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[ "The proposal to introduce foreign language study to students in their first years of school is misguided. Young students should master their own language first and learn basic mathematics before studying a foreign language. No one suggests teaching calculus before arithmetic.", "It is foolish to require lab workers to wear safety goggles when working with acids and other dangerous liquids. No one suggests that people stop eating or socializing, even though more people become ill due to food poisoning and contagious diseases than are injured in laboratory accidents.", "The recommendation that this company replace the radio communication system in our fleet of trucks with an entirely new system is unwise. Most of our trucks are scheduled to be replaced by the end of next year, so updating the communication system then would be more cost effective.", "It is silly to recommend that test pilots give up cigarette smoking. Their risk of death from other causes is so high that it is unlikely they will live long enough to develop lung cancer." ]

[ "attempts to undermine the legislators' credibility instead of addressing their argument", "generalizes from a sample that is unlikely to be representative of public sentiment", "presumes, without providing justification, that the people surveyed based their responses on a random sampling of movies", "fails to consider the possibility that violent movies increase the prevalence of antisocial behavior" ]

[ "None of the claims that the instructor made about the paintings was true.", "Each of the students would like most of the paintings hanging in any prestigious museum.", "Most of the students would not like any work of art that they believed to have been produced by an unknown amateur.", "In judging the paintings, some of the students were affected by what they had been told about the history of the paintings." ]

[ "Any play that skillfully examines human nature will be performed regularly over the centuries.", "There were no plays written last year that the drama critic has neither read nor seen performed.", "No play will be popular several centuries from now unless it continues to be performed regularly during the intervening time.", "For a play to deserve high critical acclaim it must be popular for more than just a few years." ]

[ "LaForte must have deeply resented being passed over for promotion. He maintains otherwise, but only someone who felt badly treated would have made the kind of remark LaForte made at yesterday's meeting.", "Smith must not have purchased his house within the last year. He is listed as the owner of that house on the old list of property owners, and anyone on the old list could not have purchased his or her property within the last year.", "Turner must not have taken her usual train to Nantes today. Had she done so, she could not have been in Nantes until this afternoon, but she was seen having coffee in Nantes at 11 o'clock this morning.", "Norris must have lied when she said that she had not authorized the investigation. There is no doubt that she did authorize it, and authorizing an investigation is not something anyone is likely to have forgotten." ]

[ "it mistakes probability for certainty.", "it relies on an inappropriate authority.", "it makes a hasty generalization.", "it uses a term unclearly." ]

[ "A candidate decides to campaign in the areas of the city where the most new votes are concentrated. The candidate reasons that campaigning in other areas is unnecessary because in those areas the candidate's message is actually liable to alienate voters.", "A well inspector has a limited amount of time to inspect the wells of a town. The inspector reasons that the wells should be inspected in the order of most used to least used, because there might not be enough time to inspect them all.", "A mechanic must replace the worn brakes on a company's vans that are used each weekday. The mechanic reasons that since one of the vans is tentatively scheduled to be junked, he will not have to replace its brakes.", "None of the children in a certain kindergarten class will take responsibility for the crayon drawing on the classroom wall. The teacher reasons that it is best to keep all the kindergarten children in during recess in order to be certain to punish the one who did the drawing on the wall." ]

[ "The first presents a development that the argument Predicts will have a certain outcome, the second acknowledges a consideration that tends to weigh against that prediction", "The first and the second each provide evidence to support the arguments main conclusion", "The first supplies a context for the argument; the second is the arguments main conclusion", "The first introduces a development that the argument predicts will have a certain outcome, the second is a state of affairs that, according to the argument contributes to bringing about that outcome" ]

[ "The mental skills developed through playing computer games do not contribute significantly to children's intellectual development.", "Passive activities such as watching television and listening to music do not hinder the development of communication skills in children.", "Formal instruction contributes little or nothing to children's acquisition of communication skills.", "Children who do not spend all of their after-school hours playing computer games spend at least some of that time talking with other people." ]

[ "The review process is expensive and practically always results in approval of the prescribed procedure.", "Patients often register dissatisfaction with physicians who prescribe nothing for their ailments.", "The number of members of the company-appointed review panel who review a given procedure depends on the cost of the procedure.", "Physicians often prescribe special procedures that are helpful but not altogether necessary for the health of the patient." ]

[ "tabloid magazines ever derive news stories from conventional sources", "the news is any less conventional in tabloid magazines than in weekly newsmagazines", "more newsmagazines than tabloid magazines are sold by subscription", "any magazine ever reports conventional news about celebrities" ]

[ "Whether there are boats that can make the trip between the mainland and Burland faster than barges can", "Whether most trucks transporting goods into Burland return to the mainland empty", "Whether loading the freight cars onto barges is very time consuming", "Whether transportation by train and barge would be substantially less expensive than transportation by truck." ]

[ "The argument rejects a claim by attacking the proponents of the claim rather than addressing the claim itself.", "The argument uses evidence drawn from a sample that is unlikely to be representative of the general population.", "The argument fails to make a needed distinction between how people should have voted and how they actually voted.", "The argument presumes the truth of the conclusion that it sets out to prove." ]

[ "A nation that can set the terms of its dealings with other nations is certain to be a world leader.", "A nation that has no dealings with any other nation cannot be a world leader.", "A nation that has the terms of its dealings with another nation set by that nation cannot be a world leader.", "A nation that does not lend to any other nation cannot be a world leader." ]

[ "Children can learn to count without understanding the meaning of numbers.", "Familiarity with a concept is not always sufficient for knowing the words used to express it.", "Songs are useful in helping children remember the order in which familiar words occur.", "There are some things that children cannot learn without the aid of songs." ]

[ "If the economy grows stronger, the number of new day-care workers will not be significantly greater than the number of day-care workers who move to better-paying jobs in other fields.", "If the economy grows stronger, most of the new jobs that are created will be in fields that pay well.", "The total number of young children in day-care centers will decrease if the cost of day care increases significantly.", "If the economy grows stronger, the number of workers employed by day-care centers is likely to decrease." ]

[ "It fails to consider the possibility that there was more than one practical joker.", "It fails to indicate the degree to which handwriting samples should look alike in order to be considered of the same source.", "It takes for granted that if the handwriting on the note had been Miller's, then the identity of the joker would have been ascertained to be Miller.", "It provides no explanation for why Miller should be the prime suspect." ]

[ "dentists should be willing to schedule an after-hours appointment for anyone who asks", "situations involving friends and situations involving others should be considered relevantly similar cases", "Aristotle recognizes that friendship sometimes morally outweighs justice", "Aristotle's principle of justice is widely applicable" ]

[ "there are enough retina scanners to store information about every person's retinas", "the number of blood vessels in the human retina is invariant, although the patterns they form differ from person to person", "there is no person whose retinas have been scanned by two or more different retina scanners", "diseases of the human eye do not alter the pattern of blood vessels in the retina in ways that would make the pattern unrecognizable to the retina scanner" ]

[ "Red lights on the tentacles of a newly discovered deep-sea creature are shaped like a common food source for small, deep-sea fish.", "Scientists generally believe that deep-sea creatures cannot detect red light.", "Scientists need to reconsider the belief that deep- sea creatures cannot detect red light.", "A foot-long deep-sea creature of the genus Erenna has been discovered recently." ]

[ "inferring from the claim that two phenomena have fluctuated together that one of those phenomena must be the sole cause of the other", "inferring from records concerning a past correlation between two phenomena that that correlation still exists", "inferring from records concerning two phenomena the existence of a common cause of the phenomena and then presenting a hypothesis about that common cause", "inferring from a claimed correlation between two phenomena that two other phenomena are causally connected to one another" ]

[ "A home's sellers are morally obliged to include with the sale of the home at least some of the appliances that are not permanent fixtures but were in the home when it was shown to prospective buyers.", "A home's sellers are morally obliged to ensure that prospective buyers of the home do not assume that any large appliances are permanent fixtures in the home.", "If a home's sellers have indicated in some way that a large appliance is included with the home's purchase, then they are morally obliged not to remove that appliance after showing the home.", "If a home's sellers will be keeping any belongings that prospective buyers of the home might assume would be included with the purchase of the home, the sellers are morally obliged to indicate clearly that those belongings are not included." ]

[ "Adobe is an especially suitable material to use for building houses in desert environments.", "Because adobe conducts heat very slowly, adobe houses maintain a pleasant, constant temperature.", "In the desert, adobe buildings remain cool during the heat of the day but retain the warmth of the sun during the cool evenings.", "Ideally, a material used for building houses in desert environments should enable those houses to maintain a pleasant, constant temperature." ]

[ "feeling involved in an activity or vocation is essential to happiness and a sense of wellbeing", "the participants in the study mentioned in the paragraph above who embarked on a new career all reported continuing to feel relatively happy with their lives ten years after the death of their spouses", "work, or engaging in time and energy-consuming activities, can often lead to depression in otherwise healthy people", "other studies found that grieving widows and widowers who adopted pets were more likely to avoid depression and report living a normal life after the deaths of their spouses" ]

[ "Any corporation should allow its employees to take time off when they are under too much stress to concentrate on their work. Some corporations allow any employee with a bad cold to take time off, and even a healthy employee under stress may be less productive than an unstressed employee with a bad cold.", "Marielle and Pat should allow their children to have snacks between meals. They currently allow their children to have a large dessert after dinner, and allowing them to have snacks between meals instead would improve their nutrition.", "It should be illegal for anyone to smoke in a public place, for it certainly should be illegal to pollute public drinking water, and smoking even in the privacy of one's home can be more harmful to the health of others than polluting their water would be.", "Amusement parks should allow people to stand while riding roller coasters. It is legal for people to stand at the edges of high cliffs, and even sitting at the edge of a high cliff is more likely to result in a fatal fall than standing while riding a roller coaster." ]

[ "Different land-based predators are responsible for different numbers of vervet monkey deaths.", "Vervet monkeys avoid land-based predators by climbing trees but avoid predation from the air by diving into foliage.", "Certain land-based predators feed only on vervet monkeys, whereas every predator that attacks vervet monkeys from the air feeds on many different animals.", "No predators that pose a danger to vervet monkeys can attack both from land and from the air." ]

[ "Any company that is successful will inevitably induce competitors to enter the market.", "It is unlikely that several competing companies will engage in predatory pricing simultaneously.", "It is only competition or the threat of competition that keeps companies from raising prices.", "Any pricing practice that does not result in unreasonable prices should be acceptable." ]

[ "Human bodies vary in the amount of physical stress they can handle comfortably.", "Some organ damage results from any exercise that is more stressful than one's body can handle comfortably.", "Younger athletes can exercise harder before their bodies begin to put any energy into preventing organ damage than older athletes can.", "Any physical stress will improve fitness as long as the body does not have to put most of its energy into preventing organ damage." ]

[ "Because hormone levels are correlated with heart disease they influence heart disease.", "Hormones are the primary factors that account for the differences in age-related heart disease risks between women and men.", "Men with high testosterone levels have a greater risk for heart disease than do postmenopausal women.", "Hormone levels do not vary from person to person, especially among those of the same age and gender." ]

[ "The family members of the organizer of the contest were not permitted to participate in the contest.", "The contest entry forms were submitted at a consistent rate throughout the registration period .", "The rules of the contest were posted conspicuously by those who organized the contest.", "The manner in which the contest winner would be selected was publicized prior to the selection of the winner." ]

[ "It demonstrates awareness of a fact on which a possible objection might be based.", "It illustrates a general principle on which the argument relies.", "It presents a reason that directly supports the conclusion.", "It justifies the difference in the actual outcome in the two cases." ]

[ "pointing out that if a provision applies in a specific situation, it must apply in any analogous situation", "considering two possible interpretations of a proposed legal regulation and eliminating the less plausible one", "showing that two different provisions of the proposed Factory Safety Act conflict and thus cannot apply to a particular situation", "pointing out how two provisions of the proposed Factory Safety Act jointly entail the unacceptability of a certain state of affairs" ]

[ "Infotek achieved the lower price of the new model by using components of lower quality than those used by other manufacturers.", "The main reason cited by consumers in Katrovia for replacing a personal computer is the desire to have an improved model.", "Katrovians in households that already have computers are unlikely to purchase the new Infotek model as an additional computer for home use.", "Most personal computers purchased in Katrovia are intended for home use." ]

[ "No members of the city council will vote in favor of the proposal.", "If one member of the city council ought to vote against the proposal, the other members should abstain in the vote on the proposal.", "The proposal should not be decided by the city's voters.", "If not every member of the city council abstains in the vote on the proposal, the matter will not be decided by the city's voters." ]

[ "takes for granted that one should accept some beliefs related to survival even when given adequate evidence against them", "overlooks the possibility that some large sets of beliefs are more correct overall than are some small sets of beliefs", "takes for granted that the beliefs we need in order to have many beliefs must all be correct beliefs", "presumes, without providing any justification, that the surest way of increasing the overall correctness of the total set of one's beliefs must not hinder one's ability to survive" ]

[ "At least some consumers who use a computer offered free of charge by advertisers for browsing the Internet spend more money on purchases from those advertisers than they would if they did not use such a computer to browse the Internet.", "The advertisers would not be able to offer the computers absolutely free of charge if advertisements that accurately reflected the interests of the computers' users did not play continuously across the computers' screens whenever they were in use.", "No advertisers could offer promotions that give away computers free of charge if consumers never used those computers to browse the Internet.", "There are at least some consumers who browse the Internet using computers offered free of charge by the advertisers and who, if they did not use those computers to browse the Internet, would spend little if any money on purchases from those advertisers." ]

[ "If asteroids repeatedly pummel the same spots, the beating may affect the flow of molten rock inside the earth, which would affect the degree to which continents drift around the earth's surface.", "Lumpy masses within the earth cause gravitational interactions with approaching asteroids that force them into specific orbits before impact.", "The impact craters that form a halo-like swath across the Northern Hemisphere were the result of a single cluster of meteors striking the earth.", "No similar pattern of impact craters was created during any other period of the earth's history." ]

[ "No organism resists cancer better than sharks do, but some resist cancer as well as sharks.", "The substance in shark cartilage that inhibits tumor growth is found in most organisms.", "The organism most susceptible to cancer has a higher percentage of cartilage than some organisms that are less susceptible to cancer.", "In the past 20 years many terminal cancer patients have improved dramatically following many sorts of therapy." ]

[ "It fails to present contrary evidence.", "It requires confirmation that the change in the professor's students is representative of a change among college students in general.", "It offers no proof to the effect that the professor is an accurate judge of writing ability.", "It does not take into account the possibility that the professor is a poor teacher." ]

[ "The fifteen-year-old civil war in Shagoca has caused significant setbacks for many foreign investments.", "The diamond mines in Shagoca are located close to population centers, which would allow for easy transport", "In certain states in Shagoca, profit from diamond mining is as heavily taxed as it is in the United States", "Diamond mining in climates closer to the equator, such as that in Shagoca, is much easier than diamond mining in regions where the soil is frozen most of the year" ]

[ "Ticks do not suffer any adverse consequences from carrying the bacterium that causes Lyme disease in humans.", "A single host animal can be the source of bacteria for many tick larvae.", "A deer tick feeds only once while in the larval stage.", "There are no known cases of a human's contracting Lyme disease through contact with white-footed mice." ]

[ "If an argument for preserving nature emphasizes a specific characteristic of nature and is vulnerable to logical objections, then that characteristic does not provide a sufficient reason for preserving nature.", "An argument in favor of preserving nature will be less open to logical objections if it avoids the issue of what makes nature worth preserving.", "An argument for preserving nature will be less open to logical objections if it appeals to a characteristic that can be regarded as a basis for preserving nature and that philosophically indisputably belongs to nature.", "If it is philosophically disputable whether nature has a certain characteristic, then nature would be more clearly worth preserving if it did not have that characteristic." ]

[ "Social interaction of the kind not engaged in by most clinically depressed people is known to stimulate left lobe activity.", "Excessive sleep, a typical consequence of clinical depression, is known to suppress left lobe activity.", "Many drugs prescribed to combat clinical depression act by causing increased left lobe activity.", "Frontal lobe activity is not subject to variation the way general disposition is." ]

[ "It is acceptable for people to have access to a vast array of misinformation only if accurate information is never overlooked as a result.", "Regulation of information makes it easy for people to distinguish between accurate information and misinformation.", "It is usually more desirable for people to have access to useless, unregulated misinformation than it is for them to have access only to accurate but regulated information.", "It is never possible to regulate misinformation without restricting people's access to accurate information." ]

[ "The amount of the chemical in grapefruit juice is highly unpredictable from glass to glass.", "Long before the chemical in grapefruit juice was identified, doctors were advising patients who took certain medicines to avoid grapefruit juice.", "When scientists removed the chemical from grapefruit juice, the juice no longer affected how certain medicines were absorbed.", "Grapefruit juice is less expensive than most of the medicines with which it interacts." ]

[ "Some people who like each other are not fully content in each other's presence.", "Some people who are kind to each other do not treat each other with respect.", "Some people who want each other to prosper dislike each other.", "Some people who are fully content in each other's presence do not want each other to prosper." ]

[ "Adequate calcium intake helps prevent the decrease in bone mass known as osteoporosis.", "The more a food is processed, the more the fiber is broken down and the lower the fiber content.", "Many foodstuffs that are excellent sources of fiber are economical and readily available.", "Among adults, the average consumption of dietary fiber is at present approximately 10 grams a day." ]

[ "Most people are unlikely to follow their doctor's advice unless they can vividly imagine the consequences of not following the advice.", "People are especially likely to ignore the advice they get from doctors if they are confused about that advice.", "The tendency people have to alter their behavior varies inversely with the number of alternatives available to them for behavior modification.", "In getting good results, the clarity with which a doctor instructs a patient is of equal importance to the accuracy of the doctor's diagnosis on which that instruction is based." ]

[ "National leaders are most likely to undertake reforms early in a new government.", "National leaders who immediately respond to problems upon taking office should be given enough time to succeed at solving them.", "National leaders who stay in power too long tend to deny responsibility for problems that they could have dealt with earlier.", "National leaders should be removed from office every few years by the voting in of new leaders." ]

[ "presupposes as a premise what it is trying to establish", "relies inappropriately on expert testimony", "mistakes something that enables an institution to arise for something necessary to the institution", "confuses the value of an institution with the medium by which it operates" ]

[ "The more severe a patient's nearsightedness, the less effective the corneal reshaping of RK will be in correcting the problem.", "RK patients who originally suffered from only mild nearsightedness may, if the cornea does not heal evenly, develop an astigmatism that requires corrective lenses.", "As the eye heals from an operation to correct nearsightedness, it may in fact overcorrect, causing the person to be farsighted.", "Those who choose to undergo RK tend to be as nearsighted before this operation as those who choose not to undergo RK." ]

[ "The term \"neat\" has changed its meaning only once in the history of English.", "The term \"neat\" has been in the English language for many centuries.", "The original meaning of an English word is the only correct meaning to use.", "The use of \"neat\" as a general term of approval is a recent innovation in English." ]

[ "Some of the consumers in the taste test preferred the flavor of the established brand.", "The other soft drink used in the taste test is also manufactured by Company X.", "The name of the new soft drink is very close to that of the established brand.", "The new soft drink will cost more than three times as much as any other soft drink on the market." ]

[ "The cost of each cork used in bottling Veritas Vineyards wine is currently greater than the cost of each glass bottle itself.", "Each bottle of Veritas Vineyards wine that is sold today brings the winegrower less profit than did each bottle sold in 1991.", "The aggregate profit generated by the winegrower's sales of Veritas Vineyards wine this year is smaller than the aggregate profit generated in 1991.", "The number of bottles of Veritas Vineyards wine sold has remained unchanged between 1991 and the present." ]

[ "No predator relies on the delta green ground beetle for a major portion of its food supply.", "The only habitat of delta green ground beetles is around pools formed by the collection of winter rains in low-lying areas.", "Because of their excellent camouflage, delta green ground beetles are almost impossible to see if they are not moving.", "Delta green ground beetles move about very little to get food; most of their moving from one place to another is related to their reproductive behavior." ]

[ "the concentration of histidine in the growing herb declines as the plant approaches maturity", "cultivation of the herb in soil with high concentrations of the metals will, over an extended period, make the soil suitable for plants to which the metals are toxic", "histidine is found in all parts of the plant-roots, stem, leaves, and flowers", "others of the closely related group of plants are also found to produce histidine in large quantities" ]

[ "The results of decades of breeding practices cannot be quickly undone.", "In the past, viral infections and mites have devastated genetically diverse honeybee populations.", "The genetic diversity of the honeybee population continues to decline.", "Lack of genetic diversity can make honeybees more vulnerable to adverse conditions." ]

[ "When television executives decide which shows to renew, they do so primarily in terms of the shows' ratings among people aged 25 and under.", "The expense of television advertising slots makes it crucial for companies to target people who are most likely to purchase their products.", "Those who make decisions about television advertising believe that people older than 25 almost never change their buying habits.", "When companies advertise consumer products in print media, they focus primarily on people aged 26 and over." ]

[ "anyone whose brain cells are susceptible to injury will eventually develop Alzheimer's disease", "a decline in testosterone level puts one at increased risk for Alzheimer's disease", "whether a person develops Alzheimer's disease is dependent entirely on the level of beta-amyloid in his or her brain", "only people with Alzheimer's disease are at risk for injury to brain cells" ]

[ "The function of a movie reviewer is different from that of a film critic.", "If a movie reviewer is good, he or she should be able to give favorable reviews of movies that are not to his or her taste.", "The role of movie reviewers is to help people determine which movies they might enjoy seeing, not to help people better appreciate movies.", "Movie reviewers' tastes in movies are very different from and usually better informed than those of most moviegoers." ]

[ "The number of letters delivered is relevant to measuring the productivity of postal workers.", "The quality of services rendered can appropriately be ignored in computing productivity.", "The delivery of letters is the primary activity of the postal service.", "Postal workers are representative of service workers in general." ]

[ "A trait that is a weakness in some settings can contribute to greatness in other settings.", "The success of a group enterprise depends on the ability of the leader to recognize the weaknesses of others in the group.", "People without forceful personalities cannot become great leaders in a field.", "The production of any great work requires contributions from those who are unimaginative but technically skilled." ]

[ "What proportion of people who live near high-voltage power lines believe that those fines may cause health problems", "What is the average strength of magnetic fields in workplaces that are not located near high-voltage power lines", "Whether magnetic fields in homes that are not located near high-voltage power lines can cause health problems for the residents of those homes", "What specific diseases or conditions are suspected by some researchers to result from exposure to magnetic fields from high-voltage power lines" ]

[ "Images of paranoia presented in films made in a period reflect trends in social science of that period.", "Paranoia is a condition that keeps changing along with changes in society.", "The shift in perception by social scientists from the 1960s to the 1970s resulted from an inability to find a successful cure for paranoia.", "The world is becoming more and more threatening." ]

[ "Those who use sunscreens most regularly are people who believe themselves to be most susceptible to skin cancer.", "Most people who purchase a sunscreen product will not purchase the most expensive brand available.", "Skin cancer generally develops among the very old as a result of sunburns experienced when very young.", "The development of sunscreens by pharmaceutical companies was based upon research conducted by dermatologists." ]

[ "The right of businesses to self-determination overrides whatever right or duty the government may have to protect the individual.", "It is the duty of private businesses to protect employees from harm in the workplace.", "Government intrusion into the policies and rules of private businesses is justified only when individuals might be harmed.", "The right of individuals to breathe safe air supersedes the right of businesses to be free from government intrusion." ]

[ "a reason for not rejecting Earth's status as an organism on the basis of its not breathing", "an example of a type of organism whose status, like Earth's, is unclear", "an illustration of a type of organism out of which Earth is composed", "a reason for rejecting as false the belief that Earth is a living organism" ]

[ "Financial reward is the only incentive that will be effective in motivating people to develop new inventions.", "When an inventor sells patent rights to a manufacturer, the manufacturer makes less total profit on the invention than the inventor does.", "The length of a patent right is usually proportional to the costs involved in inventing the product.", "Any costs incurred by a typical inventor in applying for patent rights are insignificant in comparison to the financial benefit of holding the patent rights." ]

[ "whether Megapolis was once a great city", "why Megapolis is no longer a well-run city", "whether vision and wisdom are important in urban administration", "what the best explanation is for Megapolis' past glory" ]

[ "Physical theories can explain only physical phenomena.", "Consciousness arises from processes that are entirely explainable by physical theories.", "An explanation of physical structures and functions must be formulated in strictly physical terms.", "An explanation of consciousness must encompass more than an explanation of physical structures and functions." ]

[ "Some of the violent inmates who took part in the experiment had committed a large number of violent crimes.", "Many young offenders have reported that they had consumed a low-nutrient food sometime in the days before they committed a violent crime.", "Dietary changes are easier and cheaper to implement than any other type of reform program in institutions for young offenders.", "The violent inmates in the institution who were not placed on a high-nutrient diet did not show an improvement in behavior." ]

[ "The highway projects canceled in districts controlled by the President's party were not generally more expensive than the projects canceled in districts controlled by opposition parties.", "The scheduled highway projects identified as wasteful in the report were not mostly projects in districts controlled by the President's party.", "The number of projects canceled was a significant proportion of all the highway projects that were to be undertaken by the government in the near future.", "Canceling highway projects was not the only way for the President to punish legislative districts controlled by opposition parties." ]

[ "There is no company that successfully competes with Ace Repairs for complex repair jobs.", "Ace Repairs does not in any way penalize mechanics who have worked on complex repair jobs that later had to be reworked.", "There is no category of repair jobs in which Ace Repairs invariably carries out first-time jobs satisfactorily.", "There is no systematic difference in membership between the group of mechanics who do first-time jobs and the group of those who do rework jobs." ]

[ "More people who lose their jobs start up their own businesses.", "In the recent recession a large number of failing companies abruptly ceased all operations.", "The recent recession contributed to the growing preponderance of service jobs over manufacturing jobs.", "More jobs are lost in a recession than in a period of growth." ]

[ "In the past, doctors did not accept, let alone demand, high fees from the provincial governments.", "Doctors in Canada are perceived by critics as being less competent than they used to be.", "Without the public esteem doctors previously enjoyed, fewer Canadians will become doctors.", "Doctors in Canada are perceived by critics as not being sufficiently devoted to the interest of others." ]

[ "many lawmakers would forgo higher salaries as heads of charities rather than see the nation's finances handled imprudently", "many lawmakers are heads of charities only to receive salaries based on government subsidies", "many lawmakers' opportunistic instincts might prevent them from handling the nation's finances prudently with respect to deciding charitable subsidies", "many heads of charities are undeserving of higher salaries" ]

[ "Some species of higher animals containing both female and male members are not very adaptive.", "Some offspring of species of higher animals containing both female and male members have genetic codes more similar to one parent than to the other parent.", "There are some species of higher animals none of whose members produce eggs.", "There are some species of salamanders that have both male and female members." ]

[ "Research shows that workers whose training is wholly or partially subsidized by their employer tend to get at least as much training as do workers who pay for all their own training.", "In many industries, employees who take continuing-education courses are more competitive in the job market.", "Firms that promise opportunities for advancement to their employees get, on average, somewhat larger numbers of job applications from untrained workers than do firms that make no such promise.", "For most firms that invest in training their employees, the value added by that investment in employees who stay exceeds the value lost through other employees' leaving to work for other companies." ]

[ "reaches a conclusion about the performance of one member of a group merely on the basis of the performance of the group as a whole", "takes for granted that an employee who has an unproductive year will not be exceptionally productive in subsequent years", "overlooks the possibility that a corporation as a whole can have a profitable year even though one division of the corporation does not", "fails to justify its use of one group's performance as the basis for a conclusion about a wholly different group" ]

[ "The chief consideration when selecting a gift is that the gift reflect the giver.", "Only people who largely agree in matters of taste should exchange gifts.", "Every gift accepted incurs an obligation on the part of the recipient to reciprocate with a gift of equal value at a later date.", "Except in the most perfunctory gift-giving situations, people should consider the needs of the recipient when selecting a gift." ]

[ "Lutz's record contains nothing that would increase McConnell's chances of winning, and she runs against him.", "Lutz's record contains scandalous items, and McConnell does not run against him.", "Lutz does not have a large campaign fund, and McConnell does not run against him.", "Lutz's record contains items that would increase McConnell's chances of winning, and she runs against him." ]

[ "In high concentrations, the compounds are toxic to many types of marine animals.", "The levels of the compounds typically used in boat paints today are lower than they were in boat paints manufactured a decade ago.", "High tissue levels of the compounds have recently been found in some marine animals, but there is no record of any of those animals dying in unusually large numbers recently.", "The compounds break down into harmless substances after a few months of exposure to water or air." ]

[ "The more educated that people are about the ethical usage of the Internet, the greater the amount of harm that they can do to others.", "People feel morally constrained from doing an action only if that action causes harm to others.", "Education about the ethical use of a tool increases one's sense of moral responsibility regarding its use.", "People who harm others through impersonal means are no less culpable for their actions than are people who harm others in person." ]

[ "since all scarves are at least somewhat decorative, it is likely that when scarves were first adopted, they were purely decorative", "since the judges in a baking contest did not have uniform criteria for selecting a winner, the cake that won is probably a bad one", "since some foods have very little nutritional value, people who include those foods in their diets are probably malnourished", "since some people who fish seldom catch any fish, they probably have some reason for fishing other than catching fish" ]

[ "It is a generalization for which the claim that superconductor development will enable energy to be transported farther with less energy lost in transit is offered as an illustration.", "It is a conclusion for which the claim that shipping costs for fossil fuels are partly a function of the losses of material in transit is offered as partial support.", "It is a premise offered to support the claim that oil and natural gas have replaced coal as the primary fossil fuels used in North America.", "It is cited as evidence that shipping costs are a function of the distances fossil fuels are shipped and the losses of material in transit." ]

[ "Whether there are insecticides that can be used against bollworms that have developed resistance to the insecticide produced by the bioengineered cotton", "Whether plantings of cotton that does not produce the insecticide are suffering unusually extensive damage from bollworms this year", "Whether corn could be bioengineered to produce the insecticide", "Whether other crops that have been bioengineered to produce their own insecticide successfully resist the pests against which the insecticide was to protect them" ]

[ "whether the fact that a language is the native language of many North Americans justifies prohibiting its use to fulfill the university's foreign language requirement", "whether any other universities in North America permit their students to fulfill a foreign language requirement by learning American Sign Language", "whether American Sign Language is the native language of a significant number of North Americans", "whether any North American whose native language is not English should be allowed to fulfill the university's foreign language requirement by studying his or her own native language" ]

[ "The amount of money that the city paid the consultant over the last year greatly exceeded the cost of the improvements to the mayor's house.", "The building contractor in charge of the improvements to the mayor 's house had done business with the city in the past.", "The mayor was aware that many of the bills were being presented to the consultant rather than to the mayor.", "Authorities are investigating the consultant for taking bribes from officials of other cities." ]

[ "It assumes, without providing justification, that those artists with political insight do not have insight into matters outside of politics.", "It assumes, without providing justification, that because people who have one quality tend to have a second quality, those who have more of the first quality will have more of the second.", "It assumes, without providing justification, that only great individuals can make discerning criticisms of their societies.", "It assumes, without providing justification, that because something is sometimes the case it must always be the case." ]

[ "Due to sheer distances and expanses of space involved, any extraterrestrial civilization would have great difficulty communicating with ours.", "Detecting planets outside our solar system requires more sophisticated instruments than are currently available.", "There are many stars that are not orbited by planets.", "Forms of life other than life as we know it exist on other planets." ]

[ "The textbook company does not routinely make donations to academic departments that use its books.", "The members of the textbook committee were favorably influenced toward the textbook by the prospect of their department receiving a large donation.", "In the previous year, a different textbook from the same company was used in the introductory course.", "The department has a long-standing policy of using only textbooks that receive the committee's highest rating." ]

[ "Interest rates might in exceptional cases be reduced without there being any subsequent investment of new capital.", "Manufacturing capacity newly created by capital investment needs to be fully utilized if it is to lead to industrial growth.", "If a country's manufacturing capacity is underutilized, interest rates should be held constant.", "A reduction in interest rates might cause a precondition for industrial growth to be met." ]

[ "The pythons are inexpensively priced because many of them suffer from the liver disease.", "Pythons hatched in neither Africa nor North America are not afflicted with the liver disease.", "Some pythons hatched in North America may appear fine but will die within six months as a result of the liver disease.", "Pythons that hatch in Africa are more susceptible to the liver disease than are pythons that hatch in North America." ]

[ "If few individuals of the indicator species die during the test period, the country will not take action on water pollution.", "If, after the test, the country does not require that pollution levels be reduced, then few or none of the individuals of the indicator species died as a result of the test.", "Under the new rules, certain small species will be introduced into water samples taken from 2, 000 sites around the country.", "In the country in question, there are 1, 550 factories and sewage treatment plants that discharge pollutants illegally." ]

[ "Protection of forests and their ecosystems is the only legitimate reason for attempting to prevent or control forest fires.", "Human intervention in natural processes tends to reduce the biological diversity of ecosystems.", "Forest fires begun by careless campers should be the target of human fire control efforts.", "Humans tend to view forests as well as other ecosystems as instruments for the satisfaction of human needs." ]

[ "With the Roadmaker, a crew can repave a mile of decayed road in less time than with the competing model, which is, however, much less expensive. Reduced staffing levels made possible by the Roadmaker eventually compensate for its higher price. Ttherefore, the Roadmaker is especially advantageous where average wages are low.", "For retail food stores, the Polar freezer, unlike the Arctic freezer, provides a consistent temperature that allows the store to carry premium frozen foods. Though the Polar freezer uses more electricity, there is a bigger profit on premium foods. Thus, if electricity rates fell, a lower volume of premium-food sales could justify choosing the Polar freezer.", "The true annual rate of earnings on an interest-bearing account is the annual rate of interest less the annual rate of inflation. Consequently, if the rate of inflation drops, the rate of interest can be reduced by an equal amount without there being a change in the true rate of earnings.", "The improved strain of the Northland apple tree bears fruit younger and lives longer than the standard strain. The standard strain does grow larger at maturity, but to allow for this, standard trees must be spaced farther apart. Ttherefore, new plantings should all be of the improved strain." ]

[ "Some fossil hunters in Mernia are not commercial fossil hunters, but rather are amateurs who keep the fossils that they find.", "Commercial fossil hunters in Mernia currently sell some of the fossils they find to universities and museums.", "Most fossils are found by commercial fossil hunters, and they would give up looking for fossils if they were no longer allowed to sell to individual collectors.", "Many universities in Mernia do not engage in fossil research." ]

[ "Clinical trials involving patients from several hospitals are never conducted solely by physicians from just one hospital.", "Most reports of clinical trials involving patients from several hospitals have multiple authors.", "Physics papers authored by researchers from multiple laboratories usually report results from experiments using subsystems developed at each laboratory.", "When a technical article has multiple authors, they are usually from several different institutions." ]

[ "Fewer multiparty countries than single-party countries have weak local governments.", "The majority of countries with weak local governments have a single political party.", "Some countries with weak local governments have a plurality of political parties.", "Some countries with weak local governments do not have corrupt national governments." ]

[ "Without pressure from Country R, the government of S would be able to continue repressing its citizens indefinitely.", "Of all exports that could be sent to Country S, telecommunication equipment would be the most effective in helping citizens of S oppose that country's repressive government.", "The telecommunication equipment that would be imported into S if the exemption were to be granted would not be available solely to top government officials in S.", "A majority of the members of R's legislature do not favor exempting telecommunication equipment from the ban on exports to Country S." ]