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Halakhah: Jewish Law
The root of the Hebrew term used to refer to Jewish law, halakhah, means "go" or "walk." Halakhah, then, is the "way" a Jew is directed to behave in every aspect of life, encompassing civil, criminal, and religious law.
The foundation of Judaism is the Torah (the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, sometimes referred to as âthe Five Books of Mosesâ). "Torah" means "instruction" or "teaching," and like all teaching it requires interpretation and application. Jewish tradition teaches that Moses received the Torah from God at Mount Sinai. The Torah is replete with instructions, directives, statutes, laws, and rules. Most are directed to the Israelites, some to all humanity.
Writing and Talking
The words of the Torah constitute what the rabbinic tradition calls the Written Torah. However, beginning around 400 BCE, teachings emerged based in or connected to the Torah, but not literally evident in the text. This body of teaching is known as the Oral Torah, and rabbinic sources claim that it, too, was revealed at Sinai. Halakhah per se begins with this "Oral Torah."
Some laws in the Torah required procedures for their observance that were not explicit. Sometimes conditions under which Jews were living were so different from earlier periods that the ancient rabbis simply enacted new rules in keeping with the laws of the Torah. This process of developing, interpreting, modifying and enacting rules of conduct is the how halakhah develops. The rabbis of classical talmudic Judaism developed a system of hermeneutic principles by which to interpret the words of the written Torah.
As rabbinic teachings increased, it was necessary to commit them to writing, lest they be forgotten. Around the year 200 CE, the Mishnah, the earliest compendium of Jewish law, appeared. It became the curriculum of rabbinic instruction. In approximately 425 CE, the interpretive traditions of the rabbis of the Land of Israel were compiled, forming the Talmud Yerushalmi (Palestinian Talmud).
Another Talmud, the "Bavli" (Babylonian Talmud), was compiled in the Persian Empire a century later. It presents digests of the various teachings of many generations of rabbis on issues of law and other subjects. Although it frequently fails to specify which cited opinion is authoritative, it nevertheless became the universally accepted arbiter of halakhah and the subject of many extensive commentaries.
Leaders and Researchers
In every age, outstanding Jewish teachers and thinkers emerged who became the rabbinic leaders of their communities. Individuals, including other rabbis, would send them questions about the proper observance of Judaism or matters of Jewish thought. This body of questions and responses (teshuvot, or responsa), preserved through the ages, is also an important source of halakhah.
In the Middle Ages, the body of Jewish legal writing was so voluminous that great scholarly acumen was required to be able to determine exactly what the halakhah was on many points. Compendia of Jewish law were written to summarize the debate and render a decision. One of the most complete and influential of these, Maimonides' Mishneh Torah, was compiled in the 11th century. The sixteenth-century Sephardic rabbi Joseph Caro developed a handbook of halakhah, the Shulhan Arukh ("Prepared Table"). Supplemented by the comments of Rabbi Moses Isserles, the leading Polish rabbi of the time, the Shulhan Arukh became the worldwide standard of halakhah, authoritative (even if not the final authority) even now in the eyes of observant Jews everywhere.
Historically, in Jewish law, a majority view prevailed. While the majority opinion usually became the accepted practice, in certain circumstances later rabbis could rely on a minority view in deciding a difficult matter. By the high Middle Ages, most Jewish communities each recognized one rabbi as the arbiter of Jewish law in that community.
Modernity and Halakhah
This system collapsed with the onset of modernity in the 18th century, particularly in western Europe. Rabbis emerged who wanted to "reform" Judaism. They rejected both some of the teachings and the authority of earlier rabbis in many matters of halakhah.
Today, spiritual descendants of both traditionalists and reformers interpret Jewish law according to their respective principles for their communities. Many Jews reject the notion of Jewish law as binding, regarding halakhah as spiritual guidance for Jewish living. The approach to halakhah is the central factor differentiating Jewish religious movements today. Secular Israeli jurisprudence treats halakhah as a valid and valued source of precedent.
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Masterpieces of American Cinema: Miracle of Morgan Creek A
Like other directors, Preston Sturges also made movies about small towns during the World War II. However, compared with most of Hollywood's war products set in small towns (âTortilla Flat,â 1942; âThe Human Comedy,â 1943; âThe Fighting Sullivans,â 1944; âA Medal for Benny,â 1945), in their theme, wit, and style, Sturges's films seem to have been created in another country and another era. Sturges's brilliant style combines sparkling narrative situations with witty dialogue, mixing farce and slapstick with a subtle and sophisticated brand of American comedy.
In similar vein to Orson Welles and Hitchcock, who were both intrigued with exposing the darker, invisible facets of small-towns, Sturges confronted his subject matter in an original mode, turning upside down the established conventions of Hollywood's portraiture of small-town life. The eccentricity of Sturges's characters is meant to demonstrate the more multifarious, resourceful nature of small-town folks, who only appearâ to be plain and ordinary.
Sturges's comedies, beginning with âSullivan's Travelâ (1941), reflected the influence of film noir on every genre at the time, including screwball comedies. Along with Billy Wilder, whose directorial career began at the same time, Sturges embodies in his films a cynical view, exposing the downbeat side of ânormalâ American life. As Allan Silver has observed, Sturges incorporated into his comedies ânoirish sentiments of meaninglessness and abject existentialism.â
With their caustic and crackling dialogue, his comedies portray not winners, but losers, individuals who resort to absurd strategies to survive the day. Sturges's protagonists refuse to accept âthe hand of fateâ as a controlling force of their lives, attempting to overcome insurmountable obstacles; that they seldom succeed is beside the point. Moreover, unlike the typical noir heroes, his are not weary or beaten by life, always hoping that life would turn out better for them.
In âHail the Conquering Heroâ and âThe Miracle of Morgan's Creekâ (both in 1944), Sturges expresses ambivalent emotions toward basic American values and institutions. âHailâ centers around an army reject who is accidentally thought to be a war hero, whereas âMiracleâ is a satirical folktale, spoofing just about every sacred mores, including motherhood. Indeed, in his review of âMiracle,â Bosley Crowther (New York Times, January 20, 1944) wondered how Sturges âever got away with such a thing, how he persuaded the Hays Office he wasn't trying to undermine all morals.â
Truth to tell, the film's release was delayed for several months because of censorship problems, but the approved version was most satisfactory to the director. A young girl goes out with a soldier, and the next thing she knows, she has a wedding ring and is pregnant, lacking the slightest idea as to her husband's identity or whereabouts. In despair, she turns to her childhood friend who always loved her, âtrappingâ him into marriage. But at the end, she âredeemsâ herself by marrying him and giving birth to sextuplets, all boys.
The film acknowledges humorously its political context. A montage of international newspapers shows the reaction of the two Fascist leaders, Hitler and Mussolini, who seem to jump off the front pages upon hearing about the sextuplets.
Some viewers were apparently outraged by the film's plot device. âMany letters have been received here,â wrote Sturges, âincluding bitterly denunciatory ones from analphabets who believed the sextuplets were the result of the heroine having been promiscuous with six different men. Education, though compulsory, seems to be spreading slowly.â
No issue or profession is too sacred for Sturges's biting sting, least of all politicians. The Governor (Brian Donlevy) initially doesn't even recognize the town's name. âWhat was the town again Is it in my state I never heard of it.â By contrast, believing that Morgan's Creek will be the most famous town in America, the newspaper's editor asks for âState Police, food, water, beds, and blankets.â âYou got a flood or did you strike oil, or somethingâ inquires the governor. âGet a map of the State and make sure Morgan's Creek is in it,â he instructs, âIf it isn't, we might be able to persuade them to move over or something.â He then advises the political boss (Akim Tamiroff): âYou better get down to Morgan's Creek and buy up a few choice cornersâsome hotel sites maybe, and the bus franchise will be very valuable.â At this point, the Governor announces: âThis is the biggest thing that's happened to this state since we stole it from the Indians.â âBorrowed, not stolen,â the boss corrects him.
Each character in Miracle is an eccentric individual, not a type. Sturges reverses the prevalent images of the boy and girl next-door and inverts the meanings of masculinity and femininity, spoofing machismo as well as female domesticity.
Trudy Kockenlocker (Betty Hutton) is anything but the innocent or repressed small-town girl; assertive, she loves the company of men. Trudy wants to have fun, always seeking to be the center of attention. In an early scene, she is seen singing to admiring male customers in her record store. Later, surrounded by soldiers, she drives Norval's borrowed convertible. Trudy has boundless energy. âI never get tired,â she boasts to her sister, and Sturges shows Trudy going from one party to another. Trudy is also manipulative, repeatedly abusing Norval's trust. Trudy combines traits of the girl-next-door and those of the town's popular girl (most small-town films separate between the two types).
In this picture, it's the boy, Norval (Eddie Bracken), not Trudy, who longs for conformity to conventional middle-class values: Marriage and domesticity. Exempt from military service with 4-F, Norval says: âEvery time they start to examine me, I become so excited, I get the spots!â
Norval lacks control over his two main goals in life: to fight in the war and to marry Trudy. A bank clerk, he is an orphan living with the Johnsons, the town's lawyer and his wife. Full of doubts, all of his fears materialize in the film, including going to jail. A helpless, yet sincere boy, Norval has the kind of romanticism that's genuine and heart-felt. It is therefore ironic that, by sheer accident, Norval becomes the symbol of virility: the father of six boys.
Trudy's widower father, officer Kockenlocker (William Demarest), is the town's constable. He's a severe man whose favorite recreational activity is to clean his gun on the front porch. Trudy's sister Emma (Diana Lynn), a 14-year-old brat, defies her father's authority, lacking any respect for him. âI think you have a mind like a swamp!â she tells her father. Contemptuous of his coarseness, Emma wishes he would be âa little more refined.â
Her father's aggressiveness is both verbal and physical, kicking Emma around, telling her she has âladder legs,â etc. But every once in a while, when both are in a quiet mood, Emma enjoys sitting on his lap. Emma is brighter and more sophisticated than Trudy; she is the type of girl who in a more conventional movie would leave town for the Big City. It's Emma who gives Trudy the idea to marry Norvalâto save her face. âHe was made to be a patsy,â says Emma, âlike the ox was made to eat, and the grape was made to drink.â
When a soldier asks, âwhich church is giving the dance tonightâ the father's angry response is, âHow many churches you think we gotâ It is one of the film's few direct references to the town as a whole. Shot on the studio lot, there are not many outdoor scenes. The town, shown when Trudy and Norval stroll along, is clean-looking with white picket fences and large yards; the residents like to sit on their front porches and observe the scene. The town's landmarks are the typical institutions: the movie house, the drugstore, the gas station, the pool hall.
However, even here, Sturges deviates from conventions. Trudy and Norval go to the movie house, not to watch a film or to âneckâ in the dark. She drops him there, so that she can borrow his car and have fun with other men.
There is, of course, gossip, especially when it concerns courtship and love, but the gossip is not malicious. The bank's president, Mr. Tuerck (Emory Parnell) tells Norval he heard about his engagement to Trudy from Mr. Shottish, the neighbor who spotted Norval in the morning, after presumably a wild night on the town (ironically, Norval spent the night by himself, waiting for Trudy to come back). âIt is none of his personal business,â Mr. Tuerck says, âwhat time you get home in the morning, or how drunk you are when you do get home,â but âit's the bank's business. A man in a bank is like a fellow crossing Niagara Falls on a tightrope, he cannot be too careful.â
Desperate over her pregnancy and with no solution in sight, Trudy says she will jump into the river. Norval's objection to her idea is rational: It won't work because âthere's not much water at this time of year.â Trudy then suggests gas poisoning, but this is also unacceptable. âWhat's the matter with bigamyâ he asks.
At the end, trapping Norval into marrying her, Trudy becomes a legitimate mother. âYou're a papa now,â she says, before specifying his new obligations: âThe papa gives love and protection.â Norval is the ultra adjustable type, always adapting to the needs of others, aiming to please. As viewers, we are told that Norval ârecovered and became increasingly happy.â And Shakespeare is used for the film's coda: âSome are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them.â Norval has greatness thrust upon him.
âMiracleâ debunks many prevalent myths of small-town America. The town's normal state of being is not order, but disorder and chaos. The residents crave to achieve celebrity status, do anythingâ that would alleviate them from humdrum lives. Sturges takes the most basic events, marriage and birth, and turns them upside down, showing their comic and even horrible effects. âNo one's going to believe something good if they can believe something bad,â says Emma, expressing Sturges's view of small towns. âYou don't know what to expect in a town like this,â she explains, âa town that can produce schnooks like Papa, always suspicious and suspecting the worst in everything.â
In both âMiracleâ and âHail,â Sturges's style is hyperbolic and the pacing rapid. His camera moves fast, recording people always on the move; there are many pratfalls. An example of Sturges's touch is the hospital sequence in Miracle, with the nurse running in panic in and out of Trudy's room, bringing a blanket for the first baby, then another blanket, and anotherâŠ.
The hectic speed of âMiracleâ and âHailâ reflects the notion of life in constant motion, of dynamic reality, even in small towns. In âHail,â and to a lesser extent in âMiracle,â Sturges uses the basic paradigm of balance, followed by disruption and imbalance, and then back to balance. However, Sturges' small towns never seem to be in total balance or equilibrium.
Sturges's vision of small town life is richer and more complex than Capra's, stressing inherent tensions, contradictions, and ironies. In Capra's message films, appearances are deceiving and one has to dig deeper to reveal the genuine human essences buried underneath (most women in Capra's films begin as deceivers, but later reveal themselves to be honest). In contrast, in Sturges's work, appearances have their own reality and logic, and as such, they are just as important as the presumably âdeeper essences.â
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- 51 Eridani b is the smallest gas giant ever to be imaged around another star, and is only 20 million years old (for comparison Jupiter is about 4.5 billion years old).
- It is only two times more massive than Jupiter, and is unusually cool at just 400° C â in fact it is one of the coldest planets of its type to be discovered.
Meet 51 Eridani b, the smallest gas giant ever imaged around another star. The tiny giant resembles Jupiter in its infancy and could yield clues to the formation of our own solar systemâs gas giants, helping to unlock the secrets that are hidden deep beneath the gaseous layers of their atmospheres.
This exoplanet shows the strongest methane signature ever detected on an alien planet, which should provide important information on how 51 Eridani b, and other gas giants, are formed.
Julien Rameau, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Montreal and a member of the team that discovered the planet, is confident about the importance of the new findings.
âThis is the first time we directly see a planet with a lot of methane in its atmosphere and a mass close to Jupiter. The previously imaged planets were more massive and have atmospheres very different from our gas giants, with a lot of thick clouds and not, or a little, methane content,â Rameau told Futurism. â51 Eridani b is, therefore, unique to understand the atmospheres of Jupiter-like planets. We are now able to probe systems which have the same scale that our solar system. It is extremely important to understand their formations, evolution, and the physics of their atmospheres.â
As already mentioned, 51 Eridani b is young by astronomical standards â only 20 million years old (Jupiter is about 4.5 billion years old). It is approximately two times more massive than Jupiter, whereas other directly imaged planets tend to have masses that are at least five times greater than our solar systemâs biggest gas giant. At 400° C, it is also one of the coldest planets of its type to be discovered. These factors, along with the previously mentioned atmospheric methane signal, indicate to researchers that 51 Eridani b strongly resembles a young Jupiter.
âThe planet shares properties that resemble those of Jupiter when it was young,â Rameau said. âOne way to understand Jupiter formation is too look at young planets which still carry information about their formations.â
It is believed that the gas giants in our solar system formed by building up a large core over a few million years and then pulling in a huge amount of hydrogen and other gasses to form an atmosphere. The core-buildup process can also form rocky planets like Earth, though a fast and hot collapse might only make giant gassy planets. 51 Eridani b is young enough that it could ârememberâ its formation.
But still, a lot of work needs to be done to fully understand the newly discovered planetâs composition and, therefore, better understand our solar systemâs gas giants. Scientists will have to employ more powerful scientific instruments for this ambitious task.
âThe modeling of the spectrum gave us its temperature, its pressure, and its rough composition â hydrogen and helium with methane and water. Directly seeing the presence of methane and water in this faint and close-in planet is already a challenge that the Gemini Planet Imager (GPI) [the instrument used to discovered 51 Eridani b] was able to overcome. It is currently not possible to qualitatively measure the actual composition or detect other elements because the resolution and sensitivity of GPI is too low. This requires extremely powerful instruments,â Rameau said.
Rameau believes that this discovery will certainly push the international community to learn more about the planet and the architecture and history of the system. Astronomers will monitor the orbit of the planet with new imagine technology like the European Southern Observatoryâs (ESO) Spectro-Polarimetric High-contrast Exoplanet Research (SPHERE) and Very Large Telescope (VLT) to improve the quality of the spectrum and observe at different wavelengths to refine the measurements of its mass, temperature, and pressure. They will also search for additional giant planets which might be present in the system.
Rameau concluded, â51 Eridani b will certainly be one of the most studied planets in the coming years.â |
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1. make (images or sounds) soft or softer
2. lessen in force or effect
soften a shock|break a fall
3. give in, as to influence or pressure
4. protect from impact
cushion the blow
5. make less severe or harsh
He moderated his tone when the students burst out in tears
6. make soft or softer
This liquid will soften your laundry
7. become soft or softer
The bread will soften if you pour some liquid on it
8. To make soft or more soft.
9. To become soft or softened, or less rude, harsh, severe, or obdurate. |
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Dear Families and Friends of Trinity,
Language is an adultâs most powerful tool, for words do more than deliver content. They also play a huge part in whether children develop self-control, build a sense of belonging, and gain academic and social skills and knowledge. This warm and thought-provoking reflection shows how you as parents can use words, tone, and actions to build a childâs sense of self. Your words and actions can damage or build. Children feel safe, respected, appreciated, and excited about learning. As an educator, I have come to realize that passion can get us into trouble and sometimes hinder us from finding the most meaningful words. Real-life anecdotes and concrete examples guide children to understand, and our modeling for children is what instills life-long lessons.
Good language habits include the use of:
- language to encourage vs. discourage
- language to help children envision success
- open-ended questions that stretch childrenâs thinking
- listening and silence skillfully so they actually have to think
- say what you mean and mean what you say
- giving brief, concrete instructions (more isnât always better)
- asking children what they think?
This was a story I shared with the students last school year during Chapel: The Orange Story, Santa Monica Business Journal â May 1996 By Lee Jay Berman
Once upon a time, there was a mother who had two children. One day, the kids came to the mother fighting. There was one orange left in the house, and they both wanted itâtypical of small children. What is a parent to do?
Some parents say that they would take the orange away and send the kids to their rooms for fighting. Most parents say that they would cut the orange in half, giving each child an equal share. Finally, the parents with more experience, anticipating a further argument over which half each child wants, would improvise. By allowing one child to carefully cut the orange in half, and then letting the other child choose the half s/he wants, parents give the incentive to the child who cuts the orange to be as fair as possible, since s/he suffers the loss if the halves are not equal. Seems fair?
Luckily, this particular mother is a mediator. She takes the orange from the crying children and asks them why they want it. When asked, one child expresses the desire to make orange juice. The other is baking muffins and needs to shave the peel into the recipe. The children, with the help of their mother, compromise. By allowing one to make all the juice he or she wants, giving the leftover peel to the other only once every drop of juice has been squeezed out of it, the other gets the entire peel intact. Both are therefore satisfied. In our society, we are raised to think that when there is a conflict, one person must win and the other must lose. We are not accustomed to working out a win-win solution; it is harder to do. Good use of language requires more effort; however, the outcome is usually worth it.
With warm regards,
Mark Ravelli, Head of School
Trinity Episcopal School
720 Tremont Street Galveston, TX 77550 |
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In November 1947, shortly after the United Nations voted for partition of the Holy Land into separate Arab and Jewish states, Chaim Weizmann was cited by the New York Times as saying that "the most important work now was to build Palestine."
What? To build Palestine? Yes, in 1947 the word "Palestinian" â if it meant anything at all â referred to Jews living in Palestine. The Palestine Post (now the Jerusalem Post) was the Jewish English-language newspaper. The Palestine Orchestra (now the Israel Philharmonic) was a Jewish orchestra, filled to overflowing with Holocaust survivors. The United Palestine Appeal, an American charity, raised money to resettle homeless Jews from Europe in Palestine â one of the things Arabs objected to the most. They were not large donors.
Arabs living in the territory of Palestine were called Arabs â or, very occasionally, Palestinian Arabs. This was in keeping with a philosophy known as pan-Arabism, which held that all places where Arabs ruled were part of one big Arab nation.
This history is probably what Newt Gingrich had in mind when he commented last week that the Palestinians were "an invented people."
For two decades before they lost the 1967 Six-Day War, Arabs controlled the entire West Bank, the Gaza Strip and half of Jerusalem. They could have established a Palestinian state any time they wanted. They never tried. The famous U.N. Resolution 242, which ended the Six-Day War, makes no reference to Palestinians, but just refers to refugees.
In short, Gingrich is right, up to a point. Until the 1970s, Palestinian nationalism was not much of a factor. The PLO was formed in 1964, but the idea of "liberating" Palestine from Israeli control didn't really take hold until after the 1967 war. But it did take hold, and now must be taken into account. Today, acknowledging the Palestinians' right, at least in theory, to a state of their own is the price of admission to any serious discussion of the Middle East. Even Israel's right-wing prime minister, Benjamin Netanyahu, feels obliged to give it lip service.
And it doesn't really matter that Palestinian nationalism is a recent confection. People who want a state should have a state. That seems to be the rule. In an era when the former Soviet Union continues to break apart like a cookie, with each crumb claiming sovereignty over a piece of territory and the claimed territories often overlapping, it's hard to argue for a higher standard.
In the 1980s and 1990s I worked at the New Republic, a fervently pro-Zionist publication. Many's the night I worked late editing articles I wasn't sure I agreed with offering yet one more reason why a Palestinian state was unthinkable. These days the position of Jews in America and in Israel seems to be something like a resigned shrug. The Palestinians want a state? So OK, let them have a state, if we can settle other issues like borders and refugees. See how they like it.
Gingrich also is not completely off the wall in describing the situation as a struggle "between a civilian democracy that obeys the rule of law and a group of terrorists that are firing missiles every day." On reflection, Gingrich might have wanted to distinguish between the Palestinian Authority, which rules in the West Bank, and Hamas, which controls Gaza. Hamas is the one firing missiles. But even regarding the Palestinian Authority, it's incredible that all it has taken for the PLO (which conducted the slaughter at the Munich Olympics, among other atrocities) to become an acceptable future Palestinian government is to have found a leader who wears a suit and tie and knows how to shave. Palestine Authority President Mahmoud Abbas is considered the grownup, the trustworthy negotiating partner, the one you complain to when Hamas misbehaves.
You can get in great trouble if you say that Israel also has its terrorist past. And, to be sure, there are big differences. But there are also similarities. If you peruse the New York Times coverage of the Middle East in the weeks before and after the 1947 U.N. vote (hey â a guy's got to have a hobby), you'll see offhand references to the Irgun and the Stern Gang (two Jewish guerrilla groups) as "Jewish terrorists" â even in its news pages. The label was considered obvious and beyond controversy.
Gingrich said that Palestine had to be invented, and this is true. It is also true of Israel, which didn't even have a name as it declared its independence in May 1947. President Truman's typewritten message recognizing the new state has "Jewish state" crossed out and "State of Israel" scrawled in with what looks like pencil.
Modern Jewish nationalism only goes back to 1896, when Theodor Herzl published his book, "Der Judenstaat" ("The Jewish State"), which put the question back in the public debate for the first time in centuries. From 1896 to 1948 is 52 years. That's how long it took for the Jewish state to go from an idea to a reality. Even if Palestinian nationalism started as late as 1967, 52 years later would be 2019. Eight years from now. I doubt it will take that long.
Michael Kinsley, a former editorial page editor of The Times, is a Bloomberg View columnist. |
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Help with effluent disposal using land irrigation
The Model for Effluent Disposal Using Land Irrigation (MEDLI) software is used to simulate how effluent stream is stored, treated and ultimately disposed of, with a particular focus on the water, nitrogen, phosphorus, and soluble salts.
The software has been widely used since 1996 and the recently upgraded version is easy to use.
Effluents and land irrigation
One of the most common uses for sewage treatment plant and agricultural industry (such as abattoirs) effluents is land irrigation.
These effluents, often called wastewater, can contain high levels of nutrients, organic matter, suspended solids, pathogens and other contaminants.
It is important the effluent can be sustainably irrigated to land so it does not impact the land or the surrounding environment and allows crops to be grown on the irrigated area.
Many activities that involve effluent irrigation to land also require an approval under the Environmental Protection Act 1994. These effluent irrigation schemes generally need to be assessed prior to operating.
Benefits of using MEDLI
MEDLI is the tool recommended by the environmental regulator in Queensland to make (or assess) decisions about how to dispose of effluent by land irrigation.
You can use MEDLI to assess the sustainability of effluent irrigation schemes and show possible impacts on the environment.
Phone (07) 3170 5603 or email [email protected] to purchase or get more information about MEDLI.
- Read more about environmental licences and permits.
- Last reviewed: 26 Jul 2022
- Last updated: 27 Jul 2022 |
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Pear rust: peculiarities of pathogen biology measures for control and profilactic
Goal. To carry out an analysis of the spread, peculiarities of the biology of the rust pathogen â the fungus Gymnosporangium sabinae (Dicks.) Wint., the dynamics of the disease, control measures.
Methods of investigation. Retrospective analysis of pear rust spread for the period 1960â2010; information and analytical analysis of the peculiarities of biology and the life cycle of the pathogen; field observations of the dynamics of disease development on host plants in 2015â2019; analytical generalization of control measures taking into account the biology of the pathogen.
Results. The periods of disease spread in different regions for 1960 â 2019 were established. The main areas of rust spread and harmfulness are: the southern coastal and foothill zone of Crimea, the Black Sea zones of the Krasnodar and Stavropol regions, and the Western Georgia. Between 1975 and 2010, the disease did not spread and did not demonstrate itself in other regions. Since 2012, rust has been spreading and accelerating development in Ukraine, Belarus, the Non-Black Soil zone of Russia. In 2016 â 2018, especially in 2019, mass infection of hear was detected â there was a threatening situation of epiphytoty on a large territory. The pear rust is caused by the highly specialized fungus Gymnosporangium sabinae Wint., which develops on two host plants. The main host of the rust pathogen is juniper (Juniperus sp.), the intermediate host is pear (Pyrus sp). The basic information of biology is summarized and disease cycle of the pathogen is presented. The peculiarity of the pathogen biology is an incomplete cycle of development, which consists of two stages: aecio-stage (pear) and telio-stage (juniper), which results in 4 types of spores. The disease cycle lasts almost two years and consists of two consecutive processes: 1 â formation of basidiospores on juniper and their distribution; 2 â germination of basidiospores and formation of aeciospores on pear. Basidiospores are dispersed by wind in the radius of 40â50 km and infects pear in the spring, aeciospores infects juniper in the autumn. The development of the fungus occurs in a wide temperature range from 3 to 30°C (optimum 18°C) and relative humidity of 85%. On pear rust develops over 4â5 months (April â September). The dynamics of disease development depends on the sporulatuion rate of basidiospores on the juniper and their spread to the pear; formation of aecia and ripening of aeciospores on pears. During the growing season, depending on the weather and climatic conditions, there are 4â5 periods of sporulation, which are the most threatening for pear infection. Symptoms of the disease are very clear. In the and late April, small yellowish-green spots of irregular shape with a diameter of about 0.5 cm appear on the upper side of the leaf. They gradually expand, become red or red-orange, affect the tissue and inflate. In the course of the development of the disease from the underside of the leaf on the same spots appear well-visible conical or soy-shaped outgrowths, arranged in groups. They are red-brown or rusty. Infected shoots become thick and short, and severely affected shoots dry up; the fruits grow slower and became deformed. Disease results in a complex of negative effects: causes increased evaporation, premature drying and fall of leaves; in plants, photosynthesis is getting worse and metabolism is impaired. The strong development of the disease leads to the loss of winter hardiness of trees and their death. Protection and prevention measures include sanitary practices aimed at reducing the rust infection, use of disease-resistant varieties, and chemical treatments. Sanitary and organizational measures: in spring â cutting of severely affected shoots and skeletal branches, cleaning of wounds with subsequent disinfection; whitewashing of trunks and skeletal branches with a solution of fresh lime with the addition of copper-containing preparations. Collect and burn leaves after the fall; treat the trees with a 7% urea solution. Dig stem circles and treat the soil surface with a 5% solution of copper sulfate. Juniper bushes, severely affected by the disease, dig in and remove. To reduce the risk of tree disease, it is advisable to plant resistant to rust pear cultivars. Curative measures: spraying with copper and sulfur-containing fungicides. Important: the timing and feasibility of chemical treatments in rust control are they are conditioned by periods of basidiospore formation and dispersion and the weather conditions. The application performs in the green cone stage, taking into account 3â4 hours of rainfall during this period and temperature not lower than 9°C. At âwhite budâ stage and after the fall of 75% of the petals, a rain lasting at least two hours is required. The delay of rainfall shifts the application timing. The following two treatments are carried out during the period of fruit growth, taking into account that young leaves are the most susceptible to disease. For spraying during these periods, one of the following fungicides may be recommended: Cuproksate, 34.5% EC, Kuprosil, 10% SC, Champion, 77% WP, Blue bordo, 77% WG, copper chloride, 90% WP, colloidal sulfur, 77% p or its substitutes (Cumulus DF, 80% WG, Tiowit Jet, 80% WG, Poliram DF, 70% WG. The use of pesticides should be alternated to avoid the formation of resistance.
Conclusions. Rust is an extremely dangerous disease that affects all aboveground pear organs and outweighs the damage of scab and cancer taken together. In 2016â2018, especially in 2019 â the disease has become widespread and pear infection had character of epiphytoty. Pear rust is caused by the highly specialized fungus Gymnosporangium sabinae (Dicks.) Wint. â two-host pathogen; the main host of rust pathogen â juniper, intermediate â pear. A characteristic feature of the biology of the rust pathogen is the incomplete disease cycle, which consists of 2 stages resulting in the formation of spores: a telio-stage on juniper (formation of basidiospores) and aecio-stage (formation of aeciospores) on pear. Spores infect juniper and pear in a certain sequence. The disease cycle goes in a circle: the development of basidiospores on juniper and their dispersal on pear; the development of aeciospores on pear and their dispersion on juniper. During this cycle, neither juniper nor pear can infect themselves. Infection begins in spring with the development of basidia and ripening of the basidiospores and their dispersion by wind in a radius of 40â50 km to different organs of the pear. Pear rust develops for 4â5 months (April â September), begins with the penetration of growth tubes and germination of basidiospores in the tissue of the leaf. The dynamics of the disease development depends on the rate of sporulation of basidiospores on juniper and their spread to pear. For effective protection of pear gardens from rust it is necessary to apply a set of measures aimed at preventing of infection. Sanitary and organizational measures: in spring â cutting of severely affected shoots and skeletal branches, cleaning of wounds with subsequent disinfection; whitewashing of trunks and skeletal branches with a solution of fresh lime with the addition of copper-containing preparations. Curative measures â carrying out chemical treatments of copper and sulfur-containing fungicides. It is important to adjust the timing and feasibility of chemical treatments with the periods of formation and dispersion of basidiospores and the weather conditions of the growing season.
Mitrofanova O.V. (1970). Rzhavchina grushi i mery bor'by s ney. [Pear rust and control measures]. Simferopol': Krym. 46 p. [In Russian].
Petrushova N.I., Mitrofanova O.V. (1972). Biologicheskie osobennosti vozbuditelya rzhavchiny grushi Gymnosporangium v Krymu. [Biological features of the pathogen rust pear Gymnosporangium in Crimea ]. Vrediteli i bolezni plodovykh i dekorativnykh rasteniy, t. 61, Yalta: Gos. Nikitinskiy sad. P. 123â132. [In Russian].
Tskhvedadze L.P. (1987). Biologicheskie osobennosti razvitiya rzhavchiny grushi i mery bor'by s ney v usloviyakh Gruzii. [Biological features of the development of pear rust and measures to combat it in Georgia]. Tbilisi: Goskomizdat Gruz. SSR. 24 p. [In Russian].
Zeynalov A.S. (2013). Sovremennye tendentsii izmeneniya fitosanitarnoy obstanovki, vidovogo sostava, chislennosti i vredonosnosti fitofagov i patogenov v nasazhdeniyakh plodovykh i yagodnykh kul'tur. [Current trends in the phytosanitary situation, species composition, abundance and severity of phytophages and pathogens in fruit and berry crops]. Plodovodstvo i yagodovodstvo Rossii. Т. XXXVI, Ñ. 1. P. 218â224. [In Russian].
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Savkovskiy P.P. (Ed.) (1962). Vrediteli i bolezni plodovo-yagodnykh kul'tur. Spravochnik. [Diseases of fruit species in southern Russia]. Izd. AN USSR. Kiev. 275 p. [In Russian].
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Famine Relief Work in post-Revolutionary Russia 1921-1929
Despite the difficulties posed by the October Revolution of 1917, Quakers were determined to return to Russia and continue the relief efforts that had begun in 1916.
Since the Revolution, Russia had been subject to a blockade by British, American and other allied forces. By 1919, it was clear that this could result in a famine even more devastating than that of 1891. Quakers petitioned for aid to be allowed through for childrenâs hospitals. This was at first denied, but in January 1920, the first consignment of 50 tons was allowed in. Later that year, two Quakers, Arthur Watts (British) and Anna Haines (American) obtained permission to stay in Russia. Between them, they organised initial relief efforts on behalf of both the Quakers and the Save the Children Fund, providing supplementary food for 16 thousand Moscow children.
In 1921, Anna Haines extended the relief effort to the area around Buzuluk, where the Quakers had worked in previous famines.
As international awareness of the crisis grew, an International Russian Relief Commission was set up with Norwegian Fridjof Nansen as its head. When he travelled to Russia, he made contact with the Quakers, as the first relief agency on the scene, and was accompanied for part of his journey by Ruth Fry, secretary to the Friends War Victims Relief Committee.
Once again, suspicions were raised that relief supplies were being stolen by Russian troops. Fry was able to testify that no more was going missing than in other relief operations.
The Quakers now became a relatively small part of international relief efforts, but in the area around Buzuluk, they took the lead. The American Quakers were working under the auspices of Herbert Hooverâs American Relief Agency, which was by far the largest contributor of international aid, while the British worked with the Save the Children Fund.
That winter, Evelyn Sharp, who had travelled to Buzuluk with Fry, recorded the sight of hundreds of bodies lying waiting to be buried on the frozen ground. People were eating grass and weeds. The relief workers faced agonising choices over who to feed â if they fed only the children, say, then parents would abandon them at their doors and walk away to die. Many relief workers themselves fell ill from typhus and some died.
By spring 1922, however, most people were being fed. The Quakers switched from providing soup kitchens to distributing dry rations. When the worst of the famine was over, the Quakers stayed to help with reconstruction efforts, developing small-scale spinning, weaving and sewing industries and then later helping to repair bridges, dig wells and drain marshland. They also provided medical relief.
It is estimated that altogether some 30 million people were affected by the famine and some three million died of typhus alone. Nevertheless, relief efforts were not popular with the Soviet government, who saw bread as a propaganda weapon that could be used against them.
By 1925, British Quakers hoped to open a Quaker International Centre in Moscow, while the Americans had plans to establish a nursing school. But the Soviet authorities were not sympathetic, and it became clear that neither of these projects would come to fruition.
The last of the Quakers withdrew from Russia in 1929. When famine again threatened in 1933, no foreign aid was admitted. It wasnât until 1995 that Friends House Moscow finally opened its doors. |
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|Samuel Selvon's "The Lonely Londoners"|
There can be few more contentious topics than nationalism. In the UK â or, more accurately, in England â nationalism is seen inextricable from racism, zealous hatred and kneejerk reactionarism. Ask someone to describe a nationalist and they will likely describe an EDL member, a staunch opponent of immigration, a white supremacist etc etc.
It has become a sort of Nietzchean slave morality â a belief defined completely by an opposition to another, and therefore an unsubstantial one. It creates an âus v. themâ scenario â those within the haven of our national boundaries (with justifiable reason to be there) versus those without.
This highlights the arbitrary nature of modern nationalism, specifically English nationalism. During World War Two, when Britain was under a real threat of invasion by the forces of Hitlerâs Germany, such nationalism became almost a practical necessity, if a sometimes unpleasant one. Nowadays, with most of the world connected in an open forum of information exchange, it feels archaic and redundant.
Johann Gottfried Herder first coined the term ânationalismâ in the 1770s while developing his philosophical concept of the âVolksgeistâ, or âspirit of the peopleâ. Seventy years later, another prominent German writer, Arthur Schopenhauer, would pour scorn on the concept, and on people who hold nationalism up as a defining facet of their character;
âThe cheapest sort of pride,â Schopenhauer wrote, âis national pride; for if a man is proud of his own nation it argues that he has no qualities of his own of which he can be proud.â
Schopenhauer was writing over 160 years ago, but his comment on nationalism and national pride still stokes the fires of debate today. The truth is â speaking from my experience as an Englishman â the majority of English people would readily distance themselves from the ânationalistâ tag, while simultaneously attempting to renegotiate some semblance of national pride from elsewhere.
For example, you may cry when England lose a penalty shootout, you may proselytise about the unparalleled beauty of the Peak District or the Lakes, you may feel a flush of pride when watching footage of the Olympic closing ceremony â but are you a nationalist? No way!
Nationalism is an increasingly awkward concept, particularly now that transnational borders are becoming more fluid and global mobility is more readily accessible. It seems to me that a person should align their pride to their surroundings and to their community â on as wide a scale as they may wish â rather than practice a simple, blind loyalty to a sovereign state.
Literature thrives off this awkward pairing of the individual human soul and the arbitrary groupings of nationality. Passages in Milan Kunderaâs âThe Book of Laughter and Forgettingâ , for example, act as symphonic love letters to the Czech capital Prague, but are told through the eyes of exiles and neurotics, each dislocated from the city in their own unique way.
Another example is Salman Rushdieâs âThe Moorâs Last Sighâ. In his 1995 novel, Rushdie deconstructs what is supposedly a key aspect of nationalism â language; exposing it as the organic, polymorphous beast that it truly is, all the while in the midst of a Portuguese merchant enclave in India, and later in southern Spain.
The blisteringly brief, but nonetheless brilliant novel âThe Lonely Londonersâ by Samuel Selvon is amongst the most immediate examples of negotiated nationalism in literature. Penned in 1956, the novel charts the life of a group of West Indian immigrants who arrived in London following the British Nationality Act of 1948, the parliamentary bill that effectively ushered in the first waves of migrant workers from the Commonwealth.
The book examines the different cultures emanating from distinct Caribbean islands and their transplantation into a metropolis on the cusp of the next stage of its evolution, cultures that become unintentionally homogenised as the émigrés clamour to find their place in a new society. In the eyes of the indigenous Brits, this gaggle of lonely Londoners are refugees from only one nation: âBlackâ.
Trinidadian, Jamaican, Antiguan, Barbadian, even Nigerian; none of these distinctions matter in the eyes of the racially suspicious post-war Britons that Selvonâs characters come into contact with. It is this aspect that makes the novel one of the most fascinating critiques of modern nationalism and identity in twentieth century literature.
As the global community continues to develop, and artistic inspiration ceases to be limited by parochial geographical locale, the debate surrounding nationalism â and the great art and literature that springs forth from it â can only become more fascinating, more discomfited and more vital to our sense of human identity, than ever before. |
Jan. 14, 2013 Functionally deaf patients can gain normal hearing with a new implant that replaces the middle ear. The unique invention from the Chalmers University of Technology has been approved for a clinical study. The first operation was performed on a patient in December 2012.
With the new hearing implant, developed at Chalmers in collaboration with Sahlgrenska University Hospital in Gothenburg, the patient has an operation to insert an implant slightly less than six centimetres long just behind the ear, under the skin and attached to the skull bone itself. The new technique uses the skull bone to transmit sound vibrations to the inner ear, so-called bone conduction.
"You hear 50 percent of your own voice through bone conduction, so you perceive this sound as quite natural," says Professor Bo HÃ¥kansson, of the Department of Signals and Systems, Chalmers.
The new implant, BCI (Bone Conduction Implant), was developed by Bo HÃ¥kansson and his team of researchers. Unlike the type of bone-conduction device used today, the new hearing implant does not need to be anchored in the skull bone using a titanium screw through the skin. The patient has no need to fear losing the screw and there is no risk of skin infections arising around the fixing.
The first operation was performed on 5 December 2012 by MÃ¥ns Eeg-Olofsson, Senior Physician at Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, and went entirely according to plan.
"Once the implant was in place, we tested its function and everything seems to be working as intended so far. Now, the wound needs to heal for six weeks before we can turn the hearing sound processor on," says MÃ¥ns Eeg-Olofsson, who has been in charge of the medical aspects of the project for the past two years.
The technique has been designed to treat mechanical hearing loss in individuals who have been affected by chronic inflammation of the outer or middle ear, or bone disease, or who have congenital malformations of the outer ear, auditory canal or middle ear. Such people often have major problems with their hearing. Normal hearing aids, which compensate for neurological problems in the inner ear, rarely work for them. On the other hand, bone-anchored devices often provide a dramatic improvement.
In addition, the new device may also help people with impaired inner ear.
"Patients can probably have a neural impairment of down to 30-40 dB even in the cochlea. We are going to try to establish how much of an impairment can be tolerated through this clinical study," says Bo HÃ¥kansson.
If the technique works, patients have even more to gain. Earlier tests indicate that the volume may be around 5 decibels higher and the quality of sound at high frequencies will be better with BCI than with previous bone-anchored techniques.
Now it's soon time to activate the first patient's implant, and adapt it to the patient's hearing and wishes. Then hearing tests and checks will be performed roughly every three months until a year after the operation.
"At that point, we will end the process with a final X-ray examination and final hearing tests. If we get good early indications we will continue operating other patients during this spring already," says MÃ¥ns Eeg-Olofsson.
The researchers anticipate being able to present the first clinical results in early 2013. But when will the bone-conduction implant be ready for regular patients?
"According to our plans, it could happen within a year or two. For the new technique to quickly achieve widespread use, major investments are needed right now, at the development stage," says Bo HÃ¥kansson.
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By Barry Garelick
In the never-ending dialogue about math education that has come to be known as the âmath warsâ, proponents of reform-based math tend to characterize math as it was taught in the 60âs (and prior) as âskills-basedâ. The term connotes a teaching of math that focused almost exclusively on procedures and facts in isolation to the conceptual underpinning that holds math together. The âskills-basedâ appellation also suggests that those students who may have mastered their math courses in K-12 were missing the conceptual basis of mathematics and were taught the subject as a means to do computation, rather than explore the wonders of mathematics for its own sake.
Without delving too far into the math wars, I and others have written that while traditional math may sometimes have been taught poorly, it also was taught properly. In fact, a view of the textbooks in use at that time reveal that they provided both procedures and concept. Missing perhaps were more challenging problems, but also missing from the reformersâ arguments is the fact that not only are procedures and concepts taught in tandem but that computational fluency leads to conceptual understanding. (See http://www.psy.cmu.edu/~
John Woodward, currently Dean of the School of Education at the University of Puget Sound, is one such person who refers to traditional math teaching as âskills-basedâ in various papers he has written (as well as in a personal communication to me). I was therefore interested to learn that he chaired the panel that wrote âImproving Mathematical Problem Solving in Grades 4 through 8â³ which was published by the Department of Educationâs âWhat Works Clearinghouseâ. (http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/pdf/practice_guides/mps_pg_052212.pdf) Upon going through the guidance, I was heartened to see that the panel recommends whole class instruction, defining terms so that students are not thrown off by unfamiliar vocabulary, and helping students recognize and articulate mathematical concepts and notation.
The recommendation of whole class instruction is admittedly a step in the traditional direction, as opposed to reform methods such as problem-based learning in small groups, facilitated by a teacher who refrains from direct/explicit instruction. As if to ensure that such a step is not interpreted as advocating a purely âskills-basedâ approach to teaching math, the report is careful to recommend that whole class instruction include presentation of non-routine as well as routine problems. Non-routine problems are those for which there are not predictable approaches suggested by the problem, or worked-out examples that apply to them.
There is no argument from me or others in the traditional camp that students benefit by being given both routine and non-routine problems. It is important to recognize, however, that routine problems are prerequisite for solving the non-routine ones. And while students certainly should be given challenging non-routine problems, they must be able to be solved using prior knowledge of skills and procedures.
The necessity of prior knowledge is something that reformers tend to dismiss. A prevalent belief among math reformers is that just as students develop problem solving habits for routine problems, a similar âhabit of mindâ development occurs for solving non-routine problems. And in fact, it appears that based on an example of a non-routine problem included in their report Woodward and the other panel members are thinking along the âhabits of mindâ route. In the problem, the student is asked to find the value of an angle as shown below:
The problem is described as âlikely non-routine for a student who has only studied simple geometry problems involving parallel lines and a transversal.â This is true but the authors fail to completely characterize why students would find it non-routine. The problem is solved by drawing in a line that is not shown, called a âsupplemental lineâ. If the students have had no prior knowledge in supplemental lines and how they are used in proofs, the problem is non-routine not because of its newness, but because they lack the prior knowledge and skills needed to solve the problem.
The figure below shows how drawing in a supplemental line to extend an existing one creates a transversal where there wasnât one before. At the top parallel line, the supplementary angle to 155 is easily calculated as 25. The transversal now makes it obvious that the supplemental angle of 70 is an alternate interior angle and is the second angle in the triangle formed by the supplemental line. Since angle x is an exterior angle to the triangle, it is the sum of the two remote angles 70 and 25, or 95.
The report does not make clear for what grade level the non-routine problem is being presented. I assume that since the report is for math taught in grades 4-8, that this problem would be for eighth graders. While an appropriate way to introduce how to use supplementary lines in proofs and solving problems (followed by explicit and systematic instruction in the technique) the report makes no mention of using it in this fashion. Without the knowledge of drawing supplemental lines, students are at a significant disadvantage in trying to solve the problem. Teachers guiding the student would ultimately give hints about supplemental lines, and would provide the needed knowledge in a âjust in timeâ basis. The new knowledge acquired in such fashion may show the student how to proceed, but does not develop any kind of habit of mind.
In another chapter of the report (on how teachers can provide prompts to help students solve problems), they give an example of a problem in which, again, students do not have the proper tools to solve it efficiently. In particular, they pose the following problem: Find five different numbers whose average is 15. They then give an example of the type of âpromptsâ teachers can give students to help them solve it.
They describe a student who is picking numbers, adding them and dividing by 5. The teacher notices that the student has some numbers bigger than 15 and some smaller and through questioning, gets the student to observe that they canât all be greater than 15, nor all smaller than 15 because then the average would be greater than or smaller than 15. The student says âSome have to be bigger and some smaller. I guess that is why I tried the five numbers I did.â The teacher responds: âThatâs what I guess, too. So, the next step is to think about how much bigger some have to be, and how much smaller the others have to be. Okay?â
In essence the teacher is helping the student develop a more efficient way to do guess and check which is an inherently inefficient process. The problem would be a good one for a pre-algebra or algebra class in which students have had some instruction in expressing words algebraically. Rather than present this problem to students who lack algebraic knowledge or skills, it could be presented to pre-algebra and algebra students. Then, rather than prompting the student to do an inefficient method efficiently, the teacher could prompt the student by asking what is an average, and whether the problem tells us what the sum of the five numbers is. Since the problem does not provide the sum, the student can be prompted to express the unknown sum as âxâ, thus setting up a way to express the average using algebraic symbols. Since the sum is divided by how many numbers are summed, an equation of x/5 = 15 is obtained. Early students of algebra know how to solve the one-step equation to obtain 75. Now it is much easier to then find five different numbers that average 15, since the student now only needs to find 5 different numbers that sum to 75.
People may object to my criticisms here by saying that the recommendations of including non-routine problems and of guiding students via prompts are very reasonable and sound. I agree; they are. But despite the authorsâ willingness to enter into discussions of traditional modes of teaching where the edu-establishment has been reluctant to go before, the examples I have discussed here belie a general cautiousness. It is as if they are afraid of an outcome that will be their recurring nightmare: Skills-based math. And so they fall back on their conceptions of âhabits of mindâ. The authors probably believe that they have taken significant steps to meet the traditionalists half way. It is probably more accurate to say that their best intentions are driven by an agenda that will continue to teach math in a âjust in timeâ manner, and will foster bad habits of mind. They have obsessed over the simplest good ideas to the point that they become bad ones.
The entire panel is as follows: John Woodward (Chair) University of Puget Sound, Sybilla Beckmann University of Georgia, Mark Driscoll Education Development Center, Megan Franke University of California, Los Angeles, Patricia Herzig, Independent Math Consultant, Asha Jitendra University of Minnesota, Kenneth R. Koedinger Carnegie Mellon University, Philip Ogbuehi, Los Angeles Unified School District. |
Certain fibres found in prepared foods for example cereals, cereal bars, baking mixes, and drinks may cause a shift towards 2 Day Diet beneficial bacteria within the gut and assist in weight loss when made a part of a long-term, daily diet, says a brand new research.
The researchers focused on two fibres - polydextrose, which is a
common fibre food additive and soluble corn fibre.
"We need more fibre within our diets from lots of different sources," said Hannah Holscher in the University of Illinois in the US.
"These two fibres seem like they may be beneficial when part of a balanced diet along with whole grain products, fruits, vegetables and legumes," Holscher added.
They found that there were significant shifts in the gut bacterial populations with fibre supplements and when the supplements were stopped populations appeared to return to where these were before.
What was most surprising and novel in the recent study would be a transfer of the Bacteroidetes:Firmicutes ratio towards more Bacteroidetes, something they had not viewed previously.
"This was of particular interest to us because other research works show that having more Bacteroidetes is a great idea since the higher that proportion is, the person tends to be leaner. With higher Firmicutes, that individual tends to be more obese," Holscher said.
The researchers used whole-genome sequencing look around the full-range of bacterial genomic information in the gut after fibre supplementation.
Previous research has shown that dietary fibre can also help reduce 2 Day Diet Pills the risk of cancer of the colon, diabetes type 2 along with other diseases.
The study appeared in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.Stay updated on the run with The Times during the India's mobile apps. Click here to download it for the device. |
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How to Perform a wolf whistle with your fingers
In this video, we learn how to perform a wolf whistle with your fingers. First, you will place two fingers straight out so there is a dip in them. Then, place these in your mouth and start to blow air out of your mouth. Make sure the fingers are all touching each other while inside of the mouth. Also make sure that the fingers are pushing the tongue back. When you learn to do this, it may sound rough in the beginning, but with practice, it will sound much better! This is a handy tool to learn because it gets attention and is easier than normal whistles! |