(299) =, p < .001. Results of this study suggest that unfolding case studies more effectively develop students' critical thinking skills than do a more traditional, static case study.

CognitiveConstruct

LogicalReasoning