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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Pancras%20railway%20station

St Pancras railway station

Southeastern

St Pancras railway station (), also known as London St Pancras or St Pancras International and officially since 2007 as London St Pancras International, is a central London railway terminus on Euston Road in the London Borough of Camden. It is the terminus for Eurostar services from Belgium, France and the Netherlands to London. It provides East Midlands Railway services to , , , and on the Midland Main Line, Southeastern high-speed trains to Kent via and , and Thameslink cross-London services to Bedford, Cambridge, Peterborough, Brighton, Horsham and Gatwick Airport. It stands between the British Library, the Regent's Canal and London King's Cross railway station, with which it shares a London Underground station, . The station was constructed by the Midland Railway (MR), which had an extensive rail network across the Midlands and the North of England, but no dedicated line into London. After rail traffic problems following the 1862 International Exhibition, the MR decided to build a connection from Bedford to London with its own terminus. The station was designed by William Henry Barlow and constructed with a single-span iron roof. Following the station's opening on 1 October 1868, the MR constructed the Midland Grand Hotel on the station's façade, which has been widely praised for its architecture and is now a Grade I listed building along with the rest of the station. In the late 1960s, plans were made to demolish St Pancras entirely and divert services for King's Cross and , leading to fierce opposition. The complex underwent an £800 million refurbishment to become the terminal for the Channel Tunnel Rail Link/High-Speed 1/HS1 as part of an urban regeneration plan across East London, which was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in November 2007. A security-sealed terminal area was constructed for Eurostar services to mainland Europe via High Speed 1 and the Channel Tunnel, with platforms for domestic trains to the north and south-east of England. The restored station has 15 platforms, a shopping centre, and a coach facility. London St Pancras International is owned by HS1 Ltd and managed by Network Rail (High Speed), a subsidiary of Network Rail.

Southeastern runs high-speed Class 395 trains on High Speed 1 to Kent and the South East, to Faversham, , , , , , Ashford, Ebbsfleet International and other destinations in Kent. The first domestic service carrying passengers over High Speed 1 ran on 12 December 2008, to mark one year before regular services were due to begin. This special service, carrying various dignitaries, ran from Ashford International to St Pancras. Starting in June 2009, Southeastern provided a preview service between St Pancras and Ebbsfleet, extending to Ashford International during peak hours. In September, Southeastern extended the peak-time services to Dover and Ramsgate. The full service began on 13 December. Departures Arrivals

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Pancras%20railway%20station

St Pancras railway station

Olympic Javelin service

St Pancras railway station (), also known as London St Pancras or St Pancras International and officially since 2007 as London St Pancras International, is a central London railway terminus on Euston Road in the London Borough of Camden. It is the terminus for Eurostar services from Belgium, France and the Netherlands to London. It provides East Midlands Railway services to , , , and on the Midland Main Line, Southeastern high-speed trains to Kent via and , and Thameslink cross-London services to Bedford, Cambridge, Peterborough, Brighton, Horsham and Gatwick Airport. It stands between the British Library, the Regent's Canal and London King's Cross railway station, with which it shares a London Underground station, . The station was constructed by the Midland Railway (MR), which had an extensive rail network across the Midlands and the North of England, but no dedicated line into London. After rail traffic problems following the 1862 International Exhibition, the MR decided to build a connection from Bedford to London with its own terminus. The station was designed by William Henry Barlow and constructed with a single-span iron roof. Following the station's opening on 1 October 1868, the MR constructed the Midland Grand Hotel on the station's façade, which has been widely praised for its architecture and is now a Grade I listed building along with the rest of the station. In the late 1960s, plans were made to demolish St Pancras entirely and divert services for King's Cross and , leading to fierce opposition. The complex underwent an £800 million refurbishment to become the terminal for the Channel Tunnel Rail Link/High-Speed 1/HS1 as part of an urban regeneration plan across East London, which was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in November 2007. A security-sealed terminal area was constructed for Eurostar services to mainland Europe via High Speed 1 and the Channel Tunnel, with platforms for domestic trains to the north and south-east of England. The restored station has 15 platforms, a shopping centre, and a coach facility. London St Pancras International is owned by HS1 Ltd and managed by Network Rail (High Speed), a subsidiary of Network Rail.

During the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, St Pancras was the Central London terminus of the Olympic Javelin service, a seven-minute shuttle between Central London and Stratford International station for the London Olympic Park.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Pancras%20railway%20station

St Pancras railway station

International services

St Pancras railway station (), also known as London St Pancras or St Pancras International and officially since 2007 as London St Pancras International, is a central London railway terminus on Euston Road in the London Borough of Camden. It is the terminus for Eurostar services from Belgium, France and the Netherlands to London. It provides East Midlands Railway services to , , , and on the Midland Main Line, Southeastern high-speed trains to Kent via and , and Thameslink cross-London services to Bedford, Cambridge, Peterborough, Brighton, Horsham and Gatwick Airport. It stands between the British Library, the Regent's Canal and London King's Cross railway station, with which it shares a London Underground station, . The station was constructed by the Midland Railway (MR), which had an extensive rail network across the Midlands and the North of England, but no dedicated line into London. After rail traffic problems following the 1862 International Exhibition, the MR decided to build a connection from Bedford to London with its own terminus. The station was designed by William Henry Barlow and constructed with a single-span iron roof. Following the station's opening on 1 October 1868, the MR constructed the Midland Grand Hotel on the station's façade, which has been widely praised for its architecture and is now a Grade I listed building along with the rest of the station. In the late 1960s, plans were made to demolish St Pancras entirely and divert services for King's Cross and , leading to fierce opposition. The complex underwent an £800 million refurbishment to become the terminal for the Channel Tunnel Rail Link/High-Speed 1/HS1 as part of an urban regeneration plan across East London, which was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in November 2007. A security-sealed terminal area was constructed for Eurostar services to mainland Europe via High Speed 1 and the Channel Tunnel, with platforms for domestic trains to the north and south-east of England. The restored station has 15 platforms, a shopping centre, and a coach facility. London St Pancras International is owned by HS1 Ltd and managed by Network Rail (High Speed), a subsidiary of Network Rail.

Up to thirty nine Eurostar trains travel daily depart from St Pancras to and from either Paris Gare du Nord, Bruxelles-Midi/Brussel-Zuid, Amsterdam Centraal and Marne-la-Vallée for Disneyland Resort Paris. Extra services run to Paris on Fridays and Sundays, with a reduced service to Brussels and Amsterdam at weekends. Additional weekend leisure-oriented trains run to the French Alps during the skiing season Some trains call additionally at Lille-Europe with some also running non-stop. Non-stop trains take 2 hours 15 minutes to Paris, and just under 1 hour 50 minutes to Brussels, other trains taking 5 or 10 minutes longer depending on whether they make one or two stops. St Pancras International is one of four railway stations in the UK with juxtaposed immigration control facilities set up by the French Border Police to clear passengers for entry into France and the rest of the Schengen Area prior to boarding the trains. Passengers do not need any further immigration or passport checks after entering the main departure gates, or at the corresponding gate at the other end on return journeys, as they are cleared by the UK Border Force.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Pancras%20railway%20station

St Pancras railway station

Creative arts

St Pancras railway station (), also known as London St Pancras or St Pancras International and officially since 2007 as London St Pancras International, is a central London railway terminus on Euston Road in the London Borough of Camden. It is the terminus for Eurostar services from Belgium, France and the Netherlands to London. It provides East Midlands Railway services to , , , and on the Midland Main Line, Southeastern high-speed trains to Kent via and , and Thameslink cross-London services to Bedford, Cambridge, Peterborough, Brighton, Horsham and Gatwick Airport. It stands between the British Library, the Regent's Canal and London King's Cross railway station, with which it shares a London Underground station, . The station was constructed by the Midland Railway (MR), which had an extensive rail network across the Midlands and the North of England, but no dedicated line into London. After rail traffic problems following the 1862 International Exhibition, the MR decided to build a connection from Bedford to London with its own terminus. The station was designed by William Henry Barlow and constructed with a single-span iron roof. Following the station's opening on 1 October 1868, the MR constructed the Midland Grand Hotel on the station's façade, which has been widely praised for its architecture and is now a Grade I listed building along with the rest of the station. In the late 1960s, plans were made to demolish St Pancras entirely and divert services for King's Cross and , leading to fierce opposition. The complex underwent an £800 million refurbishment to become the terminal for the Channel Tunnel Rail Link/High-Speed 1/HS1 as part of an urban regeneration plan across East London, which was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in November 2007. A security-sealed terminal area was constructed for Eurostar services to mainland Europe via High Speed 1 and the Channel Tunnel, with platforms for domestic trains to the north and south-east of England. The restored station has 15 platforms, a shopping centre, and a coach facility. London St Pancras International is owned by HS1 Ltd and managed by Network Rail (High Speed), a subsidiary of Network Rail.

There are several works of art on public display at St Pancras. A high bronze statue titled The Meeting Place stands at the south end of the upper level beneath the station clock. It was designed by the British artist Paul Day to evoke the romance of travel through the depiction of a couple locked in an amorous embrace. Controversy was caused by Day's 2008 addition of a bronze relief frieze around the plinth, depicting a commuter falling into the path of an Underground train driven by the Grim Reaper. Day revised the frieze before the final version was installed. On the upper level, above the Arcade concourse, stands a bronze statue of John Betjeman, depicted gazing in apparent wonder at the Barlow roof. A work of the British sculptor Martin Jennings, the statue commemorates Betjeman's successful campaign to save the station from demolition in the 1960s. The -high statue stands on a flat disc of Cumbrian slate inscribed with lines from Betjeman's poem Cornish Cliffs: There are a number of upright pianos in the main St Pancras concourse that are available for anyone to play. In 2016, Elton John gave an impromptu performance here on a piano he subsequently donated to the station as a gift.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Pancras%20railway%20station

St Pancras railway station

Hotel

St Pancras railway station (), also known as London St Pancras or St Pancras International and officially since 2007 as London St Pancras International, is a central London railway terminus on Euston Road in the London Borough of Camden. It is the terminus for Eurostar services from Belgium, France and the Netherlands to London. It provides East Midlands Railway services to , , , and on the Midland Main Line, Southeastern high-speed trains to Kent via and , and Thameslink cross-London services to Bedford, Cambridge, Peterborough, Brighton, Horsham and Gatwick Airport. It stands between the British Library, the Regent's Canal and London King's Cross railway station, with which it shares a London Underground station, . The station was constructed by the Midland Railway (MR), which had an extensive rail network across the Midlands and the North of England, but no dedicated line into London. After rail traffic problems following the 1862 International Exhibition, the MR decided to build a connection from Bedford to London with its own terminus. The station was designed by William Henry Barlow and constructed with a single-span iron roof. Following the station's opening on 1 October 1868, the MR constructed the Midland Grand Hotel on the station's façade, which has been widely praised for its architecture and is now a Grade I listed building along with the rest of the station. In the late 1960s, plans were made to demolish St Pancras entirely and divert services for King's Cross and , leading to fierce opposition. The complex underwent an £800 million refurbishment to become the terminal for the Channel Tunnel Rail Link/High-Speed 1/HS1 as part of an urban regeneration plan across East London, which was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in November 2007. A security-sealed terminal area was constructed for Eurostar services to mainland Europe via High Speed 1 and the Channel Tunnel, with platforms for domestic trains to the north and south-east of England. The restored station has 15 platforms, a shopping centre, and a coach facility. London St Pancras International is owned by HS1 Ltd and managed by Network Rail (High Speed), a subsidiary of Network Rail.

In 1865 the Midland Railway Company held a competition for architects to design a hotel to front the station. George Gilbert Scott was persuaded to enter by his friend, Midland director Joseph Lewis, and completed the winning design at home while attending to his son who had fallen ill. Though plans were complete by the end of the year, financial pressure meant construction had to be delayed. Work eventually started in 1868 and the main section of the Midland Grand Hotel opened on 5 May 1873, with the west wing following three years later. The building is primarily brick, but polychromatic, in a style derived from the Italian gothic, and with numerous other architectural influences. Gilbert Scott reused many of the design details from his earlier work at Kelham Hall designed in 1857 and completed in 1863, but on a much grander scale for St Pancras. The hotel closed in 1935 and was turned into St Pancras Chambers, a group of offices, with ownership retained by the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (which was created when the Midland amalgamated with other railways). In the late 1980s, British Rail sold off and vacated the premises. Following the decision to connect St Pancras to the Channel Tunnel Rail Link, plans were made to restore the hotel for its original function. Planning permission was granted in 2005 and funded as part of a £50m Government plan to refurbish the station. The St. Pancras Renaissance London Hotel occupies parts of the original building, including the main public rooms, together with a new bedroom wing on the western side of the Barlow train shed. The upper levels of the original building have been redeveloped as apartments by the Manhattan Loft Corporation. These have been sublet via Airbnb owing to their desirable location. The hotel held its grand opening on 5 May 2011, exactly 138 years after its original opening. The hotel has been used as setting in several films, including Chaplin (1992), Richard III (1995) and From Hell (2001). It was used for the filming of the Spice Girls' 1996 video, "Wannabe".

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Pancras%20railway%20station

St Pancras railway station

Accidents and incidents

St Pancras railway station (), also known as London St Pancras or St Pancras International and officially since 2007 as London St Pancras International, is a central London railway terminus on Euston Road in the London Borough of Camden. It is the terminus for Eurostar services from Belgium, France and the Netherlands to London. It provides East Midlands Railway services to , , , and on the Midland Main Line, Southeastern high-speed trains to Kent via and , and Thameslink cross-London services to Bedford, Cambridge, Peterborough, Brighton, Horsham and Gatwick Airport. It stands between the British Library, the Regent's Canal and London King's Cross railway station, with which it shares a London Underground station, . The station was constructed by the Midland Railway (MR), which had an extensive rail network across the Midlands and the North of England, but no dedicated line into London. After rail traffic problems following the 1862 International Exhibition, the MR decided to build a connection from Bedford to London with its own terminus. The station was designed by William Henry Barlow and constructed with a single-span iron roof. Following the station's opening on 1 October 1868, the MR constructed the Midland Grand Hotel on the station's façade, which has been widely praised for its architecture and is now a Grade I listed building along with the rest of the station. In the late 1960s, plans were made to demolish St Pancras entirely and divert services for King's Cross and , leading to fierce opposition. The complex underwent an £800 million refurbishment to become the terminal for the Channel Tunnel Rail Link/High-Speed 1/HS1 as part of an urban regeneration plan across East London, which was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in November 2007. A security-sealed terminal area was constructed for Eurostar services to mainland Europe via High Speed 1 and the Channel Tunnel, with platforms for domestic trains to the north and south-east of England. The restored station has 15 platforms, a shopping centre, and a coach facility. London St Pancras International is owned by HS1 Ltd and managed by Network Rail (High Speed), a subsidiary of Network Rail.

On 17 February 1918 a German Gotha aircraft dropped five bombs, one of which destroyed the roof of the station's ornate booking hall and killed 20 people. The station was also bombed in World War II, including a parachute mine damaging the roof on 15–16 October 1940, and a bomb exploding in the beer vaults underneath Platform 3 on 10–11 May 1941. On 20 July 1959, a locomotive overran a signal and consequently crashed into Dock Junction Signal Box. As a result, trains had to be hand-signalled in and out of St Pancras for several days.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Pancras%20railway%20station

St Pancras railway station

Competition with Eurostar

St Pancras railway station (), also known as London St Pancras or St Pancras International and officially since 2007 as London St Pancras International, is a central London railway terminus on Euston Road in the London Borough of Camden. It is the terminus for Eurostar services from Belgium, France and the Netherlands to London. It provides East Midlands Railway services to , , , and on the Midland Main Line, Southeastern high-speed trains to Kent via and , and Thameslink cross-London services to Bedford, Cambridge, Peterborough, Brighton, Horsham and Gatwick Airport. It stands between the British Library, the Regent's Canal and London King's Cross railway station, with which it shares a London Underground station, . The station was constructed by the Midland Railway (MR), which had an extensive rail network across the Midlands and the North of England, but no dedicated line into London. After rail traffic problems following the 1862 International Exhibition, the MR decided to build a connection from Bedford to London with its own terminus. The station was designed by William Henry Barlow and constructed with a single-span iron roof. Following the station's opening on 1 October 1868, the MR constructed the Midland Grand Hotel on the station's façade, which has been widely praised for its architecture and is now a Grade I listed building along with the rest of the station. In the late 1960s, plans were made to demolish St Pancras entirely and divert services for King's Cross and , leading to fierce opposition. The complex underwent an £800 million refurbishment to become the terminal for the Channel Tunnel Rail Link/High-Speed 1/HS1 as part of an urban regeneration plan across East London, which was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in November 2007. A security-sealed terminal area was constructed for Eurostar services to mainland Europe via High Speed 1 and the Channel Tunnel, with platforms for domestic trains to the north and south-east of England. The restored station has 15 platforms, a shopping centre, and a coach facility. London St Pancras International is owned by HS1 Ltd and managed by Network Rail (High Speed), a subsidiary of Network Rail.

In January 2010, the European railway network was opened to liberalisation to allow greater competition. Both Air France-KLM and Deutsche Bahn expressed interest in taking advantage of the new laws to run new services via High Speed 1 to St Pancras. In December 2009, Deutsche Bahn received permission to run trains through the Channel Tunnel after safety requirements were relaxed. It had previously expressed a desire to run through trains between London and Germany. Direct trains between St Pancras and Cologne could have started before the 2012 Olympics, with plans to run a regular service of three daily trains each direction to Frankfurt, Rotterdam and Amsterdam via Brussels in 2013. Deutsche Bahn trains would be made up of two coupled sets between London and Brussels, dividing at Bruxelles-Midi/Brussel-Zuid. DB showcased an ICE 3 trainset in St Pancras in October 2010. The start date for these services is not expected before 2018. In March 2017 it was announced that Deutsche Bahn had revived plans for a London to Frankfurt train service taking 5 hours, with the service beginning as early as 2020, though plans were later shelved. In February 2010, the idea of a Transmanche Metro service gained support as local councillors in Kent and Pas-de-Calais announced that they were in talks to establish a high-frequency stopping service between London and Lille. Trains would start at Lille Europe and call at Calais, Ashford International and Stratford International before reaching St Pancras. Since High Speed 1 opened, Ashford and Calais have an infrequent service and Eurostar trains do not call at Stratford International. It was hoped the service would be running by 2012 in time for the London Olympics. The mayor of Calais revived these plans in 2016, and said it could be operational in five years.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Pancras%20railway%20station

St Pancras railway station

Great Northern

St Pancras railway station (), also known as London St Pancras or St Pancras International and officially since 2007 as London St Pancras International, is a central London railway terminus on Euston Road in the London Borough of Camden. It is the terminus for Eurostar services from Belgium, France and the Netherlands to London. It provides East Midlands Railway services to , , , and on the Midland Main Line, Southeastern high-speed trains to Kent via and , and Thameslink cross-London services to Bedford, Cambridge, Peterborough, Brighton, Horsham and Gatwick Airport. It stands between the British Library, the Regent's Canal and London King's Cross railway station, with which it shares a London Underground station, . The station was constructed by the Midland Railway (MR), which had an extensive rail network across the Midlands and the North of England, but no dedicated line into London. After rail traffic problems following the 1862 International Exhibition, the MR decided to build a connection from Bedford to London with its own terminus. The station was designed by William Henry Barlow and constructed with a single-span iron roof. Following the station's opening on 1 October 1868, the MR constructed the Midland Grand Hotel on the station's façade, which has been widely praised for its architecture and is now a Grade I listed building along with the rest of the station. In the late 1960s, plans were made to demolish St Pancras entirely and divert services for King's Cross and , leading to fierce opposition. The complex underwent an £800 million refurbishment to become the terminal for the Channel Tunnel Rail Link/High-Speed 1/HS1 as part of an urban regeneration plan across East London, which was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in November 2007. A security-sealed terminal area was constructed for Eurostar services to mainland Europe via High Speed 1 and the Channel Tunnel, with platforms for domestic trains to the north and south-east of England. The restored station has 15 platforms, a shopping centre, and a coach facility. London St Pancras International is owned by HS1 Ltd and managed by Network Rail (High Speed), a subsidiary of Network Rail.

From December 2018, as part of the Thameslink programme, services from the East Coast Main Line/Great Northern Route, also part of the Govia Thameslink Railway franchise, will be linked to the Thameslink route, diverting trains previously terminating at Kings Cross into the Thameslink platforms at St Pancras and then through central London to Sussex and Kent. This link was made possible by the construction of a pair of single-tracks tunnels, named the Canal Tunnels. These tunnels start immediately off the St Pancras Thameslink platforms, dive under the Regent's Canal, and join the East Coast Main Line where the North London Line and High Speed 1 pass over the top.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Pancras%20railway%20station

St Pancras railway station

Freight

St Pancras railway station (), also known as London St Pancras or St Pancras International and officially since 2007 as London St Pancras International, is a central London railway terminus on Euston Road in the London Borough of Camden. It is the terminus for Eurostar services from Belgium, France and the Netherlands to London. It provides East Midlands Railway services to , , , and on the Midland Main Line, Southeastern high-speed trains to Kent via and , and Thameslink cross-London services to Bedford, Cambridge, Peterborough, Brighton, Horsham and Gatwick Airport. It stands between the British Library, the Regent's Canal and London King's Cross railway station, with which it shares a London Underground station, . The station was constructed by the Midland Railway (MR), which had an extensive rail network across the Midlands and the North of England, but no dedicated line into London. After rail traffic problems following the 1862 International Exhibition, the MR decided to build a connection from Bedford to London with its own terminus. The station was designed by William Henry Barlow and constructed with a single-span iron roof. Following the station's opening on 1 October 1868, the MR constructed the Midland Grand Hotel on the station's façade, which has been widely praised for its architecture and is now a Grade I listed building along with the rest of the station. In the late 1960s, plans were made to demolish St Pancras entirely and divert services for King's Cross and , leading to fierce opposition. The complex underwent an £800 million refurbishment to become the terminal for the Channel Tunnel Rail Link/High-Speed 1/HS1 as part of an urban regeneration plan across East London, which was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in November 2007. A security-sealed terminal area was constructed for Eurostar services to mainland Europe via High Speed 1 and the Channel Tunnel, with platforms for domestic trains to the north and south-east of England. The restored station has 15 platforms, a shopping centre, and a coach facility. London St Pancras International is owned by HS1 Ltd and managed by Network Rail (High Speed), a subsidiary of Network Rail.

On 21 March 2012, a SNCF TGV La Poste trainset was displayed at St Pancras. However, regular services proposed for 2017 would use a new terminal planned near Barking.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Pancras%20railway%20station

St Pancras railway station

London Underground station

St Pancras railway station (), also known as London St Pancras or St Pancras International and officially since 2007 as London St Pancras International, is a central London railway terminus on Euston Road in the London Borough of Camden. It is the terminus for Eurostar services from Belgium, France and the Netherlands to London. It provides East Midlands Railway services to , , , and on the Midland Main Line, Southeastern high-speed trains to Kent via and , and Thameslink cross-London services to Bedford, Cambridge, Peterborough, Brighton, Horsham and Gatwick Airport. It stands between the British Library, the Regent's Canal and London King's Cross railway station, with which it shares a London Underground station, . The station was constructed by the Midland Railway (MR), which had an extensive rail network across the Midlands and the North of England, but no dedicated line into London. After rail traffic problems following the 1862 International Exhibition, the MR decided to build a connection from Bedford to London with its own terminus. The station was designed by William Henry Barlow and constructed with a single-span iron roof. Following the station's opening on 1 October 1868, the MR constructed the Midland Grand Hotel on the station's façade, which has been widely praised for its architecture and is now a Grade I listed building along with the rest of the station. In the late 1960s, plans were made to demolish St Pancras entirely and divert services for King's Cross and , leading to fierce opposition. The complex underwent an £800 million refurbishment to become the terminal for the Channel Tunnel Rail Link/High-Speed 1/HS1 as part of an urban regeneration plan across East London, which was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in November 2007. A security-sealed terminal area was constructed for Eurostar services to mainland Europe via High Speed 1 and the Channel Tunnel, with platforms for domestic trains to the north and south-east of England. The restored station has 15 platforms, a shopping centre, and a coach facility. London St Pancras International is owned by HS1 Ltd and managed by Network Rail (High Speed), a subsidiary of Network Rail.

King's Cross St Pancras Underground station serves both King's Cross and St Pancras main-line stations. It is in fare zone 1. The station has two ticket halls, both of which can be accessed directly from the St Pancras concourse. The tube station is served by more lines than any other station on the London Underground. In , King's Cross St Pancras was the station on the system, with million passengers entering and exiting the station. The Underground station pre-dates the mainline as part of the initial section of Metropolitan Railway project on 10 January 1863, which was the first section of the London Underground to open. A separate station for the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway (now the Piccadilly line) opened on 15 December 1906, with the City and South London Railway (now part of the Northern line) opening on 12 May 1907. The Metropolitan Railway platforms were moved to their current location in 1941. The Victoria line platforms were opened on 1 December 1968. A major expansion to accommodate High Speed 1 at St. Pancras opened in November 2009. A pedestrian subway was built during the CTRL refurbishments. It runs under Pancras Road from the eastern entrance of the domestic concourse at St Pancras to the northern ticket hall of King's Cross St Pancras tube station (opened November 2009) and the concourse for King's Cross (opened March 2012).

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichi%20the%20Killer%20%28film%29

Ichi the Killer (film)

Introduction

Ichi the Killer () is a 2001 Japanese action film directed by Takashi Miike, written by Sakichi Sato, based on Hideo Yamamoto's manga series of the same name, and starring Tadanobu Asano and Nao Omori. Omori portrays the title character, a psychologically damaged man who is manipulated into assaulting or killing rival faction members of feuding yakuza gangs while being pursued by a sadomasochistic enforcer (Asano). The film has garnered controversy due to its graphic depictions of violence and cruelty, and has been banned in several countries.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichi%20the%20Killer%20%28film%29

Ichi the Killer (film)

Plot

Ichi the Killer () is a 2001 Japanese action film directed by Takashi Miike, written by Sakichi Sato, based on Hideo Yamamoto's manga series of the same name, and starring Tadanobu Asano and Nao Omori. Omori portrays the title character, a psychologically damaged man who is manipulated into assaulting or killing rival faction members of feuding yakuza gangs while being pursued by a sadomasochistic enforcer (Asano). The film has garnered controversy due to its graphic depictions of violence and cruelty, and has been banned in several countries.

Ichi is on a balcony, masturbating while spying on a pimp raping and assaulting a prostitute. When the pimp discovers him, he flees. A sadistic yakuza boss named Anjo has been massacred. A cleaning crew run by Jijii removes all traces of Anjo's blood and entrails, and credits Ichi for the slaughter. Later, Kakihara, Anjo's sadomasochistic high-ranking enforcer, and other crime lords visit the spotless apartment, concluding that Anjo fled town with the prostitute and ¥3 million of the gang's money. Kakihara visits an underworld night club with other gang members. He tells Anjo's girlfriend, an English-speaking Chinese prostitute named Karen, that Anjo must still be alive, perhaps kidnapped by a rival gang. Jijii feeds Kakihara rumors that Suzuki, a member of the rival Funaki clan, has kidnapped Anjo. Kakihara captures Suzuki and tortures him, but when Suzuki turns out to be innocent, Kakihara slices off the end of his own tongue and offers it to Suzuki's boss as penance. Kakihara and other gang members capture Kano, a drug-addled member of the cleaning crew. He reveals that although he helped clean up the murder scene, it was Ichi who killed Anjo, and that Kakihara has now been targeted. Later, Ichi returns to the pimp's balcony to again watch him brutalize Sailor, a prostitute whom Ichi is a regular patron of. A crying Ichi intervenes, killing the pimp and telling Sailor that he will now be the one to assault her. When Sailor tries to defend herself, Ichi reflexively kills her. At Suzuki's prompting, Kakihara is kicked out of the syndicate, but the entire Anjo gang defects with him. Suzuki then promises Jijii a million yen to "squash" Kakihara. Jijii, it is revealed, is secretly orchestrating events in order to pit yakuza clans against one another, with the help of Ichi. Though normally unassuming and cowardly, Ichi becomes homicidal and sexually aroused when enraged. Jijii is able to manipulate Ichi by implanting several false memories—a high school rape in particular—and uses Ichi as a killing machine. One evening, Ichi kicks one of three bullies attacking a boy named Takeshi. Takeshi is the son of Kaneko, one of Kakihara's henchmen. Jijii incites Ichi to enter an apartment containing several members of the old Anjo gang, and slaughter them all. Afterward, Ichi sees Takeshi, who thanks him for the earlier protection. Kaneko finds a brothel-keeper assaulting Ichi in an alley and, remembering his own long-ago rescue by a member of the Anjo gang, helps Ichi out. Kakihara enlists the help of corrupt twin police detectives, Jirō and Saburō, to find Myu-Myu, a prostitute connected with Ryu Long, a member of Jijii's gang. When Jirō fails to get information from her through torture, Saburō tracks Long down. Though Long outruns the brothers, Kakihara captures him so the twins can torture him for leads to Jijii. Meanwhile, Jijii has Karen seduce Ichi by pretending to be the raped woman from his false memory. When Ichi becomes confused by Karen's claims that she desired for him to rape and assault her, he kills her. Jijii informs Kakihara that Ichi is coming to kill him but is spotted by Takayama, one of Kakihara's men. After a pursuit, Jijii, who is surprisingly muscular, disarms Takayama and kills him. Ichi then arrives at Kakihara's base, where he kills Jirō and Saburō. Kaneko, Kakihara and Ichi chase each other to a rooftop. Due to Jijii's psychological manipulation, Ichi believes that Kaneko is his brother and confronts him. Kaneko shoots Ichi's leg, and Ichi slits Kaneko's throat in front of Takeshi. Takeshi attacks Ichi as he lies on the roof crying. Believing Ichi to be too unstable to hurt him, Kakihara inserts his skewers into his ears to drown out Ichi's cries. He suddenly sees that Ichi has decapitated Takeshi. Ichi charges Kakihara, embedding a bladed boot into his forehead. Kakihara falls from the roof to his death. However, when Jijii finds him, Kakihara has no wound in his head; he hallucinated both Takeshi's murder and Ichi's attack as he jumped to his death while Ichi cried. Years later, Jijii's corpse hangs from a tree in a park. A young man resembling an older Takeshi leaves the park with a group of schoolchildren.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichi%20the%20Killer%20%28film%29

Ichi the Killer (film)

Production

Ichi the Killer () is a 2001 Japanese action film directed by Takashi Miike, written by Sakichi Sato, based on Hideo Yamamoto's manga series of the same name, and starring Tadanobu Asano and Nao Omori. Omori portrays the title character, a psychologically damaged man who is manipulated into assaulting or killing rival faction members of feuding yakuza gangs while being pursued by a sadomasochistic enforcer (Asano). The film has garnered controversy due to its graphic depictions of violence and cruelty, and has been banned in several countries.

The soundtrack was written and produced by Karera Musication, a side project of the Japanese band Boredoms, under the direction of ex-guitarist Seiichi Yamamoto and percussionist/band leader Yoshimi P-We.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichi%20the%20Killer%20%28film%29

Ichi the Killer (film)

Themes

Ichi the Killer () is a 2001 Japanese action film directed by Takashi Miike, written by Sakichi Sato, based on Hideo Yamamoto's manga series of the same name, and starring Tadanobu Asano and Nao Omori. Omori portrays the title character, a psychologically damaged man who is manipulated into assaulting or killing rival faction members of feuding yakuza gangs while being pursued by a sadomasochistic enforcer (Asano). The film has garnered controversy due to its graphic depictions of violence and cruelty, and has been banned in several countries.

Film journalist Tom Mes has suggested that the film is in fact a very sophisticated assessment of violence and its relation to the media and implicating the audience. He writes that "It's a paradox, but Ichi the Killer, a film that sets new boundaries in the portrayal of violence and bloodshed, takes a strongly critical stance towards the portrayal and the consumption of the violent image. However, it does so without ever taking a moral stance towards either the portrayal or the consumption, thus circumventing any accusations of hypocrisy on the part of the director. Miike does not moralise or chastise, but provokes the audience into questioning their own attitudes towards viewing images of violence. He steers them into a direction but leaves it up to them to draw their own conclusion". Mes is also very critical of the edits made to the film. He argues that "The film as a whole is a completely cohesive unity, in that all of its parts are absolutely crucial to the functioning of the whole. Any attempt at censorship or toning down the violence will have the opposite effect and will in fact make the film more exploitative and thereby undermine its critical stance. Excising scenes of violence, particularly the 'painful' scenes, will harm the symbiosis between the 'playful' and the 'painful' violence, which forms the basis for Miike's critical approach".

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichi%20the%20Killer%20%28film%29

Ichi the Killer (film)

Release

Ichi the Killer () is a 2001 Japanese action film directed by Takashi Miike, written by Sakichi Sato, based on Hideo Yamamoto's manga series of the same name, and starring Tadanobu Asano and Nao Omori. Omori portrays the title character, a psychologically damaged man who is manipulated into assaulting or killing rival faction members of feuding yakuza gangs while being pursued by a sadomasochistic enforcer (Asano). The film has garnered controversy due to its graphic depictions of violence and cruelty, and has been banned in several countries.

The film had its world premiere in the Midnight Madness section at the 2001 Toronto International Film Festival on 14 September 2001. It was released in Japan on 22 December 2001. As a publicity gimmick, barf bags were received by viewers out at the Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) to those attending the midnight screening of this movie. Similar bags were given during the Stockholm International Film Festival. Reportedly, watching this film caused one viewer to throw up and another to faint. The British Board of Film Classification refused the release of the uncut film in the United Kingdom, citing "scenes of mutilated, raped or savagely beaten women or of sexual pleasure from violence." A compulsory cut of three minutes and fifteen seconds of content was required for the film's release. For the Hong Kong release, sixteen minutes and 59 seconds were cut. The movie has been banned outright in Norway and Malaysia, and banned for distribution in Germany. In 2018, a digital restoration of the film was made by L'Immagine Ritrovata. The first public screening was at the HKIFF42.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichi%20the%20Killer%20%28film%29

Ichi the Killer (film)

Reception

Ichi the Killer () is a 2001 Japanese action film directed by Takashi Miike, written by Sakichi Sato, based on Hideo Yamamoto's manga series of the same name, and starring Tadanobu Asano and Nao Omori. Omori portrays the title character, a psychologically damaged man who is manipulated into assaulting or killing rival faction members of feuding yakuza gangs while being pursued by a sadomasochistic enforcer (Asano). The film has garnered controversy due to its graphic depictions of violence and cruelty, and has been banned in several countries.

On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 65% based on 40 reviews, with a weighted average rating of 6.20/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Ichi The Killer is a thoroughly shocking gorefest that will surely entertain those with strong stomachs and a penchant for brutal violence." Metacritic reports a score of 55 out of 100 based on 10 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Some critics praised Miike's stylish and narrative approach. Tanner Tafelski of The Village Voice noted, "Miike layers a blood-stained commentary on a toxic world in which men offer protection to men but really end up dooming them to exist within a spasmodic, shambolic, and hypermasculine sphere of violence." Other critics were more critical of the film's extreme violence and found the film inconsistent. Dennis Harvey said for Variety, "Even hardy gonzo-cinema auds will likely find the hectic pace overstimulating to the point of numbed-out tedium."

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichi%20the%20Killer%20%28film%29

Ichi the Killer (film)

Prequel

Ichi the Killer () is a 2001 Japanese action film directed by Takashi Miike, written by Sakichi Sato, based on Hideo Yamamoto's manga series of the same name, and starring Tadanobu Asano and Nao Omori. Omori portrays the title character, a psychologically damaged man who is manipulated into assaulting or killing rival faction members of feuding yakuza gangs while being pursued by a sadomasochistic enforcer (Asano). The film has garnered controversy due to its graphic depictions of violence and cruelty, and has been banned in several countries.

The film was followed by a prequel, 1-Ichi. Nao Omori reprises his role in the prequel, playing a younger version of Ichi.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichi%20the%20Killer%20%28film%29

Ichi the Killer (film)

See also

Ichi the Killer () is a 2001 Japanese action film directed by Takashi Miike, written by Sakichi Sato, based on Hideo Yamamoto's manga series of the same name, and starring Tadanobu Asano and Nao Omori. Omori portrays the title character, a psychologically damaged man who is manipulated into assaulting or killing rival faction members of feuding yakuza gangs while being pursued by a sadomasochistic enforcer (Asano). The film has garnered controversy due to its graphic depictions of violence and cruelty, and has been banned in several countries.

Prostitution in Japan

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prout%27s%20hypothesis

Prout's hypothesis

Introduction

Prout's hypothesis was an early 19th-century attempt to explain the existence of the various chemical elements through a hypothesis regarding the internal structure of the atom. In 1815 and 1816, the English chemist William Prout published two papers in which he observed that the atomic weights that had been measured for the elements known at that time appeared to be whole multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen. He then hypothesized that the hydrogen atom was the only truly fundamental object, which he called protyle, and that the atoms of other elements were actually groupings of various numbers of hydrogen atoms. Prout's hypothesis was an influence on Ernest Rutherford when he succeeded in "knocking" hydrogen nuclei out of nitrogen atoms with alpha particles in 1917, and thus concluded that perhaps the nuclei of all elements were made of such particles (the hydrogen nucleus), which in 1920 he suggested be named protons, from the suffix for particles, added to the stem of Prout's word "protyle". The assumption as discussed by Rutherford was of a nucleus consisting of Z + N = A protons plus N electrons somehow trapped within thereby reducing the positive charge to +Z as observed and vaguely explaining beta decay radioactivity. Such a nuclear constitution was known to be inconsistent with dynamics either classical or early quantum but seemed inevitable until the neutron hypothesis by Rutherford and discovery by English physicist James Chadwick. The discrepancy between Prout's hypothesis and the known variation of some atomic weights to values far from integral multiples of hydrogen, was explained between 1913 and 1932 by the discovery of isotopes and the neutron. According to the whole number rule of Francis Aston, Prout's hypothesis is correct for atomic masses of individual isotopes, with an error of at most 1%.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prout%27s%20hypothesis

Prout's hypothesis

Influence

Prout's hypothesis was an early 19th-century attempt to explain the existence of the various chemical elements through a hypothesis regarding the internal structure of the atom. In 1815 and 1816, the English chemist William Prout published two papers in which he observed that the atomic weights that had been measured for the elements known at that time appeared to be whole multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen. He then hypothesized that the hydrogen atom was the only truly fundamental object, which he called protyle, and that the atoms of other elements were actually groupings of various numbers of hydrogen atoms. Prout's hypothesis was an influence on Ernest Rutherford when he succeeded in "knocking" hydrogen nuclei out of nitrogen atoms with alpha particles in 1917, and thus concluded that perhaps the nuclei of all elements were made of such particles (the hydrogen nucleus), which in 1920 he suggested be named protons, from the suffix for particles, added to the stem of Prout's word "protyle". The assumption as discussed by Rutherford was of a nucleus consisting of Z + N = A protons plus N electrons somehow trapped within thereby reducing the positive charge to +Z as observed and vaguely explaining beta decay radioactivity. Such a nuclear constitution was known to be inconsistent with dynamics either classical or early quantum but seemed inevitable until the neutron hypothesis by Rutherford and discovery by English physicist James Chadwick. The discrepancy between Prout's hypothesis and the known variation of some atomic weights to values far from integral multiples of hydrogen, was explained between 1913 and 1932 by the discovery of isotopes and the neutron. According to the whole number rule of Francis Aston, Prout's hypothesis is correct for atomic masses of individual isotopes, with an error of at most 1%.

Prout's hypothesis remained influential in chemistry throughout the 1820s. However, more careful measurements of the atomic weights, such as those compiled by Jacob Berzelius in 1828 or Edward Turner in 1832, disproved the hypothesis. In particular, the atomic weight of chlorine, which is 35.45 times that of hydrogen, could not at the time be explained in terms of Prout's hypothesis. Some came up with the ad hoc claim that the basic unit was one-half of a hydrogen atom, but further discrepancies surfaced. This resulted in the hypothesis that one-quarter of a hydrogen atom was the common unit. Although they turned out to be wrong, these conjectures catalyzed further measurement of atomic weights. The discrepancy in the atomic weights was by 1919 suspected to be the result of the natural occurrence of multiple isotopes of the same element. F. W. Aston discovered multiple stable isotopes for numerous elements using a mass spectrograph. In 1919, Aston studied neon with sufficient resolution to show that the two isotopic masses are very close to the integers 20 and 22, and that neither is equal to the known molar mass (20.2) of neon gas. By 1925, the problematic chlorine was found to be composed of the isotopes 35Cl and 37Cl, in proportions such that the average weight of natural chlorine was about 35.45 times that of hydrogen. For all elements, each individual isotope of mass number A was eventually found to have a mass very close to A times the mass of a hydrogen atom, with an error always less than 1%. This is a near miss to Prout's law being correct. Nevertheless, the rule was not found to predict isotope masses better than this for all isotopes, due mostly to mass defects resulting from release of binding energy in atomic nuclei when they are formed. Although all elements are the product of nuclear fusion of hydrogen into higher elements, it is now understood that atoms consist of both protons (hydrogen nuclei) and neutrons. The modern version of Prout's rule is that the atomic mass of an isotope of proton number (atomic number) Z and neutron number N is equal to sum of the masses of its constituent protons and neutrons, minus the mass of the nuclear binding energy, the mass defect. According to the whole number rule proposed by Francis Aston, the mass of an isotope is roughly, but not exactly, its mass number A (Z + N) times an atomic mass unit (u), plus or minus binding energy discrepancy – atomic mass unit being the modern approximation for "mass of a proton, neutron, or hydrogen atom". For example iron-56 atoms (which have among the highest binding-energies) weigh only about 99.1% as much as 56 hydrogen atoms. The missing 0.9% of mass represents the energy lost when the nucleus of iron was made from hydrogen inside a star (see stellar nucleosynthesis).

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prout%27s%20hypothesis

Prout's hypothesis

Literary allusions

Prout's hypothesis was an early 19th-century attempt to explain the existence of the various chemical elements through a hypothesis regarding the internal structure of the atom. In 1815 and 1816, the English chemist William Prout published two papers in which he observed that the atomic weights that had been measured for the elements known at that time appeared to be whole multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen. He then hypothesized that the hydrogen atom was the only truly fundamental object, which he called protyle, and that the atoms of other elements were actually groupings of various numbers of hydrogen atoms. Prout's hypothesis was an influence on Ernest Rutherford when he succeeded in "knocking" hydrogen nuclei out of nitrogen atoms with alpha particles in 1917, and thus concluded that perhaps the nuclei of all elements were made of such particles (the hydrogen nucleus), which in 1920 he suggested be named protons, from the suffix for particles, added to the stem of Prout's word "protyle". The assumption as discussed by Rutherford was of a nucleus consisting of Z + N = A protons plus N electrons somehow trapped within thereby reducing the positive charge to +Z as observed and vaguely explaining beta decay radioactivity. Such a nuclear constitution was known to be inconsistent with dynamics either classical or early quantum but seemed inevitable until the neutron hypothesis by Rutherford and discovery by English physicist James Chadwick. The discrepancy between Prout's hypothesis and the known variation of some atomic weights to values far from integral multiples of hydrogen, was explained between 1913 and 1932 by the discovery of isotopes and the neutron. According to the whole number rule of Francis Aston, Prout's hypothesis is correct for atomic masses of individual isotopes, with an error of at most 1%.

In his 1891 novel The Doings of Raffles Haw, Arthur Conan Doyle talks about turning elements into other elements of decreasing atomic number, until a gray matter is reached. In his 1959 novel Life and Fate, Vasily Grossman's principal character, the physicist Viktor Shtrum, reflects on Prout's hypothesis about hydrogen being the origin of other elements (and the felicitous fact that Prout's incorrect data led to an essentially correct conclusion), as he worries about his inability to formulate his own thesis.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prout%27s%20hypothesis

Prout's hypothesis

See also

Prout's hypothesis was an early 19th-century attempt to explain the existence of the various chemical elements through a hypothesis regarding the internal structure of the atom. In 1815 and 1816, the English chemist William Prout published two papers in which he observed that the atomic weights that had been measured for the elements known at that time appeared to be whole multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen. He then hypothesized that the hydrogen atom was the only truly fundamental object, which he called protyle, and that the atoms of other elements were actually groupings of various numbers of hydrogen atoms. Prout's hypothesis was an influence on Ernest Rutherford when he succeeded in "knocking" hydrogen nuclei out of nitrogen atoms with alpha particles in 1917, and thus concluded that perhaps the nuclei of all elements were made of such particles (the hydrogen nucleus), which in 1920 he suggested be named protons, from the suffix for particles, added to the stem of Prout's word "protyle". The assumption as discussed by Rutherford was of a nucleus consisting of Z + N = A protons plus N electrons somehow trapped within thereby reducing the positive charge to +Z as observed and vaguely explaining beta decay radioactivity. Such a nuclear constitution was known to be inconsistent with dynamics either classical or early quantum but seemed inevitable until the neutron hypothesis by Rutherford and discovery by English physicist James Chadwick. The discrepancy between Prout's hypothesis and the known variation of some atomic weights to values far from integral multiples of hydrogen, was explained between 1913 and 1932 by the discovery of isotopes and the neutron. According to the whole number rule of Francis Aston, Prout's hypothesis is correct for atomic masses of individual isotopes, with an error of at most 1%.

Binding energy

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prout%27s%20hypothesis

Prout's hypothesis

References

Prout's hypothesis was an early 19th-century attempt to explain the existence of the various chemical elements through a hypothesis regarding the internal structure of the atom. In 1815 and 1816, the English chemist William Prout published two papers in which he observed that the atomic weights that had been measured for the elements known at that time appeared to be whole multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen. He then hypothesized that the hydrogen atom was the only truly fundamental object, which he called protyle, and that the atoms of other elements were actually groupings of various numbers of hydrogen atoms. Prout's hypothesis was an influence on Ernest Rutherford when he succeeded in "knocking" hydrogen nuclei out of nitrogen atoms with alpha particles in 1917, and thus concluded that perhaps the nuclei of all elements were made of such particles (the hydrogen nucleus), which in 1920 he suggested be named protons, from the suffix for particles, added to the stem of Prout's word "protyle". The assumption as discussed by Rutherford was of a nucleus consisting of Z + N = A protons plus N electrons somehow trapped within thereby reducing the positive charge to +Z as observed and vaguely explaining beta decay radioactivity. Such a nuclear constitution was known to be inconsistent with dynamics either classical or early quantum but seemed inevitable until the neutron hypothesis by Rutherford and discovery by English physicist James Chadwick. The discrepancy between Prout's hypothesis and the known variation of some atomic weights to values far from integral multiples of hydrogen, was explained between 1913 and 1932 by the discovery of isotopes and the neutron. According to the whole number rule of Francis Aston, Prout's hypothesis is correct for atomic masses of individual isotopes, with an error of at most 1%.

Footnotes Citations

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berzelius%20%28secret%20society%29

Berzelius (secret society)

Introduction

Berzelius is a secret society at Yale University named for the Swedish scientist Jöns Jakob Berzelius, considered one of the founding fathers of modern chemistry. Founded in 1848, 'BZ', as the society is called often, is the third oldest society at Yale and the oldest of those of the now-defunct Sheffield Scientific School, the institution which from 1854 to 1956 was the sciences and engineering college of Yale University. Berzelius became a senior society in the tradition of Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, and Wolf's Head in 1933 when the Sheffield Scientific School was integrated into Yale University. Book and Snake and St. Elmo, also societies from Sheffield, followed suit. Skull and Bones, founded in 1832, Scroll and Key, founded in 1841, and Wolf's Head, founded in 1883, catered to students in the Academic Department, or liberal arts college. The alumni trust organization, the Colony Foundation, owns the society's building. Outsiders refer to the building as a 'tomb', the customary appellation for a secret society structure at Yale; however, many BZ members refer to their building as "The Hall." This is likely a transferred linguistic remnant of the tradition of the 'Sheff' secret societies, which had 'halls' for residential use and 'tombs' as separate meeting places, in contrast to the Yale College senior secret societies, which maintained only "tombs."

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berzelius%20%28secret%20society%29

Berzelius (secret society)

Architects of Berzelius Buildings

Berzelius is a secret society at Yale University named for the Swedish scientist Jöns Jakob Berzelius, considered one of the founding fathers of modern chemistry. Founded in 1848, 'BZ', as the society is called often, is the third oldest society at Yale and the oldest of those of the now-defunct Sheffield Scientific School, the institution which from 1854 to 1956 was the sciences and engineering college of Yale University. Berzelius became a senior society in the tradition of Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, and Wolf's Head in 1933 when the Sheffield Scientific School was integrated into Yale University. Book and Snake and St. Elmo, also societies from Sheffield, followed suit. Skull and Bones, founded in 1832, Scroll and Key, founded in 1841, and Wolf's Head, founded in 1883, catered to students in the Academic Department, or liberal arts college. The alumni trust organization, the Colony Foundation, owns the society's building. Outsiders refer to the building as a 'tomb', the customary appellation for a secret society structure at Yale; however, many BZ members refer to their building as "The Hall." This is likely a transferred linguistic remnant of the tradition of the 'Sheff' secret societies, which had 'halls' for residential use and 'tombs' as separate meeting places, in contrast to the Yale College senior secret societies, which maintained only "tombs."

Donn Barber. (1908 or 1910, current society building. Style likened to "blank cube" but with classical ornamentation.) Henry Bacon and James Brite. (completed 1898, residential building, nonextant, brick Neo-Renaissance-style dormitory. Bacon was an American Beaux-Arts architect best remembered for his severe Greek Doric Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. (built 1915–1922), which was his final project. Yale purchased the building in 1933 for student housing and later used it for faculty offices. The building was demolished in 1969 to make way for the construction of the Yale Health Services Center, 17 Hillhouse Avenue. Architectural historian Patrick L. Pinnell notes in Yale University that Berzelius sold to the Scroll and Key Society the site on which the latter erected its own tomb. Architectural historian Scott Meacham cites both Berzelius buildings in his study of Yale and Dartmouth society and fraternity architecture. The original building was built to resemble a Greek temple. The surviving ca. 1908-10 building's location, set off from the more active center of Yale's campus, lends privacy to Berzelius' members, and its unadorned largely blank exterior conveys to outsiders the deceptive sense that nothing much happens inside. In addition to the meeting room, dining area, and numerous study rooms, there are below-ground activity rooms with a pool table and ping pong table for recreation. BZ recently underwent a major restoration.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berzelius%20%28secret%20society%29

Berzelius (secret society)

Mission

Berzelius is a secret society at Yale University named for the Swedish scientist Jöns Jakob Berzelius, considered one of the founding fathers of modern chemistry. Founded in 1848, 'BZ', as the society is called often, is the third oldest society at Yale and the oldest of those of the now-defunct Sheffield Scientific School, the institution which from 1854 to 1956 was the sciences and engineering college of Yale University. Berzelius became a senior society in the tradition of Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, and Wolf's Head in 1933 when the Sheffield Scientific School was integrated into Yale University. Book and Snake and St. Elmo, also societies from Sheffield, followed suit. Skull and Bones, founded in 1832, Scroll and Key, founded in 1841, and Wolf's Head, founded in 1883, catered to students in the Academic Department, or liberal arts college. The alumni trust organization, the Colony Foundation, owns the society's building. Outsiders refer to the building as a 'tomb', the customary appellation for a secret society structure at Yale; however, many BZ members refer to their building as "The Hall." This is likely a transferred linguistic remnant of the tradition of the 'Sheff' secret societies, which had 'halls' for residential use and 'tombs' as separate meeting places, in contrast to the Yale College senior secret societies, which maintained only "tombs."

The society takes its intellectual mission very seriously, invoking Socrates' exhortation "The unexamined life is not worth living” as well as stating to its prospective members that: "Berzelius provides opportunities for achieving insights through an open, honest exchange of experiences, passions, and opinions. This process prepares its members — whose diversity is highly valued — for an active, intellectually vigorous, and moral life, giving them a place and time for contemplation and reflection so that they might rise boldly to the challenges of their lives, devoted to good character, tolerant of others, and willing to serve their communities, while forging links of mind to mind in a chain unbroken."

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berzelius%20%28secret%20society%29

Berzelius (secret society)

See also

Berzelius is a secret society at Yale University named for the Swedish scientist Jöns Jakob Berzelius, considered one of the founding fathers of modern chemistry. Founded in 1848, 'BZ', as the society is called often, is the third oldest society at Yale and the oldest of those of the now-defunct Sheffield Scientific School, the institution which from 1854 to 1956 was the sciences and engineering college of Yale University. Berzelius became a senior society in the tradition of Skull and Bones, Scroll and Key, and Wolf's Head in 1933 when the Sheffield Scientific School was integrated into Yale University. Book and Snake and St. Elmo, also societies from Sheffield, followed suit. Skull and Bones, founded in 1832, Scroll and Key, founded in 1841, and Wolf's Head, founded in 1883, catered to students in the Academic Department, or liberal arts college. The alumni trust organization, the Colony Foundation, owns the society's building. Outsiders refer to the building as a 'tomb', the customary appellation for a secret society structure at Yale; however, many BZ members refer to their building as "The Hall." This is likely a transferred linguistic remnant of the tradition of the 'Sheff' secret societies, which had 'halls' for residential use and 'tombs' as separate meeting places, in contrast to the Yale College senior secret societies, which maintained only "tombs."

Collegiate secret societies in North America Manuscript Society Book and Snake Aurelian Honor Society

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Lucas%20%28philosopher%29

John Lucas (philosopher)

Introduction

John Randolph Lucas (18 June 1929 – 5 April 2020) was a British philosopher.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Lucas%20%28philosopher%29

John Lucas (philosopher)

Biography

John Randolph Lucas (18 June 1929 – 5 April 2020) was a British philosopher.

Lucas was educated at Winchester College and then, as a pupil of R.M. Hare, among others, at Balliol College, Oxford. He studied first mathematics, then Greats (Greek, Latin, Philosophy and Ancient History), obtaining first class honours in both. He sat for Finals in 1951, and took his MA in 1954. He spent the 1957–58 academic year at Princeton University, studying mathematics and logic. For 36 years, until his 1996 retirement, he was a Fellow and Tutor of Merton College, Oxford, and he remained an emeritus member of the University Faculty of Philosophy. He was a Fellow of the British Academy. Lucas is perhaps best known for his paper "Minds, Machines and Gödel," arguing that an automaton cannot represent a human mathematician, attempting to refute computationalism. An author with diverse teaching and research interests, Lucas wrote on the philosophy of mathematics, especially the implications of Gödel's incompleteness theorem, the philosophy of mind, free will and determinism, the philosophy of science including one book on physics co-authored with Peter E. Hodgson, causality, political philosophy, ethics and business ethics, and the philosophy of religion. The son of a Church of England clergyman, and an Anglican himself, Lucas described himself as "a dyed-in-the-wool traditional Englishman." He had four children (Edward, Helen, Richard and Deborah) with Morar Portal, among them Edward Lucas, a former journalist at The Economist. In addition to his philosophical career, Lucas had a practical interest in business ethics. He helped found the Oxford Consumers' Group, and was its first chairman in 1961–3, serving again in 1965.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Lucas%20%28philosopher%29

John Lucas (philosopher)

Free will

John Randolph Lucas (18 June 1929 – 5 April 2020) was a British philosopher.

Lucas (1961) began a lengthy and heated debate over the implications of Gödel's incompleteness theorems for the anthropic mechanism thesis, by arguing that: Determinism ↔ For any human h there exists at least one (deterministic) logical system L(h) which reliably predicts h'''s actions in all circumstances. For any logical system L a sufficiently skilled mathematical logician (equipped with a sufficiently powerful computer if necessary) can construct some statements T(L) which are true but unprovable in L. (This follows from Gödel's first theorem.) If a human m is a sufficiently skillful mathematical logician (equipped with a sufficiently powerful computer if necessary) then if m is given L(m), he or she can construct T(L(m)) and determine that they are true—which L(m) cannot do. Hence L(m) does not reliably predict m's actions in all circumstances. Hence m has free will. It is implausible that the qualitative difference between mathematical logicians and the rest of the population is such that the former have free will and the latter do not. His argument was strengthened by the discovery by Hava Siegelmann in the 1990s that sufficiently complex analogue recurrent neural networks are more powerful than Turing Machines. Space, time and causality Lucas wrote several books on the philosophy of science and space-time (see below). In A treatise on time and space he introduced a transcendental derivation of the Lorenz Transformations based on Red and Blue exchanging messages (in Russian and Greek respectively) from their respective frames of reference which demonstrates how these can be derived from a minimal set of philosophical assumptions. In The Future Lucas gives a detailed analysis of tenses and time, arguing that "the Block universe gives a deeply inadequate view of time. It fails to account for the passage of time, the pre-eminence of the present, the directedness of time and the difference between the future and the past" and in favour of a tree structure in which there is only one past or present (at any given point in spacetime) but a large number of possible futures. "We are by our own decisions in the face of other men's actions and chance circumstances weaving the web of history on the loom of natural necessity" Timeline 1942-7. Scholar of Winchester College 1947–51. Attended Balliol College, Oxford on a scholarship. 1951. BA with 1st Class Honours, Greats. 1951-3. Harmsworth Senior Scholar, Merton College, Oxford. 1952. John Locke Scholarship, Oxford University. 1953-6. Junior Research Fellow, Merton College, Oxford. 1956-9. Fellow and Assistant Tutor, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. 1957-8. Jane Eliza Procter Visiting Fellow, Princeton University. 1959–60. Leverhulme Research Fellow, the University of Leeds. 1960–96. Fellow and Tutor of Merton College, Oxford. 1988. Elected a Fellow of the British Academy. 1990-6. Reader in Philosophy, Oxford University. 1991-3. President, British Society for the Philosophy of Science. Books 1966. Principles of Politics. 1970. The Concept of Probability. 1970. The Freedom of the Will. 1972. The Nature of Mind. (with A. J. P. Kenny, H. C. Longuet-Higgins, and C. H. Waddington; 1972 Gifford Lectures) 1973. The Development of Mind. (with A. J. P. Kenny, H.C.Longet-Higgins, and C.H.Waddington; 1973 Gifford Lectures) 1973. A Treatise on Time and Space. 1976. Freedom and Grace. 1976. Democracy and Participation. 1978. Butler's Philosophy of Religion Vindicated. 1980. On Justice. 1985. Space, Time and Causality: an essay in natural philosophy. 1989. The Future: an essay on God, temporality, and truth 1990. Spacetime and Electromagnetism (with Peter E. Hodgson) . 1993. Responsibility. 1997. Ethical Economics (with M. R. Griffiths). 2000. Conceptual Roots of Mathematics. 2003. An Engagement with Plato's Republic (with B.G. Mitchell). 2006. Reason and Reality, freely available as a series of .pdf files on Lucas's website (below). Also available as Reason and Reality: An Essay in Metaphysics by J. R. Lucas (494 pages, December 2009): Hardback is and Softback is 2016. Value Economics: The Ethical Implications of Value for New Economic Thinking (with M.R. Griffiths). 2021. L’economia del valore (Italian translation, also with M.R. Griffiths). Notes Further reading J R Lucas website archive - archive of homepage with index, includes selection of Lucas's writing Lucas, John R., 2002, "The Godelian Argument," The Truth Journal. "A Strange Piece of Work:" John Lucas on Complexities of Mind, Machines and Gödel "Mr John Lucas". The British Academy''. Category:1929 births Category:2020 deaths Category:Analytic philosophers Category:English Anglicans Category:Anglican philosophers Category:20th-century English philosophers Category:21st-century English philosophers Category:Fellows of the British Academy Category:Philosophers of mathematics Category:Philosophers of time Category:Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford Category:Fellows of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge Category:Fellows of Merton College, Oxford Category:People educated at Winchester College Category:English male non-fiction writers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20Georgian

Air Georgian

Introduction

Air Georgian Limited was a privately owned charter airline based at Toronto Pearson International Airport in Mississauga, Ontario, Canada. Between 2000 and 2020 its main business was its operation as Air Canada Express on a Tier III codeshare with Air Canada for scheduled services on domestic and trans-border routes. Starting in 2020 Air Georgian began focusing on air charters, before ceasing operations in May, after a sale of its assets to Pivot Airlines, a company run by the same executives. Air Georgian operated under the Subparts 704 and 705 of the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CAR 704, CAR 705) and had completed the IATA Operational Safety Audit. Air Georgian pilots were represented by the Air Line Pilots Association (ALPA).

projected-00311192-001

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20Georgian

Air Georgian

History

Air Georgian Limited was a privately owned charter airline based at Toronto Pearson International Airport in Mississauga, Ontario, Canada. Between 2000 and 2020 its main business was its operation as Air Canada Express on a Tier III codeshare with Air Canada for scheduled services on domestic and trans-border routes. Starting in 2020 Air Georgian began focusing on air charters, before ceasing operations in May, after a sale of its assets to Pivot Airlines, a company run by the same executives. Air Georgian operated under the Subparts 704 and 705 of the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CAR 704, CAR 705) and had completed the IATA Operational Safety Audit. Air Georgian pilots were represented by the Air Line Pilots Association (ALPA).

Air Georgian began as an airport developer in 1985. It began commercial operations in 1994 and subsequently developed its commercial air carrier business, which as of 2011 represented 87 percent of its total business. In 1997 It became a code share partner of Canadian Airlines, operating under the banner of Ontario Regional. Air Georgian was a partner of Canadian Airlines. In 2000 Air Georgian became a Tier III partner of Air Canada and operated as Air Canada Alliance. It had a long time cargo operation known as Georgian Express which was sold to Cargojet in 2007. On November 15, 2013, Air Georgian and Regional 1 completed a joint venture through the creation of a parent company, Regional Express Aviation Ltd. (REAL), based in Calgary, Alberta. Air Georgian and R1 both benefit from having access to the world's largest private fleet of Dash 8 and CRJ aircraft, over CAD$100 million in spare parts and domestic maintenance bases located throughout Canada. The joint venture with R1 ended in February 2016. In December 2013, Air Canada announced that commencing in mid-2014, Air Georgian would operate additional routes in Canada and the United States using Air Canada CRJ-100/200 aircraft. In 2019, Air Canada indicated it was ending its relationship with the company, consolidating its CRJ regional capacity into the Jazz Aviation operation. On January 31, 2020, Air Georgian filed notice of intent for bankruptcy protection. On March 16, 2020, Air Georgian received court approval for an asset purchase agreement with Pivot Airlines (2746904 Ontario Inc) for substantially all the assets, properties and undertakings of the company. Pivot Airlines is a new company whose CEO as well as Maintenance Operations and Flight Operations Vice Presidents are the same as Air Georgian's. On May 29, 2020, the transaction was completed, however, the June 1 deadline to make a proposal to exit bankruptcy protection passed and no proposal having been made, the company was declared bankrupt the following day. In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, Air Georgian had begun offering repatriation flights.

projected-00311192-002

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20Georgian

Air Georgian

Fleet

Air Georgian Limited was a privately owned charter airline based at Toronto Pearson International Airport in Mississauga, Ontario, Canada. Between 2000 and 2020 its main business was its operation as Air Canada Express on a Tier III codeshare with Air Canada for scheduled services on domestic and trans-border routes. Starting in 2020 Air Georgian began focusing on air charters, before ceasing operations in May, after a sale of its assets to Pivot Airlines, a company run by the same executives. Air Georgian operated under the Subparts 704 and 705 of the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CAR 704, CAR 705) and had completed the IATA Operational Safety Audit. Air Georgian pilots were represented by the Air Line Pilots Association (ALPA).

At the time of bankruptcy, the Canadian Civil Aircraft Register showed 14 aircraft registered for Air Georgian Limited. As of August 2021, Transport Canada shows that Air Georgian had operated the following 89 aircraft: Air Georgian ceased operations of Toronto-based Beechcraft 1900D aircraft on October 31, 2018, and out of Calgary in on April 30, 2019. Air Georgian ceased operations as an Air Canada Express operator on January 31, 2020.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Introduction

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

projected-00311193-001

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

History

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

In the 1960s, swapping was an early virtual memory technique. An entire program or entire segment would be "swapped out" (or "rolled out") from RAM to disk or drum, and another one would be swapped in (or rolled in). A swapped-out program would be current but its execution would be suspended while its RAM was in use by another program; a program with a swapped-out segment could continue running until it needed that segment, at which point it would be suspended until the segment was swapped in. A program might include multiple overlays that occupy the same memory at different times. Overlays are not a method of paging RAM to disk but merely of minimizing the program's RAM use. Subsequent architectures used memory segmentation, and individual program segments became the units exchanged between disk and RAM. A segment was the program's entire code segment or data segment, or sometimes other large data structures. These segments had to be contiguous when resident in RAM, requiring additional computation and movement to remedy fragmentation. Ferranti's Atlas, and the Atlas Supervisor developed at the University of Manchester, (1962), was the first system to implement memory paging. Subsequent early machines, and their operating systems, supporting paging include the IBM M44/44X and its MOS operating system (1964),, the SDS 940 and the Berkeley Timesharing System (1966), a modified IBM System/360 Model 40 and the CP-40 operating system (1967), the IBM System/360 Model 67 and operating systems such as TSS/360 and CP/CMS (1967), the RCA 70/46 and the Time Sharing Operating System (1967), the GE 645 and Multics (1969), and the PDP-10 with added BBN-designed paging hardware and the TENEX operating system (1969). Those machines, and subsequent machines supporting memory paging, use either a set of page address registers or an in-memory page table to allow the processor to operate on arbitrary pages anywhere in RAM as a seemingly contiguous logical address space. These pages became the units exchanged between disk and RAM.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Page faults

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

When a process tries to reference a page not currently present in RAM, the processor treats this invalid memory reference as a page fault and transfers control from the program to the operating system. The operating system must: Determine the location of the data on disk. Obtain an empty page frame in RAM to use as a container for the data. Load the requested data into the available page frame. Update the page table to refer to the new page frame. Return control to the program, transparently retrying the instruction that caused the page fault. When all page frames are in use, the operating system must select a page frame to reuse for the page the program now needs. If the evicted page frame was dynamically allocated by a program to hold data, or if a program modified it since it was read into RAM (in other words, if it has become "dirty"), it must be written out to disk before being freed. If a program later references the evicted page, another page fault occurs and the page must be read back into RAM. The method the operating system uses to select the page frame to reuse, which is its page replacement algorithm, is important to efficiency. The operating system predicts the page frame least likely to be needed soon, often through the least recently used (LRU) algorithm or an algorithm based on the program's working set. To further increase responsiveness, paging systems may predict which pages will be needed soon, preemptively loading them into RAM before a program references them.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Page replacement techniques

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

Demand paging When pure demand paging is used, pages are loaded only when they are referenced. A program from a memory mapped file begins execution with none of its pages in RAM. As the program commits page faults, the operating system copies the needed pages from a file, e.g., memory-mapped file, paging file, or a swap partition containing the page data into RAM. Anticipatory paging This technique, sometimes also called swap prefetch, predicts which pages will be referenced soon, to minimize future page faults. For example, after reading a page to service a page fault, the operating system may also read the next few pages even though they are not yet needed (a prediction using locality of reference). If a program ends, the operating system may delay freeing its pages, in case the user runs the same program again. Free page queue, stealing, and reclamation The free page queue is a list of page frames that are available for assignment. Preventing this queue from being empty minimizes the computing necessary to service a page fault. Some operating systems periodically look for pages that have not been recently referenced and then free the page frame and add it to the free page queue, a process known as "page stealing". Some operating systems support page reclamation; if a program commits a page fault by referencing a page that was stolen, the operating system detects this and restores the page frame without having to read the contents back into RAM. Pre-cleaning The operating system may periodically pre-clean dirty pages: write modified pages back to disk even though they might be further modified. This minimizes the amount of cleaning needed to obtain new page frames at the moment a new program starts or a new data file is opened, and improves responsiveness. (Unix operating systems periodically use sync to pre-clean all dirty pages; Windows operating systems use "modified page writer" threads.)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Thrashing

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

After completing initialization, most programs operate on a small number of code and data pages compared to the total memory the program requires. The pages most frequently accessed are called the working set. When the working set is a small percentage of the system's total number of pages, virtual memory systems work most efficiently and an insignificant amount of computing is spent resolving page faults. As the working set grows, resolving page faults remains manageable until the growth reaches a critical point. Then faults go up dramatically and the time spent resolving them overwhelms time spent on the computing the program was written to do. This condition is referred to as thrashing. Thrashing occurs on a program that works with huge data structures, as its large working set causes continual page faults that drastically slow down the system. Satisfying page faults may require freeing pages that will soon have to be re-read from disk. "Thrashing" is also used in contexts other than virtual memory systems; for example, to describe cache issues in computing or silly window syndrome in networking. A worst case might occur on VAX processors. A single MOVL crossing a page boundary could have a source operand using a displacement deferred addressing mode, where the longword containing the operand address crosses a page boundary, and a destination operand using a displacement deferred addressing mode, where the longword containing the operand address crosses a page boundary, and the source and destination could both cross page boundaries. This single instruction references ten pages; if not all are in RAM, each will cause a page fault. As each fault occurs the operating system needs to go through the extensive memory management routines perhaps causing multiple I/Os which might including writing other process pages to disk and reading pages of the active process from disk. If the operating system could not allocate ten pages to this program, then remedying the page fault would discard another page the instruction needs, and any restart of the instruction would fault again. To decrease excessive paging and resolve thrashing problems, a user can increase the number of pages available per program, either by running fewer programs concurrently or increasing the amount of RAM in the computer.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Sharing

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

In multi-programming or in a multi-user environment, many users may execute the same program, written so that its code and data are in separate pages. To minimize RAM use, all users share a single copy of the program. Each process's page table is set up so that the pages that address code point to the single shared copy, while the pages that address data point to different physical pages for each process. Different programs might also use the same libraries. To save space, only one copy of the shared library is loaded into physical memory. Programs which use the same library have virtual addresses that map to the same pages (which contain the library's code and data). When programs want to modify the library's code, they use copy-on-write, so memory is only allocated when needed. Shared memory is an efficient way of communication between programs. Programs can share pages in memory, and then write and read to exchange data.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Ferranti Atlas

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

The first computer to support paging was the supercomputer Atlas, jointly developed by Ferranti, the University of Manchester and Plessey in 1963. The machine had an associative (content-addressable) memory with one entry for each 512 word page. The Supervisor handled non-equivalence interruptions and managed the transfer of pages between core and drum in order to provide a one-level store to programs.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Windows 3.x and Windows 9x

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

Paging has been a feature of Microsoft Windows since Windows 3.0 in 1990. Windows 3.x creates a hidden file named 386SPART.PAR or WIN386.SWP for use as a swap file. It is generally found in the root directory, but it may appear elsewhere (typically in the WINDOWS directory). Its size depends on how much swap space the system has (a setting selected by the user under Control Panel → Enhanced under "Virtual Memory"). If the user moves or deletes this file, a blue screen will appear the next time Windows is started, with the error message "The permanent swap file is corrupt". The user will be prompted to choose whether or not to delete the file (whether or not it exists). Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows Me use a similar file, and the settings for it are located under Control Panel → System → Performance tab → Virtual Memory. Windows automatically sets the size of the page file to start at 1.5× the size of physical memory, and expand up to 3× physical memory if necessary. If a user runs memory-intensive applications on a system with low physical memory, it is preferable to manually set these sizes to a value higher than default.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Windows NT

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

The file used for paging in the Windows NT family is pagefile.sys. The default location of the page file is in the root directory of the partition where Windows is installed. Windows can be configured to use free space on any available drives for page files. It is required, however, for the boot partition (i.e., the drive containing the Windows directory) to have a page file on it if the system is configured to write either kernel or full memory dumps after a Blue Screen of Death. Windows uses the paging file as temporary storage for the memory dump. When the system is rebooted, Windows copies the memory dump from the page file to a separate file and frees the space that was used in the page file.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Fragmentation

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

In the default configuration of Windows, the page file is allowed to expand beyond its initial allocation when necessary. If this happens gradually, it can become heavily fragmented which can potentially cause performance problems. The common advice given to avoid this is to set a single "locked" page file size so that Windows will not expand it. However, the page file only expands when it has been filled, which, in its default configuration, is 150% of the total amount of physical memory. Thus the total demand for page file-backed virtual memory must exceed 250% of the computer's physical memory before the page file will expand. The fragmentation of the page file that occurs when it expands is temporary. As soon as the expanded regions are no longer in use (at the next reboot, if not sooner) the additional disk space allocations are freed and the page file is back to its original state. Locking a page file size can be problematic if a Windows application requests more memory than the total size of physical memory and the page file, leading to failed requests to allocate memory that may cause applications and system processes to fail. Also, the page file is rarely read or written in sequential order, so the performance advantage of having a completely sequential page file is minimal. However, a large page file generally allows the use of memory-heavy applications, with no penalties besides using more disk space. While a fragmented page file may not be an issue by itself, fragmentation of a variable size page file will over time create several fragmented blocks on the drive, causing other files to become fragmented. For this reason, a fixed-size contiguous page file is better, providing that the size allocated is large enough to accommodate the needs of all applications. The required disk space may be easily allocated on systems with more recent specifications (i.e. a system with 3  GB of memory having a 6  GB fixed-size page file on a 750  GB disk drive, or a system with 6  GB of memory and a 16  GB fixed-size page file and 2  TB of disk space). In both examples, the system uses about 0.8% of the disk space with the page file pre-extended to its maximum. Defragmenting the page file is also occasionally recommended to improve performance when a Windows system is chronically using much more memory than its total physical memory. This view ignores the fact that, aside from the temporary results of expansion, the page file does not become fragmented over time. In general, performance concerns related to page file access are much more effectively dealt with by adding more physical memory.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Unix and Unix-like systems

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

Unix systems, and other Unix-like operating systems, use the term "swap" to describe the act of substituting disk space for RAM when physical RAM is full. In some of those systems, it is common to dedicate an entire partition of a hard disk to swapping. These partitions are called swap partitions. Many systems have an entire hard drive dedicated to swapping, separate from the data drive(s), containing only a swap partition. A hard drive dedicated to swapping is called a "swap drive" or a "scratch drive" or a "scratch disk". Some of those systems only support swapping to a swap partition; others also support swapping to files.

projected-00311193-013

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Linux

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

The Linux kernel supports a virtually unlimited number of swap backends (devices or files), and also supports assignment of backend priorities. When the kernel swaps pages out of physical memory, it uses the highest-priority backend with available free space. If multiple swap backends are assigned the same priority, they are used in a round-robin fashion (which is somewhat similar to RAID 0 storage layouts), providing improved performance as long as the underlying devices can be efficiently accessed in parallel.

projected-00311193-014

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Swap files and partitions

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

From the end-user perspective, swap files in versions 2.6.x and later of the Linux kernel are virtually as fast as swap partitions; the limitation is that swap files should be contiguously allocated on their underlying file systems. To increase performance of swap files, the kernel keeps a map of where they are placed on underlying devices and accesses them directly, thus bypassing the cache and avoiding filesystem overhead. Regardless, Red Hat recommends swap partitions to be used. When residing on HDDs, which are rotational magnetic media devices, one benefit of using swap partitions is the ability to place them on contiguous HDD areas that provide higher data throughput or faster seek time. However, the administrative flexibility of swap files can outweigh certain advantages of swap partitions. For example, a swap file can be placed on any mounted file system, can be set to any desired size, and can be added or changed as needed. Swap partitions are not as flexible; they cannot be enlarged without using partitioning or volume management tools, which introduce various complexities and potential downtimes.

projected-00311193-015

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Swappiness

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

Swappiness is a Linux kernel parameter that controls the relative weight given to swapping out of runtime memory, as opposed to dropping pages from the system page cache, whenever a memory allocation request cannot be met from free memory. Swappiness can be set to a value from 0 to 200. A low value causes the kernel to prefer to evict pages from the page cache while a higher value causes the kernel to prefer to swap out "cold" memory pages. The default value is 60; setting it higher can cause high latency if cold pages need to be swapped back in (when interacting with a program that had been idle for example), while setting it lower (even 0) may cause high latency when files that had been evicted from the cache need to be read again, but will make interactive programs more responsive as they will be less likely to need to swap back cold pages. Swapping can also slow down HDDs further because it involves a lot of random writes, while SSDs do not have this problem. Certainly the default values work well in most workloads, but desktops and interactive systems for any expected task may want to lower the setting while batch processing and less interactive systems may want to increase it.

projected-00311193-016

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Swap death

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

When the system memory is highly insufficient for the current tasks and a large portion of memory activity goes through a slow swap, the system can become practically unable to execute any task, even if the CPU is idle. When every process is waiting on the swap, the system is considered to be in swap death. Swap death can happen due to incorrectly configured memory overcommitment. The original description of the "swapping to death" problem relates to the X server. If code or data used by the X server to respond to a keystroke is not in main memory, then if the user enters a keystroke, the server will take one or more page faults, requiring those pages to read from swap before the keystroke can be processed, slowing the response to it. If those pages don't remain in memory, they will have to be faulted in again to handle the next keystroke, making the system practically unresponsive even if it's actually executing other tasks normally.

projected-00311193-017

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

macOS

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

macOS uses multiple swap files. The default (and Apple-recommended) installation places them on the root partition, though it is possible to place them instead on a separate partition or device.

projected-00311193-018

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

AmigaOS 4

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

AmigaOS 4.0 introduced a new system for allocating RAM and defragmenting physical memory. It still uses flat shared address space that cannot be defragmented. It is based on slab allocation method and paging memory that allows swapping. Paging was implemented in AmigaOS 4.1 but may lock up system if all physical memory is used up. Swap memory could be activated and deactivated any moment allowing the user to choose to use only physical RAM.

projected-00311193-019

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Performance

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

The backing store for a virtual memory operating system is typically many orders of magnitude slower than RAM. Additionally, using mechanical storage devices introduces delay, several milliseconds for a hard disk. Therefore, it is desirable to reduce or eliminate swapping, where practical. Some operating systems offer settings to influence the kernel's decisions. Linux offers the /proc/sys/vm/swappiness parameter, which changes the balance between swapping out runtime memory, as opposed to dropping pages from the system page cache. Windows 2000, XP, and Vista offer the DisablePagingExecutive registry setting, which controls whether kernel-mode code and data can be eligible for paging out. Mainframe computers frequently used head-per-track disk drives or drums for page and swap storage to eliminate seek time, and several technologies to have multiple concurrent requests to the same device in order to reduce rotational latency. Flash memory has a finite number of erase-write cycles (see limitations of flash memory), and the smallest amount of data that can be erased at once might be very large (128 KiB for an Intel X25-M SSD ), seldom coinciding with pagesize. Therefore, flash memory may wear out quickly if used as swap space under tight memory conditions. On the attractive side, flash memory is practically delayless compared to hard disks, and not volatile as RAM chips. Schemes like ReadyBoost and Intel Turbo Memory are made to exploit these characteristics. Many Unix-like operating systems (for example AIX, Linux, and Solaris) allow using multiple storage devices for swap space in parallel, to increase performance.

projected-00311193-020

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Swap space size

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

In some older virtual memory operating systems, space in swap backing store is reserved when programs allocate memory for runtime data. Operating system vendors typically issue guidelines about how much swap space should be allocated.

projected-00311193-021

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Addressing limits on 32-bit hardware

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

Paging is one way of allowing the size of the addresses used by a process, which is the process's "virtual address space" or "logical address space", to be different from the amount of main memory actually installed on a particular computer, which is the physical address space.

projected-00311193-022

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Main memory smaller than virtual memory

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

In most systems, the size of a process's virtual address space is much larger than the available main memory. For example: The address bus that connects the CPU to main memory may be limited. The i386SX CPU's 32-bit internal addresses can address 4 GB, but it has only 24 pins connected to the address bus, limiting installed physical memory to 16 MB. There may be other hardware restrictions on the maximum amount of RAM that can be installed. The maximum memory might not be installed because of cost, because the model's standard configuration omits it, or because the buyer did not believe it would be advantageous. Sometimes not all internal addresses can be used for memory anyway, because the hardware architecture may reserve large regions for I/O or other features.

projected-00311193-023

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Main memory the same size as virtual memory

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

A computer with true n-bit addressing may have 2 addressable units of RAM installed. An example is a 32-bit x86 processor with 4 GB and without Physical Address Extension (PAE). In this case, the processor is able to address all the RAM installed and no more. However, even in this case, paging can be used to create a virtual memory of over 4 GB. For instance, many programs may be running concurrently. Together, they may require more than 4 GB, but not all of it will have to be in RAM at once. A paging system makes efficient decisions on which memory to relegate to secondary storage, leading to the best use of the installed RAM. Although the processor in this example cannot address RAM beyond 4 GB, the operating system may provide services to programs that envision a larger memory, such as files that can grow beyond the limit of installed RAM. The operating system lets a program manipulate data in the file arbitrarily, using paging to bring parts of the file into RAM when necessary.

projected-00311193-024

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

Main memory larger than virtual address space

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

A few computers have a main memory larger than the virtual address space of a process, such as the Magic-1, some PDP-11 machines, and some systems using 32-bit x86 processors with Physical Address Extension. This nullifies a significant advantage of paging, since a single process cannot use more main memory than the amount of its virtual address space. Such systems often use paging techniques to obtain secondary benefits: The "extra memory" can be used in the page cache to cache frequently used files and metadata, such as directory information, from secondary storage. If the processor and operating system support multiple virtual address spaces, the "extra memory" can be used to run more processes. Paging allows the cumulative total of virtual address spaces to exceed physical main memory. A process can store data in memory-mapped files on memory-backed file systems, such as the tmpfs file system or file systems on a RAM drive, and map files into and out of the address space as needed. A set of processes may still depend upon the enhanced security features page-based isolation may bring to a multitasking environment. The size of the cumulative total of virtual address spaces is still limited by the amount of secondary storage available.

projected-00311193-025

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20paging

Memory paging

See also

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer stores and retrieves data from secondary storage for use in main memory. In this scheme, the operating system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs exceed the size of available physical memory. For simplicity, main memory is called "RAM" (an acronym of random-access memory) and secondary storage is called "disk" (a shorthand for hard disk drive, drum memory or solid-state drive, etc.), but as with many aspects of computing, the concepts are independent of the technology used. Depending on the memory model, paged memory functionality is usually hardwired into a CPU/MCU by using a Memory Management Unit (MMU) or Memory Protection Unit (MPU) and separately enabled by privileged system code in the operating system's kernel. In CPUs implementing the x86 instruction set architecture (ISA) for instance, the memory paging is enabled via the CR0 control register.

Bélády's anomaly Demand paging, a "lazy" paging scheme Expanded memory Memory management Memory segmentation Page (computer memory) Page cache, a disk cache that utilizes virtual memory mechanism Page replacement algorithm Page table Physical memory, a subject of paging Virtual memory, an abstraction that paging may create

projected-00311198-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

Introduction

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

projected-00311198-002

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

Early life

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

Louis Dearborn LaMoore was born in Jamestown, North Dakota, on March 22, 1908, the seventh child of Emily Dearborn and veterinarian, local politician, and farm equipment broker Louis Charles LaMoore (who had changed the French spelling of the name L'Amour). His mother had Irish ancestry, while his father was of French-Canadian descent. His father had arrived in Dakota Territory in 1882. Although the area around Jamestown was mostly farm land, cowboys and livestock often traveled through Jamestown on their way to or from ranches in Montana and the markets to the east. Louis played "Cowboys and Indians" in the family barn, which served as his father's veterinary hospital, and spent much of his free time at the local library, the Alfred E. Dickey Free Library, particularly reading the works of 19th-century British historical boys' author G. A. Henty. L'Amour once said, "[Henty's works] enabled me to go into school with a great deal of knowledge that even my teachers didn't have about wars and politics." After a series of bank failures devastated the economy of the upper Midwest, Dr. LaMoore and Emily took to the road. Removing Louis and his adopted brother John from school, they headed south in the winter of 1923. Over the next seven or eight years, they skinned cattle in west Texas, baled hay in the Pecos Valley of New Mexico, worked in the mines of Arizona, California and Nevada, and in the sawmills and lumber camps of the Pacific Northwest. It was in colorful places like these that Louis met a wide variety of people, upon whom he later modeled the characters in his novels, many of them actual Old West personalities who had survived into the 1920s and 1930s. Making his way as a mine assessment worker, professional boxer and merchant seaman, Louis traveled the country and the world, sometimes with his family, sometimes not. He visited all of the western states plus England, Japan, China, Borneo, the Dutch East Indies, Arabia, Egypt, and Panama, finally moving with his parents to Choctaw, Oklahoma in the early 1930s. There, he changed his name to the original French spelling "L'Amour" and settled down to try to make something of himself as a writer.

projected-00311198-003

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

Early works

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

He had success with poetry, articles on boxing and writing and editing sections of the WPA Guide Book to Oklahoma, but the dozens of short stories he was churning out met with little acceptance. Finally, L'Amour placed a story, Death Westbound, in "10 Story Book", a magazine that featured what was supposed to be quality writing (Jack Woodford, author of several books on writing, is published in the same edition as L'Amour) alongside scantily attired, or completely naked young women. Several years later, L'Amour placed his first story for pay, Anything for a Pal, published in True Gang Life. Two lean disappointing years passed after that, and then, in 1938, his stories began appearing in pulp magazines fairly regularly. Along with other adventure and crime stories, L'Amour created the character of mercenary sea captain Jim Mayo. Starting with East of Gorontalo, the series ran through nine episodes from 1940 until 1943. L'Amour wrote only one story in the western genre prior to World War II, 1940's The Town No Guns Could Tame.

projected-00311198-004

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

World War II service and post-war

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

L'Amour continued as an itinerant worker, traveling the world as a merchant seaman until the start of World War II. During World War II, he served in the United States Army as a lieutenant with the 362nd Quartermaster Truck Company. In the two years before L'Amour was shipped off to Europe, L'Amour wrote stories for Standard Magazine. After World War II, L'Amour continued to write stories for magazines; his first after being discharged in 1946 was Law of the Desert Born in Dime Western Magazine (April 1946). L'Amour's contact with Leo Margulies led to L'Amour agreeing to write many stories for the Western pulp magazines published by Standard Magazines, a substantial portion of which appeared under the name "Jim Mayo". The suggestion of L'Amour writing Hopalong Cassidy novels also was made by Margulies who planned on launching Hopalong Cassidy's Western Magazine at a time when the William Boyd films and new television series were becoming popular with a new generation. L'Amour read the original Hopalong Cassidy novels, written by Clarence E. Mulford, and wrote his novels based on the original character under the name "Tex Burns". Only two issues of the Hopalong Cassidy Western Magazine were published, and the novels as written by L'Amour were extensively edited to meet Doubleday's thoughts of how the character should be portrayed in print. Strongly disagreeing—L'Amour preferred Mulford's original, much rougher characterization of Cassidy—for the rest of his life he denied authoring the novels. In the 1950s, L'Amour began to sell novels. L'Amour's first novel, published under his own name, was Westward The Tide, published by World's Work in 1951. The short story, The Gift of Cochise was printed in Colliers (5 July 1952) and seen by John Wayne and Robert Fellows, who purchased the screen rights from L'Amour for $4,000. James Edward Grant was hired to write a screenplay based on this story changing the main character's name from Ches Lane to Hondo Lane. L'Amour retained the right to novelize the screenplay and did so, even though the screenplay differed substantially from the original story. This was published as Hondo in 1953 and released on the same day the film opened with a blurb from John Wayne stating that "Hondo was the finest Western Wayne had ever read". During the remainder of the decade L'Amour produced a great number of novels, both under his own name as well as others (e. g. Jim Mayo). Also during this time he rewrote and expanded many of his earlier short story and pulp fiction stories to book length for various publishers.

projected-00311198-005

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

Bantam Books

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

Many publishers in the 1950s and '60s refused to publish more than one or two books a year by the same author. Louis's editor at Gold Medal supported his writing up to three or four but the heads of the company vetoed that idea even though Louis was publishing books with other houses. Louis had sold over a dozen novels and several million copies before Bantam Books editor-in-chief Saul David was finally able to convince his company to offer Louis a short term exclusive contract that would accept three books a year. It was only after 1960, however, that Louis's sales at Bantam would begin to surpass his sales at Gold Medal. L'Amour's career flourished throughout the 1960s and he began work on a series of novels about the fictional Sackett family. The Daybreakers, published in 1960 and the first, was actually not in the chronological order of the series of novels. Initially he wrote five books about William Tell Sackett and his close relatives; however, in later years the series spread to include other families and four centuries of North American history. It was an ambitious project and several stories intended to close the gaps in the family's time line were left untold at the time of L'Amour's death. L'Amour also branched out into historical fiction with The Walking Drum, set in the 11th century, a contemporary thriller, Last of the Breed, and science fiction with The Haunted Mesa. L'Amour eventually wrote 100 novels, over 250 short stories, and (as of 2010) sold more than 320 million copies of his work. By the 1970s his writings were translated into over 10 languages. Every one of his works is still in print. L'Amour appears under the name of "Lew" as a minor character in the 2006 novel The Chinatown Death Cloud Peril by Paul Malmont. The novel describes friendship and rivalry among pulp writers of the 1930s.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

Audio book publishing

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

Many of the L'Amour titles have been produced in the "single voice" style. In the early days, however, when the fledgling Bantam Audio Publishing (now Random House Audio) came to L'Amour about converting some of his old short stories into audio, he insisted that they do something to offer the audience more value than just having an actor read a bunch of old pulp stories. Together he and Bantam executive Jenny Frost created the concept of a series of "Radio Drama" style productions that would combine a large cast of actors, sound effects and music to produce a modern audio drama of each story. The team of David Rapkin (Producer) and Charles Potter (Director) was employed to produce a prototype show and L'Amour's son Beau came into the program as Supervising Producer. Between 1986 and 2004 the team had completed over sixty-five dramatized audio productions. Several different styles of show were produced over the years. The first several shows were "transcriptions", literal breakdowns of the exact L'Amour short story into lines for the different characters and narrator. Later productions used more liberally interpreted adaptations written by screenwriters, playwrights and a few film and theater students, who were taught the process by Beau L'Amour and the more prolific writers from earlier adaptations. The majority of productions were done in New York City. In the early years the pace of production was six shows a year but in the mid-1990s it slowed to four. At this time the running time for all the programs was roughly sixty minutes. The cast members were veterans of the New York stage, film and advertising worlds and came together for a rehearsal and then a day of recording the show. Sound effects were created by effects man Arthur Miller in the studio as the lines were being recorded and narration was done. Although many of the programs were written and produced in a modified "Old Time Radio" style, attempts were also made to modernize the approach. Whenever the story material supported it a more contemporary style was used in the writing and more and more high tech solutions to the effects and mix found their way into the productions. While hiring and supervising the writers, mostly out of Los Angeles, Beau L'Amour created a few programs on his own. The techniques used by him and producer/editor Paul O'Dell were more in line with motion picture production, simply taping the voices of the actors in the studio and then recording the majority of sound effects in the field. This called for a great deal more editing, both in cutting the actor's performances and the sound effects, but it allowed for a great deal more control. In the mid-1990s a series of the L'Amour Audio Dramas was recut for radio. Louis L'Amour Theater played on over two hundred stations for a number of years. Several of the scripts from the L'Amour series have been produced as live theater pieces, including The One for the Mojave Kid and Merrano of the Dry Country. The L'Amour program of Audio Dramas is still ongoing but the pace of production has slowed considerably. Beau L'Amour and Paul O'Dell released Son of a Wanted Man, the first L'Amour Drama in half a decade in 2004. Son of a Wanted Man is also the first Louis L'Amour novel to be turned into a drama. Considerably more complex than earlier shows it had a cast of over twenty mid-level Hollywood actors, a music score recorded specifically for the production and sound effects completely recorded in the field in many locations across the west. Produced as sort of a "profitable hobby" Beau L'Amour and Paul O'Dell created the production while working around their day-to-day jobs. Since this allowed them no more than nine or ten weeks a year, the show took four years to complete.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

Shalako

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

During the 1960s, L'Amour intended to build a working town typical of those of the 19th century Western frontier, with buildings with false fronts situated in rows on either side of an unpaved main street and flanked by wide boardwalks before which, at various intervals, were watering troughs and hitching posts. The town, to be named Shalako after the protagonist of L'Amour's novel of the same name, was to have featured shops and other businesses that were typical of such towns: a barber shop, a hotel, a dry goods store, one or more saloons, a church, a one-room schoolhouse, etc. It would have offered itself as a filming location for Hollywood motion pictures concerning the Wild West. However, funding for the project fell through, and Shalako was never built.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

Literary assessment

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

When interviewed not long before his death, he was asked which among his books he liked best. His reply: I like them all. There's bits and pieces of books that I think are good. I never rework a book. I'd rather use what I've learned on the next one, and make it a little bit better. The worst of it is that I'm no longer a kid and I'm just now getting to be a good writer. Just now. The critic Jon Tuska, surveying Western literature, writes: I have no argument that L'Amour's total sales have probably surpassed every other author of Western fiction in the history of the genre. Indeed, at the time of his death his sales had topped 200,000,000. What I would question is the degree and extent of his effect "upon the American Imagination". His Western fiction is strictly formulary and frequently, although not always, features the ranch romance plot where the hero and the heroine are to marry at the end once the villains have been defeated. Not only is there nothing really new in the basic structure of his stories, even L'Amour's social Darwinism, which came to characterize his later fiction, was scarcely original and was never dramatized in other media the way it was in works based on Zane Grey's fiction. But Tuska also notes "At his best, L'Amour was a master of spectacular action and stories with a vivid, propulsive forward motion."

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

Awards

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

In May 1972 he was awarded an Honorary PhD by Jamestown College, as a testament to his literary and social contributions. In 1979, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. Bendigo Shafter (1979) won the U.S. National Book Award in the one-year category Western. In 1982 he received the Congressional Gold Medal, and in 1984 President Ronald Reagan awarded L'Amour the Presidential Medal of Freedom. L'Amour is also a recipient of North Dakota's Roughrider Award and the MPTF Golden Boot Award.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

Death

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

L'Amour died from lung cancer at his home in Los Angeles on June 10, 1988, and was buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California. His autobiography detailing his years as an itinerant worker in the west, Education of a Wandering Man, was published posthumously in 1989. He was survived by his wife Kathy, their son Beau, and their daughter Angelique.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

Novels

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

(including series novels) Westward the Tide (London, 1950; first US publication 1976) The Riders of High Rock (1951) The Rustlers of West Fork (1951) The Trail to Seven Pines (1951) Trouble Shooter (1952) Hondo (1953) Showdown at Yellow Butte (1953) Crossfire Trail (1954) Kilkenny (1954) Utah Blaine (1954) Heller with a Gun (1955) Guns of the Timberlands (1955) To Tame a Land (1955) The Burning Hills (1956) Silver Canyon (1956) Last Stand at Papago Wells (1957) Sitka (1957) The Tall Stranger (1957) Radigan (1958) The First Fast Draw (1959) Taggart (1959) The Daybreakers (1960) Flint (1960) Sackett (1961) High Lonesome (1962) Killoe (1962) Lando (1962) Shalako (1962) Catlow (1963) Dark Canyon (1963) Fallon (1963) How the West Was Won (1963) Hanging Woman Creek (1964) Mojave Crossing (1964) Kiowa Trail (1964) The High Graders (1965) The Key-Lock Man (1965) The Sackett Brand (1965) The Broken Gun (1966) Kid Rodelo (1966) Kilrone (1966) Mustang Man (1966) Matagorda (1967) The Sky-Liners (1967) Brionne (1968) Chancy (1968) Down the Long Hills (1968) (winner of the Golden Spur Award) Conagher (1969) The Empty Land (1969) The Lonely Men (1969) Galloway (1970) The Man Called Noon (1970) Reilly's Luck (1970) The Ferguson Rifle (1973) North to the Rails (1971) Tucker (1971) Under the Sweetwater Rim (1971) Callaghen (1972) Ride the Dark Trail (1972) The Man from Skibbereen (1973) The Quick and the Dead (1973) Treasure Mountain (1973) The Californios (1974) Sackett's Land (1974) The Man From the Broken Hills (1975) Over on the Dry Side (1975) Rivers West (1975) The Rider of Lost Creek (1976) To the Far Blue Mountains (1976) Where the Long Grass Blows (1976) Borden Chantry (1977) Fair Blows the Wind (1978) The Mountain Valley War (1978) Bendigo Shafter (1979) (winner of the National Book Award) The Iron Marshal (1979) The Proving Trail (1979) Lonely on the Mountain (1980) The Warrior's Path (1980) Comstock Lode (1981) Milo Talon (1981) The Cherokee Trail (1982) The Shadow Riders (1982) The Lonesome Gods (1983) Ride the River (1983) Son of a Wanted Man (1984) The Walking Drum (1984) Jubal Sackett (1985) Passin' Through (1985) Last of the Breed (1986) West of Pilot Range (1986) A Trail to the West Audio (1986) Haunted Mesa (1987)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

Collections of short stories

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

War Party (1975, featuring The Gift of Cochise and Trap of Gold) The Strong Shall Live (1980) Yondering (1980; revised edition 1989) Buckskin Run (1981) Bowdrie (1983) The Hills of Homicide (1983) Law of the Desert Born (1983) Bowdrie's Law (1984) Night Over the Solomons (1986) The Rider of the Ruby Hills (1986) Riding for the Brand (1986) The Trail to Crazy Man (1986) Dutchman's Flat (1986) Lonigan (1988) Long Ride Home (1989) The Outlaws of Mesquite (1990) West from Singapore (1991) Valley of the Sun (1995) West of Dodge (1996) End of the Drive (1997) Monument Rock (1998) Beyond the Great Snow Mountains (1999) Off the Mangrove Coast (2000) May There Be a Road (2001) With These Hands (2002) From the Listening Hills (2003) The Collected Short Stories of Louis L'Amour: The Frontier Stories – Volume 1 (2003) The Frontier Stories – Volume 2 (2004) The Frontier Stories – Volume 3 (2005) The Adventure Stories – Volume 4 (2005) The Frontier Stories – Volume 5 (2007) The Crime Stories – Volume 6 (2008) The Frontier Stories – Volume 7 (2009)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

Non-fiction

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

Education of a Wandering Man (1989) Frontier The Sackett Companion A Trail of Memories: The Quotations of Louis L'Amour (compiled by Angelique L'Amour)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

Poetry

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

Smoke From This Altar (1939)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

Compilations with other authors

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

The Golden West Stagecoach

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

Recurring Characters

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

L'Amour often wrote series of novels and short stories featuring previously introduced characters, the most notable being the Sackett clan.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20L%27Amour

Louis L'Amour

Sackett series

Louis Dearborn L'Amour (; né LaMoore; March 22, 1908 – June 10, 1988) was an American novelist and short story writer. His books consisted primarily of Western novels (though he called his work "frontier stories"); however, he also wrote historical fiction (The Walking Drum), science fiction (Haunted Mesa), non-fiction (Frontier), as well as poetry and short-story collections. Many of his stories were made into films. His books remain popular and most have gone through multiple printings. At the time of his death almost all of his 105 existing works (89 novels, 14 short-story collections, and two full-length works of nonfiction) were still in print, and he was "one of the world's most popular writers".

In fictional story order (not the order written). Sackett's Land – Barnabas Sackett To the Far Blue Mountains – Barnabas Sackett The Warrior's Path – Kin Ring Sackett Jubal Sackett – Jubal Sackett, Itchakomi Ishai Ride the River – Echo Sackett (Aunt to Orrin, Tyrel, and William Tell Sackett; also involves Chantrys and numerous other Sacketts including three Clinch Mountain Sacketts Trulove, Macon, and Mordecai. Also includes her uncle Regal. And, mentions her brother Ethan who could be the Ethan Sackett in 'Bendigo Shafter') The Daybreakers – Orrin and Tyrel Sackett, Cap Rountree, Tom Sunday Lando – Orlando Sackett, the Tinker Booty for a Badman" - William Tell Sackett (Short story) The Courting of Griselda William Tell Sackett (Short story) Sackett – William Tell Sackett, Cap Rountree, Angie Mustang Man – Nolan Sackett Mojave Crossing – William Tell Sackett The Sackett Brand – William Tell Sackett, and the whole passel of Sacketts! The Sky-liners – Flagan and Galloway Sackett Galloway – Flagan and Galloway Sackett The Lonely Men – William Tell Sackett Ride the Dark Trail – Logan Sackett, Em Talon (born a Sackett) Treasure Mountain – William Tell and Orrin Sackett, the Tinker Lonely on the Mountain – William Tell, Orrin and Tyrel Sackett (They go on a mission to help Logan Sackett) There are also two Sackett-related short stories: The Courting of Griselda – William Tell Sackett (available in End of the Drive) Booty for a Badman – William Tell Sackett (originally published in the Saturday Evening Post 30 July 1960; available in War Party) Sacketts are also involved in the plot of 10 other novels: Bendigo Shafter – Ethan Sackett Dark Canyon – William Tell Sackett Borden Chantry – Joe Sackett (killed in ambush) and Tyrel Sackett Passin' Through – Parmalee Sackett is mentioned as defending a main character in the book. Also, a main character is a Higgins. Son of a Wanted Man – Tyrel Sackett Catlow – Ben Cowan marries a cousin of Tyrel Sackett's wife Man from the Broken Hills – Em Talon is a main character in this book and was, in fact, born a Sackett. Mentions William Tell Sackett. Chancy – The main character, Otis Tom Chancy, reveals that he is a distant relative of the Sacketts. In addition, the Gates cow outfit claims they are headed west because a Sackett told them of a wonderful, green valley to be had there. The Iron Marshal – In Chapter 6, the Rig Barrett papers state that Henry Drako had trouble with a man named Sackett over a stolen horse in Tennessee and was run out of the state. Milo Talon – In the final gun battle with John Topp, Milo tells him that he, Milo, is a Sackett as his mother was a Sackett. Talon series (Note: The Talon and Chantry series are often combined into one list for a total of eight) Rivers West The Man from the Broken Hills (Em Talon was born a Sackett. She is the main character's mother.) Milo Talon (is a cousin to the Sacketts through his mother, Em Talon) Chantry series Fair Blows the Wind (the first Chantry) The Ferguson Rifle – Ronan Chantry Over on the Dry Side Borden Chantry North to the Rails – Tom Chantry (Borden Chantry's son) Kilkenny series The Rider of Lost Creek (1976), expanded from the short novel published in the April 1947 issue of West magazine, under the "Jim Mayo" pseudonym. The Mountain Valley War (1978), expanded from the novella A Man Called Trent, originally published in the December 1947 issue of West magazine, also under the "Jim Mayo" pseudonym. A Man Called Trent is included in the collection The Rider of the Ruby Hills (1986). Kilkenny (1954) A Gun for Kilkenny is a short story featuring Kilkenny as a minor character, from the collection Dutchman's Flat (1986). West of Dodge is a short story from the collection of the same name. Monument Rock is a novella, from the collection Monument Rock (1998). Hopalong Cassidy series Originally published under the pseudonym "Tex Burns". Louis L'Amour was commissioned to write four Hopalong Cassidy books in the spring and summer of 1950 by Doubleday's Double D Western imprint. They were the first novels he ever had published and he denied writing them until the day he died, refusing to sign any of them that fans would occasionally bring to his autograph sessions. The reason given to his young son for doing this was, "I wrote some books. I just did it for the money, and my name didn't go on them. So now, when people ask me if they were mine, I say 'no.'" When his son asked if this would be a lie, he said, "I just wrote them for hire. They weren't my books." The Rustlers of West Fork The Trail to Seven Pines The Riders of High Rock Trouble ShooterTumbling K series West of the Pilot Range (1947, short story) McQueen of the Tumbling K (1947, short story) Bad Place to Die (1955, short story) West of the Tularosa (1951, short story) Roundup in Texas (1949, short story) Grub Line Rider (1951, short story) Chick Bowdrie series McNelly Knows a Ranger (1947, short story) A Job for a Ranger (1946, short story) Bowdrie Rides a Coyote Trail (1947, short story) A Trail to the West (1947, short story) The Outlaws of Poplar Creek (1947, short story) Bowdrie Follows a Cold Trail (1947, short story) More Brains Than Bullets (1948, short story) The Road to Casa Piedras (1948, short story) Bowdrie Passes Through (1948, short story) Where Buzzards Fly (1948, short story) South of Deadwood (1948, short story) Too Tough to Brand (1949, short story) Case Closed – No Prisoners (1949, short story) The Killer from the Pecos (1950, short story) A Ranger Rides to Town (1950, short story) Rain on the Mountain Fork (1951, short story) Down Sonora Way (1951, short story) Strange Pursuit (1952, short story) Strawhouse Trail (short story, first known publication 1998 collection Monument Rock) Cactus Kid series No Trouble for the Cactus Kid (1947, short story) Medicine Ground (1948, short story) Love and the Cactus Kid (1950, short story) The Cactus Kid Pays a Debt (1952, short story) Battle at Burnt Camp (short story, first known publication 1998 collection Monument Rock) The Cactus Kid (1953, short story) Film adaptations Crossfire Trail, 2001. (TV) (novel) a.k.a. Louis L'Amour's Crossfire Trail (US). Starring Tom Selleck, Virginia Madsen, and Wilford Brimley. Directed by Simon Wincer. The Diamond of Jeru (2001) (TV) (short story) a.k.a. Louis L'Amour's The Diamond of Jeru (US: complete title) Shaughnessy (1996) (TV) (novel The Iron Marshal) a.k.a. Louis L'Amour's Shaughnessy (Australia), and, Louis L'Amour's Shaughnessy the Iron Marshal (US: DVD box title) Conagher (1991) (TV) (novel) a.k.a. Louis L'Amour's Conagher, Starring Sam Elliott and Katharine Ross. Directed by Reynaldo Villalobos. The Quick and the Dead (1987) (HBO TV) (novel), Starring Sam Elliott and Kate Capshaw. Directed by Robert Day. Louis L'Amour's Down the Long Hills (1986) (TV) (novel) a.k.a. Down the Long Hills Five Mile Creek (39 episodes, 1983–1985) (TV Series based on novel The Cherokee Trail) Walk Like a Man (1984) TV Episode (inspiration The Cherokee Trail) When the Kookaburra Cries (1984) TV Episode (inspiration The Cherokee Trail) The Shadow Riders (1982) (TV) (novel) a.k.a. Louis L'Amour's The Shadow Riders The Cherokee Trail (1981) (TV) (story) a.k.a. Louis L'Amour's The Cherokee Trail (US) The Sacketts (1979) (TV) (novels The Daybreakers and Sackett) a.k.a. The Daybreakers (US: cut version) Hombre llamado Noon, Un (1973) (novel) a.k.a. The Man Called Noon (Philippines: English title) (UK) (US) & Lo chiamavano Mezzogiorno (Italy) Cancel My Reservation (1972) (novel The Broken Gun) Catlow (1971) (novel) Shalako (1968) (novel) ... a.k.a. Man nennt mich Shalako (West Germany) Hondo (17 episodes, 1967) Hondo and the Rebel Hat (1967) TV Episode (character) Hondo and the Apache Trail (1967) TV Episode (character) Hondo and the Gladiators (1967) TV Episode (character) Hondo and the Hanging Town (1967) TV Episode (character) Hondo and the Death Drive (1967) TV Episode (character) Hondo and the Apaches (1967) (TV) (story The Gift of Cochise) Kid Rodelo (1966) (novel) Taggart (1964) (novel) Guns of the Timberland (1960) (novel) Heller in Pink Tights, 1960 (film) (novel) Starring Anthony Quinn and Sophia Loren. Directed by George Cukor. Adapted from Heller With a Gun. Stagecoach West (1960) TV Episode (story) Apache Territory (1958) (novel Last Stand at Papago Wells) The Tall Stranger (1957) (novel Showdown Trail), The Rifle (US) and Walk Tall (US: alternative title) Maverick (1 episode, October 27, 1957, Season 01 Episode 06) Stage West Adapted from a magazine article. Sugarfoot (1 episode, 1957) ... a.k.a. Tenderfoot (UK) The Strange Land (1957) TV Episode (story) Utah Blaine (1957) (novel) The Burning Hills (1956) (novel) Flowers for Jenny (1956) TV Episode (story) Blackjack Ketchum, Desperado (1956) (novel Kilkenny) City Detective (1 episode, 1955) Man Down, Woman Screaming (1955) TV Episode (story) Stranger on Horseback (1955) (story) Climax! (1 episode, 1955) ... a.k.a. Climax Mystery Theater (US) The Mojave Kid (1955) TV Episode (story) Treasure of Ruby Hills (1955) (story) Four Guns to the Border (1954) (story) ... a.k.a. Shadow Valley (US) Hondo (1953) (story The Gift of Cochise) Starring John Wayne and Geraldine Page. East of Sumatra (1953) (story) See also Sackett Family Hopalong Cassidy Louis Masterson Notes References Grub Line Rider foreword by Jon Tuska, Dorchester Publishing Co. New York. 2008 Jon Tuska, Louis L'Amour's Western Fiction, A Variable Harvest, McFarland & Co. 1990 Jean Henry Mead, Maverick Writers'', Caxton Press, Caldwell, ID. 1989

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Jerry Bruckheimer

Introduction

Jerome Leon Bruckheimer (born September 21, 1943) is an American film and television producer. He has been active in the genres of action, drama, fantasy, and science fiction. His films include Flashdance, Top Gun, The Rock, Crimson Tide, Con Air, Armageddon, Enemy of the State, Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor, Kangaroo Jack, and the Beverly Hills Cop, Bad Boys, Pirates of the Caribbean, and the National Treasure franchises. Many of his films have been co-produced by Paramount and Disney, while many of his television series have been co-produced by Warner Bros. and CBS Studios. In July 2003, Bruckheimer was honored by Variety as the first producer in Hollywood history to produce the top two highest-grossing films of a single weekend, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and Bad Boys II. His best known television series are CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, CSI: Cyber, Without a Trace, Cold Case, and the American version of The Amazing Race. At one point, three of his TV series ranked among the top 10 in the U.S. ratings—a unique feat in television. He is also the co-founder and co-majority owner (along with David Bonderman) of the Seattle Kraken, the 2021 expansion team of the National Hockey League.

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Jerry Bruckheimer

Early life

Jerome Leon Bruckheimer (born September 21, 1943) is an American film and television producer. He has been active in the genres of action, drama, fantasy, and science fiction. His films include Flashdance, Top Gun, The Rock, Crimson Tide, Con Air, Armageddon, Enemy of the State, Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor, Kangaroo Jack, and the Beverly Hills Cop, Bad Boys, Pirates of the Caribbean, and the National Treasure franchises. Many of his films have been co-produced by Paramount and Disney, while many of his television series have been co-produced by Warner Bros. and CBS Studios. In July 2003, Bruckheimer was honored by Variety as the first producer in Hollywood history to produce the top two highest-grossing films of a single weekend, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and Bad Boys II. His best known television series are CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, CSI: Cyber, Without a Trace, Cold Case, and the American version of The Amazing Race. At one point, three of his TV series ranked among the top 10 in the U.S. ratings—a unique feat in television. He is also the co-founder and co-majority owner (along with David Bonderman) of the Seattle Kraken, the 2021 expansion team of the National Hockey League.

Bruckheimer was born in Detroit, the son of German Jewish immigrants. He graduated from Mumford High School in 1961 in Detroit, at age 17, before moving to Arizona for college. Bruckheimer was also an active member of the Stamp Collecting Club. He graduated with a degree in psychology from the University of Arizona. He was a member of the Zeta Beta Tau fraternity. A film buff at an early age with an interest in photography, Bruckheimer would take snapshots when he had the opportunity. After college, Bruckheimer worked in advertising in Detroit (creative producer) and New York City. At the Detroit agency he worked on a one minute ad spot for the new Pontiac GTO. Early in his career, Bruckheimer produced television commercials, including one for Pepsi.

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Jerry Bruckheimer

1970s & 1980s: From advertising to film production

Jerome Leon Bruckheimer (born September 21, 1943) is an American film and television producer. He has been active in the genres of action, drama, fantasy, and science fiction. His films include Flashdance, Top Gun, The Rock, Crimson Tide, Con Air, Armageddon, Enemy of the State, Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor, Kangaroo Jack, and the Beverly Hills Cop, Bad Boys, Pirates of the Caribbean, and the National Treasure franchises. Many of his films have been co-produced by Paramount and Disney, while many of his television series have been co-produced by Warner Bros. and CBS Studios. In July 2003, Bruckheimer was honored by Variety as the first producer in Hollywood history to produce the top two highest-grossing films of a single weekend, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and Bad Boys II. His best known television series are CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, CSI: Cyber, Without a Trace, Cold Case, and the American version of The Amazing Race. At one point, three of his TV series ranked among the top 10 in the U.S. ratings—a unique feat in television. He is also the co-founder and co-majority owner (along with David Bonderman) of the Seattle Kraken, the 2021 expansion team of the National Hockey League.

Bruckheimer started producing films in the 1970s after leaving his job in advertising, with director Dick Richards. They worked together on the films The Culpepper Cattle Company, Farewell, My Lovely, and March or Die. Bruckheimer then worked with Paul Schrader on two films, American Gigolo and Cat People, which began to give him notice in Hollywood. During the 1980s and 1990s, he was a co-producer with Don Simpson of a string of highly successful films for Paramount Pictures. He first met Simpson at a screening of 1973's The Harder They Come at Warner Brothers. The two worked together and created Bruckheimer's first big hit, 1983's Flashdance, which brought in $95 million. He had a number of other hits during that time period, including the Beverly Hills Cop films, Top Gun, and Days of Thunder. Top Gun marked his first collaboration with English director Tony Scott, who directed six films for Bruckheimer. The first Beverly Hills Cop movie, which was supposed to star Sylvester Stallone, launched Eddie Murphy's career and in just five days, became the highest grossing winter release in Paramount's history. On August 9, 1983, Bruckheimer and Simpson struck a three-year agreement with Paramount to produce theatrical and television projects through his new Simpson/Bruckheimer Productions company. While working with Simpson, Bruckheimer became known as "Mr. Outside" because of his experience with filmmaking, while Simpson became known as "Mr. Inside" because of his film industry contacts. The Rock was the last film in which Bruckheimer collaborated with Simpson. After Simpson's death in 1996, Bruckheimer stipulated that The Rock be dedicated to the memory of Simpson.

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Jerry Bruckheimer

1990s: Big-budget films

Jerome Leon Bruckheimer (born September 21, 1943) is an American film and television producer. He has been active in the genres of action, drama, fantasy, and science fiction. His films include Flashdance, Top Gun, The Rock, Crimson Tide, Con Air, Armageddon, Enemy of the State, Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor, Kangaroo Jack, and the Beverly Hills Cop, Bad Boys, Pirates of the Caribbean, and the National Treasure franchises. Many of his films have been co-produced by Paramount and Disney, while many of his television series have been co-produced by Warner Bros. and CBS Studios. In July 2003, Bruckheimer was honored by Variety as the first producer in Hollywood history to produce the top two highest-grossing films of a single weekend, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and Bad Boys II. His best known television series are CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, CSI: Cyber, Without a Trace, Cold Case, and the American version of The Amazing Race. At one point, three of his TV series ranked among the top 10 in the U.S. ratings—a unique feat in television. He is also the co-founder and co-majority owner (along with David Bonderman) of the Seattle Kraken, the 2021 expansion team of the National Hockey League.

In 1990, Bruckheimer and Simpson struck a $500 million deal with Paramount to produce five movies, entirely of their choice. However, his 1990 production of the film Days of Thunder, which starred Tom Cruise, did not perform well, which was a step backwards in the Bruckheimer-Simpson success story. The duo made a come-back in 1994, however, with the low-budget film ($12 million) The Ref. Despite Simpson's untimely death, Bruckheimer continued to produce a large number of action films, often working with director Michael Bay on several box office hits, including Armageddon. Other popular films he produced include Remember the Titans, Black Hawk Down, and the Pirates of the Caribbean series. Bruckheimer has also acquired the rights to produce a film based on the popular role playing game by Palladium Books, Rifts. In the late 1990s, he started Technical Black Films to produce non-action films, with Remember the Titans being the only film produced.

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Jerry Bruckheimer

2000s: Franchises, TV, video games

Jerome Leon Bruckheimer (born September 21, 1943) is an American film and television producer. He has been active in the genres of action, drama, fantasy, and science fiction. His films include Flashdance, Top Gun, The Rock, Crimson Tide, Con Air, Armageddon, Enemy of the State, Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor, Kangaroo Jack, and the Beverly Hills Cop, Bad Boys, Pirates of the Caribbean, and the National Treasure franchises. Many of his films have been co-produced by Paramount and Disney, while many of his television series have been co-produced by Warner Bros. and CBS Studios. In July 2003, Bruckheimer was honored by Variety as the first producer in Hollywood history to produce the top two highest-grossing films of a single weekend, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and Bad Boys II. His best known television series are CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, CSI: Cyber, Without a Trace, Cold Case, and the American version of The Amazing Race. At one point, three of his TV series ranked among the top 10 in the U.S. ratings—a unique feat in television. He is also the co-founder and co-majority owner (along with David Bonderman) of the Seattle Kraken, the 2021 expansion team of the National Hockey League.

Since 1996, Bruckheimer has branched out into television, creating a number of police dramas of which CSI: Crime Scene Investigation has been the most successful. He also produced the reality game show The Amazing Race. In May 2008, CBS announced it had picked up Bruckheimer's newest series, Eleventh Hour, for the 2008–2009 broadcast television season. The science fiction drama follows a government agent and a professor as they investigate strange scientific and medical activity. From 2004 (beginning of CSI: NY) to 2009 (end of Without a Trace), Bruckheimer had six hit television shows on the air: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, Cold Case, Without a Trace and The Amazing Race. At one point, three of his TV series ranked among the top 10 in the ratings. In December 2007, Bruckheimer announced plans to partner with MTV to create a new game studio. The same year, Bruckheimer joined the ZeniMax Media board of directors and has since showed up at several launch parties for Bethesda Softworks titles, including Fallout 3, Fallout: New Vegas, and The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim. In 2009, Bruckheimer unveiled Jerry Bruckheimer Games, headed by former Microsoft Studios Publishing Executive Producer Jim Veevaert, as President of Production, and Jay Cohen, previously Ubisoft's Vice President of US Publishing, as President of Development. It was announced on September 10, 2009, that NBC had picked up an action procedural from Bruckheimer. The show, titled Chase, "tells the stories of a team charged with making sure fugitive criminals don't evade justice," reports The Hollywood Reporter. It was canceled in May 2011, however. Skin, which was another Bruckheiner production, was cancelled in 2003, after only three episodes.

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Jerry Bruckheimer

2010s: Independent producer, sports

Jerome Leon Bruckheimer (born September 21, 1943) is an American film and television producer. He has been active in the genres of action, drama, fantasy, and science fiction. His films include Flashdance, Top Gun, The Rock, Crimson Tide, Con Air, Armageddon, Enemy of the State, Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor, Kangaroo Jack, and the Beverly Hills Cop, Bad Boys, Pirates of the Caribbean, and the National Treasure franchises. Many of his films have been co-produced by Paramount and Disney, while many of his television series have been co-produced by Warner Bros. and CBS Studios. In July 2003, Bruckheimer was honored by Variety as the first producer in Hollywood history to produce the top two highest-grossing films of a single weekend, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and Bad Boys II. His best known television series are CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, CSI: Cyber, Without a Trace, Cold Case, and the American version of The Amazing Race. At one point, three of his TV series ranked among the top 10 in the U.S. ratings—a unique feat in television. He is also the co-founder and co-majority owner (along with David Bonderman) of the Seattle Kraken, the 2021 expansion team of the National Hockey League.

In 2011, it was rumored that Jerry Bruckheimer Games was working on three titles, but nothing came to fruition. In March 2013, Jerry Bruckheimer Games was closed. Although Jerry Bruckheimer Games is closed, Bruckheimer still remained a ZeniMax Board Member, mostly due to being a close associate of former ZeniMax President Ernest Del, until ZeniMax was purchased by Microsoft in 2021. In 2014, after the disappointment of The Sorcerer's Apprentice and The Lone Ranger, Bruckheimer and the Disney Studios chose to part ways by not renewing their first-look deal that expired that year. He signed a new first-look deal with Paramount that same year and mentioned a new Beverly Hills Cop and a Top Gun 2 as potential production ventures with his new partner. In June 2016, Jerry Bruckheimer Television became an independent outfit, ending a 15-year run exclusive pact with Warner Bros Television. The next year, the production company signed a deal with CBS Television Studios. Bruckheimer was named as one of the investors of a proposed sports arena in Las Vegas, and he had been rumored to be the leading choice by the National Hockey League (NHL) to own an expansion hockey team that would play in the arena. Bruckheimer was also named as one of the investors of a proposed Seattle-based NHL expansion team, whose application was submitted in early 2018. The NHL Board of Governors voted to approve the team, named the Seattle Kraken, on December 4, 2018, which started to play in the 2021–22 season. Bruckheimer was part of an investment group that also included Tim Leiweke (Oak View Group) and David Bonderman (minority owner NBA's Boston Celtics). In 2020, it was reported that his first look deal with Paramount was not renewed.

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Jerry Bruckheimer

High-profit productions

Jerome Leon Bruckheimer (born September 21, 1943) is an American film and television producer. He has been active in the genres of action, drama, fantasy, and science fiction. His films include Flashdance, Top Gun, The Rock, Crimson Tide, Con Air, Armageddon, Enemy of the State, Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor, Kangaroo Jack, and the Beverly Hills Cop, Bad Boys, Pirates of the Caribbean, and the National Treasure franchises. Many of his films have been co-produced by Paramount and Disney, while many of his television series have been co-produced by Warner Bros. and CBS Studios. In July 2003, Bruckheimer was honored by Variety as the first producer in Hollywood history to produce the top two highest-grossing films of a single weekend, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and Bad Boys II. His best known television series are CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, CSI: Cyber, Without a Trace, Cold Case, and the American version of The Amazing Race. At one point, three of his TV series ranked among the top 10 in the U.S. ratings—a unique feat in television. He is also the co-founder and co-majority owner (along with David Bonderman) of the Seattle Kraken, the 2021 expansion team of the National Hockey League.

The movie Top Gun was produced in collaboration with the Pentagon to rebrand the US Navy's image after the Vietnam War and attract new Navy recruits. Top Gun was the first full-blown collaboration between Hollywood and the Navy. The model, which was developed by Bruckheimer, launched a new trend of military movies in the 1990s and onward. In July 2003, Bruckheimer was honored by Variety as the first producer in Hollywood history to produce the top two highest-grossing films of a single weekend, the buddy-cop Bad Boys II and the Disney theme-park spin-off, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl. According to Variety, the "Bruckheimer touch" is characterized by a "consistently edgy, high-octane visual dynamic and equally distinctive storytelling driven by the triumphalism so popular with Madison Avenue". The Pirates of the Caribbean film series, produced through Walt Disney Pictures, was enormously profitable and demonstrated Bruckheimer's ability to create lucrative projects. Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl, which was the first film in the franchise, was released on July 9, 2003. A box office hit, the film was well received by both critics and filmgoers. After the unexpected success of the first film, Disney revealed that a trilogy was in the works. Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest was released on July 7, 2006. The sequel proved to be very successful, breaking records worldwide on the day of its premiere. In the end, the film acquired a total of $1,066,179,725 at the worldwide box office, becoming the third and fastest film to reach this amount. The third film in the series, Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End, was released worldwide on May 25, 2007. Two more films, Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides and Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales, were released, in 2011 and 2017, respectively. Altogether, the film franchise has grossed over $4.5 billion worldwide.

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Jerry Bruckheimer

Views on moviemaking

Jerome Leon Bruckheimer (born September 21, 1943) is an American film and television producer. He has been active in the genres of action, drama, fantasy, and science fiction. His films include Flashdance, Top Gun, The Rock, Crimson Tide, Con Air, Armageddon, Enemy of the State, Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor, Kangaroo Jack, and the Beverly Hills Cop, Bad Boys, Pirates of the Caribbean, and the National Treasure franchises. Many of his films have been co-produced by Paramount and Disney, while many of his television series have been co-produced by Warner Bros. and CBS Studios. In July 2003, Bruckheimer was honored by Variety as the first producer in Hollywood history to produce the top two highest-grossing films of a single weekend, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and Bad Boys II. His best known television series are CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, CSI: Cyber, Without a Trace, Cold Case, and the American version of The Amazing Race. At one point, three of his TV series ranked among the top 10 in the U.S. ratings—a unique feat in television. He is also the co-founder and co-majority owner (along with David Bonderman) of the Seattle Kraken, the 2021 expansion team of the National Hockey League.

When asked on what the film industry's obligation to an audience was, he responded, "We are in the transportation business. We transport audiences from one place to another." When asked why he makes films, he stated, "If I made films for the critics, or for someone else, I'd probably be living in some small Hollywood studio apartment." In a 1984 interview with the Los Angeles Times, he said "We [he and Don Simpson] put together all the elements. We decide what aesthetic is right for a picture. We are as much a part of the process as the director."

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Jerry Bruckheimer

Personal life

Jerome Leon Bruckheimer (born September 21, 1943) is an American film and television producer. He has been active in the genres of action, drama, fantasy, and science fiction. His films include Flashdance, Top Gun, The Rock, Crimson Tide, Con Air, Armageddon, Enemy of the State, Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor, Kangaroo Jack, and the Beverly Hills Cop, Bad Boys, Pirates of the Caribbean, and the National Treasure franchises. Many of his films have been co-produced by Paramount and Disney, while many of his television series have been co-produced by Warner Bros. and CBS Studios. In July 2003, Bruckheimer was honored by Variety as the first producer in Hollywood history to produce the top two highest-grossing films of a single weekend, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and Bad Boys II. His best known television series are CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, CSI: Cyber, Without a Trace, Cold Case, and the American version of The Amazing Race. At one point, three of his TV series ranked among the top 10 in the U.S. ratings—a unique feat in television. He is also the co-founder and co-majority owner (along with David Bonderman) of the Seattle Kraken, the 2021 expansion team of the National Hockey League.

Bruckheimer has been married twice. His first wife was Bonnie Fishman Bruckheimer. As of 2006, he resides in Los Angeles with his second wife, novelist Linda Cobb Bruckheimer. He has one stepdaughter, Alexandra. The couple owns a farm in Bloomfield, Kentucky, about southeast of Louisville, as well as another in Ojai, east of Santa Barbara. When asked about his favorite films, Bruckheimer named The Godfather (1972), The French Connection (1971), Good Will Hunting (1997), and The 400 Blows (1959). In May 2006, he was honored with a Doctorate of Fine Arts degree (DFA) from the University of Arizona's College of Fine Arts.

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Jerry Bruckheimer

Philanthropic activities

Jerome Leon Bruckheimer (born September 21, 1943) is an American film and television producer. He has been active in the genres of action, drama, fantasy, and science fiction. His films include Flashdance, Top Gun, The Rock, Crimson Tide, Con Air, Armageddon, Enemy of the State, Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor, Kangaroo Jack, and the Beverly Hills Cop, Bad Boys, Pirates of the Caribbean, and the National Treasure franchises. Many of his films have been co-produced by Paramount and Disney, while many of his television series have been co-produced by Warner Bros. and CBS Studios. In July 2003, Bruckheimer was honored by Variety as the first producer in Hollywood history to produce the top two highest-grossing films of a single weekend, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and Bad Boys II. His best known television series are CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, CSI: Cyber, Without a Trace, Cold Case, and the American version of The Amazing Race. At one point, three of his TV series ranked among the top 10 in the U.S. ratings—a unique feat in television. He is also the co-founder and co-majority owner (along with David Bonderman) of the Seattle Kraken, the 2021 expansion team of the National Hockey League.

Bruckheimer's philanthropic activities have included publicly supporting the fight against multiple sclerosis via his work with The Nancy Davis Foundation for MS. Additionally, throughout his career, he has pledged to help various causes by establishing the Jerry Bruckheimer Foundation. According to The Smoking Gun, however, the last time the Jerry Bruckheimer Foundation made a contribution was in 1995, when it gave $9,350 to Van Nuys Prep School. Bruckheimer has aided in the repair and restoration of the historic clipper ship, Cutty Sark. A collection of photos taken by Bruckheimer went on display in London in November 2007 to help raise money for the Cutty Sark Conservation Project. The exhibition featured more than thirty pictures taken on set during the filming of Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End.

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Jerry Bruckheimer

Political contributions

Jerome Leon Bruckheimer (born September 21, 1943) is an American film and television producer. He has been active in the genres of action, drama, fantasy, and science fiction. His films include Flashdance, Top Gun, The Rock, Crimson Tide, Con Air, Armageddon, Enemy of the State, Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor, Kangaroo Jack, and the Beverly Hills Cop, Bad Boys, Pirates of the Caribbean, and the National Treasure franchises. Many of his films have been co-produced by Paramount and Disney, while many of his television series have been co-produced by Warner Bros. and CBS Studios. In July 2003, Bruckheimer was honored by Variety as the first producer in Hollywood history to produce the top two highest-grossing films of a single weekend, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and Bad Boys II. His best known television series are CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, CSI: Cyber, Without a Trace, Cold Case, and the American version of The Amazing Race. At one point, three of his TV series ranked among the top 10 in the U.S. ratings—a unique feat in television. He is also the co-founder and co-majority owner (along with David Bonderman) of the Seattle Kraken, the 2021 expansion team of the National Hockey League.

Bruckheimer has donated more than $50,000 to Republican campaigns and committees. He donated funds to John McCain's 2008 presidential election campaign. He gave $5,000 to a joint fundraising committee on John McCain's behalf. He donated $25,000 to the 2012 Mitt Romney Victory Fund.

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Jerry Bruckheimer

Filmography

Jerome Leon Bruckheimer (born September 21, 1943) is an American film and television producer. He has been active in the genres of action, drama, fantasy, and science fiction. His films include Flashdance, Top Gun, The Rock, Crimson Tide, Con Air, Armageddon, Enemy of the State, Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor, Kangaroo Jack, and the Beverly Hills Cop, Bad Boys, Pirates of the Caribbean, and the National Treasure franchises. Many of his films have been co-produced by Paramount and Disney, while many of his television series have been co-produced by Warner Bros. and CBS Studios. In July 2003, Bruckheimer was honored by Variety as the first producer in Hollywood history to produce the top two highest-grossing films of a single weekend, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and Bad Boys II. His best known television series are CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, CSI: Cyber, Without a Trace, Cold Case, and the American version of The Amazing Race. At one point, three of his TV series ranked among the top 10 in the U.S. ratings—a unique feat in television. He is also the co-founder and co-majority owner (along with David Bonderman) of the Seattle Kraken, the 2021 expansion team of the National Hockey League.

All films were produced by him, unless otherwise noted.

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Jerry Bruckheimer

Film

Jerome Leon Bruckheimer (born September 21, 1943) is an American film and television producer. He has been active in the genres of action, drama, fantasy, and science fiction. His films include Flashdance, Top Gun, The Rock, Crimson Tide, Con Air, Armageddon, Enemy of the State, Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor, Kangaroo Jack, and the Beverly Hills Cop, Bad Boys, Pirates of the Caribbean, and the National Treasure franchises. Many of his films have been co-produced by Paramount and Disney, while many of his television series have been co-produced by Warner Bros. and CBS Studios. In July 2003, Bruckheimer was honored by Variety as the first producer in Hollywood history to produce the top two highest-grossing films of a single weekend, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and Bad Boys II. His best known television series are CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, CSI: Cyber, Without a Trace, Cold Case, and the American version of The Amazing Race. At one point, three of his TV series ranked among the top 10 in the U.S. ratings—a unique feat in television. He is also the co-founder and co-majority owner (along with David Bonderman) of the Seattle Kraken, the 2021 expansion team of the National Hockey League.

As producer, except where noted:

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Jerry Bruckheimer

Television

Jerome Leon Bruckheimer (born September 21, 1943) is an American film and television producer. He has been active in the genres of action, drama, fantasy, and science fiction. His films include Flashdance, Top Gun, The Rock, Crimson Tide, Con Air, Armageddon, Enemy of the State, Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor, Kangaroo Jack, and the Beverly Hills Cop, Bad Boys, Pirates of the Caribbean, and the National Treasure franchises. Many of his films have been co-produced by Paramount and Disney, while many of his television series have been co-produced by Warner Bros. and CBS Studios. In July 2003, Bruckheimer was honored by Variety as the first producer in Hollywood history to produce the top two highest-grossing films of a single weekend, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and Bad Boys II. His best known television series are CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, CSI: Cyber, Without a Trace, Cold Case, and the American version of The Amazing Race. At one point, three of his TV series ranked among the top 10 in the U.S. ratings—a unique feat in television. He is also the co-founder and co-majority owner (along with David Bonderman) of the Seattle Kraken, the 2021 expansion team of the National Hockey League.

Co-producer Executive producer

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Jerry Bruckheimer

Honors and awards

Jerome Leon Bruckheimer (born September 21, 1943) is an American film and television producer. He has been active in the genres of action, drama, fantasy, and science fiction. His films include Flashdance, Top Gun, The Rock, Crimson Tide, Con Air, Armageddon, Enemy of the State, Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor, Kangaroo Jack, and the Beverly Hills Cop, Bad Boys, Pirates of the Caribbean, and the National Treasure franchises. Many of his films have been co-produced by Paramount and Disney, while many of his television series have been co-produced by Warner Bros. and CBS Studios. In July 2003, Bruckheimer was honored by Variety as the first producer in Hollywood history to produce the top two highest-grossing films of a single weekend, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and Bad Boys II. His best known television series are CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, CSI: Cyber, Without a Trace, Cold Case, and the American version of The Amazing Race. At one point, three of his TV series ranked among the top 10 in the U.S. ratings—a unique feat in television. He is also the co-founder and co-majority owner (along with David Bonderman) of the Seattle Kraken, the 2021 expansion team of the National Hockey League.

1998: ShoWest Producer of the Year Award 2000: Producers Guild of America 2000: David O. Selznick Award for Lifetime Achievement 2003: " No. 1 most-powerful person in Hollywood" by Entertainment Weekly 2006: #10 on Premiere's "Power 50" list 2013: Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, placed right by El Capitan Theatre on Hollywood Boulevard. His productions collected the following: Academy Award: 41 nominations, 6 wins Grammy Award: 8 nominations, 5 wins Golden Globe: 23 nominations, 4 wins Emmy Award: 77 nominations, 17 wins People's Choice Awards: 8 nominations, 4 wins

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSE2

SSE2

Introduction

SSE2 (Streaming SIMD Extensions 2) is one of the Intel SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) processor supplementary instruction sets first introduced by Intel with the initial version of the Pentium 4 in 2000. It extends the earlier SSE instruction set, and is intended to fully replace MMX. Intel extended SSE2 to create SSE3 in 2004. SSE2 added 144 new instructions to SSE, which has 70 instructions. Competing chip-maker AMD added support for SSE2 with the introduction of their Opteron and Athlon 64 ranges of AMD64 64-bit CPUs in 2003.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSE2

SSE2

Features

SSE2 (Streaming SIMD Extensions 2) is one of the Intel SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) processor supplementary instruction sets first introduced by Intel with the initial version of the Pentium 4 in 2000. It extends the earlier SSE instruction set, and is intended to fully replace MMX. Intel extended SSE2 to create SSE3 in 2004. SSE2 added 144 new instructions to SSE, which has 70 instructions. Competing chip-maker AMD added support for SSE2 with the introduction of their Opteron and Athlon 64 ranges of AMD64 64-bit CPUs in 2003.

Most of the SSE2 instructions implement the integer vector operations also found in MMX. Instead of the MMX registers they use the XMM registers, which are wider and allow for significant performance improvements in specialized applications. Another advantage of replacing MMX with SSE2 is avoiding the mode switching penalty for issuing x87 instructions present in MMX because it is sharing register space with the x87 FPU. The SSE2 also complements the floating-point vector operations of the SSE instruction set by adding support for the double precision data type. Other SSE2 extensions include a set of cache control instructions intended primarily to minimize cache pollution when processing infinite streams of information, and a sophisticated complement of numeric format conversion instructions. AMD's implementation of SSE2 on the AMD64 (x86-64) platform includes an additional eight registers, doubling the total number to 16 (XMM0 through XMM15). These additional registers are only visible when running in 64-bit mode. Intel adopted these additional registers as part of their support for x86-64 architecture (or in Intel's parlance, "Intel 64") in 2004.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSE2

SSE2

Differences between x87 FPU and SSE2

SSE2 (Streaming SIMD Extensions 2) is one of the Intel SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) processor supplementary instruction sets first introduced by Intel with the initial version of the Pentium 4 in 2000. It extends the earlier SSE instruction set, and is intended to fully replace MMX. Intel extended SSE2 to create SSE3 in 2004. SSE2 added 144 new instructions to SSE, which has 70 instructions. Competing chip-maker AMD added support for SSE2 with the introduction of their Opteron and Athlon 64 ranges of AMD64 64-bit CPUs in 2003.

FPU (x87) instructions provide higher precision by calculating intermediate results with 80 bits of precision, by default, to minimise roundoff error in numerically unstable algorithms (see IEEE 754 design rationale and references therein). However, the x87 FPU is a scalar unit only whereas SSE2 can process a small vector of operands in parallel. If code designed for x87 is ported to the lower precision double precision SSE2 floating point, certain combinations of math operations or input datasets can result in measurable numerical deviation, which can be an issue in reproducible scientific computations, e.g. if the calculation results must be compared against results generated from a different machine architecture. A related issue is that, historically, language standards and compilers had been inconsistent in their handling of the x87 80-bit registers implementing double extended precision variables, compared with the double and single precision formats implemented in SSE2: the rounding of extended precision intermediate values to double precision variables was not fully defined and was dependent on implementation details such as when registers were spilled to memory.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSE2

SSE2

Differences between MMX and SSE2

SSE2 (Streaming SIMD Extensions 2) is one of the Intel SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) processor supplementary instruction sets first introduced by Intel with the initial version of the Pentium 4 in 2000. It extends the earlier SSE instruction set, and is intended to fully replace MMX. Intel extended SSE2 to create SSE3 in 2004. SSE2 added 144 new instructions to SSE, which has 70 instructions. Competing chip-maker AMD added support for SSE2 with the introduction of their Opteron and Athlon 64 ranges of AMD64 64-bit CPUs in 2003.

SSE2 extends MMX instructions to operate on XMM registers. Therefore, it is possible to convert all existing MMX code to an SSE2 equivalent. Since an SSE2 register is twice as long as an MMX register, loop counters and memory access may need to be changed to accommodate this. However, 8 byte loads and stores to XMM are available, so this is not strictly required. Although one SSE2 instruction can operate on twice as much data as an MMX instruction, performance might not increase significantly. Two major reasons are: accessing SSE2 data in memory not aligned to a 16-byte boundary can incur significant penalty, and the throughput of SSE2 instructions in older x86 implementations was half that for MMX instructions. Intel addressed the first problem by adding an instruction in SSE3 to reduce the overhead of accessing unaligned data and improving the overall performance of misaligned loads, and the last problem by widening the execution engine in their Core microarchitecture in Core 2 Duo and later products. Since MMX and x87 register files alias one another, using MMX will prevent x87 instructions from working as desired. Once MMX has been used, the programmer must use the emms instruction (C: _mm_empty()) to restore operation to the x87 register file. On some operating systems, x87 is not used very much, but may still be used in some critical areas like pow() where the extra precision is needed. In such cases, the corrupt floating-point state caused by failure to emit emms may go undetected for millions of instructions before ultimately causing the floating-point routine to fail, returning NaN. Since the problem is not locally apparent in the MMX code, finding and correcting the bug can be very time consuming. As SSE2 does not have this problem and it usually provides much better throughput and provides more registers in 64-bit code, it should be preferred for nearly all vectorization work.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSE2

SSE2

Compiler usage

SSE2 (Streaming SIMD Extensions 2) is one of the Intel SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) processor supplementary instruction sets first introduced by Intel with the initial version of the Pentium 4 in 2000. It extends the earlier SSE instruction set, and is intended to fully replace MMX. Intel extended SSE2 to create SSE3 in 2004. SSE2 added 144 new instructions to SSE, which has 70 instructions. Competing chip-maker AMD added support for SSE2 with the introduction of their Opteron and Athlon 64 ranges of AMD64 64-bit CPUs in 2003.

When first introduced in 2000, SSE2 was not supported by software development tools. For example, to use SSE2 in a Microsoft Visual Studio project, the programmer had to either manually write inline-assembly or import object-code from an external source. Later the Visual C++ Processor Pack added SSE2 support to Visual C++ and MASM. The Intel C++ Compiler can automatically generate SSE4, SSSE3, SSE3, SSE2, and SSE code without the use of hand-coded assembly. Since GCC 3, GCC can automatically generate SSE/SSE2 scalar code when the target supports those instructions. Automatic vectorization for SSE/SSE2 has been added since GCC 4. The Sun Studio Compiler Suite can also generate SSE2 instructions when the compiler flag -xvector=simd is used. Since Microsoft Visual C++ 2012, the compiler option to generate SSE2 instructions is turned on by default.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSE2

SSE2

CPU support

SSE2 (Streaming SIMD Extensions 2) is one of the Intel SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) processor supplementary instruction sets first introduced by Intel with the initial version of the Pentium 4 in 2000. It extends the earlier SSE instruction set, and is intended to fully replace MMX. Intel extended SSE2 to create SSE3 in 2004. SSE2 added 144 new instructions to SSE, which has 70 instructions. Competing chip-maker AMD added support for SSE2 with the introduction of their Opteron and Athlon 64 ranges of AMD64 64-bit CPUs in 2003.

SSE2 is an extension of the IA-32 architecture, based on the x86 instruction set. Therefore, only x86 processors can include SSE2. The AMD64 architecture supports the IA-32 as a compatibility mode and includes the SSE2 in its specification. It also doubles the number of XMM registers, allowing for better performance. SSE2 is also a requirement for installing Windows 8 (and later) or Microsoft Office 2013 (and later) "to enhance the reliability of third-party apps and drivers running in Windows 8". The following IA-32 CPUs support SSE2: Intel NetBurst-based CPUs (Pentium 4, Xeon, Celeron, Pentium D, Celeron D) Intel Pentium M and Celeron M Intel Atom AMD Athlon 64 Transmeta Efficeon VIA C7 The following IA-32 CPUs were released after SSE2 was developed, but did not implement it: AMD CPUs prior to Athlon 64, such as Athlon XP VIA C3 Transmeta Crusoe Intel Quark

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSE2

SSE2

See also

SSE2 (Streaming SIMD Extensions 2) is one of the Intel SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) processor supplementary instruction sets first introduced by Intel with the initial version of the Pentium 4 in 2000. It extends the earlier SSE instruction set, and is intended to fully replace MMX. Intel extended SSE2 to create SSE3 in 2004. SSE2 added 144 new instructions to SSE, which has 70 instructions. Competing chip-maker AMD added support for SSE2 with the introduction of their Opteron and Athlon 64 ranges of AMD64 64-bit CPUs in 2003.

SSE2 instructions

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSE2

SSE2

References

SSE2 (Streaming SIMD Extensions 2) is one of the Intel SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) processor supplementary instruction sets first introduced by Intel with the initial version of the Pentium 4 in 2000. It extends the earlier SSE instruction set, and is intended to fully replace MMX. Intel extended SSE2 to create SSE3 in 2004. SSE2 added 144 new instructions to SSE, which has 70 instructions. Competing chip-maker AMD added support for SSE2 with the introduction of their Opteron and Athlon 64 ranges of AMD64 64-bit CPUs in 2003.

Category:X86 instructions Category:SIMD computing

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May%2068

May 68

Introduction

Beginning in May 1968, a period of civil unrest occurred throughout France, lasting some seven weeks and punctuated by demonstrations, general strikes, as well as the occupation of universities and factories. At the height of events, which have since become known as May 68, the economy of France came to a halt. The protests reached such a point that political leaders feared civil war or revolution; the national government briefly ceased to function after President Charles de Gaulle secretly fled France to West Germany on the 29th. The protests are sometimes linked to similar movements that occurred around the same time worldwide and inspired a generation of protest art in the form of songs, imaginative graffiti, posters, and slogans. The unrest began with a series of far-left student occupation protests against capitalism, consumerism, American imperialism and traditional institutions. Heavy police repression of the protesters led France's trade union confederations to call for sympathy strikes, which spread far more quickly than expected to involve 11 million workers, more than 22% of the total population of France at the time. The movement was characterized by spontaneous and decentralized wildcat disposition; this created a contrast and at times even conflict internally amongst the trade unions and the parties of the left. It was the largest general strike ever attempted in France, and the first nationwide wildcat general strike. The student occupations and general strikes initiated across France were met with forceful confrontation by university administrators and police. The de Gaulle administration's attempts to quell those strikes by police action only inflamed the situation further, leading to street battles with the police in the Latin Quarter, Paris. However, by late May, the flow of events changed. The Grenelle accords, concluded on 27 May between the government, trade unions and employers, won significant wage gains for workers. A counter-demonstration organised by the Gaullist party on 29 May in central Paris gave De Gaulle the confidence to dissolve the National Assembly and call for parliamentary elections for 23 June 1968. Violence evaporated almost as quickly as it arose. Workers went back to their jobs, and when the elections were held in June, the Gaullists emerged stronger than before. The events of May 1968 continue to influence French society. The period is considered a cultural, social and moral turning point in the history of the country. Alain Geismar—one of the leaders of the time—later stated that the movement had succeeded "as a social revolution, not as a political one".

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May%2068

May 68

Political climate

Beginning in May 1968, a period of civil unrest occurred throughout France, lasting some seven weeks and punctuated by demonstrations, general strikes, as well as the occupation of universities and factories. At the height of events, which have since become known as May 68, the economy of France came to a halt. The protests reached such a point that political leaders feared civil war or revolution; the national government briefly ceased to function after President Charles de Gaulle secretly fled France to West Germany on the 29th. The protests are sometimes linked to similar movements that occurred around the same time worldwide and inspired a generation of protest art in the form of songs, imaginative graffiti, posters, and slogans. The unrest began with a series of far-left student occupation protests against capitalism, consumerism, American imperialism and traditional institutions. Heavy police repression of the protesters led France's trade union confederations to call for sympathy strikes, which spread far more quickly than expected to involve 11 million workers, more than 22% of the total population of France at the time. The movement was characterized by spontaneous and decentralized wildcat disposition; this created a contrast and at times even conflict internally amongst the trade unions and the parties of the left. It was the largest general strike ever attempted in France, and the first nationwide wildcat general strike. The student occupations and general strikes initiated across France were met with forceful confrontation by university administrators and police. The de Gaulle administration's attempts to quell those strikes by police action only inflamed the situation further, leading to street battles with the police in the Latin Quarter, Paris. However, by late May, the flow of events changed. The Grenelle accords, concluded on 27 May between the government, trade unions and employers, won significant wage gains for workers. A counter-demonstration organised by the Gaullist party on 29 May in central Paris gave De Gaulle the confidence to dissolve the National Assembly and call for parliamentary elections for 23 June 1968. Violence evaporated almost as quickly as it arose. Workers went back to their jobs, and when the elections were held in June, the Gaullists emerged stronger than before. The events of May 1968 continue to influence French society. The period is considered a cultural, social and moral turning point in the history of the country. Alain Geismar—one of the leaders of the time—later stated that the movement had succeeded "as a social revolution, not as a political one".

In February 1968, the French Communists and French Socialists formed an electoral alliance. Communists had long supported Socialist candidates in elections, but in the "February Declaration" the two parties agreed to attempt to form a joint government to replace President Charles de Gaulle and his Gaullist Party.

projected-00311205-003

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May%2068

May 68

University demonstration

Beginning in May 1968, a period of civil unrest occurred throughout France, lasting some seven weeks and punctuated by demonstrations, general strikes, as well as the occupation of universities and factories. At the height of events, which have since become known as May 68, the economy of France came to a halt. The protests reached such a point that political leaders feared civil war or revolution; the national government briefly ceased to function after President Charles de Gaulle secretly fled France to West Germany on the 29th. The protests are sometimes linked to similar movements that occurred around the same time worldwide and inspired a generation of protest art in the form of songs, imaginative graffiti, posters, and slogans. The unrest began with a series of far-left student occupation protests against capitalism, consumerism, American imperialism and traditional institutions. Heavy police repression of the protesters led France's trade union confederations to call for sympathy strikes, which spread far more quickly than expected to involve 11 million workers, more than 22% of the total population of France at the time. The movement was characterized by spontaneous and decentralized wildcat disposition; this created a contrast and at times even conflict internally amongst the trade unions and the parties of the left. It was the largest general strike ever attempted in France, and the first nationwide wildcat general strike. The student occupations and general strikes initiated across France were met with forceful confrontation by university administrators and police. The de Gaulle administration's attempts to quell those strikes by police action only inflamed the situation further, leading to street battles with the police in the Latin Quarter, Paris. However, by late May, the flow of events changed. The Grenelle accords, concluded on 27 May between the government, trade unions and employers, won significant wage gains for workers. A counter-demonstration organised by the Gaullist party on 29 May in central Paris gave De Gaulle the confidence to dissolve the National Assembly and call for parliamentary elections for 23 June 1968. Violence evaporated almost as quickly as it arose. Workers went back to their jobs, and when the elections were held in June, the Gaullists emerged stronger than before. The events of May 1968 continue to influence French society. The period is considered a cultural, social and moral turning point in the history of the country. Alain Geismar—one of the leaders of the time—later stated that the movement had succeeded "as a social revolution, not as a political one".

On 22 March far-left groups, a small number of prominent poets and musicians, and 150 students occupied an administration building at Paris University at Nanterre and held a meeting in the university council room dealing with class discrimination in French society and the political bureaucracy that controlled the university's funding. The university's administration called the police, who surrounded the university. After the publication of their wishes, the students left the building without any trouble. After this first record some leaders of what was named the "Movement of 22 March" were called together by the disciplinary committee of the university.