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= Bede = Bede (/ ˈbiːd / BEED; Old English: Bǣda or Bēda; 672 / 673 – 26 May 735), also referred to as Saint Bede or the Venerable Bede (Latin: Bēda Venerābilis), was an English monk at the monastery of Saint Peter at Monkwearmouth and its companion monastery, Saint Paul's, in modern Jarrow (see Monkwearmouth-Jarrow), Tyne and Wear, both of which were then in the Kingdom of Northumbria. He is well known as an author and scholar, and his most famous work, Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (The Ecclesiastical History of the English People) gained him the title "The Father of English History". In 1899, Bede was made a Doctor of the Church by Pope Leo XIII; he is the only native of Great Britain to achieve this designation (Anselm of Canterbury, also a Doctor of the Church, was originally from Italy). Bede was moreover a skilled linguist and translator, and his work made the Latin and Greek writings of the early Church Fathers much more accessible to his fellow Anglo-Saxons, contributing significantly to English Christianity. Bede's monastery had access to an impressive library which included works by Eusebius and Orosius, among many others. = = Life = = Almost everything that is known of Bede's life is contained in the last chapter of his Historia ecclesiastica, a history of the church in England. It was completed in about 731, and Bede implies that he was then in his fifty-ninth year, which would give a birth date in 672 or 673. A minor source of information is the letter by his disciple Cuthbert which relates Bede's death. Bede, in the Historia, gives his birthplace as "on the lands of this monastery". He is referring to the twinned monasteries of Monkwearmouth and Jarrow, in modern-day Sunderland, claimed as his birthplace; there is also a tradition that he was born at Monkton, two miles from the monastery at Jarrow. Bede says nothing of his origins, but his connections with men of noble ancestry suggest that his own family was well-to-do. Bede's first abbot was Benedict Biscop, and the names "Biscop" and "Beda" both appear in a king list of the kings of Lindsey from around 800, further suggesting that Bede came from a noble family. Bede's name reflects West Saxon Bīeda (Northumbrian Bǣda, Anglian Bēda). It is an Anglo-Saxon short name formed on the root of bēodan "to bid, command". The name also occurs in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 501, as Bieda, one of the sons of the Saxon founder of Portsmouth. The Liber Vitae of Durham Cathedral names two priests with this name, one of whom is presumably Bede himself. Some manuscripts of the Life of Cuthbert, one of Bede's works, mention that Cuthbert's own priest was named Bede; it is possible that this priest is the other name listed in the Liber Vitae. At the age of seven, Bede was sent to the monastery of Monkwearmouth by his family to be educated by Benedict Biscop and later by Ceolfrith. Bede does not say whether it was already intended at that point that he would be a monk. It was fairly common in Ireland at this time for young boys, particularly those of noble birth, to be fostered out; the practice was also likely to have been common among the Germanic peoples in England. Monkwearmouth's sister monastery at Jarrow was founded by Ceolfrith in 682, and Bede probably transferred to Jarrow with Ceolfrith that year. The dedication stone for the church has survived to the present day; it is dated 23 April 685, and as Bede would have been required to assist with menial tasks in his day-to-day life it is possible that he helped in building the original church. In 686, plague broke out at Jarrow. The Life of Ceolfrith, written in about 710, records that only two surviving monks were capable of singing the full offices; one was Ceolfrith and the other a young boy, who according to the anonymous writer had been taught by Ceolfrith. The two managed to do the entire service of the liturgy until others could be trained. The young boy was almost certainly Bede, who would have been about 14. When Bede was about 17 years old, Adomnan, the abbot of Iona Abbey, visited Monkwearmouth and Jarrow. Bede would probably have met the abbot during this visit, and it may be that Adomnan sparked Bede's interest in the Easter dating controversy. In about 692, in Bede's nineteenth year, Bede was ordained a deacon by his diocesan bishop, John, who was bishop of Hexham. The canonical age for the ordination of a deacon was 25; Bede's early ordination may mean that his abilities were considered exceptional, but it is also possible that the minimum age requirement was often disregarded. There might have been minor orders ranking below a deacon; but there is no record of whether Bede held any of these offices. In Bede's thirtieth year (about 702), he became a priest, with the ordination again performed by Bishop John. In about 701 Bede wrote his first works, the De Arte Metrica and De Schematibus et Tropis; both were intended for use in the classroom. He continued to write for the rest of his life, eventually completing over 60 books, most of which have survived. Not all his output can be easily dated, and Bede may have worked on some texts over a period of many years. His last-surviving work is a letter to Ecgbert of York, a former student, written in 734. A 6th-century Greek and Latin manuscript of Acts that is believed to have been used by Bede survives and is now in the Bodleian Library at Oxford University; it is known as the Codex Laudianus. Bede may also have worked on one of the Latin bibles that were copied at Jarrow, one of which is now held by the Laurentian Library in Florence. Bede was a teacher as well as a writer; he enjoyed music, and was said to be accomplished as a singer and as a reciter of poetry in the vernacular. It is possible that he suffered a speech impediment, but this depends on a phrase in the introduction to his verse life of Saint Cuthbert. Translations of this phrase differ, and it is uncertain whether Bede intended to say that he was cured of a speech problem, or merely that he was inspired by the saint's works. In 708, some monks at Hexham accused Bede of having committed heresy in his work De Temporibus. The standard theological view of world history at the time was known as the six ages of the world; in his book, Bede calculated the age of the world for himself, rather than accepting the authority of Isidore of Seville, and came to the conclusion that Christ had been born 3,952 years after the creation of the world, rather than the figure of over 5,000 years that was commonly accepted by theologians. The accusation occurred in front of the bishop of Hexham, Wilfrid, who was present at a feast when some drunken monks made the accusation. Wilfrid did not respond to the accusation, but a monk present relayed the episode to Bede, who replied within a few days to the monk, writing a letter setting forth his defence and asking that the letter also be read to Wilfrid. Bede had another brush with Wilfrid, for the historian himself says that he met Wilfrid, sometime between 706 and 709, and discussed Æthelthryth, the abbess of Ely. Wilfrid had been present at the exhumation of her body in 695, and Bede questioned the bishop about the exact circumstances of the body and asked for more details of her life, as Wilfrid had been her advisor. In 733, Bede travelled to York to visit Ecgbert, who was then bishop of York. The See of York was elevated to an archbishopric in 735, and it is likely that Bede and Ecgbert discussed the proposal for the elevation during his visit. Bede hoped to visit Ecgbert again in 734, but was too ill to make the journey. Bede also travelled to the monastery of Lindisfarne, and at some point visited the otherwise-unknown monastery of a monk named Wicthed, a visit that is mentioned in a letter to that monk. Because of his widespread correspondence with others throughout the British Isles, and due to the fact that many of the letters imply that Bede had met his correspondents, it is likely that Bede travelled to some other places, although nothing further about timing or locations can be guessed. It seems certain that he did not visit Rome, however, as he would have mentioned it in the autobiographical chapter of his Historia Ecclesiastica. Nothhelm, a correspondent of Bede's who assisted him by finding documents for him in Rome, is known to have visited Bede, though the date cannot be determined beyond the fact that it was after Nothhelm's visit to Rome. Except for a few visits to other monasteries, his life was spent in a round of prayer, observance of the monastic discipline and study of the Sacred Scriptures. He was considered the most learned man of his time, and wrote excellent biblical and historical books. Bede died on Thursday, 26 May 735 (Ascension Day) on the floor of his cell, singing Glory be to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit and was buried at Jarrow. Cuthbert, a disciple of Bede's, wrote a letter to a Cuthwin (of whom nothing else is known), describing Bede's last days and his death. According to Cuthbert, Bede fell ill, "with frequent attacks of breathlessness but almost without pain", before Easter. On the Tuesday, two days before Bede died, his breathing became worse and his feet swelled. He continued to dictate to a scribe, however, and despite spending the night awake in prayer he dictated again the following day. At three o'clock, according to Cuthbert, he asked for a box of his to be brought, and distributed among the priests of the monastery "a few treasures" of his: "some pepper, and napkins, and some incense". That night he dictated a final sentence to the scribe, a boy named Wilberht, and died soon afterwards. Cuthbert's letter also relates a five-line poem in the vernacular that Bede composed on his deathbed, known as "Bede's Death Song". It is the most-widely copied Old English poem, and appears in 45 manuscripts, but its attribution to Bede is not certain — not all manuscripts name Bede as the author, and the ones that do are of later origin than those that do not. Bede's remains may have been transferred to Durham Cathedral in the 11th century; his tomb there was looted in 1541, but the contents were probably re-interred in the Galilee chapel at the cathedral. One further oddity in his writings is that in one of his works, the Commentary on the Seven Catholic Epistles, he writes in a manner that gives the impression he was married. The section in question is the only one in that work that is written in first-person view. Bede says: "Prayers are hindered by the conjugal duty because as often as I perform what is due to my wife I am not able to pray." Another passage, in the Commentary on Luke, also mentions a wife in the first person: "Formerly I possessed a wife in the lustful passion of desire and now I possess her in honourable sanctification and true love of Christ." The historian Benedicta Ward argues that these passages are Bede employing a rhetorical device. = = Works = = Bede wrote scientific, historical and theological works, reflecting the range of his writings from music and metrics to exegetical Scripture commentaries. He knew patristic literature, as well as Pliny the Elder, Virgil, Lucretius, Ovid, Horace and other classical writers. He knew some Greek. Bede's scriptural commentaries employed the allegorical method of interpretation and his history includes accounts of miracles, which to modern historians has seemed at odds with his critical approach to the materials in his history. Modern studies have shown the important role such concepts played in the world-view of Early Medieval scholars. He dedicated his work on the Apocalypse and the De Temporum Ratione to the successor of Ceolfrid as abbot, Hwaetbert. Although Bede is mainly studied as a historian now, in his time his works on grammar, chronology, and biblical studies were as important as his historical and hagiographical works. The non-historical works contributed greatly to the Carolingian renaissance. He has been credited with writing a penitential, though his authorship of this work is still very much disputed. = = Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum = = Bede's best-known work is the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, or An Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in about 731. Bede was aided in writing this book by Albinus, abbot of St Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury. The first of the five books begins with some geographical background, and then sketches the history of England, beginning with Caesar's invasion in 55 BC. A brief account of Christianity in Roman Britain, including the martyrdom of St Alban, is followed by the story of Augustine's mission to England in 597, which brought Christianity to the Anglo-Saxons. The second book begins with the death of Gregory the Great in 604, and follows the further progress of Christianity in Kent and the first attempts to evangelise Northumbria. These ended in disaster when Penda, the pagan king of Mercia, killed the newly Christian Edwin of Northumbria at the Battle of Hatfield Chase in about 632. The setback was temporary, and the third book recounts the growth of Christianity in Northumbria under kings Oswald of Northumbria and Oswy. The climax of the third book is the account of the Council of Whitby, traditionally seen as a major turning point in English history. The fourth book begins with the consecration of Theodore as Archbishop of Canterbury, and recounts Wilfrid's efforts to bring Christianity to the kingdom of Sussex. The fifth book brings the story up to Bede's day, and includes an account of missionary work in Frisia, and of the conflict with the British church over the correct dating of Easter. Bede wrote a preface for the work, in which he dedicates it to Ceolwulf, king of Northumbria. The preface mentions that Ceolwulf received an earlier draft of the book; presumably Ceolwulf knew enough Latin to understand it, and he may even have been able to read it. The preface makes it clear that Ceolwulf had requested the earlier copy, and Bede had asked for Ceolwulf's approval; this correspondence with the king indicates that Bede's monastery had excellent connections among the Northumbrian nobility. = = = Models and style = = = Bede's stylistic models included some of the same authors from whom he drew the material for the earlier parts of his history. His introduction imitates the work of Orosius, and his title is an echo of Eusebius's Historia Ecclesiastica. Bede also followed Eusebius in taking the Acts of the Apostles as the model for the overall work: where Eusebius used the Acts as the theme for his description of the development of the church, Bede made it the model for his history of the Anglo-Saxon church. Bede quoted his sources at length in his narrative, as Eusebius had done. Bede also appears to have taken quotes directly from his correspondents at times. For example, he almost always uses the terms "Australes" and "Occidentales" for the South and West Saxons respectively, but in a passage in the first book he uses "Meridiani" and "Occidui" instead, as perhaps his informant had done. At the end of the work, Bede added a brief autobiographical note; this was an idea taken from Gregory of Tours' earlier History of the Franks. Bede's work as a hagiographer, and his detailed attention to dating, were both useful preparations for the task of writing the Historia Ecclesiastica. His interest in computus, the science of calculating the date of Easter, was also useful in the account he gives of the controversy between the British and Anglo-Saxon church over the correct method of obtaining the Easter date. Bede is described by Michael Lapidge as "without question the most accomplished Latinist produced in these islands in the Anglo-Saxon period". His Latin has been praised for its clarity, but his style in the Historia Ecclesiastica is not simple. He knew rhetoric, and often used figures of speech and rhetorical forms which cannot easily be reproduced in translation, depending as they often do on the connotations of the Latin words. However, unlike contemporaries such as Aldhelm, whose Latin is full of difficulties, Bede's own text is easy to read. In the words of Charles Plummer, one of the best-known editors of the Historia Ecclesiastica, Bede's Latin is "clear and limpid... it is very seldom that we have to pause to think of the meaning of a sentence... Alcuin rightly praises Bede for his unpretending style." = = = Intent = = = Bede's primary intention in writing the Historia Ecclesiastica was to show the growth of the united church throughout England. The native Britons, whose Christian church survived the departure of the Romans, earn Bede's ire for refusing to help convert the Saxons; by the end of the Historia the English, and their Church, are dominant over the Britons. This goal, of showing the movement towards unity, explains Bede's animosity towards the British method of calculating Easter: much of the Historia is devoted to a history of the dispute, including the final resolution at the Synod of Whitby in 664. Bede is also concerned to show the unity of the English, despite the disparate kingdoms that still existed when he was writing. He also wants to instruct the reader by spiritual example, and to entertain, and to the latter end he adds stories about many of the places and people about which he wrote. N.J. Higham argues that Bede designed his work to promote his reform agenda to Ceolwulf, the Northumbrian king. Bede painted a highly optimistic picture of the current situation in the Church, as opposed to the more pessimistic picture found in his private letters. Bede's extensive use of miracles can prove difficult for readers who consider him a more or less reliable historian, but do not accept the possibility of miracles. Yet both reflect an inseparable integrity and regard for accuracy and truth, expressed in terms both of historical events and of a tradition of Christian faith that continues to the present day. Bede, like Gregory the Great whom Bede quotes on the subject in the Historia, felt that faith brought about by miracles was a stepping stone to a higher, truer faith, and that as a result miracles had their place in a work designed to instruct. = = = Omissions and biases = = = Bede is somewhat reticent about the career of Wilfrid, a contemporary and one of the most prominent clerics of his day. This may be because Wilfrid's opulent lifestyle was uncongenial to Bede's monastic mind; it may also be that the events of Wilfrid's life, divisive and controversial as they were, simply did not fit with Bede's theme of the progression to a unified and harmonious church. Bede's account of the early migrations of the Angles and Saxons to England omits any mention of a movement of those peoples across the channel from Britain to Brittany described by Procopius, who was writing in the sixth century. Frank Stenton describes this omission as "a scholar's dislike of the indefinite"; traditional material that could not be dated or used for Bede's didactic purposes had no interest for him. Bede was a Northumbrian, and this tinged his work with a local bias. The sources he had access to gave him less information about the west of England than for other areas. He says relatively little about the achievements of Mercia and Wessex, omitting, for example, any mention of Boniface, a West Saxon missionary to the continent of some renown and of whom Bede had almost certainly heard, though Bede does discuss Northumbrian missionaries to the continent. He also is parsimonious in his praise for Aldhelm, a West Saxon who had done much to convert the native Britons to the Roman form of Christianity. He lists seven kings of the Anglo-Saxons whom he regards as having held imperium, or overlordship; only one king of Wessex, Ceawlin, is listed, and none from Mercia, though elsewhere he acknowledges the secular power several of the Mercians held. Historian Robin Fleming states that he was so hostile to Mercia because Northumbria had been diminished by Mercian power that he consulted no Mercian informants and included no stories about its saints. Bede relates the story of Augustine's mission from Rome, and tells how the British clergy refused to assist Augustine in the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons. This, combined with Gildas's negative assessment of the British church at the time of the Anglo-Saxon invasions, led Bede to a very critical view of the native church. However, Bede ignores the fact that at the time of Augustine's mission, the history between the two was one of warfare and conquest, which, in the words of Barbara Yorke, would have naturally "curbed any missionary impulses towards the Anglo-Saxons from the British clergy." = = = Use of Anno Domini = = = At the time Bede wrote the Historia Ecclesiastica, there were two common ways of referring to dates. One was to use indictions, which were 15-year cycles, counting from 312 AD. There were three different varieties of indiction, each starting on a different day of the year. The other approach was to use regnal years — the reigning Roman emperor, for example, or the ruler of whichever kingdom was under discussion. This meant that in discussing conflicts between kingdoms, the date would have to be given in the regnal years of all the kings involved. Bede used both these approaches on occasion, but adopted a third method as his main approach to dating: the anno domini method invented by Dionysius Exiguus. Although Bede did not invent this method, his adoption of it, and his promulgation of it in De Temporum Ratione, his work on chronology, is the main reason why it is now so widely used. = = = Assessment = = = The Historia Ecclesiastica was copied often in the Middle Ages, and about 160 manuscripts containing it survive. About half of those are located on the European continent, rather than on the British Isles. Most of the 8th- and 9th-century texts of Bede's Historia come from the northern parts of the Carolingian Empire. This total does not include manuscripts with only a part of the work, of which another 100 or so survive. It was printed for the first time between 1474 and 1482, probably at Strasbourg, France. Modern historians have studied the Historia extensively, and a number of editions have been produced. For many years, early Anglo-Saxon history was essentially a retelling of the Historia, but recent scholarship has focused as much on what Bede did not write as what he did. The belief that the Historia was the culmination of Bede's works, the aim of all his scholarship, a belief common among historians in the past, is no longer accepted by most scholars. Modern historians and editors of Bede have been lavish in their praise of his achievement in the Historia Ecclesiastica. Stenton regarded it as one of the "small class of books which transcend all but the most fundamental conditions of time and place", and regarded its quality as dependent on Bede's "astonishing power of co-ordinating the fragments of information which came to him through tradition, the relation of friends, or documentary evidence... In an age where little was attempted beyond the registration of fact, he had reached the conception of history." Patrick Wormald described him as "the first and greatest of England's historians". The Historia Ecclesiastica has given Bede a high reputation, but his concerns were different from those of a modern writer of history. His focus on the history of the organisation of the English church, and on heresies and the efforts made to root them out, led him to exclude the secular history of kings and kingdoms except where a moral lesson could be drawn or where they illuminated events in the church. Besides the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the medieval writers William of Malmesbury, Henry of Huntingdon, and Geoffrey of Monmouth used his works as sources and inspirations. Early modern writers, such as Polydore Vergil and Matthew Parker, the Elizabethan Archbishop of Canterbury, also utilised the Historia, and his works were used by both Protestant and Catholic sides in the Wars of Religion. Some historians have questioned the reliability of some of Bede's accounts. One historian, Charlotte Behr, thinks that the Historia's account of the arrival of the Germanic invaders in Kent should not be considered to relate what actually happened, but rather relates myths that were current in Kent during Bede's time. It is likely that Bede's work, because it was so widely copied, discouraged others from writing histories and may even have led to the disappearance of manuscripts containing older historical works. = = Other historical works = = = = = Chronicles = = = As Chapter 66 of his On the Reckoning of Time, in 725 Bede wrote the Greater Chronicle (chronica maiora), which sometimes circulated as a separate work. For recent events the Chronicle, like his Ecclesiastical History, relied upon Gildas, upon a version of the Liber pontificalis current at least to the papacy of Pope Sergius I (687 – 701), and other sources. For earlier events he drew on Eusebius's Chronikoi Kanones. The dating of events in the Chronicle is inconsistent with his other works, using the era of creation, the anno mundi. = = = Lives = = = His other historical works included lives of the abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow, as well as verse and prose lives of Saint Cuthbert of Lindisfarne, an adaptation of Paulinus of Nola's Life of St Felix, and a translation of the Greek Passion of St Anastasius. He also created a listing of saints, the Martyrology. = = Theological works = = In his own time, Bede was as well known for his biblical commentaries and exegetical, as well as other theological works. The majority of his writings were of this type, and covered the Old Testament and the New Testament. Most survived the Middle Ages, but a few were lost. It was for his theological writings that he earned the title of Doctor Anglorum, and why he was made a saint. Bede synthesised and transmitted the learning from his predecessors, as well as made careful, judicious innovation in knowledge (such as recalculating the age of the earth — for which he was censured before surviving the heresy accusations and eventually having his views championed by Archbishop Ussher in the sixteenth century — see below) that had theological implications. In order to do this, he learned Greek, and attempted to learn Hebrew. He spent time reading and rereading both the Old and the New Testaments. He mentions that he studied from a text of Jerome's Vulgate, which itself was from the Hebrew text. He also studied both the Latin and the Greek Fathers of the Church. In the monastic library at Jarrow were a number of books by theologians, including works by Basil, Cassian, John Chrysostom, Isidore of Seville, Origen, Gregory of Nazianzus, Augustine of Hippo, Jerome, Pope Gregory I, Ambrose of Milan, Cassiodorus, and Cyprian. He used these, in conjunction with the Biblical texts themselves, to write his commentaries and other theological works. He had a Latin translation by Evagrius of Athanasius's Life of Antony, and a copy of Sulpicius Severus' Life of St. Martin. He also used lesser known writers, such as Fulgentius, Julian of Eclanum, Tyconius, and Prosper of Aquitaine. Bede was the first to refer to Jerome, Augustine, Pope Gregory and Ambrose as the four Latin Fathers of the Church. It is clear from Bede's own comments that he felt his job was to explain to his students and readers the theology and thoughts of the Church Fathers. Bede also wrote homilies, works written to explain theology used in worship services. Bede wrote homilies not only on the major Christian seasons such as Advent, Lent, or Easter, but on other subjects such as anniversaries of significant events. Both types of Bede's theological works circulated widely in the Middle Ages. A number of his biblical commentaries were incorporated into the Glossa Ordinaria, an 11th-century collection of biblical commentaries. Some of Bede's homilies were collected by Paul the Deacon, and they were used in that form in the Monastic Office. Saint Boniface used Bede's homilies in his missionary efforts on the continent. Bede sometimes included in his theological books an acknowledgement of the predecessors on whose works he drew. In two cases he left instructions that his marginal notes, which gave the details of his sources, should be preserved by the copyist, and he may have originally added marginal comments about his sources to others of his works. Where he does not specify, it is still possible to identify books to which he must have had access by quotations that he uses. A full catalogue of the library available to Bede in the monastery cannot be reconstructed, but it is possible to tell, for example, that Bede was very familiar with the works of Virgil. There is little evidence that he had access to any other of the pagan Latin writers — he quotes many of these writers but the quotes are almost all to be found in the Latin grammars that were common in his day, one or more of which would certainly have been at the monastery. Another difficulty is that manuscripts of early writers were often incomplete: it is apparent that Bede had access to Pliny's Encyclopedia, for example, but it seems that the version he had was missing book xviii, as he would almost certainly have quoted from it in his De temporum ratione. = = = Works on the Old Testament = = = The works dealing with the Old Testament included Commentary on Samuel, Commentary on Genesis, Commentaries on Ezra and Nehemiah, On the Temple, On the Tabernacle, Commentaries on Tobit, Commentaries on Proverbs, Commentaries on the Song of Songs, Commentaries on the Canticle of Habakkuk, The works on Ezra, the Tabernacle and the Temple were especially influenced by Gregory the Great's writings. = = = Works on the New Testament = = = Bede's works included Commentary on Revelation, Commentary on the Catholic Epistles, Commentary on Acts, Reconsideration on the Books of Acts, On the Gospel of Mark, On the Gospel of Luke, and Homilies on the Gospels. At the time of his death he was working on a translation of the Gospel of St. John into English. He did this for the last 40 days of his life. When the last passage had been translated he said: "All is finished." = = Works on historical and astronomical chronology = = De temporibus, or On Time, written in about 703, provides an introduction to the principles of Easter computus. This was based on parts of Isidore of Seville's Etymologies, and Bede also included a chronology of the world which was derived from Eusebius, with some revisions based on Jerome's translation of the bible. In about 723, Bede wrote a longer work on the same subject, On the Reckoning of Time, which was influential throughout the Middle Ages. He also wrote several shorter letters and essays discussing specific aspects of computus. On the Reckoning of Time (De temporum ratione) included an introduction to the traditional ancient and medieval view of the cosmos, including an explanation of how the spherical earth influenced the changing length of daylight, of how the seasonal motion of the Sun and Moon influenced the changing appearance of the New Moon at evening twilight, and a quantitative relation between the changes of the tides at a given place and the daily motion of the moon. Since the focus of his book was the computus, Bede gave instructions for computing the date of Easter and the related time of the Easter Full Moon, for calculating the motion of the Sun and Moon through the zodiac, and for many other calculations related to the calendar. He gives some information about the months of the Anglo-Saxon calendar in chapter XV. Any codex of Bede's Easter cycle is normally found together with a codex of his "De Temporum Ratione". For calendric purposes, Bede made a new calculation of the age of the world since the creation, which he dated as 3952 BC. Due to his innovations in computing the age of the world, he was accused of heresy at the table of Bishop Wilfrid, his chronology being contrary to accepted calculations. Once informed of the accusations of these "lewd rustics," Bede refuted them in his Letter to Plegwin. In addition to these works on astronomical timekeeping, he also wrote De natura rerum, or On the Nature of Things, modelled in part after the work of the same title by Isidore of Seville. His works were so influential that late in the 9th century Notker the Stammerer, a monk of the Monastery of St. Gall in Switzerland, wrote that "God, the orderer of natures, who raised the Sun from the East on the fourth day of Creation, in the sixth day of the world has made Bede rise from the West as a new Sun to illuminate the whole Earth". = = Educational works = = Bede wrote some works designed to help teach grammar in the abbey school. One of these was his De arte metrica, a discussion of the composition of Latin verse, drawing on previous grammarians work. It was based on Donatus' De pedibus and Servius' De finalibus, and used examples from Christian poets as well as Virgil. It became a standard text for the teaching of Latin verse during the next few centuries. Bede dedicated this work to Cuthbert, apparently a student, for he is named "beloved son" in the dedication, and Bede says "I have laboured to educate you in divine letters and ecclesiastical statutes" Another textbook of Bede's is the De orthographia, a work on orthography, designed to help a medieval reader of Latin with unfamiliar abbreviations and words from classical Latin works. Although it could serve as a textbook, it appears to have been mainly intended as a reference work. The exact date of composition for both of these works is unknown. Another educational work is De schematibus et tropis sacrae scripturae, which discusses the Bible's use of rhetoric. Bede was familiar with pagan authors such as Virgil, but it was not considered appropriate to teach biblical grammar from such texts, and in De schematibus... Bede argues for the superiority of Christian texts in understanding Christian literature. Similarly, his text on poetic metre uses only Christian poetry for examples. = = Vernacular poetry = = According to his disciple Cuthbert, Bede was also doctus in nostris carminibus ("learned in our songs"). Cuthbert's letter on Bede's death, the Epistola Cuthberti de obitu Bedae, moreover, commonly is understood to indicate that Bede also composed a five line vernacular poem known to modern scholars as Bede's Death Song And he used to repeat that sentence from St. Paul "It is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God," and many other verses of Scripture, urging us thereby to awake from the slumber of the soul by thinking in good time of our last hour. And in our own language, — for he was familiar with English poetry, — speaking of the soul's dread departure from the body: As Opland notes, however, it is not entirely clear that Cuthbert is attributing this text to Bede: most manuscripts of the letter do not use a finite verb to describe Bede's presentation of the song, and the theme was relatively common in Old English and Anglo-Latin literature. The fact that Cuthbert's description places the performance of the Old English poem in the context of a series of quoted passages from Sacred Scripture, indeed, might be taken as evidence simply that Bede also cited analogous vernacular texts. On the other hand, the inclusion of the Old English text of the poem in Cuthbert's Latin letter, the observation that Bede "was learned in our song," and the fact that Bede composed a Latin poem on the same subject all point to the possibility of his having written it. By citing the poem directly, Cuthbert seems to imply that its particular wording was somehow important, either since it was a vernacular poem endorsed by a scholar who evidently frowned upon secular entertainment or because it is a direct quotation of Bede's last original composition. = = Veneration = = There is no evidence for cult being paid to Bede in England in the 8th century. One reason for this may be that he died on the feast day of Augustine of Canterbury. Later, when he was venerated in England, he was either commemorated after Augustine on 26 May, or his feast was moved to 27 May. However, he was venerated outside England, mainly through the efforts of Boniface and Alcuin, both of whom promoted the cult on the Continent. Boniface wrote repeatedly back to England during his missionary efforts, requesting copies of Bede's theological works. Alcuin, who was taught at the school set up in York by Bede's pupil Egbert, praised Bede as an example for monks to follow and was instrumental in disseminating Bede's works to all of Alcuin's friends. Bede's cult became prominent in England during the 10th-century revival of monasticism, and by the 14th century had spread to many of the cathedrals of England. Wulfstan, Bishop of Worcester (c. 1008 – 1095) was a particular devotee of Bede's, dedicating a church to him in 1062, which was Wulfstan's first undertaking after his consecration as bishop. His body was' translated '(the ecclesiastical term for relocation of relics) from Jarrow to Durham Cathedral around 1020, where it was placed in the same tomb with Saint Cuthbert of Lindisfarne. Later Bede's remains were moved to a shrine in the Galilee Chapel at Durham Cathedral in 1370. The shrine was destroyed during the English Reformation, but the bones were reburied in the chapel. In 1831 the bones were dug up and then reburied in a new tomb, which is still there. Other relics were claimed by York, Glastonbury and Fulda. His scholarship and importance to Catholicism were recognised in 1899 when he was declared a Doctor of the Church. He is the only Englishman named a Doctor of the Church. He is also the only Englishman in Dante's Paradise (Paradiso X.130), mentioned among theologians and doctors of the church in the same canto as Isidore of Seville and the Scot Richard of St. Victor. His feast day was included in the General Roman Calendar in 1899, for celebration on 27 May rather than on his date of death, 26 May, which was then the feast day of Pope Saint Gregory VII. He is venerated in both the Anglican and Roman Catholic Church, with a feast day of 25 May, and in the Eastern Orthodox Church, with a feast day on 27 May. Bede became known as Venerable Bede (Lat.: Beda Venerabilis) by the 9th century because of his holiness, but this was not linked to consideration for sainthood by the Roman Catholic Church. According to a legend the epithet was miraculously supplied by angels, thus completing his unfinished epitaph. It is first utilised in connection with Bede in the 9th century, where Bede was grouped with others who were called "venerable" at two ecclesiastical councils held at Aachen in 816 and 836. Paul the Deacon then referred to him as venerable consistently. By the 11th and 12th century, it had become commonplace. However, there are no descriptions of Bede by that term right after his death. = = = Modern legacy = = = Bede's reputation as a historian, based mostly on the Historia Ecclesiastica, remains strong; historian Walter Goffart says of Bede that he "holds a privileged and unrivalled place among first historians of Christian Europe". His life and work have been celebrated with the annual Jarrow Lecture, held at St. Paul's Church, Jarrow, since 1958.

= Treehouse of Horror III = "Treehouse of Horror III" is the fifth episode of The Simpsons' fourth season. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 29, 1992. In the third annual Treehouse of Horror episode, Homer buys Bart an evil talking Krusty doll, King Homer is captured by Mr. Burns, and Bart and Lisa inadvertently cause zombies to attack Springfield. The episode was written by Al Jean, Mike Reiss, Jay Kogen, Wallace Wolodarsky, Sam Simon, and Jon Vitti, and directed by Carlos Baeza. = = Plot = = The Simpsons are having a Halloween party for the children of Springfield. Lisa, Grampa and Bart each tell a horror story. = = = Clown Without Pity = = = In a parody of the Twilight Zone episode, Living Doll, Homer realizes that he forgot to buy Bart a present for his birthday. He rushes to the House of Evil, where he purchases a talking Krusty the Clown doll. The shopkeeper warns him that the doll is cursed, but Homer dismisses his concerns. He returns to the party and gives Bart the doll. Grandpa exclaims that the doll is evil, but admits that he is just doing it to get attention. Later, Homer is playing with the doll when it starts saying that it is going to kill him. He dismisses this until the doll threatens to stab him. After numerous attempts on Homer ’ s life, he captures the evil Krusty doll, locks it in a suitcase, and drops it in a "Bottomless Pit". Returning home, Homer is ambushed by the escaped doll, who tackles him into the kitchen and tries to drown him in Santa's Little Helper's dog bowl. Marge calls the consumer service hotline. A repairman arrives and discovers that the doll has been set to "Evil" mode. He flips the switch to "Good" and the Krusty doll becomes friends with Homer. A few hours later, the Krusty doll is working as Homer's slave. The Krusty doll returns to his girlfriend (a Malibu Stacy doll) in Lisa's dollhouse. = = = King Homer = = = In a parody of King Kong, Marge joins Mr. Burns and Smithers on an expedition to Ape Island to find the legendary King Homer. After landing on the island, Mr. Burns, Smithers, and Marge stealthily approach a native tribe, but are spotted due to Marge ’ s hair protruding over the bushes. The villagers agree that "The blue haired woman would make a good sacrifice" and tie her to a post as an offering. The sound of drums summons King Homer. Marge is initially terrified but sees the friendly side of Homer when he is attracted to Marge's perfume and the two form a friendship. Nonetheless, Mr. Burns is determined to capture King Homer and Smithers knocks Homer unconscious with a gas bomb. Returning to New York, the group display King Homer at the Broadway theatre. The photographers' flashes enrage King Homer, who breaks free from his restraints. He abducts Marge then attempts to climb the Empire State Building, but is unable to get past the second story of the building. King Homer collapses in exhaustion. In the end, King Homer and Marge get married. The story ends with the wedding. = = = Dial "Z" For Zombies = = = While in the Springfield Elementary library, Bart finds a book of black magic and gets attached to it. That night, when Lisa reminisces about the family ’ s dead cat, Snowball I, Bart suggests that he could use the book he found to resurrect Snowball. At the Springfield pet cemetery with Lisa, Bart utters an incantation from the book but accidentally reanimates corpses from the nearby human cemetery instead. The zombies terrorize Springfield, turning many people into zombies. Meanwhile, the Simpson family has barricaded all the doors and windows except for the back door, which Homer forgot to do. Several zombies break into the house: Homer sacrifices himself to give the others time to escape, but the zombies leave him when they realize he does not have enough brains for them to eat. Lisa realizes that the school library must have a book that can reverse the spell. The Simpsons arrive at the Springfield Elementary library and Bart casts the appropriate counter spell, causing all zombies to return to their graves. = = Production = = This episode originally encountered trouble when the color version came back from Korea. With only six weeks to the airdate the writers made almost 100 line changes, a very rare occurrence. It was decided to completely overhaul the episode after a poorly received screening with the writing staff. The tombstones that appeared at the start of and during the episode were abandoned in later episodes because it was becoming increasingly difficult to think of ideas. A subtle tombstone joke in this episode is in the scene where two zombies are crawling out of their graves. The names Jay Kogen and Wolodarsky (two of The Simpsons writers who worked on the episode) are written on the tombstones, but both are misspelled. The "King Homer" segment is one of Matt Groening's all-time favorite stories from the Treehouse of Horror series. Al Jean was also quite worried about this segment because it was the longest running black-and-white segment they had ever aired, and he thought that some people might be concerned that their televisions were broken. The "He (Flanders) was a zombie?" line, created by Mike Reiss, is, in the opinions of the writers, one of the all-time classic lines from the series. = = Cultural references = = The opening sequence where Homer walks into Alfred Hitchcock's silhouette is a parody of Alfred Hitchcock Presents. It was meant to show Homer's stomach bigger than that of the outline, but it was so subtle that not many people realised the joke. In the episode's wraparounds, Bart is dressed as Alex from the film A Clockwork Orange. The "Clown Without Pity" segment is based on the Twilight Zone episode "Living Doll" and the film Trilogy of Terror. The title itself is a play on the song "Town Without Pity" by Gene Pitney. The man that gives Homer the Krusty doll is based on Mr. Wing from the film Gremlins. The Krusty doll riding under Homer's car is a reference to the 1991 film Cape Fear. The "King Homer" segment is a parody of the 1933 film King Kong. In "King Homer", the tribal leader is heard saying 'Mosi Tatupu, Mosi Tatupu', which means they will sacrifice the blue-haired lady. The title "Dial" Z "for Zombies" is a play on the title of the 1954 Hitchcock film Dial M for Murder. Some aspects of "Dial" Z "for Zombies" are from the film Night of the Living Dead. In the pet cemetery, there are tombstones that read Fish Police, Capitol Critters and Family Dog, each a short-lived animated series intended to capitalize on The Simpsons' success. When raising the dead from their graves, Bart wears Michael Jackson's record album cover Thriller on his head. This is both a reference to Jackson's famous music video, in which he dances with zombies. = = Reception = = In its original broadcast, "Treehouse of Horror III" finished 20th in ratings for the week of October 26 – November 1, 1992, with a Nielsen rating of 14.7, equivalent to approximately 13.7 million viewing households. It was the highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, beating In Living Color. Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, the authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, thoroughly enjoyed the episode. They described the episode as "Another seasonal treat. Dial Z for Zombies is particularly impressive ('Dad, you killed the zombie Flanders!' 'He was a zombie?')." In 2006, IGN voted "Dial Z For Zombies" as the second best segment of the Treehouse of Horror episodes. "Clown Without Pity" was also rated sixth. In the film 28 Days Later, there is a scene where Sgt. Ferrell mentions that his favorite joke from The Simpsons was the line "Women and seamen (semen) don't mix", said by Smithers during the "King Homer" segment. The episode's reference to Night of the Living Dead was named the 16th greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film's Nathan Ditum.

= Slipknot (album) = Slipknot is the self titled debut studio album by American heavy metal band Slipknot. It was released on 29 June 1999 through Roadrunner Records, following a demo containing a few of the songs which had been released in 1998, and was reissued in December 1999 with a slightly altered track listing and mastering as the result of a lawsuit. It was the first release by the band to be produced by Ross Robinson, who sought to refine Slipknot's sound rather than alter the group's musical direction. The album spans several genres, but is generally noted for its extensive percussion and overall heavy sound. It was well received by fans and critics alike and was responsible for bringing Slipknot a large increase in popularity. The album peaked at number 51 on the Billboard 200, and has gone on to become certified double platinum in the United States, making it the band's best selling album. It was voted the best debut album of the last 25 years by readers of Metal Hammer magazine. = = Recording and production = = In 1997, following the band's demo release Mate. Feed. Kill. Repeat., the members of Slipknot continued to write new material and work in SR Audio, a local studio, with new vocalist Corey Taylor. The band had started work on a follow-up but never got further than pre-production. Songs written and recorded in this period include "Slipknot", "Gently", "Do Nothing", "Tattered and Torn", "Heartache and a Pair of Scissors", "Me Inside", "Coleslaw", "Carve", "Windows" and "May 17th". In 1998, Slipknot was receiving growing attention from record labels including Epic and Hollywood Records. On September 29, 1998, Slipknot left Des Moines, Iowa for Indigo Ranch Studios in Malibu, California, anxious to record an album after a long wait to be signed. They released this demo to prospective labels and producers; the track "Spit It Out" was the main focus of the demo and, with help from their manager Sophia John, they were able to get a copy of the eponymous demo to Ross Robinson. The band wanted him to work with them on their debut album and after meeting with the band Robinson signed them to his own label, I Am, but later helped sign them to Roadrunner Records. The album's recording process was "very aggressive and chaotic", as producer Robinson strove to capture the intensity that the band created when performing live. Within three days all the drums were recorded, which contributed to the raw, live sound on the album that the band considers integral to its musical direction. By November 11, 1998, the recording of the album seemed complete and the band returned to Des Moines. During the Christmas period, guitarist Josh Brainard, who recorded on all the tracks to that point, decided to leave the band. The reasons for his departure are unclear; it was widely thought to have been because of family constraints, however, Brainard dispels these rumours, explaining that "some decisions were made that I wasn't particularly happy with." His replacement was Jim Root, with whom the band returned to the studio in February 1999. Slipknot finished recording during this period, with two extra songs: a re-recording of "Me Inside", and a new track called "Purity". The mixing stages were very challenging, as drummer Joey Jordison and producer Robinson mastered the entire album with analog equipment, instead of the then more common method of using digital formats. "Wait and Bleed" and "Spit It Out", which had appeared on the demo prior to the album, were released on the album, also; the demo songs "Interloper" and "Despise" are available on the digipak version of the same album. "Snap" was featured on the soundtrack for the film Freddy vs. Jason and "Eyeless" appeared on an episode of The Sopranos. = = Musical and lyrical themes = = The musical style of Slipknot is a constantly contested issue and the genres that the band are categorized in vary depending on the source, however, this album is generally regarded as nu metal, while showing influences of many different genres. The influence of death metal on the album is clear, and on the subject Jordison stated; "the roots are death metal, thrash, speed metal, and I could go on and on about all those bands." The album also shows influences from alternative metal and even rap metal. Critics have also noted an industrial influence. Due to the band's large line-up consisting of additional percussionists and electronics, the album has a very dense, layered sound. Alternative Press stated that the album used "inventive sampling, creative guitar work and an absolute percussive overload", while Q magazine described the album as "a terrifying racket". Slipknot also includes melody, most notably in the single "Wait and Bleed". "742617000027" is the intro track to the album. It contains some guitar scratches and abstract sound samples from the sampler Craig Jones. Some of the dialogue was reportedly taken from a Charles Manson documentary. The dialogue is "The whole thing, I think it's sick." In an interview shortly after the album was released, Joey Jordison claimed the voice is Corey Taylor's, sped up. 742617000027 was the barcode number on their 1996 self-released album Mate. Feed. Kill. Repeat. All of the band members wear that number on their jumpsuits. The album features Corey Taylor as lead vocalist; he had previously appeared on their second demo, which, in turn, resulted in them signing to Roadrunner Records. Rick Anderson of AllMusic noted that on "Scissors", Taylor "actually sounds like he's about to burst into tears. Taylor's aggressive, expletive-filled lyrics were noted by AllMusic;" [the] lyrics that are discernible are not generally quotable on a family website; suffice it to say that the members of Slipknot are not impressed with their fathers, their hometown or most anything else. "" Eeyore ", a hidden track placed at the end of" Scissors ", begins after dialogue shared among the band members that was recorded while they were viewing a scene in a pornographic film that involved coprophilia, is heard. It has been played live many times and appears on both the DVD Disasterpieces and the live album 9.0: Live. = = Critical reception = = Slipknot was well received by critics and fans; following its release the band gained popularity beyond their own expectations. Reviewing for AllMusic, Rick Anderson awarded the album four out of five stars, calling it "an auspicious debut" and proclaimed, "You thought Limp Bizkit was hard? They're The Osmonds. These guys are something else entirely. And it's pretty impressive." The album's aggression and heavy sound was widely praised; Rolling Stone stated Slipknot is "metal with a capital m", Kerrang! added "raw and wholly uncompromising, each track delivered a powerful blow to the senses", and in 2001, Q magazine included the album in their list "50 Heaviest Albums of All Time". CMJ ranked the album as the twelfth highest "Editorial Pick" for 1999. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die by Robert Dimery. A single from the album, "Wait and Bleed", was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 2001 Grammy Awards, but lost to Deftones' "Elite". The song was also named the 36th greatest metal song of all time by VH1. The release of the album and the touring which followed greatly increased the band's popularity. The album became the "biggest selling extreme metal album at the time." It was ranked by American Soundscan as the fastest-selling metal debut in Soundscan's history. On May 2, 2000, the album was certified platinum in the United States, a first for any album released by Roadrunner Records. On February 5, 2005, the RIAA certified it Double Platinum. In Canada, the Canadian Recording Industry Association certified the album as Platinum on October 10, 2000. The British Phonographic Industry certified the album as Platinum on October 17, 2008 in the UK. = = = Controversy = = = After the release of the album, the band was accused of copyright infringement regarding the concept of the song "Purity". Corey Taylor, during a Q & A, claimed that the song's lyrics had been written five years prior to the song's release and that only the song's name had been inspired by the Purity Knight story, which was claimed by the authoring website as being fictional. Taylor, to his defense, said the song's inspiration came from films such as Boxing Helena and The Collector, and not the story itself. The short track, "Frail Limb Nursery", which serves as a prelude to "Purity", contains audio samples of the imprisoned Purity Knight as recorded by a young boy, posted as evidence on the authoring website. Slipknot, in an effort to prevent the entire album from being pulled, removed "Purity" and "Frail Limb Nursery" from the album until the case could be settled. As a result, the band released slightly remastered standard and digipak versions of the album in December 1999, replacing both tracks with "Me Inside". The band later won their case, and was subsequently able to still play the song during live performances. It is included in the band's second DVD Disasterpieces (the studio version appears here as well) as well as the live album 9.0: Live and Antennas to Hell, and the 10th anniversary edition of the self-titled album. = = 10th Anniversary Edition = = On September 9, 2009, Slipknot released a Special Edition version of the album to commemorate the tenth anniversary of its release. It was released in two forms, a digipak and a box set. The release date (09 / 09 / 09) is a reference to the fact that the band had nine band members and have sustained the same lineup since the original release of the album. The Special Edition box set includes: a CD and DVD set featuring all new digipak packaging, with a total of 25 songs, including the original album plus several previously unreleased cuts, demo tracks and "Purity". The DVD, which was directed by percussionist Shawn Crahan, features footage of the band in 1999 and 2000, titled Of the Sic: Your Nightmares, Our Dreams. The DVD also features all three music videos released in support of the album, an entire live concert recorded at the Dynamo Open Air, 2000 and "other surprises". A "super deluxe" box set version of the re-release contains a T-shirt, patch, collectible cards, key chain, beanie and a note from vocalist Corey Taylor, and comes in packaging that resembles a safety deposit box. = = Track listing = = All songs written and composed by Shawn Crahan, Paul Gray, Joey Jordison, Mick Thomson and Corey Taylor = = Chart positions = = = = Certifications = = = = Personnel = = = = Release history = = = = = Literature = = = Arnopp, Jason (2001). Slipknot: Inside the Sickness, Behind the Masks. Ebury. ISBN 0-09-187933-7. Crampton, Mark (2001). Barcode Killers: The Slipknot Story in Words and Pictures. Chrome Dreams. ISBN 1-84240-126-2.

= Monsters University = Monsters University is a 2013 American 3D computer-animated comedy film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. It was directed by Dan Scanlon and produced by Kori Rae, with John Lasseter, Pete Docter, Andrew Stanton and Lee Unkrich as executive producers. It is the fourteenth feature film produced by Pixar and is a prequel to 2001's Monsters, Inc., marking the first time Pixar has made a prequel film. Disney, as the rights holder, had plans for a sequel to Monsters, Inc. since 2005. Following disagreements with Pixar, Disney tasked its Circle 7 Animation unit to make the film. An early draft of the film was developed; however, Disney's purchase of Pixar in early 2006 led to the cancellation of Circle 7's version of the film. A Pixar-made sequel was confirmed in 2010, and in 2011, it was confirmed that the film would instead be a prequel titled Monsters University. Monsters University tells the story of two monsters, Mike and Sulley, and their time studying at college, where they start off as rivals, but slowly become best friends. John Goodman, Billy Crystal, Steve Buscemi, Bob Peterson, and John Ratzenberger reprise their roles as James P. Sullivan, Mike Wazowski, Randall Boggs, Roz, and the Abominable Snowman, respectively. Bonnie Hunt, who played Ms. Flint in the first film, voices Mike's grade school teacher Ms. Karen Graves. The music for the film is composed by Randy Newman, marking his seventh collaboration with Pixar. Monsters University premiered on June 5, 2013, at the BFI Southbank in London, United Kingdom and was released on June 21, 2013, in the United States. It was accompanied in theaters by a short film, The Blue Umbrella, directed by Saschka Unseld. The film grossed $743 million against its estimated budget of $200 million. An animated short film titled Party Central, which takes place shortly after the events of Monsters University, premiered in Fall 2013. = = Plot = = Michael "Mike" Wazowski, a young monster, gets inspired to become a scarer (a monster who enters the human world at night to scare children and harvest their screams for energy) when he grows up after visiting Monsters Inc., Monstropolis' most profitable scaring company, on a school field trip. Eleven years later, Mike is a first-year scare major at Monsters University, where he meets fellow monster James P. "Sulley" Sullivan. Mike studies hard, while the privileged Sulley, coming from a family of talented scarers, relies only on his natural ability and begins to falter. As the semester progresses, Mike and Sulley attempt to join a fraternity, but only Sulley is accepted into Roar Omega Roar, the strongest fraternity on campus. At the semester's final exam, a fight between the two causes them to accidentally break Dean Abigail Hardscrabble's cherished Scream Can. Hardscrabble promptly fails both of them immediately, stating that Sulley does not study enough, and Mike is not scary enough. Wanting to prove himself, Mike enters the university's "Scare Games" and makes a wager with Hardscrabble to reinstate him and his team to the scare program if they win, but Mike must leave the university if they lose. He joins a group of misfits named Oozma Kappa, the weakest fraternity on campus, but they are denied entry to the Games for being one team member short. Sulley subsequently joins them, seeing the competition as his ticket back into the scare program. Oozma Kappa finish last in the first challenge, but are saved from elimination after another team is disqualified for cheating. Oozma Kappa subsequently improve gradually due to Mike's training and intricate knowledge of scaring, and they advance through each following challenge, finishing just behind competition favourites Roar Omega Roar. In the final round, they defeat Roar Omega Roar with a decisive final scare by Mike in the simulation bedroom. However, Mike soon discovers that he only won because Sulley secretly rigged the machine to improve his score. Determined to prove he can become a scarer, Mike breaks into the school's door lab and enters a door to the human world leading to a summer camp, but he is unable to scare a cabin full of children and runs off into the woods. Meanwhile, Roar Omega Roar offers to reinstate Sulley, but he refuses, instead confessing to Hardscrabble that he cheated, just as she is alerted of Mike's break-in. Realizing what happened, Sulley defies Hardscrabble and enters the same door to find Mike. After reconciling, they try to return, but are unable to exit after Hardscrabble deactivates the door while waiting for the authorities to arrive. Pursued by camp rangers, Mike realizes that the only way to escape is to generate enough scream energy to power the door from their side. Working together, Sulley and Mike terrify the camp rangers and generate an overwhelming amount of scream energy to return to the lab seconds before the device overloads and explodes in front of Hardscrabble. Mike and Sulley are led away by the CDA and are expelled from the university as a result of their actions, but the other members of Oozma Kappa are accepted into the scare program the next semester, as Hardscrabble was impressed by their performances in the scare games. As Mike leaves on the bus, Sulley runs after him to raise his spirits. Hardscrabble then appears and wishes the two luck, claiming they were the first students to have surprised her. The two take jobs in the mail room of Monsters, Inc., eventually working their way up to join the Scarer Team and setting the events of Monsters, Inc. in motion. = = Cast = = Billy Crystal as Michael "Mike" Wazowski Noah Johnston as Young Mike John Goodman as James P. "Sulley" Sullivan Steve Buscemi as Randall "Randy" Boggs Helen Mirren as Dean Abigail Hardscrabble, the chair of the Scarer program at Monsters University Peter Sohn as Scott "Squishy" Squibbles, an Oozma Kappa fraternity member Joel Murray as Don Carlton, a middle-aged returning student and the founding member of Oozma Kappa fraternity Sean Hayes as Terri Perry, an Oozma Kappa fraternity member who shares his brother's body. Dave Foley as Terry Perry, an Oozma Kappa fraternity member Charlie Day as Art, an Oozma Kappa fraternity member Alfred Molina as Professor Derek Knight Tyler Labine as Brock Pearson, Greek Council vice-president Nathan Fillion as Johnny J. Worthington III, president of Roar Omega Roar Aubrey Plaza as Claire Wheeler, Greek Council president Bobby Moynihan as Chet Alexander, a Roar Omega Roar fraternity member Julia Sweeney as Sherri Squibbles, Scott's mother Bonnie Hunt as Ms. Karen Graves, Mike's grade school teacher John Krasinski as "Frightening" Frank McCay Bill Hader as Referee, Slug Beth Behrs as Carrie Williams, leader of Python Nu Kappa sorority Bob Peterson as Roz John Ratzenberger as The Yeti, a Monsters, Inc. mailroom employee = = Production = = Plans for a second Monsters, Inc. film existed since 2005. Following disagreements between Disney CEO Michael Eisner and Pixar CEO Steve Jobs, Disney – which owned the rights to make sequels to all of Pixar's films up to Cars – announced that a sequel to Monsters, Inc. would be made by Circle 7 Animation, which was also working on an early draft of Toy Story 3. Titled Monsters, Inc. 2: Lost in Scaradise, the film would have focused on Mike and Sulley visiting the human world to give Boo a birthday present, only to find that she had moved. After getting trapped in the human world, Mike and Sulley split up after disagreeing on what to do. Screenwriters Rob Muir and Bob Hilgenberg were hired to write a script for the film, and storyboarded an early draft of it. Disney's change of management in late 2005 – in which Eisner was replaced by Robert Iger – led to renewed negotiations with Pixar, and in early 2006 Disney announced it had purchased the studio. The Disney-owned sequel rights were then transferred to Pixar, leading to the cancellation of Muir and Hilgenberg's version of the film and the subsequent closure of Circle 7. A Pixar-made sequel was confirmed in 2010. The film was originally planned for release on November 16, 2012, but the release was preponed to November 2, 2012 to avoid competition with The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2. On March 29, 2011, it was confirmed that the film would be a prequel and the title Monsters University was announced. The next Month s release date June 21, 2013 was announced. The feature was directed by Dan Scanlon and produced by Kori Rae. Billy Crystal, John Goodman, Steve Buscemi, Bob Peterson, and John Ratzenberger reprised their roles, and Bonnie Hunt voiced a new character. New voice cast included Dave Foley, Sean Hayes, Julia Sweeney, Helen Mirren, Alfred Molina, Peter Sohn, Charlie Day, Joel Murray, Nathan Fillion, Aubrey Plaza, Tyler Labine, John Kransinski, Bill Hader, Bobby Moynihan, and Beth Behrs. The plot of Monsters University details Mike and Sulley's first meeting, but this created a continuity error from the first film in which Mike tells Sulley "You've been jealous of my good looks since the fourth grade." Director Dan Scanlon said he had a dilemma with this line during pre-production, but he believed it was best if Mike and Sulley meet in college because, "we wanted to see their relationship develop when they were adults. And we also felt like college is so much about self-discovery and figuring out who you are." He added, "It felt like the perfect place to do this, but we had that line. So we tried versions where they met young and then we skipped ahead to college. And we knew we didn't want to make Monsters Elementary." Scanlon said during pre-production that, "Pete Docter, the original director, and John Lasseter... finally said to me, 'it's great that you're honouring that, but you have to do what's right for the story.' So we made a tough decision to just have them be in college and put that line aside." Scanlon later retconned the line from the first film as "an old monster expression", saying "That's what monsters always say to each other." Monsters University is the first Pixar film that used global illumination, a new lighting system introduced as part of the overhaul of the rendering system used since the first Toy Story film. In the planning stage of the film, director of photography, Jean-Claude Kalache, asked "What if we made these lights just work?" Before the new system, artists had to build reflections and shadows manually, which became increasingly complex as the models and the setups became more technologically advanced. The new lighting system uses path tracing, a technique that imitates the behaviour of the light in the real world; this automatized the process, delivered more realism, produced soft shadows, and let the artist spend more time on models and complex scenes – some of which contained thousands of light sources. For research, the filmmakers visited several colleges in the U.S., including Harvard University, Stanford University, and the University of Alabama, observing college architecture, student life, Greek organizations, and the teaching methods of professors and faculty. To research fraternity life, which is central to the film, many of the film's producers spent several weeks at a fraternity house. = = Soundtrack = = The music for the film is Randy Newman's seventh collaboration with Pixar as composer. Walt Disney Records released the soundtrack on June 18, 2013. The songs "Main Title", "Rise and Shine", and "The Scare Games" feature the drum line from the Blue Devils group "BD Entertainment". The recordings for the percussion tracks were done at Skywalker Ranch, and were written by Blue Devils Percussion Caption Head Scott Johnson. The songs "Island" by Mastodon and "Gospel" by MarchFourth Marching Band are featured during the film but do not appear on the soundtrack. The songs "Party Hard" by Andrew W.K. and "Kickstart My Heart" by Mötley Crüe are featured prominently in the teaser trailers but do not appear on the soundtrack or in the film. Track listing All music composed by Randy Newman, except where noted. = = Release = = The first teaser trailer for Monsters University was released on June 20, 2012. Four versions of the trailer exist; in his sleep, Mike mutters excuses to avoid attending class in each one, such as "I'm not wearing any clothes," "My homework ate my dog," "Class President?", and "My pony made the Dean's List." A second trailer was released on February 11, 2013, a third on April 26, 2013, and a fourth and final trailer, which included scenes from the film, was released on May 30, 2013. On October 8, 2012, Pixar revealed a fully functional website for Monsters University, complete with information about admissions, academic and campus life, and a campus store to purchase MU apparel. On April 1, 2013, the website was styled to appear as though a rival college, Fear Tech, had hacked and vandalized it. The first television commercial for the film was aired during the 2013 Rose Bowl Game, parodying advertisements for participating schools that are shown during college football telecasts. From June 27 until July 11, 2013, Disney's online game Club Penguin hosted a Monsters University Takeover event to promote the film. Players could dress up as their favorite monsters and take part in the Scare Games. The film had its worldwide premiere on June 5, 2013, as a special screening at BFI Southbank in London with the director and producer in attendance. The film had its Asian premiere as the opening film of the 2013 Shanghai International Film Festival on June 15, 2013. It premiered in the United States on June 8, 2013, at the Seattle International Film Festival, and was released in theaters on June 21, 2013. The film's theatrical release was accompanied by Pixar's short film titled The Blue Umbrella. = = = Home media = = = Monsters University was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu-ray, 3D Blu-ray, DVD, digital copy, and on demand on October 29, 2013. It was accompanied by The Blue Umbrella, Pixar's short film which played alongside the film in theaters. = = Reception = = = = = Box office = = = Monsters University earned $268.5 million in North America and $475.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $743.6 million. Calculating in all expenses, Deadline.com estimated that the film made a profit of $179.8 million. It is the 56th highest-grossing film of all-time, the 12th highest-grossing animated film all-time, the seventh highest-grossing 2013 film, and the third highest-grossing Pixar film. The film earned $136.9 million worldwide on its opening weekend. Disney declined to provide a budget for the film; Entertainment Weekly speculated that it was higher than that of Brave ($185 million), mainly because of the high cost of John Goodman and Billy Crystal reprising their roles. Shockya and EOnline reported the budget to be $200 million — on par with previous Pixar films. = = = = North America = = = = In the week leading to Monsters University's release, Disney projected an opening weekend gross of at least $70 million. The film opened on Friday, June 21, 2013 in first place with $30.47 million – including $2.6 million in 20: 00 Thursday night shows – marking the fifth largest opening day among animated films. The film then reached first place with an opening-weekend gross of $82.43 million; the second largest among Pixar films, the second largest among G-rated films, the fourth largest among prequels, the fifth largest among animated films, and the fifth largest among films released in June. Monsters University remained at first place on its second weekend, declining 45% to $45.6 million. Facing tough competition from Despicable Me 2 on its third weekend, it dropped 57% to $19.7 million. As of December 2013, it is the tenth highest-grossing animated film. = = = = Outside North America = = = = The film earned $54.5 million in 35 markets on its opening weekend. It set a Pixar opening weekend record in Latin America with revenues of $31.7 million. In Argentina, the film set an opening weekend record among all films with $5.49 million. In Australia, where it had a simultaneous release with Despicable Me 2, Monsters University debuted behind the latter with $3.56 million in third place. In Hong Kong, the film set opening-day (HK $5.03 million), single-day (HK $7.93 million) and opening-weekend (HK $25.79 million) records among animated films, beating the previous record holder, Toy Story 3. In the UK, the film topped the box office during its opening weekend with a gross of GB £3.46 million. The film's largest opening occurred in China, where its $13 million debut ranked fourth among Disney films. The film's highest-grossing markets are Japan ($90.1 million), the UK, Ireland, and Malta ($47.2 million), and Mexico ($37.6 million). = = = Critical response = = = Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 78% approval rating based on 189 reviews, with an average rating of 6.8 / 10. The site's critical consensus reads "Offering Monsters, Inc. fans a welcome return visit with beloved characters, Monsters University delivers funny and thoughtful family entertainment for viewers of any age." Another review aggregator, Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics, calculated a score of 65 based on 41 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by Cinemascore gave the film a grade A. According to Disney, audiences were 56% female and 60% below the age of 25. Families made up 73% of business, and teens accounted for a solid 15%. The film played well with all ages. Matt Zoller Seitz of Chicago Sun-Times gave the film four stars out of four, saying it "is true to the spirit of [Monsters, Inc.] and matches its tone. But it never seems content to turn over old ground." Trevor Johnston of Time Out gave the film four stars out of five, writing "It has enough of the right stuff to haunt the imagination long after the immediate buzz of its fluffy-furred cuteness has melted away. For a mere prequel, that's a result." Steven Rea of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film three stars out of four and said it "is cute, and funny, and the animation, though not exactly inspired, is certainly colorful." Jake Coyle of Associated Press gave the film three stars out of four, saying it "might not be as gifted as some of its other movies, but sometimes it's alright to be OK." Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three stars out of four, and said "It's all infectious fun, despite the lack of originality. In the art of tickling funny bones, Crystal and Goodman earn straight A's." Richard Corliss of Time gave the film a positive review, saying "This minor film with major charms still deserves to have kids dragging their parents to the multiplex for one more peek at the monsters in the closet. With Pixar, familiarity breeds content." Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic gave the film three and a half stars out of five and said it is "one of those movies that has absolutely no reason to exist, but once you've seen it, you're kind of glad it does." Alan Scherstuhl of The Village Voice gave the film a positive review, saying "Monsters University feels not like the work of artists eager to express something but like that of likable pros whose existence depends on getting a rise out the kids. It's like the scares Sully and Mike spring on those sleeping tykes: technically impressive but a job un-anchored to anything more meaningful." Leonard Maltin of IndieWire praised the animation and art direction, but wrote that he wished "the movie was funnier and wasn't so plot-heavy" and that "Pixar has raised the bar for animated features so high that when they turn out a film that's merely good, instead of great, they have only themselves to blame for causing critics to damn them with faint praise." Michael Phillips of Chicago Tribune gave the film two stars out of four, saying "Monsters University, the weirdly charmless sequel to the animated 2001 Pixar hit Monsters, Inc., is no better or worse than the average (and I mean average) time-filling sequel cranked out by other animation houses." Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a negative review, saying that it "never surprises, goes off in unexpected directions or throws you for a loop in the manner of the best Pixar stories. Nor does it come close to elating through the sheer imagination of its conceits and storytelling." Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film three stars out of four, and said it "may not be as inventive as Inc., but it's an amusing and amiable addition to Pixar's roster of animated coming-of-age stories." Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film three stars out of four, saying "It may be children's terror that powers the movie's fictional universe, but it's the energy of its stars that lights up Monsters University." Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film an A − and said it "is exactly the rebound Pixar needed after 2011's Cars 2 left some wondering if the studio had lost its magic. The delightful story of when Mike met Sulley puts those concerns to rest." James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film three stars out of four and wrote "Although it falls short of the best Pixar has brought to the screen over its long association with Disney, it's nevertheless worth a trip to the theater, especially for kids." However, the film was not without its detractors. Richard Roeper gave the film a C +, saying "This is a safe, predictable, edge-free, nearly bland effort from a studio that rarely hedges its bets." Stephen Whitty of Newark Star-Ledger gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four and said "The artwork is accomplished, and intricate. The G-rating is genuine, without any gross-out gags. And there's none of the usual winks to the adults with tired, pop-culture references." Manohla Dargis of The New York Times gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of five and wrote "Both the originality and stirring emotional complexity of Monsters, Inc., with its exquisitely painful and touching parallels with the human world, are missing." Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four, and said "This is not a bad movie, and to small children it will be a very good one, but it's closer to average than one would wish from the company that gave us Up, WALL-E, The Incredibles, and the Toy Story series." Rene Rodriguez of Miami Herald gave the film two stars out of five and wrote that it "feels half-hearted and lazy, like they weren't even trying. At least show a little effort, guys." = = = Accolades = = =

= British Virgin Islands at the 2008 Summer Olympics = The British Virgin Islands took part in the 2008 Summer Olympics, which were held in Beijing, China from 8 to 24 August 2008. The dependency's participation at Beijing marked its seventh consecutive appearance in the summer Olympics since its debut in 1984, and its eighth Olympic appearance ever. The British Virgin Islander delegation included two athletes in 2008 participating in two distinct events in one sport: discus thrower Eric Matthias and sprinter Tahesia Harrigan. Of the athletes, Harrigan was the flagbearer and the first female Olympian to participate on behalf of the British Virgin Islands in its entire history. Overall, Harrigan advanced to quarterfinals in her event, although neither athlete medaled. = = Background = = The British Virgin Islands participated in seven summer Olympic games between its debut in the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles and the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Their Olympic debut was at the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, where the nation submitted a single athlete. The number of British Virgin Islanders participating in the summer games, excluding 1996 and 1984, included four or less athletes, and until Tahesia Harrigan in Beijing, only included men. Harrigan was the first female athlete to participate on behalf of the British Virgin Islands, and was its first female flagbearer. At Beijing, the British Virgin Islands were represented by two athletes, both in their twenties and both participating in track and field events: Eric Matthias and Tahesia Harrigan. Harrigan progressed to quarterfinals in her event, although neither athlete medaled. = = Athletics = = = = = Men's competition = = = Former Boise State University student Eric Matthias participated on behalf of the British Virgin Islands at the discus throw event. He was one of two British Virgin Islanders participating in a track and field event and in the 2008 Olympics as a whole. Matthias' appearance in Beijing marked his first appearance at any Olympic game. Once at the Olympics, Matthias was placed in the second qualifying heat on 16 August. He threw the discus 53.11 meters, ranking last out of 18 athletes. The 17th place finalist in the second qualifying heat, Iraq's Haidar Nasser Shaheed, threw 1.08 meters further, with heat leader Rutger Smith of the Netherlands throwing the discus 12.54 meters further than Matthias. Overall, out of 37 athletes, Matthias placed last, and did not progress to the final round on 19 August. = = = Women's competition = = = University of Alabama graduate and single parent Tahesia Harrigan was the sole female competitor from the British Virgin Islands, and one of two participating in a track and field event and for the BVI as a whole. Her appearance at Beijing was her first Olympic appearance; she did not compete in the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens because she was pregnant at the time. When at the Olympics, Harrigan competed in the first round of the 100 m dash on 15 August, where she was placed in Heat 2 against, among others, Lauryn Williams of the United States and Christine Arron of France. Harrigan ranked third in a heat of eight athletes with a time of 11.46 seconds, placing behind Williams by 0.08 seconds and ahead of Brazil's Lucimar Moura by 0.14 seconds. Overall, Harrigan tied Jade Latoya Bailey of Barbados for 25th place out of 85. She progressed to the next round. Harrigan competed in the second round on 16 August, placed in Heat 4 against Williams, Jamaica's Kerron Stewart, and Belgium's Kim Gevaert, among others. She placed fifth out of eight athletes with a time of 11.36 seconds; she was 0.10 seconds ahead of sixth place heat finalist Semoy Hackett of Trinidad and Tobago and 0.12 seconds behind Belarusian fourth place heat finalist Yuliya Nestsiarenka. Overall, she tied Arron for 16th place out of 40 athletes. Harrigan did not progress further. = = = Summary = = = Key Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete's heat only Q = Qualified for the next round q = Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or, in field events, by position without achieving the qualifying target NR = National record N / A = Round not applicable for the event Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round Men Women

= HMS Neptune (1797) = HMS Neptune was a 98-gun second rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy. She served on a number of stations during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and was present at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Neptune was built during the early years of the war with Revolutionary France and was launched in 1797. She almost immediately became caught up in the events of the mutiny at the Nore, and was one of a few loyal ships tasked with attacking mutinous vessels if they could not be brought to order. The mutiny died out before this became necessary and Neptune joined the Channel Fleet. She moved to the Mediterranean in 1799, spending the rest of the French Revolutionary Wars in operations with Vice-Admiral Lord Keith's fleet. After refitting, and spending time on blockades, she formed part of Lord Nelson's fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar, and was heavily involved in the fighting, sustaining casualties of 10 killed and 34 wounded. She was not fully repaired and returned to service until 1807, when she went out to the Caribbean. In 1809 she participated in the successful invasion of Martinique, and the subsequent battle with Troude's squadron. Returning to Britain towards the end of the wars, she was laid up in ordinary, and in 1813 became a temporary prison ship. She was finally broken up in 1818. = = Construction and commissioning = = Neptune was ordered from Deptford Dockyard on 15 February 1790, to a design developed by Surveyor of the Navy Sir John Henslow. She was one of three ships of the Neptune class, alongside her sisters HMS Temeraire and HMS Dreadnought. Neptune was laid down at Deptford in April 1791, receiving her name on 24 July 1790. The initial stages of her construction were overseen by Master Shipwright Martin Ware, though he was succeeded by Thomas Pollard in June 1795, and Pollard oversaw her completion. Neptune was launched on 28 January 1797 and sailed to Woolwich to be fitted for sea. Arriving at Woolwich on 12 February, she was immediately docked to have her copper sheathing fitted, a process that was completed by 1 March. Launched again, she finished fitting out, and received her masts and yards. Her final costs came to £77,053, and included £61,172 spent on the hull, masts and yards, and a further £15,881 on rigging and stores. She was commissioned on 25 March 1797 under Captain Henry Stanhope, becoming the third ship of the Royal Navy to bear the name Neptune. Her predecessors had been two 90-gun ships, the first launched in 1683, renamed HMS Torbay in 1750 and sold in 1784. The second had been launched in 1757, was used as a sheer hulk from 1784, and was broken up in 1816. Stanhope sailed from Woolwich on 11 June 1797, flying the broad pendant of Commodore Sir Erasmus Gower, and made for the Nore. = = Mutiny at the Nore = = Shortly after her arrival at the Nore, Neptune became caught up in the mutiny that had broken out there. While lying at Gravesend, Neptune and the 64-gun ships HMS Agincourt and HMS Lancaster, together with a fleet of gunboats, were ordered to intercept and attack the mutinous ships at the Nore. Before they could proceed word came that the mutineers had entered negotiations with the Earl of Northesk, captain of the 64-gun HMS Monmouth, and by 9 June the mutiny was on the verge of collapse. The attack was called off, and on 21 September Stanhope was superseded by Gower as captain of Neptune. The crisis over, Neptune joined the Channel Fleet. = = Mediterranean = = Gower remained in command of Neptune until his promotion to rear-admiral of the white, at which point Herbert Sawyer became her acting-captain. Sawyer was in command until 22 January 1799, and Gower left her on 28 February 1799. Command of the ship formally passed to Captain James Vashon on 5 March 1799. The first half of 1799 was spent with the Channel Fleet, and in June Neptune was one of 15 ships of the line assigned to join Vice-Admiral Lord Keith's fleet in the Mediterranean. The squadron, commanded by Rear-Admiral Sir Charles Cotton, rendezvoused with Keith's force at Minorca on 7 July, bringing the British fleet in the Mediterranean up to 31 ships. Keith intended to intercept a large Franco-Spanish force of 42 ships under Admirals Étienne Eustache Bruix and Jose Mazarredo, and set out to sea on 10 July. Bruix 'expedition evaded Keith, and reached the safety of Brest on 9 August. Neptune went on to spend the rest of the French Revolutionary Wars in the Mediterranean. Vashon was superseded on 26 March 1801, and the following day Captain Edward Brace arrived to take command. Neptune became the flagship of Vice-Admiral James Gambier during this period. Brace's period of command was brief, he was superseded by Captain Francis Austen on 12 September. With the draw down in hostilities prior to the signing of the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, Neptune was one of the many ships of the Mediterranean fleet to be ordered home, arriving at Portsmouth on 24 February. Austen paid her off on 29 April, but recommissioned her the next day. Neptune then underwent a brief refit, during which £5,728 was expended, £2,895 of which was spent on her hull, masts and yards. Austen was superseded on 30 September 1802 and the following day Captain William O'Bryen Drury took command. With Neptune fully refitted and stored, she sailed from the dockyard and joined the Channel Fleet at Spithead on 29 October. = = Blockade, and approach to Trafalgar = = Drury commanded Neptune for the next two years, until his promotion to rear-admiral in 1804. He departed the ship on 13 May 1804, and the following day Captain Sir Thomas Williams took over. Neptune spent the rest of 1804 deployed with the Channel Fleet, blockading the French Atlantic ports. During this time Captain Williams' health progressively worsened, and he was invalided back to Britain on 7 May 1805. He was replaced by Captain Thomas Fremantle on 8 May, and was sent to join Robert Calder's force blockading Ferrol, after the Franco-Spanish fleet had arrived there after the Battle of Cape Finisterre. Calder decided that his eight ships were not sufficient to resist Villeneuve's fleet were it to come out of harbour, and instead went north to join Admiral William Cornwallis's fleet off Brest. Shortly afterwards Nelson's fleet returned from the West Indies, bringing 12 more ships, and Calder was given 18 ships, including Neptune, and sent back to Ferrol to search for Villeneuve. By now Villeneuve had put into Cadiz and Calder's force was ordered to join the hastily assembled British fleet under Vice-Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood, that was blockading the Franco-Spanish fleet at Cadiz. As the British fleet settled in for a long blockade Fremantle commented on Neptune's sailing qualities. She had the reputation of being slow, and Fremantle complained that he did not like being in 'a large ship that don't sail and must continually be late in action.' During the battle however, Midshipman William Baddock commented that 'The old Neptune, which never was a good sailer, took it into her head that morning to sail better than I ever remember to have seen her do before.' Neptune went into the battle 18 men short of her complement. = = Trafalgar = = Neptune formed part of the weather column in the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October, and was the third ship from the lead, situated between her sister HMS Temeraire, and the 74-gun HMS Leviathan. Fremantle had been promised a position second to Nelson aboard HMS Victory, and by 10 o'clock was sailing fast enough to threaten to overtake her. Fremantle hoped to pass her, and lead the line into battle, but Nelson ordered 'Neptune, take in your studding-sails and drop astern. I shall break the line myself.' Neptune went into action with her band playing, and everyone except the officers and the band lying down on the deck to protect them from enemy fire. Ahead of her Fremantle saw Eliab Harvey's Temeraire turn to pass astern of the French Redoutable, but resolved to follow Nelson and HMS Victory to pass astern of the French flagship Bucentaure. As she passed under Bucentaure's stern, Neptune discharged a double-shotted broadside from her larboard (port) guns, with devastating consequences on Villeneuve's already disabled flagship. Fremantle then had the helm swung hard to starboard, bringing his ship abeam of the Bucentaure. He fired two more triple-shotted broadsides from nearly 50 guns at a range of less than 100 yards into the beleaguered French ship. Fremantle then spotted the towering mass of the Spanish four-decker Santísima Trinidad sailing away from him, and steered towards her starboard quarter in the hope of raking her stern. Opening fire with his larboard battery, he positioned Neptune off the Spanish vessel's starboard beam and the two exchanged heavy fire for the next hour as more British ships poured through the gap astern of Neptune. Neptune took fire from other ships of the combined fleet as they sailed past. Santísima Trinidad, heavily battered by Neptune's guns, as well as those from the 74-gun ships HMS Leviathan and HMS Conqueror, became completely dismasted and covered in debris. She fought on until 5.30 pm, when she struck her colours, having sustained casualties of 205 dead and 103 wounded. Neptune left the 98-gun HMS Prince to take possession and headed north to cut off the remains of the enemy fleet, briefly becoming engaged with the French 74-gun Intrépide. During the battle Neptune suffered considerable damage to her masts, although they did not fall. Most of her rigging was cut to pieces and she sustained nine shot holes in her hull. She sustained casualties of ten killed and 34 wounded. A remarkably small proportion of her officers became casualties, with only the captain's clerk, Richard Hurrell, being wounded. After the battle Collingwood transferred his flag from the damaged HMS Royal Sovereign to the frigate HMS Euryalus, and on 22 October Neptune took the Royal Sovereign in tow. On 23 October, as the Franco-Spanish forces that had escaped into Cadiz sortied under Commodore Julien Cosmao, Neptune cast off the tow, surrendering the duty to HMS Mars, and took on board Villeneuve and several captured flag captains, who had originally been aboard Mars. As the weather continued to deteriorate Neptune sent her boats to assist in the evacuation of the Santísima Trinidad before she foundered. After riding out the storm she took the battered Victory, carrying Lord Nelson's body, in tow on 26 October and brought her into Gibraltar on 28 October. = = West Indies = = After undergoing some repairs at Gibraltar Neptune sailed to Britain, arriving at Portsmouth on 6 December 1805, where she was paid off. She was moved to Spithead in 1806, but was back in Portsmouth on 23 November, and was moved into a dock on 24 March 1807 to undergo a refit. The refit lasted until November 1807 and involved having her copper sheathing removed and her hull refitted. She was then recoppered, having had a sum of £29,053 expended on her. She was recommissioned on 18 August 1807 under her old commander, Captain Sir Thomas Williams, and was relaunched three days later on 21 August to complete her refit. She was initially assigned to serve in the English Channel, but was moved to the West Indies in 1808. On 9 November Williams was superseded by Captain Thomas Pinto, who only spent six weeks in command before being succeeded by Captain Charles Dilkes on 20 December. In January 1809 an attack on the French colony of Martinique, governed by Admiral Louis Thomas Villaret de Joyeuse, was planned. Neptune became the flagship of the expedition's commander, Rear-Admiral Alexander Cochrane, and the invasion force, consisting of 44 vessels and transports for 10,000 troops under Lieutenant-General George Beckwith, sailed on 28 January. The force arrived at Martinique on 30 January, and 3,000 troops were landed under Major-General Frederick Maitland without resistance. 600 troops were put ashore at Cape Solomon under Major Henderson, both landings supervised by Captain William Charles Fahie aboard the 74-gun HMS Belleisle. An additional force of 6,500 men were landed in the north of the island under Major-General Sir George Prévost, and the French were driven into several fortified positions, the last of which surrendered on 24 February 1809. = = Battle with Troude = = Cochrane's squadron remained in the area blockading the island, and in March a French squadron consisting of three 74-gun ships, Hautpoult, Courageux and Polonais, and two frigates, Félicité and Furieuse, under the overall command of Commodore Amable Troude, arrived in the Caribbean. Finding Martinique in British hands, Troude anchored near Îles des Saintes. There they were blockaded until 14 April, when Cochrane removed this threat. A British force under Major-General Frederick Maitland and Captain Philip Beaver in Acasta, landed troops on the islands capturing them. The British then installed heavy guns on vantage points. Threatened, Troude put to sea, chased by Cochrane's squadron. After a running battle over several days the Hautpoult was brought to action and captured. Neptune's captain, Charles Dilkes, was given command of her, while Captain James Athol Wood succeeded him in command of Neptune on 2 August. Neptune was among the naval vessels that shared in the proceeds of the capture of the islands. = = Final years = = Dilkes resumed command of Neptune on 2 March 1810, while Wood was exchanged into HMS Pompee. Dilkes had apparently been suffering poor health, and Captain N Ballard took command in an acting capacity on 22 July. Neptune returned to Plymouth on 26 October and entered the dock on 9 November to be fitted for the ordinary. The process cost £713, and after undocking on 8 December she was laid up in the Hamoaze until late autumn 1813. Her hull appears to have quickly deteriorated, and after a survey she was deemed unfit for further service at sea. The Navy Board proposed that she be converted into a prison ship, a recommendation the Admiralty accepted, and she was taken in hand for fitting out on 22 November. On the completion of the work in December she was commissioned under Lieutenant George Lawrence. Neptune spent three years in this role, and was finally taken to pieces in October 1818.

= Crippled Summer = "Crippled Summer" is the seventh episode and mid-season finale of the fourteenth season of the American animated television series South Park, and the 202nd overall episode of the series. It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on April 28, 2010. In the episode, the South Park children try to help Towelie overcome his drug addiction, while Nathan and his lackey Mimsy plot to destroy Jimmy during athletic competitions at a summer camp for handicapped children. The episode was written and directed by series co-creator Trey Parker, and was rated TV-MA L in the United States. The story of Towelie's addiction is presented as a parody of the reality series Intervention. Parker and fellow co-creator Matt Stone originally planned an Intervention parody around Towelie for the tenth season episode "A Million Little Fibers", but those plans were eventually scrapped. Several of the handicapped children in "Crippled Summer" are made to resemble characters from the Looney Tunes cartoon series, including Elmer Fudd, Beaky Buzzard, Daffy Duck, Pete Puma, and Porky Pig, as well as non-Looney Tunes characters Droopy and Fat Albert. "Crippled Summer" received positive reviews, though some commentators expressed disappointment that the episode did not respond to the controversies surrounding the show's depictions of Muhammad in the previous episodes, "200" and "201". According to Nielsen Media Research, "Crippled Summer" was seen by 3.56 million viewers, making it the most watched cable show of the night, and outperforming even some prime time network shows that evening. = = Plot = = The drug addiction of Towelie, a living and talking towel, is growing so overwhelming that the South Park children make attempts to help him. Towelie's history is shown, using head interviews and on-screen captions (in a parody of "Intervention"), starting with years of drug addiction to cannabis, crystal meth, heroin and crack. He previously had a girlfriend named Rebecca and conceived a child with her (a washcloth), but he was kicked out of their home due to his persistently getting high. Having run out of money for hard drugs, Towelie starts getting high off of cans of computer duster. His life continued in a downward spiral, leaving him in heavy debt and offering oral sex to strangers for money in the alleys. The boys help him get a job at Lake Tardicaca, a summer camp for children with physical and mental disabilities, as a towel to dry off the campers. However, Towelie persists in drug use and fellating strangers in the supply closet, and is fired by the camp. The boys confront Towelie and make emotional speeches to him as a plea to help him from killing himself (except for Cartman, who uses this opportunity to read what appears to be several tens of thousands of pages of anti-Semitic remarks on television, which the psychiatrist allows to continue in respect of the "no interruptions" rule). Towelie refuses their pleas until Butters reveals he has brought Towelie's child, "Washcloth", which finally prompts him to accept the offer to go to a rehabilitation clinic in Southern California. Later, Towelie reveals he has completed rehab and is now living with his girlfriend and son. Meanwhile, at the summer camp, young bully Nathan and his lackey Mimsy plot to destroy Jimmy during the athletic competitions so Nathan can be declared the camp's champion. This sub-plot is also narrated in the same style as "Intervention". Nathan uses Mimsy as a minion to carry out his plans to harm Jimmy, but is repeatedly foiled by Mimsy, who either misinterprets his instructions or takes them too literally and causes his plans to backfire. Nathan tries to plant a black mamba in Jimmy's canoe during a race, but Mimsy instead leaves it in Nathan's canoe (when told to put it "in the canoe"). Subsequently, Nathan tries to lead Jimmy's team into dangerous Indian territory during a scavenger hunt, but instead Mimsy switches the maps and switches them again (Nathan demanded him to "Switch the maps! Switch the maps!"), and leads Nathan's team there. When Nathan tries to use a whistle with a shark mating call against Jimmy, Mimsy, who was supposed to blow the whistle underwater, instead swims in the water briefly then blows the whistle on land and a shark jumps out of the water and anally rapes Nathan with its nine-inch long penis, according to the Colorado National Wildlife Association. During the talent show, Nathan rigs Jimmy's ukulele with C-4, hoping it will explode during a solo, but when Jimmy cannot perform the solo correctly, Mimsy starts to show Jimmy the correct notes. Nathan interrupts and confronts Mimsy about his failure to follow orders. With a lapse of judgment, Nathan plays the correct notes and causes the ukulele to explode, knocking him away before being further injured by his past plans attacking him again. The ukulele solo is spoofing the Looney Tunes repeated use of the Xylophone gag, where the last note of Believe Me If All Those Endearing Young Charms, is booby trapped, but the protagonist always somehow manages to play it wrong. Nathan is subsequently escorted to an ambulance, but is given the champion's crown by Jimmy. Nathan tells Jimmy he hates him anyway before he is sent away to the hospital. The episode ends with a message encouraging people who know towels in need of drug rehabilitation to visit "Restore Stephen Baldwin", a real-life website seeking assistance for actor Stephen Baldwin. = = Production = = "Crippled Summer" was written and directed by series co-creator Trey Parker, and was rated TV-MA L in the United States. It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on April 28, 2010 and served as the mid-season finale of the fourteenth season before a months-long hiatus for the series. Parker and fellow series co-creator Matt Stone originally planned for the tenth season episode "A Million Little Fibers" to be about Towelie's struggle to overcome addiction in the style of the television series Intervention, with the children and residents of South Park coming together to help him, just as it was done in "Crippled Summer". However, after writing portions of the story for the tenth season episode, they found they did not know where to bring the story or how to resolve it. As a result, they completely revamped the episode and focused it on talk show host Oprah Winfrey and the controversy surrounding the James Frey book A Million Little Pieces, rather than Towelie's addiction. "Crippled Summer" also marked the first appearance by Towelie since the "A Million Little Fibers", and the first appearance of Nathan, Jimmy's handicapped nemesis, since the eighth season episode "Up the Down Steroid". = = Cultural references = = "Crippled Summer" served as a parody of Intervention, the A & E Network documentary series about people struggling with various addictions. Throughout the episode, information about Towelie's drug addiction is presented on completely black screens with white letters. This device is used frequently in Intervention. The interviews with Towelie's friends and footage of their pleas to get help are also characteristic of the reality series. During one of Towelie's interviews, he quotes "feels like I'm walking on sunshine" after huffing air duster cans. Both the quote and his actions are from Season 5, episode 9 of the TV reality series Intervention where they interview "Allison". Many of the campers at Lake Tardicaca are parodies of characters from the cartoon series Looney Tunes. Nathan and Mimsy, in particular, are strongly influenced by Rocky and Mugsy, with Nathan taking on the role of the diminutive mastermind (like Rocky) who is constantly thwarted by his large but dim-witted accomplice (like Mugsy). Other characters from the summer camp in the episode resemble cartoon characters such as Elmer Fudd, Pete Puma, Droopy, Porky Pig, Taz, Foghorn Leghorn, and Beaky Buzzard. The episode ends with a reference to "Restore Stephen Baldwin", a real-life website seeking to restore actor Stephen Baldwin's career and solicit donations to repay his $2.3 million debt. The joke compares Towelie's addiction and rehabilitation to that of Baldwin, who had a history of drug abuse before becoming a born-again Christian. A version of "Are You Ready for the Summer?", a camp theme song sung by children in the comedy film Meatballs, is featured. The episode makes reference to actress Kirstie Alley when a counselor says Towelie is the most troubled towel he had seen since Alley's towel, who he said "has seen some nasty stuff". = = Reception = = In its original American broadcast on April 29, 2010, "Crippled Summer" was watched by 3.56 million viewers, according to Nielsen Media Research, making it the most watched cable television show of the night. It received a 2.2 rating / 4 share among overall viewers and a 2.0 rating / 6 share among adult viewers between ages 18 and 49. This rating marked an improvement over the previous South Park episode, "201", and outperformed those of several primetime network shows that evening, including Fox's Lie to Me, ABC's The Middle, NBC's Minute to Win It, CBS's The New Adventures of Old Christine and The CW Network's America's Next Top Model, most of which were in repeats that evening. "Crippled Summer" received a 4.1 rating / 13 share among male viewers between ages 18 and 34. The episode also ranked fourth for the week among cable viewers between ages 18 and 49 and, because it ranked only behind three NBA playoff games, it was the highest-rated scripted cable show of the week. "Crippled Summer" was the highest-rated cable show among the 18 – 34 viewer demographic. "Crippled Summer" received mixed reviews. Ramsey Isler of IGN called "Crippled Summer" a brilliant episode, particularly praising the return of Towelie, who he said "has a slew of great moments in this story, making up for his long absence from the series". Isler said after the controversy raised from the depictions of Muhammad in the previous two episodes, "200" and "201", he appreciated that the show returned to a simpler plot and provided "a little comedy relief". The A.V. Club writer Josh Modell also praised South Park for "not getting too caught up in the Muhammad thing", and praised the jokes about Intervention, which he said "is one of those shows that's really easy to parody". He also praised several individual jokes, like Cartman's theories about the Jews and Nathan getting raped by a shark, although he said the Mimsy jokes were "a little one-note". Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly said of the episode: "Not the kind of South Park episode that ’ s going to stir national-news debate, but funny and vulgar enough to satisfy fans." Carlos Delgado of iF Magazine pointed out that although the episode mocked drug addicts and handicapped children, it did not face the kind of censorship "200" and "201" did, which he suggested proved that censorship was born of fear rather than ethics. Delgado also said the comparison of handicapped children to Looney Tunes characters "should remind us all that such cruel portrayals of disabled people have been going on for years". Others criticized the episode. MTV writer Adam Rosenberg thought the episode "just wasn't very funny", and said it missed an opportunity to continue the creative edginess demonstrated in "200" and "201". Rosenberg found the jokes about handicapped children "pointlessly mean", and said the fact that they are allowed where depictions of Muhammad are censored "makes a point about the absurdity of what is and isn't TV-acceptable". The television website TV Fanatic praised the Towelie storyline and the use of his son "Washcloth", but said the jokes about the handicapped children were unfunny and irritating. The site called it "by far the weakest of the season" and a disappointment following "200" and "201". = = Home release = = "Crippled Summer", along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park's fourteenth season, were released on a three-disc DVD set and two-disc Blu-ray set in the United States on April 26, 2011.

= Sweet Tooth (novel) = Sweet Tooth is a novel by the English writer Ian McEwan, published on 21 August 2012. It deals with the experiences of its protagonist, Serena Frome, during the early 1970s. After graduating from Cambridge she is recruited by MI5, and becomes involved in a covert program to combat communism by infiltrating the intellectual world. When she becomes romantically involved with her mark, complications ensue. McEwan wanted to write a novel dealing with the social turmoil of the 1970s, and Sweet Tooth is to a large extent based on his own life. The story explores the relationship between artistic integrity and government propaganda, and addresses competing approaches to literature; the boundary between reality and fiction is tested throughout. The novel is dedicated to McEwan's late friend Christopher Hitchens. He is not referred to directly in the book, but he did play a part as the host of a real-life literary event fictionalised in the book, involving McEwan and Martin Amis, who does appear in the story. Critical reception was mixed; some reviewers found the novel moving and poignant, while others saw it as weaker than much of McEwan's previous work. = = Plot summary = = The plot is set in early-1970s England. Serena Frome ("rhymes with plume"), the daughter of an Anglican bishop, shows a talent for mathematics and is admitted to the University of Cambridge. But she struggles academically, and graduates with a third. While at Cambridge she becomes romantically involved with Tony Canning, a professor, who before abruptly ending the affair secures a position for Serena with MI5. The job is low-level, but a more exciting opportunity appears when Serena is offered a chance to take part in a new covert program codenamed "Sweet Tooth". To counter Communist propaganda during the Cold War, the agency wants to offer financial assistance to young writers, academics and journalists with an anti-Communist bent. Serena, who is an avid and quick reader of fiction, is given the task of vetting burgeoning writer Thomas Haley. Serena is immediately taken by Haley's published short fiction. She travels to the University of Sussex, where he works, to offer him a stipend from the fictional Freedom International Foundation. Soon the two begin a romantic affair, but things gradually start to unravel. Serena discovers that Professor Canning (who, it turns out, broke off their affair only because he knew he was dying from cancer) was in fact a Soviet spy, and she was recruited because the agency wanted to keep tabs on Canning. Then, when Haley's first novel comes out, it is a great critical success, but its dystopian, anti-capitalist theme is not well received by the agency. Finally, his affair with Serena is exposed by the press, and the whole Sweet Tooth program is threatened. Serena fears that she has lost Haley's love forever, now he knows she has deceived him. Haley, however, had known about the program for months, and instead of ending the affair, had decided to turn the story into a novel. The reader now discovers that the author of Sweet Tooth is in fact Haley, despite its being written from Serena's first-person perspective. As the novel ends, Haley asks Serena in a letter to marry him. = = Autobiographical elements = = Several reviewers have pointed out that the Thomas Haley character shares many traits and biographical details with the author. Like Haley, McEwan studied at the University of Sussex (later also at the University of East Anglia), and not at one of the more prestigious Oxbridge universities. Haley's stories, summarised briefly in the novel, are in several cases strikingly similar to some of McEwan's earlier work. This goes particularly for Haley's dystopian début novel, which closely follows the plot of "Two Fragments", a short story from McEwan's 1978 In Between the Sheets. The novel wins Haley the fictional Jane Austen Prize for Fiction, just as McEwan's debut First Love, Last Rites was rewarded with the Somerset Maugham Award in 1976. Several of McEwan's acquaintances from this period also make cameo appearances in the novel, including his friend Martin Amis, his first publisher Tom Maschler, and his mentor Ian Hamilton. McEwan has been open about the autobiographical elements in the book, and has called it "a muted and distorted autobiography" and "a muted, or transmuted, memoir of myself as a young writer." There are, however, significant differences between author and character. Haley is both an academic and a writer of fiction, while McEwan has been a professional author for his entire career. The intelligence agency plot is also completely fictional; there was never a scheme such as the one described in the book run by MI5. As McEwan says himself, "unfortunately a beautiful woman never came into my room and offered me a stipend." = = Genre and style = = Sweet Tooth is a love story, a spy novel, and a book about literature itself. Serena and her boyfriend Haley – she a well-read but uncritical lover of literature, he a highly accomplished writer and literary scholar – have different attitudes towards literature. Serena prefers a realist approach, where life in the book reflects real life. Haley on the other hand is of a more modernist school, and enjoys experimentation in his work. McEwan plays with these differences, firstly by placing himself in the novel and blurring the line between author and character, and secondly by writing what appears to be a straight first-person narrative, only to distort this perception at the very end. = = Themes = = McEwan had long wanted to write a novel about the 1970s, a formative period in his life he refers to as "the time of my life." For the United Kingdom it was a turbulent period, with striking miners, energy crisis, escalation of the conflict over Northern Ireland, repeated states of emergency and several shifts of government. It was also the period of the Cold War, when Western governments were trying to win the war of ideas against a highly radicalised intelligentsia. Operation Sweet Tooth is entirely fictional, but the story is inspired by the actual scandal affecting the conservative literary magazine Encounter, which in 1967 was revealed to have received covert funding from the CIA. McEwan uses this back-story to explore the relationship between artist and government, and the need for literature to remain independent. According to McEwan, the problem was not the anti-Communist crusade itself, but the secrecy with which it was conducted. "All that's really required is that anything the state does in relation to the arts is laid on the table where we can see it." = = Critical reception = = Lydia of The Observer enjoyed the "Russian doll" of the novel's multiple layers, and its "keen emotional pull." Though she had certain misgivings along the way, she felt that the last few pages answered all her questions and "moved [her] almost to tears." Lucy Kellaway of the Financial Times was taken by the stories within the story, and though they tended to "suck vivacity from the main narrative", she saw this as a device to illuminate the "different crafts of writing short stories and novels." Benjamin Errett, writing for the National Post, pointed out how McEwan had blended spy fiction and literary criticism to a combination that was both exciting and intellectually stimulating. In reference to Serena and Tom's different literary preferences, he concluded that "[t] his novel is juicy enough to satisfy them both." Other reviewers were less enthusiastic. The Daily Telegraph's Catherine Taylor found the protagonist "a little too credulous." She also found McEwan's "wilful narrative sadism" sadly missing from the work. The review in The Economist was even more scathing: referring to Sweet Tooth as "not Mr McEwan's finest book", the reviewer concluded that by the end, "it is hard to feel much of anything for these heroes, who are all notions and no depth." James Lasdun of The Guardian found that there were "momentous political questions" raised in the earlier parts of the novel, which were not fully addressed by the end. Stylistically, Serena found herself caught in exactly the kind of narrative she disliked, but, asked Lasdun, "to what end?" Particularly the ending of the book was polarising. Kellaway saw it as "a good excuse to go back to the beginning and read this rich and enjoyable novel all over again", while another reviewer confessed that, though the ending "might be enough to send McEwan acolytes scurrying back through the novel to see how he did it... it made me want to throw the book out the window." The statistical journal "Significance" analyses McEwan's representation of the famous mathematical conundrum: the Monty Hall Problem.

= Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder = Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a mental disorder of the neurodevelopmental type. It is characterized by problems paying attention, excessive activity, or difficulty controlling behavior which is not appropriate for a person's age. These symptoms begin by age six to twelve, are present for more than six months, and cause problems in at least two settings (such as school, home, or recreational activities). In children, problems paying attention may result in poor school performance. Although it causes impairment, particularly in modern society, many children have a good attention span for tasks they find interesting. Despite being the most commonly studied and diagnosed mental disorder in children and adolescents, the cause is unknown in the majority of cases. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that it affected about 39 million people as of 2013. It affects about 5 – 7% of children when diagnosed via the DSM-IV criteria and 1 – 2% when diagnosed via the ICD-10 criteria. Rates are similar between countries and depend mostly on how it is diagnosed. ADHD is diagnosed approximately three times more in boys than in girls. About 30 – 50% of people diagnosed in childhood continue to have symptoms into adulthood and between 2 – 5% of adults have the condition. The condition can be difficult to tell apart from other disorders as well as to distinguish from high levels of activity that are still within the normal-range. ADHD management recommendations vary by country and usually involve some combination of counseling, lifestyle changes, and medications. The British guideline only recommends medications as a first-line treatment in children who have severe symptoms and for medication to be considered in those with moderate symptoms who either refuse or fail to improve with counseling. Canadian and American guidelines recommend that medications and behavioral therapy be used together as a first-line therapy, except in preschool-aged children. Stimulant therapy is not recommended as a first-line therapy in preschool-aged children in either guideline. Treatment with stimulants is effective for up to 14 months; however, its long term effectiveness is unclear. Adolescents and adults tend to develop coping skills which make up for some or all of their impairments. The medical literature has described symptoms similar to ADHD since the 19th century. ADHD, its diagnosis, and its treatment have been considered controversial since the 1970s. The controversies have involved clinicians, teachers, policymakers, parents, and the media. Topics include ADHD's causes and the use of stimulant medications in its treatment. Most healthcare providers accept ADHD as a genuine disorder, and the debate in the scientific community mainly centers on how it is diagnosed and treated. The condition was officially known as attention deficit disorder (ADD) from 1980 to 1987 while before this it was known as hyperkinetic reaction of childhood. = = Signs and symptoms = = Inattention, hyperactivity (restlessness in adults), disruptive behavior, and impulsivity are common in ADHD. Academic difficulties are frequent as are problems with relationships. The symptoms can be difficult to define as it is hard to draw a line at where normal levels of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity end and significant levels requiring interventions begin. According to the DSM-5, symptoms must be present for six months or more to a degree that is much greater than others of the same age and they must cause significant problems functioning in at least two settings (e.g., social, school / work, or home). The full criteria must have been met prior to age 12 in order to receive a diagnosis of ADHD. ADHD is divided into three subtypes: predominantly inattentive, predominantly hyperactive-impulsive, and combined type. An individual with ADHD inattentive type has most or all of following symptoms, excluding situations where these symptoms are better explained by another psychiatric or medical condition: Be easily distracted, miss details, forget things, and frequently switch from one activity to another Have difficulty maintaining focus on one task Become bored with a task after only a few minutes, unless doing something enjoyable Have difficulty focusing attention on organizing and completing a task or learning something new Have trouble completing or turning in homework assignments, often losing things (e.g., pencils, toys, assignments) needed to complete tasks or activities Not seem to listen when spoken to Daydream, become easily confused, and move slowly Have difficulty processing information as quickly and accurately as others Struggle to follow instructions Have trouble understanding minute details An individual with ADHD hyperactive / impulsive type has most or all of the following symptoms, excluding situations where these symptoms are better explained by another psychiatric or medical condition: Fidget and squirm in their seats Talk nonstop Dash around, touching or playing with anything and everything in sight Have trouble sitting still during dinner, school, doing homework, and story time Be constantly in motion Have difficulty doing quiet tasks or activities Be very impatient Blurt out inappropriate comments, show their emotions without restraint, and act without regard for consequences Have difficulty waiting for things they want or waiting their turns in games Often interrupt conversations or others' activities Symptoms of hyperactivity tend to go away with age and turn into "inner restlessness" in teens and adults with ADHD. People with ADHD are more likely to have problems with social skills, such as social interaction and forming and maintaining friendships. This is true for all subtypes. About half of children and adolescents with ADHD experience social rejection by their peers compared to 10 – 15% of non-ADHD children and adolescents. People with attention deficits are prone to having difficulty processing verbal and nonverbal language which can negatively affect social interaction. They also may drift off during conversations, and miss social cues. Difficulties managing anger are more common in children with ADHD as are poor handwriting and delays in speech, language and motor development. Although it causes significant impairment, particularly in modern society, many children with ADHD have a good attention span for tasks they find interesting. = = = Associated disorders = = = In children, ADHD occurs with other disorders about ⅔ of the time. Some commonly associated conditions include: Learning disabilities have been found to occur in about 20 – 30% of children with ADHD. Learning disabilities can include developmental speech and language disorders and academic skills disorders. ADHD, however, is not considered a learning disability, but it very frequently causes academic difficulties. Tourette syndrome has been found to occur more commonly in the ADHD population. Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD), which occur with ADHD in about 50% and 20% of cases respectively. They are characterized by antisocial behaviors such as stubbornness, aggression, frequent temper tantrums, deceitfulness, lying, and stealing. About half of those with hyperactivity and ODD or CD develop antisocial personality disorder in adulthood. Brain imaging supports that conduct disorder and ADHD are separate conditions. Primary disorder of vigilance, which is characterized by poor attention and concentration, as well as difficulties staying awake. These children tend to fidget, yawn and stretch and appear to be hyperactive in order to remain alert and active. Mood disorders (especially bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder). Boys diagnosed with the combined ADHD subtype are more likely to have a mood disorder. Adults with ADHD sometimes also have bipolar disorder, which requires careful assessment to accurately diagnose and treat both conditions. Anxiety disorders have been found to occur more commonly in the ADHD population. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) can co-occur with ADHD and shares many of its characteristics. Substance use disorders. Adolescents and adults with ADHD are at increased risk of substance abuse. This is most commonly seen with alcohol or cannabis. The reason for this may be an altered reward pathway in the brains of ADHD individuals. This makes the evaluation and treatment of ADHD more difficult, with serious substance misuse problems usually treated first due to their greater risks. Restless legs syndrome has been found to be more common in those with ADHD and is often due to iron deficiency anaemia. However, restless legs can simply be a part of ADHD and requires careful assessment to differentiate between the two disorders. Sleep disorders and ADHD commonly co-exist. They can also occur as a side effect of medications used to treat ADHD. In children with ADHD, insomnia is the most common sleep disorder with behavioral therapy the preferred treatment. Problems with sleep initiation are common among individuals with ADHD but often they will be deep sleepers and have significant difficulty getting up in the morning. Melatonin is sometimes used in children who have sleep onset insomnia. There is an association with persistent bed wetting, language delay, and developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Language delays can include auditory processing disorders such as short-term auditory memory weakness, difficulty following instructions, slow speed of processing spoken language, and difficulties listening in distracting environments. = = Cause = = The cause of most cases of ADHD is unknown; however, it is believed to involve interactions between genetic and environmental factors. Certain cases are related to previous infection of or trauma to the brain. = = = Genetics = = = Twin studies indicate that the disorder is often inherited from one's parents with genetics determining about 75% of cases. Siblings of children with ADHD are three to four times more likely to develop the disorder than siblings of children without the disorder. Genetic factors are also believed to be involved in determining whether ADHD persists into adulthood. Typically, a number of genes are involved, many of which directly affect dopamine neurotransmission. Those involved with dopamine include DAT, DRD4, DRD5, TAAR1, MAOA, COMT, and DBH. Other genes associated with ADHD include SERT, HTR1B, SNAP25, GRIN2A, ADRA2A, TPH2, and BDNF. A common variant of a gene called LPHN3 is estimated to be responsible for about 9% of cases and when this variant is present, people are particularly responsive to stimulant medication. The 7 repeat variant of dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4 – 7R) causes increased inhibitory effects induced by dopamine and is associated with ADHD. The DRD4 receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor that inhibits adenylyl cyclase. The DRD4 – 7R mutation results in a wide range of behavioral phenotypes, including ADHD symptoms reflecting split attention. Evolution may have played a role in the high rates of ADHD, particularly hyperactive and impulsive traits in males. Some have hypothesized that some women may be more attracted to males who are risk takers, increasing the frequency of genes that predispose to hyperactivity and impulsivity in the gene pool. Others have claimed that these traits may be an adaptation that helped males face stressful or dangerous environment with, for example, increased impulsivity and exploratory behavior. In certain situations, ADHD traits may have been beneficial to society as a whole even while being harmful to the individual. The high rates and heterogeneity of ADHD may have increased reproductive fitness and benefited society by adding diversity to the gene pool despite being detrimental to the individual. In certain environments, some ADHD traits may have offered personal advantages to individuals, such as quicker response to predators or superior hunting skills. People with Down syndrome are more likely to have ADHD. = = = Environment = = = In addition to genetics, some environmental factors might play a role. Alcohol intake during pregnancy can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders which can include ADHD or symptoms like it. Children exposed to certain toxic substances, such as lead or polychlorinated biphenyls, may develop problems which resemble ADHD. Exposure to the organophosphate insecticides chlorpyrifos and dialkyl phosphate is associated with an increased risk; however, the evidence is not conclusive. Exposure to tobacco smoke during pregnancy can cause problems with central nervous system development and can increase the risk of ADHD. Extreme premature birth, very low birth weight, and extreme neglect, abuse, or social deprivation also increase the risk as do certain infections during pregnancy, at birth, and in early childhood. These infections include, among others, various viruses (measles, varicella zoster encephalitis, rubella, enterovirus 71). At least 30% of children with a traumatic brain injury later develop ADHD and about 5% of cases are due to brain damage. Some studies suggest that in a minority of children, artificial food dyes or preservative may be associated with an increased prevalence of ADHD or ADHD-like symptoms but the evidence is weak and may only apply to children with food sensitivities. The United Kingdom and the European Union have put in place regulatory measures based on these concerns. In a minority of children, intolerances or allergies to certain foods may worsen ADHD symptoms. Research does not support popular beliefs that ADHD is caused by eating too much refined sugar, watching too much television, parenting, poverty or family chaos; however, they might worsen ADHD symptoms in certain people. = = = Society = = = The diagnosis of ADHD can represent family dysfunction or a poor educational system rather than an individual problem. Some cases may be explained by increasing academic expectations, with a diagnosis being a method for parents in some countries to get extra financial and educational support for their child. The youngest children in a class have been found to be more likely to be diagnosed as having ADHD possibly due to their being developmentally behind their older classmates. Behaviors typical of ADHD occurs more commonly in children who have experienced violence and emotional abuse. According to social construction theory it is societies that determine the boundary between normal and abnormal behavior. Members of society, including physicians, parents, and teachers, determine which diagnostic criteria are used and, thus, the number of people affected. This leads to the current situation where the DSM-IV arrives at levels of ADHD three to four times higher than those obtained with the ICD-10. Thomas Szasz, a supporter of this theory, has argued that ADHD was "invented and not discovered." = = Pathophysiology = = Current models of ADHD suggest that it is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain's neurotransmitter systems, particularly those involving dopamine and norepinephrine. The dopamine and norepinephrine pathways that originate in the ventral tegmental area and locus coeruleus project to diverse regions of the brain and govern a variety of cognitive processes. The dopamine pathways and norepinephrine pathways which project to the prefrontal cortex and striatum are directly responsible for modulating executive function (cognitive control of behavior), motivation, reward perception, and motor function; these pathways are known to play a central role in the pathophysiology of ADHD. Larger models of ADHD with additional pathways have been proposed. = = = Brain structure = = = In children with ADHD, there is a general reduction of volume in certain brain structures, with a proportionally greater decrease in the volume in the left-sided prefrontal cortex. The posterior parietal cortex also shows thinning in ADHD individuals compared to controls. Other brain structures in the prefrontal-striatal-cerebellar and prefrontal-striatal-thalamic circuits have also been found to differ between people with and without ADHD. = = = Neurotransmitter pathways = = = Previously it was thought that the elevated number of dopamine transporters in people with ADHD was part of the pathophysiology but it appears that the elevated numbers are due to adaptation to exposure to stimulants. Current models involve the mesocorticolimbic dopamine pathway and the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system. ADHD psychostimulants possess treatment efficacy because they increase neurotransmitter activity in these systems. There may additionally be abnormalities in serotoninergic and cholinergic pathways. Neurotransmission of glutamate, a cotransmitter with dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway, seems to be also involved. = = = Executive function and motivation = = = The symptoms of ADHD arise from a deficiency in certain executive functions (e.g., attentional control, inhibitory control, and working memory). Executive functions are a set of cognitive processes that are required to successfully select and monitor behaviors that facilitate the attainment of one's chosen goals. The executive function impairments that occur in ADHD individuals result in problems with staying organized, time keeping, excessive procrastination, maintaining concentration, paying attention, ignoring distractions, regulating emotions, and remembering details. People with ADHD appear to have unimpaired long-term memory, and deficits in long-term recall appear to be attributed to impairments in working memory. The criteria for an executive function deficit are met in 30 – 50% of children and adolescents with ADHD. One study found that 80% of individuals with ADHD were impaired in at least one executive function task, compared to 50% for individuals without ADHD. Due to the rates of brain maturation and the increasing demands for executive control as a person gets older, ADHD impairments may not fully manifest themselves until adolescence or even early adulthood. ADHD has also been associated with motivational deficits in children. Children with ADHD find it difficult to focus on long-term over short-term rewards, and exhibit impulsive behavior for short-term rewards. In these individuals, a large amount of positive reinforcement effectively improves task performance. ADHD stimulants may improve persistence in ADHD children as well. = = = Intelligence = = = Overall, studies have shown that people with ADHD tend to have lower scores on intelligence quotient (IQ) tests. The significance of this is controversial due to the differences between people with ADHD and the difficulty determining the influence of symptoms, such as distractibility, on lower scores rather than intellectual capacity. In studies of ADHD, higher IQ ’ s may be over represented because many studies exclude individuals who have lower IQ ’ s despite those with ADHD scoring on average 9 points lower on standardized intelligence measures. As a result, we may have less of an accurate understanding of ADHD. = = Diagnosis = = ADHD is diagnosed by an assessment of a person's childhood behavioral and mental development, including ruling out the effects of drugs, medications and other medical or psychiatric problems as explanations for the symptoms. It often takes into account feedback from parents and teachers with most diagnoses begun after a teacher raises concerns. It may be viewed as the extreme end of one or more continuous human traits found in all people. Whether someone responds to medications does not confirm or rule out the diagnosis. As imaging studies of the brain do not give consistent results between individuals, they are only used for research purposes and not diagnosis. In North America, DSM-5 criteria are used for diagnosis, while European countries usually use the ICD-10. With the DSM-IV criteria a diagnosis of ADHD is 3 – 4 times more likely than with the ICD-10 criteria. It is classified as neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorder. Additionally, it is classified as a disruptive behavior disorder along with oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and antisocial personality disorder. A diagnosis does not imply a neurological disorder. Associated conditions that should be screened for include anxiety, depression, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and learning and language disorders. Other conditions that should be considered are other neurodevelopmental disorders, tics, and sleep apnea. Diagnosis of ADHD using quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG) is an ongoing area of investigation, although the value of QEEG in ADHD is currently unclear. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration has approved the use of QEEG to evaluate the morbidity of ADHD. = = = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual = = = As with many other psychiatric disorders, formal diagnosis is made by a qualified professional based on a set number of criteria. In the United States, these criteria are defined by the American Psychiatric Association in the DSM. Based on the DSM criteria, there are three sub-types of ADHD: ADHD predominantly inattentive type (ADHD-PI) presents with symptoms including being easily distracted, forgetful, daydreaming, disorganization, poor concentration, and difficulty completing tasks. ADHD, predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type presents with excessive fidgetiness and restlessness, hyperactivity, difficulty waiting and remaining seated, immature behavior; destructive behaviors may also be present. ADHD, combined type is a combination of the first two subtypes. This subdivision is based on presence of at least six out of nine long-term (lasting at least six months) symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity – impulsivity, or both. To be considered, the symptoms must have appeared by the age of six to twelve and occur in more than one environment (e.g. at home and at school or work). The symptoms must be not appropriate for a child of that age and there must be evidence that it is causing social, school or work related problems. = = = International Classification of Diseases = = = In the ICD-10, the symptoms of "hyperkinetic disorder" are analogous to ADHD in the DSM-5. When a conduct disorder (as defined by ICD-10) is present, the condition is referred to as hyperkinetic conduct disorder. Otherwise, the disorder is classified as disturbance of activity and attention, other hyperkinetic disorders or hyperkinetic disorders, unspecified. The latter is sometimes referred to as hyperkinetic syndrome. = = = Adults = = = Adults with ADHD are diagnosed under the same criteria, including that their signs must have been present by the age of six to twelve. Questioning parents or guardians as to how the person behaved and developed as a child may form part of the assessment; a family history of ADHD also adds weight to a diagnosis. While the core symptoms of ADHD are similar in children and adults they often present differently in adults than in children, for example excessive physical activity seen in children may present as feelings of restlessness and constant mental activity in adults. = = = Differential diagnosis = = = Symptoms of ADHD such as low mood and poor self-image, mood swings, and irritability can be confused with dysthymia, cyclothymia or bipolar disorder as well as with borderline personality disorder. Some symptoms that are due to anxiety disorders, antisocial personality disorder, developmental disabilities or mental retardation or the effects of substance abuse such as intoxication and withdrawal can overlap with some ADHD. These disorders can also sometimes occur along with ADHD. Medical conditions which can cause ADHD type symptoms include: hyperthyroidism, seizure disorder, lead toxicity, hearing deficits, hepatic disease, sleep apnea, drug interactions, untreated celiac disease, and head injury. Primary sleep disorders may affect attention and behavior and the symptoms of ADHD may affect sleep. It is thus recommended that children with ADHD be regularly assessed for sleep problems. Sleepiness in children may result in symptoms ranging from the classic ones of yawning and rubbing the eyes, to hyperactivity and inattentiveness. Obstructive sleep apnea can also cause ADHD type symptoms. = = Management = = The management of ADHD typically involves counseling or medications either alone or in combination. While treatment may improve long-term outcomes, it does not get rid of negative outcomes entirely. Medications used include stimulants, atomoxetine, alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists, and sometimes antidepressants. = = = Behavioral therapies = = = There is good evidence for the use of behavioral therapies in ADHD and they are the recommended first line treatment in those who have mild symptoms or are preschool-aged. Psychological therapies used include: psychoeducational input, behavior therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), interpersonal psychotherapy, family therapy, school-based interventions, social skills training, behavioral peer intervention, organization training, parent management training, and neurofeedback. Behavior modification and neurofeedback have the best support. Parent training and education have been found to have short-term benefits. There is little high quality research on the effectiveness of family therapy for ADHD, but the evidence that exists shows that it is similar to community care and better than a placebo. Several ADHD specific support groups exist as informational sources and may help families cope with ADHD. Training in social skills, behavioral modification and medication may have some limited beneficial effects. The most important factor in reducing later psychological problems, such as major depression, criminality, school failure, and substance use disorders is formation of friendships with people who are not involved in delinquent activities. Regular physical exercise, particularly aerobic exercise, is an effective add-on treatment for ADHD in children and adults, particularly when combined with stimulant medication, although the best intensity and type of aerobic exercise for improving symptoms are not currently known. In particular, the long-term effects of regular aerobic exercise in ADHD individuals include better behavior and motor abilities, improved executive functions (including attention, inhibitory control, planning, and cognitive processing speed, among other cognitive domains), and better memory without causing any side effects. Exercising while on stimulant medication augments the effect of stimulant medication on executive function. It is believed that these short-term effects of exercise are mediated by an increased abundance of synaptic dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain. = = = Medication = = = Stimulant medications are the pharmaceutical treatment of choice. They have at least some effect in the short term in about 80% of people. Methylphenidate appears to improve symptoms as reported by teachers and parents. There are a number of non-stimulant medications, such as atomoxetine, bupropion, guanfacine, and clonidine that may be used as alternatives, or added to stimulant therapy. There are no good studies comparing the various medications; however, they appear more or less equal with respect to side effects. Stimulants appear to improve academic performance while atomoxetine does not. There is little evidence on their effects on social behaviors. Medications are not recommended for preschool children, as the long-term effects in this age group are not known. The long-term effects of stimulants generally are unclear with one study finding benefit, another finding no benefit and a third finding evidence of harm. Magnetic resonance imaging studies suggest that long-term treatment with amphetamine or methylphenidate decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD. Atomoxetine, due to its lack of addiction liability, may be preferred in those who are at risk of recreational or compulsive stimulant use. Guidelines on when to use medications vary by country, with the United Kingdom's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommending use only in severe cases, Switzerland strongly limits the authorised medications, while most United States guidelines recommend medications in most age groups. Underdosing of stimulants may occur and result in a lack of response or later loss of effectiveness. This is particularly common in adolescents and adults as approved dosing is based on school-aged children, causing some practitioners to use weight based or benefit based off-label dosing instead. While stimulants and atomoxetine are usually safe, there are side-effects and contraindications to their use. A large overdose on ADHD stimulants is commonly associated with symptoms such as stimulant psychosis and mania; although very rare, at therapeutic doses these events appear to occur in approximately 0.1% of individuals within the first several weeks after starting amphetamine or methylphenidate therapy. Administration of an antipsychotic medication has been found to effectively resolve the symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis. Regular monitoring has been recommended in those on long-term treatment. Stimulant therapy should be stopped periodically to assess for continuing need for medication, decrease possible growth delay, and reduce tolerance. Long-term misuse of stimulant medications at doses above the therapeutic range for ADHD treatment is associated with addiction and dependence. Untreated ADHD, however, is also associated with elevated risk of substance use disorders and conduct disorders. The use of stimulants appears to either reduce this risk or have no effect on it. The safety of these medications in pregnancy is unclear. = = = Diet = = = Dietary modifications may be of benefit to some children with ADHD. A 2013 meta-analysis found less than a third of children with ADHD see some improvement in symptoms with free fatty acid supplementation or decreased eating of artificial food coloring. These benefits may be limited to children with food sensitivities or those who are simultaneously being treated with ADHD medications. This review also found that evidence does not support removing other foods from the diet to treat ADHD. A 2014 review found that an elimination diet results in a small overall benefit. A 2016 review did not support a clear link between celiac disease and ADHD, and stated that routine screening for celiac disease in people with ADHD and the use of a gluten-free diet as standard ADHD treatment are discouraged. Iron, magnesium and iodine may also have an effect on ADHD symptoms. There is a small amount of evidence that lower tissue zinc levels may be associated with ADHD. In the absence of a demonstrated zinc deficiency (which is rare outside of developing countries), zinc supplementation is not recommended as treatment for ADHD. There is evidence of a modest benefit of omega 3 fatty acid supplementation, but it is not recommended in place of traditional medication. = = Prognosis = = An 8-year follow up of children diagnosed with ADHD (combined type) found that they often have difficulties in adolescence, regardless of treatment or lack thereof. In the US, fewer than 5% of individuals with ADHD get a college degree, compared to 28% of the general population aged 25 years and older. The proportion of children meeting criteria for ADHD drops by about half in the three years following the diagnosis and this occurs regardless of treatments used. ADHD persists into adulthood in about 30 – 50% of cases. Those affected are likely to develop coping mechanisms as they mature, thus compensating for their previous symptoms. = = Epidemiology = = ADHD is estimated to affect about 6 – 7% of people aged 18 and under when diagnosed via the DSM-IV criteria. When diagnosed via the ICD-10 criteria rates in this age group are estimated at 1 – 2%. Children in North America appear to have a higher rate of ADHD than children in Africa and the Middle East; this is believed to be due to differing methods of diagnosis rather than a difference in underlying frequency. If the same diagnostic methods are used, the rates are more or less the same between countries. It is diagnosed approximately three times more often in boys than in girls. This difference between sexes may reflect either a difference in susceptibility or that females with ADHD are less likely to be diagnosed than males. Rates of diagnosis and treatment have increased in both the United Kingdom and the United States since the 1970s. This is believed to be primarily due to changes in how the condition is diagnosed and how readily people are willing to treat it with medications rather than a true change in how common the condition is. It is believed that changes to the diagnostic criteria in 2013 with the release of the DSM-5 will increase the percentage of people diagnosed with ADHD, especially among adults. = = History = = Hyperactivity has long been part of the human condition. Sir Alexander Crichton describes "mental restlessness" in his book An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement written in 1798. ADHD was first clearly described by George Still in 1902. The terminology used to describe the condition has changed over time and has included: in the DSM-I (1952) "minimal brain dysfunction", in the DSM-II (1968) "hyperkinetic reaction of childhood", in the DSM-III (1980) "attention-deficit disorder (ADD) with or without hyperactivity". In 1987 this was changed to ADHD in the DSM-III-R and the DSM-IV in 1994 split the diagnosis into three subtypes, ADHD inattentive type, ADHD hyperactive-impulsive type and ADHD combined type. These terms were kept in the DSM-5 in 2013. Other terms have included "minimal brain damage" used in the 1930s. The use of stimulants to treat ADHD was first described in 1937. In 1934, Benzedrine became the first amphetamine medication approved for use in the United States. Methylphenidate was introduced in the 1950s, and enantiopure dextroamphetamine in the 1970s. = = Society and culture = = = = = Controversies = = = ADHD, its diagnosis, and its treatment have been controversial since the 1970s. The controversies involve clinicians, teachers, policymakers, parents, and the media. Positions range from the view that ADHD is within the normal range of behavior to the hypothesis that ADHD is a genetic condition. Other areas of controversy include the use of stimulant medications in children, the method of diagnosis, and the possibility of overdiagnosis. In 2012, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, while acknowledging the controversy, states that the current treatments and methods of diagnosis are based on the dominant view of the academic literature. In 2014, Keith Conners, one of the early advocates for recognition of the disorder, spoke out against overdiagnosis in a New York Times article. In contrast, a 2014 peer-reviewed medical literature review indicated that ADHD is underdiagnosed in adults. With widely differing rates of diagnosis across countries, states within countries, races, and ethnicities, some suspect factors other than the presence of the symptoms of ADHD are playing a role in diagnosis. Some sociologists consider ADHD to be an example of the medicalization of deviant behavior, that is, the turning of the previously non-medical issue of school performance into a medical one. Most healthcare providers accept ADHD as a genuine disorder, at least in the small number of people with severe symptoms. Among healthcare providers the debate mainly centers on diagnosis and treatment in the much larger number of people with less severe symptoms. As of 2009, 8% of all United States Major League Baseball players had been diagnosed with ADHD, making the disorder common among this population. The increase coincided with the League's 2006 ban on stimulants, which has raised concern that some players are mimicking or falsifying the symptoms or history of ADHD to get around the ban on the use of stimulants in sport. = = = Media commentary = = = A number of public figures have given controversial statements regarding ADHD. Tom Cruise has described the medications Ritalin (methylphenidate) and Adderall (a mixed-salt amphetamine formulation) as "street drugs". Ushma S. Neill criticized this view, stating that the doses of stimulants used in the treatment of ADHD do not cause addiction and that there is some evidence of a reduced risk of later substance addiction in children treated with stimulants. In the UK, Susan Greenfield spoke out publicly in 2007 in the House of Lords about the need for a wide-ranging inquiry into the dramatic increase in the diagnosis of ADHD, and possible causes. Her comments followed a BBC Panorama program that highlighted research that suggested medications are no better than other forms of therapy in the long term. In 2010, the BBC Trust criticized the 2007 Panorama program for summarizing the research as showing "no demonstrable improvement in children's behaviour after staying on ADHD medication for three years" when in actuality "the study found that medication did offer a significant improvement over time" although the long-term benefits of medication were found to be "no better than children who were treated with behavior therapy." = = Special populations = = = = = Adults = = = It is estimated that between 2 – 5% of adults have ADHD. Around 25-50% of children with ADHD continue to experience ADHD symptoms into adulthood, while the rest experiences fewer or no symptoms. Most adults remain untreated. Many have a disorganized life and use non-prescribed drugs or alcohol as a coping mechanism. Other problems may include relationship and job difficulties, and an increased risk of criminal activities. Associated mental health problems include: depression, anxiety disorder, and learning disabilities. Some ADHD symptoms in adults differ from those seen in children. While children with ADHD may climb and run about excessively, adults may experience an inability to relax, or they talk excessively in social situations. Adults with ADHD may start relationships impulsively, display sensation-seeking behavior, and be short-tempered. Addictive behavior such as substance abuse and gambling are common. The DSM-IV criteria have been criticized for not being appropriate for adults; those who present differently may lead to the claim that they outgrew the diagnosis.

= Chimes at Midnight = Chimes at Midnight (UK release: Falstaff (Chimes at Midnight), Spanish release: Campanadas a medianoche), is a 1966 English-language Spanish-Swiss co-produced film directed by and starring Orson Welles. The film's plot centres on William Shakespeare's recurring character Sir John Falstaff and the father-son relationship he has with Prince Hal, who must choose between loyalty to Falstaff or to his father, King Henry IV. Welles said that the core of the film's story was "the betrayal of friendship." It stars Welles as Falstaff, Keith Baxter as Prince Hal, John Gielgud as Henry IV, Jeanne Moreau as Doll Tearsheet and Margaret Rutherford as Mistress Quickly. The script contains text from five of Shakespeare's plays; primarily Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2, but also Richard II, Henry V, and uses some dialogue from The Merry Wives of Windsor. Ralph Richardson's narration is taken from the works of chronicler Raphael Holinshed. Welles had previously produced a Broadway stage adaptation of nine Shakespeare plays called Five Kings in 1939. In 1960, he revived this project in Ireland as Chimes at Midnight, which was his final on-stage performance. Neither of these plays was successful, but Welles considered portraying Falstaff to be his life's ambition and turned the project into a film. Throughout its production, Welles struggled to find financing and at one point, to get money, he lied to producer Emiliano Piedra about intending to make a version of Treasure Island. Welles shot Chimes at Midnight throughout Spain between 1964 and 1965, and premiered it at the 1966 Cannes Film Festival, where it won two awards. Initially dismissed by most film critics, Chimes at Midnight is now regarded as one of Welles' highest achievements, and Welles himself called it his best work. Welles felt a strong connection to the character of Falstaff and called him "Shakespeare's greatest creation". Some film scholars and Welles's collaborators have made comparisons between Falstaff and Welles, while others see a resemblance between Falstaff and Welles's father. Disputes over the ownership of Chimes at Midnight made it difficult to view the film legally until recently. It was released in the UK on DVD and Blu-ray in 2015. A new restoration by Janus Films and The Criterion Collection was screened at the Film Forum in New York January 1 – 12, 2016. The Criterion Collection will release the film on Blu-ray and DVD on August 30, 2016. = = Plot = = The film opens with Sir John Falstaff and Justice Shallow walking through the snow, then to a warm fire inside the Boar's Head Tavern as the two reminisce. After a main credit sequence, the narrator explains that King Henry IV of England has succeeded Richard II, whom he had killed. Richard II's true heir, Edmund Mortimer, is a prisoner in Wales, and Mortimer's cousins Northumberland, Worcester and Northumberland's son Hotspur demand that Henry rescue Mortimer. Henry refuses and Northumberland, Worcester and Hotspur begin to plot his overthrow. To Henry's great dissatisfaction, his son Prince Hal spends most of his time at the Boar's Head Tavern drinking and carousing with prostitutes, thieves and other criminals under John Falstaff's patriarchal influence. Falstaff insists that he and Hal should think of themselves as gentlemen, but Hal warns Falstaff that one day he will reject both this lifestyle and Falstaff. The next morning Hal, Falstaff, Bardolph, Peto, and Poins disguise themselves in Gadshill to prepare to rob a group of traveling pilgrims. After Falstaff, Bardolph and Peto rob the pilgrims, Hal and Poins jump out in disguises and take the stolen treasure from Falstaff as a joke. Back at the Boar's Head Tavern, Falstaff begins to tell Hal and Poins with increasing exaggeration the story of how the money was stolen from him. Hal and Poins poke holes in Falstaff's tale until they reveal their joke to the entire group. In celebration of the newly recovered stolen treasure, Falstaff and Hal take turns impersonating Henry, with a cooking pot crown and vocal impressions. Falstaff's Henry chastises Hal for spending his time with common criminals, but names Sir John Falstaff as his one virtuous friend. Hal's Henry calls Falstaff a "misleader of youth." Hal visits the King at the castle and Henry scolds him for his criminal and unethical lifestyle. Henry warns Hal about Hotspur's growing army and its threat to his crown. Hal passionately vows to his unimpressed father that he will defend Henry and redeem his good name. The King's army, including Falstaff, parades through the streets and off to war. Before the battle, Henry meets with Worcester and offers to forgive all of Hotspur's men of treason if they surrender immediately. Hal vows to personally kill Hotspur. Worcester returns to his camp and lies to Hotspur, telling him that Henry intends to execute all traitors. The two armies meet in the Battle of Shrewsbury, but Falstaff hides in shrubs for most of the conflict. After a long and bloody fight the King's men win the battle, after which, Hotspur and Hal meet alone and duel. Falstaff watches as Hal kills Hotspur. Henry sentences Worcester to death and takes his men as prisoners. Falstaff brings Hotspur's body to Henry, claiming that he killed Hotspur. Henry does not believe Falstaff but looks disapprovingly at Hal and the ignoble company that he chooses to keep. The narrator explains that all of Henry IV's rebellious enemies had been killed by 1408, but that Henry's health has begun to deteriorate. At the castle, Henry becomes upset when told that Hal is once again spending time with Falstaff, and collapses. Hal visits the castle and discovers that Henry is sicker than he had realized. Hal vows to Henry to be a good and noble king. Henry finally has faith in Hal and advises him on how to be a king. Henry dies and Hal tells his men that he is now King Henry V. Falstaff, Shallow and Silence sit in front of a warm fire, continuing from the first scene of the film. They receive news of Henry IV's death and that Hal's coronation will be held that morning. Falstaff becomes ecstatic and goes directly to the castle, thinking that he will become a great and powerful nobleman under King Henry V. At the coronation, Falstaff cannot contain his excitement and interrupts the entire ceremony, announcing himself to Hal. Hal turns his back on Falstaff and proclaims that he is now finished with his former lifestyle. As Falstaff looks up at Hal with a mixture of pride and despair, the new king banishes Falstaff. The coronation continues into the castle as Falstaff walks away, stating that he will be sent for that evening. That night, Falstaff dies at the Boar's Head Tavern and his friends mourn him, saying that he died of a broken heart. The narrator explains that Hal went on to become a good and noble king. = = Cast = = Orson Welles as Sir John Falstaff, a knight and father-figure to Prince Hal Keith Baxter as Prince Hal, the Prince of Wales and the heir to the throne of England John Gielgud as King Henry IV, the King of England Jeanne Moreau as Doll Tearsheet, a prostitute Margaret Rutherford as Mistress Quickly, hostess of the Boar's Head Tavern Norman Rodway as Henry Percy, called Hotspur, Northumberland's son and second cousin of Edmund Mortimer Fernando Rey as Earl of Worcester, Leader of the Rebels. Northumberland's brother and cousin of Edmund Mortimer Marina Vlady as Kate Percy, Hotspur's wife Alan Webb as Justice Shallow, a country justice and old friend of Falstaff Walter Chiari as Justice Silence, a country justice Michael Aldridge as Pistol, a friend of Falstaff Tony Beckley as Ned Poins, a friend of Falstaff and Hal Andrew Faulds as Earl of Westmorland, an Earl loyal to the King José Nieto as Earl of Northumberland, an Earl rebellious of the King and cousin of Edmund Mortimer Jeremy Rowe as Prince John, Henry IV's second son Beatrice Welles as Falstaff's Page, a servant Patrick Bedford as Bardolph, a friend of Falstaff and Hal Charles Farrell Fernando Hilbeck Andrés Mejuto Julio Peña Keith Pyott Ralph Richardson as The Narrator (voice) = = Original stage productions = = Welles's inspiration for Chimes at Midnight began in 1930 when he was a student at the Todd School for Boys in Woodstock, Illinois. Welles tried to stage a three-and-a-half-hour combination of several of Shakespeare's historical plays called The Winter of Our Discontent in which he played Richard III. School officials forced him to make cuts to the production. Chimes at Midnight originated in 1939 as a stage play called Five Kings, which Welles wrote and partially staged. It was an ambitious adaptation of several Shakespeare plays that chronicled the stories of Richard II, Henry IV, Henry V, Henry VI and Richard III. Its sources were Richard II, Henry IV, Part 1, Henry IV, Part 2, Henry V, The Merry Wives of Windsor, Henry VI, Part 1, Henry VI, Part 2, Henry VI, Part 3 and Richard III — sometimes collectively called the "War of the Roses cycle". The grouping of Henry IV, Part 1, Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V are often referred to as the Henriad. = = = Five Kings (1939) = = = Five Kings was announced as part of the newly revived Mercury Theatre's second season in 1938. John Houseman had secured a partnership with the prestigious Theatre Guild to produce the play for US $40,000, with an initial tour of Baltimore, Boston, Washington D.C. and Philadelphia before debuting on Broadway. Welles's intended to stage only the first part of the play — which was primarily taken from Henry IV Parts 1 and 2 and Henry V — during the tour while simultaneously rehearsing Part Two and finally debuting the full production on Broadway. Houseman stated that the play's aim was "to combine the immediate quality of the Elizabethan with all the devices and techniques possible in the modern theatre." The cast included Welles as Falstaff, Burgess Meredith as Prince Hal, John Emery as Hotspur, Morris Ankrum as Henry IV and Robert Speaight as the Narrator. The play's music was composed by Aaron Copland. Welles commissioned an elaborate revolving set to be built, but it was not completed during the five weeks allotted to rehearsals. Welles avoided attending the rehearsals or finishing the play's final script and instead often went out drinking and socializing with co-star Meredith, with the result that only specific scenes or fragments of the play were ever rehearsed. The Baltimore performance was eventually dropped and at the first dress rehearsal in Boston, it was discovered that the play was over five and a half hours long and contained 46 scenes. Welles cut 14 scenes and shortened others, which caused the built-in timer for the revolving set to move out of synchronization. Five Kings, Part 1 premiered at the Colonial Theatre in Boston on February 27, 1939, and was a disaster. Critics were either scathing or apologetic, and only the play's battle scenes received praise. By the end of the Boston run, the Theatre Guild was on the verge of dropping the production, and canceled the D.C. engagement. Welles then edited the show to three and a half hours. The play closed after only a few performances in Philadelphia, and the Theatre Guild terminated its contract with the Mercury Theater. Photographs of the play's rehearsals show similarities to Chimes at Midnight, including the Boar's Head Tavern set and the character blocking of the "chimes at midnight" scene with Falstaff, Shallow and Silence. = = = Chimes at Midnight (1960) = = = Welles returned to the project in 1960, with performances in Belfast and Dublin. This version, now retitled Chimes at Midnight, was produced by Welles's old friend Hilton Edwards through his Dublin-based company Gate Theatre. The cast included Welles as Falstaff, Keith Baxter as Prince Hal, Hilton Edwards as the Narrator, Reginald Jarman as Henry IV and Alexis Kanner as Hotspur. At one point, Welles and Edwards wanted Micheál Mac Liammóir to replace Jarman as Henry IV, but Mac Liammóir would only accept the role of Prince Hal. Hilton Edwards was officially credited as director, but Welles is usually acknowledged as the actual director and was often the director throughout rehearsals. Welles's alleged biological son Michael Lindsay-Hogg also worked on the play as an actor and as Edwards's personal assistant. Welles's opinion of Falstaff had intensified since first playing the part, and his new version of the play focused more upon the relationship between Falstaff and Prince Hal than on the historical story of Hal's defeat of Hotspur. Most of the scenes from Henry V used in the first version before were removed. Welles intended to perform the play in Belfast, Dublin and London before filming it in Yugoslavia. Rehearsals began in Russell Square, London, with a read through. After a week of rehearsing, Welles left to secure further funding and Edwards directed the play, working on blocking and lighting. Welles returned two days before the premiere and the cast had their first dress rehearsal, which lasted until 3 a.m. After premiering at the Grand Opera House in Belfast on February 13, 1960, and receiving a good review from a Variety correspondent, the play closed after five performances because of low attendances. It moved to the Gaiety Theatre in Dublin, where it fared no better. By the end of the second week, Welles had resorted to reading portions of the works of Irish author J. M. Synge, and from Riders to the Sea, to attract an audience. Eventually the play simply became a version of An Evening with Orson Welles, which would often include a question and answer section with the audience and Welles's solo performance of Moby Dick — Rehearsed or the works of Isak Dinesen. Welles continued to adjust the play throughout its short production, and at one point moved Mistress Quickly's speech about Falstaff's death to the very beginning of the play. Welles finally abandoned the entire project in late March 1960, when his friend Laurence Olivier offered him the chance to direct him in Eugène Ionesco's play Rhinoceros on London's West End. According to Keith Baxter, Welles ended the play's run because he was bored with it, and at one point told Baxter "This is only a rehearsal for the movie, Keith, and I'll never make it unless you play Hal in that too." Five years later, Baxter was the only cast member from the play to appear in the film. Chimes at Midnight was Welles's final performance in a theatrical play. = = Production = = = = = Pre-production = = = In 1964, Welles met and befriended Spanish film producer Emiliano Piedra, who wanted to work with him. Piedra did not think a Shakespearian film was marketable enough and proposed that Welles make a version of Treasure Island instead. Welles agreed to this on condition that he could simultaneously make Chimes at Midnight, and Piedra agreed not knowing that Welles had no intention of making Treasure Island. Although some B-roll footage of the Alicante departing from port was shot early in the production, no scenes from Treasure Island were ever shot or even scripted. Welles got away with this trick throughout pre-production by building sets that could be used in both films, such as Mistress Quickley's Boar's Head Tavern, which would double as the Admiral Benbow Inn. Welles also cast each actor in both films, casting himself as Long John Silver, Baxter as Dr. Livesey, Beckley as Israel Hands and Gielgud as Squire Trelawney. Ironically Welles would eventually play Long John Silver in the unrelated 1972 film version of Treasure Island. Welles said that the Boar's Head Tavern was the only full set built for the film, and the other sets were simply dressed or decorated on location. Welles stated that he designed, painted and blow-torched the set, and designed all of the film's costumes. Early in pre-production Welles was approached by Anthony Perkins to play Prince Hal, but Welles had already promised the role to Keith Baxter. Hilton Edwards was initially cast as Justice Silence, but was replaced after he became ill. The title Chimes at Midnight derives from Henry IV, Part 2, where in response to Justice Shallow's reminiscing of their long-past school days, Falstaff states: "We have heard the chimes at midnight, Master Shallow". Welles scholar Bridget Gellert Lyons said that the film's title, "which is given further resonance by the repeated intoning of bells throughout the film, is associated for the audience with sadness and mortality more than youthful carousal." = = = Filming = = = The film was shot in Spain from September 1964 until April 1965, with a break in filming from late December until late February. Welles's limitations on the film included a budget of $800,000 and actors Jeanne Moreau and John Gielgud being available for five and ten days respectively, while Margaret Rutherford was only available for four weeks. Welles later joked that during one scene which included seven principal characters, none of the actors were available and stand-ins were used for over-the-shoulder shots of all seven characters. Filming began in Colmenar and included all of John Gielgud's scenes. Welles then traveled to Cardona, where the Royal Court scenes and Marina Vlady's scenes were shot, and to Madrid's Casa de Campo Park, where the Gadshill robbery scene was filmed. Madrid was also the location of the Boar's Head Tavern set, where Welles shot Moreau's and Rutherford's scenes. The production then traveled to Pedraza for some outdoor street scenes, and then to Soria to shoot in the snow for the opening shots. After shooting some scenes with Justice Shallow and Justice Silence in the Basque country, Welles returned to Madrid in December to film the battle scenes in Casa de Campo Park for ten days. By late December Welles had run out of money and the film was put on hold while he searched for additional funding. However, some small scenes were shot during the break. Welles later said that he had rejected offers for funding that were conditional upon filming in color. Welles eventually secured funding from Harry Saltzman and production officially resumed in late February with most of Keith Baxter's longer speeches and the Coronation scene in Madrid. Between March and April, Welles finished the film with filler shots, close-ups, the final rejection scene and most of Falstaff's speeches. According to Keith Baxter, Welles had stage fright and delayed all of his scenes until the very end of filming, except for scenes that included other actors. Welles was timid about shooting his love scene with Moreau, and used a double whenever possible. Other filming locations included the Chateau Calatañazor, Puerta de San Vincente and the Soria Cathedral. Welles was harsh with his crew members and according to actor Andrew Faulds, "he spoke in five different languages to them and was pretty offensive — very demanding. I suppose he'd worked out that if you bullied actors, you didn't get the best from them whereas, to hell with the technicians. They had to do as they were told, and pretty quick." A scene depicting the assassination of King Richard II, originally intended to open the film, was cut. = = = Post-production = = = Keith Baxter said that the film's soundtrack was post-dubbed months after filming was completed, and that actors Fernando Rey and Marina Vlady were dubbed by different actors because of their heavy accents. Baxter also stated that he, Welles and Michael Aldridge recorded voices for several characters in post-production. Mistress Quickly's speech after Falstaff's death, which was disrupted by the audible hum of a power generator, used the original version of the soundtrack because Welles liked Margaret Rutherford's performance enough to keep it. The score was composed by Angelo Francesco Lavagnino, who had worked with Welles on Othello. The score was recorded in an Italian studio, which paid Lavagnino for his work on the film in exchange for the rights to the music, and later released a soundtrack album in Italy and the UK. During the editing, Welles showed a rough cut to the visiting head of the Cannes Film Festival, who immediately wanted to include the film in the festival, and Welles had to finish the editing more quickly than he preferred. = = Style = = = = = Cinematography = = = Welles had originally wanted the entire film to use high contrast cinematography, resembling engravings of the Middle Ages; only the opening title sequence uses this technique. The film's most famous sequence is the Battle of Shrewsbury; only about 180 extras were available and Welles used editing techniques to give the appearance of armies of thousands. Welles filmed all of the battle scenes in long takes, but cut the shots into fragments to create the effect that he wanted. It took ten days to shoot the scenes and six weeks to edit what became a six-minute sequence. In filming the sequence, Welles often used hand-held cameras, wide-angle lenses, slow motion and speed up shots, static shots, swish pans and constant rapid movement of the characters to create a kinetic and chaotic atmosphere. Anderegg has said that "in the end, both armies have become one huge, awkward, disintegrating war machine, a grotesque robot whose power source slowly begins to fail and finally comes to a frozen halt. Verbal rhetoric — language itself — seems, for the moment, both irrelevant and obscene." The Battle of Shrewsbury sequence has often been called an anti-war statement by film critics and likened to contemporary films like Dr. Strangelove and Culloden. Shakespearean scholar Daniel Seltzer said that "the social consciousness of the movie is as alert as Shakespeare's, and thematically pertinent in Shakespearean terms too... the footage of the Battle of Shrewsbury itself must be some of the finest, truest, ugliest scenes of warfare ever shot and edited for a movie." Welles scholar James Naremore said that "the underlying eroticism of the chivalric code... is exposed in all its cruel perversity." Tony Howard wrote that Welles used Shakespeare's historical plays "to denounce modern political hypocrisy and militarism." = = = Sound = = = Due to budgetary constraints, both the on-set and post-production sound was poorly recorded. Anderegg wrote that this, in combination with Welles' fast-paced camera movements and editing, makes the Shakespearean dialogue more difficult to understand. Many scenes are shot in long shots or with character's backs facing the camera, most likely for practical purposes when actors were not present, creating more sound problems. "In effect," Anderegg writes, "Welles generates a constant tension between what we see and what we hear, a tension that points to the ambiguous status of language in its relation to action." During the Battle of Shrewsbury sequence Welles used a complex and layered soundtrack that included the sounds of swords and armor clanking, soldiers grunting and screaming, bones breaking, boots in the mud and the film's musical score to add to the chaos of the scene. = = = Interpretation of Shakespeare = = = Welles's adaptation of five Shakespeare plays was not a chronological transcription of the original texts. Shakespearean scholar Kenneth S. Rothwell said that Welles "goes beyond mere tinkering with Shakespeare's scenes; [he] massively reworks, transposes, revises and deletes, indeed reconstructs them." These changes included taking lines of dialogue from one play and inserting them into scenes from another. Specific changes include a scene near the end of the film in which Hal pardons an imprisoned street rabble-rouser just before his expedition to invade France; Welles slightly altered this scene from Henry V, Act 2, Scene 2. In the film it is stated that this man is Falstaff, and that the incident he is pardoning is Falstaff's disturbance of Hal's coronation. Although both the pardoned prisoner and Falstaff are said to drink wine, Shakespeare does not imply that the pardoned prisoner is Falstaff. In both Chimes at Midnight and in Henry V, this scene is followed by Falstaff's death. The film contains no true soliloquies, since characters are never alone and do not speak directly to the audience during their speeches. Henry IV is usually shown standing or sitting with very little action involved — this, says Anderegg, makes it appear that he speaks only to himself even when others are present. Gielgud was known for his classical interpretation of Shakespeare, and his performance consists almost entirely of words, which are unable to defeat either Northumberland's rebels or Hal's wild behavior. Throughout the film, Falstaff, Hal and Hotspur imitate Gielgud, mocking the words of Henry IV. = = Reception = = = = = Critical response = = = Chimes at Midnight premiered to a positive audience reception at the 1966 Cannes Film Festival. However, after New York Times critic Bosley Crowther's unfavorable advance review, American distributor Harry Saltzman decided to give the film little publicity and minimal distribution when it was released in the U.S. the next year. Critical reception on its first release was mostly negative; the film was not regarded as one of Welles's best until years later. Crowther criticized the film's poor audio track and called it "a confusing patchwork of scenes and characters... designed to give major exposure to Jack Falstaff." Welles's performance, he said, was "a dissolute, bumbling street-corner Santa Claus." Penelope Houston called it "a film which seems to turn its back on brilliance." A Time review also criticized Welles, stating that "[he] is probably the first actor in the history of the theater to appear too fat for the role... he takes command of scenes less with spoken English than with body English", but that he is "never entirely bad." Judith Crist praised the film as "stark, simple, concentrating on word and performance, serv [ing] as a reminder of where the substance of the play lies." Pauline Kael also criticized the poor sound, but gave a favorable review overall, singling out the film's casting and calling Welles's performance "very rich, very full." She said the Battle of Shrewsbury sequence was "unlike any battle scene done on the screen before." Cahiers du Cinema critic Serge Daney also praised both the film and Welles's ability to make great films on the subject of power. Roger Ebert praised the film as "a magnificent film, clearly among Welles' greatest work." = = = Legacy = = = Welles held Chimes at Midnight in high regard. "It's my favorite picture, yes," he told interviewer Leslie Megahey in a 1982 interview for BBC Arena: If I wanted to get into heaven on the basis of one movie, that's the one I would offer up. I think it's because it is to me the least flawed; let me put it that way. It is the most successful for what I tried to do. I succeeded more completely in my view with that than with anything else. He also considered it to be his most personal film, along with The Magnificent Ambersons. Many critics, including Peter Bogdanovich and Jonathan Rosenbaum, also consider Chimes at Midnight to be Welles's finest work. Several years after its initial release, film critic Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote that Chimes at Midnight "may be the greatest Shakespearean film ever made, bar none." Joseph McBride has called it "Welles's masterpiece, the fullest, most completely realized expression of everything he had been working towards since Citizen Kane." Welles was disappointed with the film's reception, complaining that "almost nobody has seen it in America, and that drives me nuts." The Battle of Shrewsbury sequence has been particularly admired, and inspired later movies, including Braveheart and Saving Private Ryan. Film critics have compared it to the Odessa Steps sequence in Battleship Potemkin and the Battle on the Ice sequence in Alexander Nevsky, both directed by Sergei Eisenstein. Kenneth Branagh's Henry V used Welles's Battle of Shrewsbury sequence as an inspiration for the Battle of Agincourt, and depicted Prince Hal's rejection of Falstaff in a way that was more influenced by Chimes at Midnight than from more traditional interpretations of the scene. In 1988, director Patrick Garland staged a version of Chimes at Midnight starring Simon Callow as Falstaff at the Chichester Festival Theatre. Michael Anderegg said that Chimes at Midnight's use of wide angle lenses, low-key lighting and costumes, and its focus on the relationship between Falstaff and Prince Hal influenced My Own Private Idaho — Gus Van Sant's 1991 loose adaptation of Henry IV Parts 1 and 2. In 2011, Bonham's Auction House sold a large archive of Welles's material that had once belonged to the film's executive producer Alessandro Tasca di Cuto. Most of the material was from Chimes at Midnight, and included Welles's original artwork, photographs and memos. This collection was later donated to the University of Michigan for scholarly study. In 2012, for the British Film Institute's Sight and Sound poll, 11 film critics and two directors voted Chimes at Midnight one of the 10 greatest films of all time, including McBride and Todd McCarthy. Spanish writer and director of the Film Library of Catalonia Esteve Riambau published a book about the film called The Things We've Seen: Welles and Falstaff in 2015. = = = Awards = = = At the 1966 Cannes Film Festival, Chimes at Midnight was screened in competition for the Palme d'Or and won the 20th Anniversary Prize and the Technical Grand Prize. Welles was nominated for a BAFTA award for Best Foreign Actor in 1968 In Spain, the film won the Citizens Writers Circle Award for Best Film in 1966. = = = Home media = = = Because of legal disputes over the rights, Chimes at Midnight has only been released twice on VHS video in the United States, neither of which is currently available. Harry Saltzman's widow Adriana Saltzman, the families of producers Emiliano Piedra and Angel Escolano and the estate of Orson Welles — maintained by Beatrice Welles — among others have all claimed ownership of the film. For many years the only available source was a region-free DVD from Brazil. Mr Bongo Records screened a restored version in the UK at Picturehouse Cinemas on August 1, 2011. In February 2015, the film was screened at the Sedona International Film Festival. Beatrice Welles attended and announced that "a major DVD / Blu-ray label is interested in restoring and releasing Chimes at Midnight." The pristine 35mm print was discovered by Distribpix Inc., who said it was "in such great condition that it is begging for a full 4k scan restoration." The film had a European release on DVD and Blu-ray on June 29, 2015. = = = 2016 Restoration = = = Janus Films released a restored version of the film on DCP that premiered on January 1, 2016, at Film Forum in New York City and Cinefamily in Los Angeles. This restored version is not derived from the Distribpix print. A new restoration by Janus Films and The Criterion Collection screened at the Film Forum in New York January 1 – 12, 2016. Peter Becker, Criterion's president, said that the release is the product of more than 20 years of effort: "There is no film we have waited longer for or worked harder to free up, and none we are prouder to present", he said. Criterion will release this restoration on DVD and Blu-ray in August 2016. = = Welles and Falstaff = = = = = Welles's views on Sir John Falstaff = = = Welles considered Falstaff to be "Shakespeare's greatest creation" and said that the role was "the most difficult part I've ever played." Keith Baxter believed that making the film was Welles's life's ambition. Before the 1939 Boston premiere of Five Kings, Welles told journalists "I will play him as a tragic figure. I hope, of course, he will be funny to the audience, just as he was funny to those around him. But his humor and wit were aroused merely by the fact that he wanted to please the prince. Falstaff, however, had the potential of greatness in him." Reviews for the 1939 play mention Welles' choice to downplay the traditional comedic elements of Falstaff in his performance. This reverence for the character increased over the years and by the time Welles made Chimes at Midnight, his focus was entirely on the relationships between Falstaff, Hal and Henry IV. He believed that the core of the story was "the betrayal of friendship." Welles called Hal's rejection of Falstaff "one of the greatest scenes ever written, so the movie is really a preparation for it. Everything prepares for it." Throughout the film, Hal constantly turns his back on Falstaff, foreshadowing the film's ending. Welles said, "the film was not intended as a lament for Falstaff, but for the death of Merrie England. Merrie England as a conception, a myth which has been very real to the English-speaking world, and is to some extent expressed in other countries of the Medieval epoch: the age of chivalry, of simplicity, of Maytime and all that. It is more than Falstaff who is dying. It's the old England dying and betrayed." Many film theorists and Welles biographers have written about the recurrent theme of the "Lost Eden" in Welles's work and of characters who are nostalgic for an idealized past, which Welles called "the central theme in Western culture." Welles told Peter Bogdanovich that "even if the good old days never existed, the fact that we can conceive of such a world is, in fact, an affirmation of the human spirit." Film scholar Beverle Houston argued that this nostalgia made Welles's depiction of Falstaff infantile and called his performance a "[p] ower baby... an eating, sucking, foetus-like creature." Welles also called Falstaff "the greatest conception of a good man, the most completely good man, in all of drama", and said that "the closer I thought I was getting to Falstaff the less funny he seemed to me. When I played him before in the theater, he seemed more witty than comical. And in bringing him to the screen, I found him only occasionally, and only deliberately, a clown." = = = Welles's personal connections to Sir John Falstaff = = = Keith Baxter compared Welles to Falstaff, since they were both perpetually short of money, often lied and cheated people to get what they needed and were always merry and fun loving. Film scholar Jack Jorgens also compared Welles to Falstaff, stating that "to a man who directed and starred in a masterpiece and has since staggered through three decades of underfinanced, hurried, flawed films, scores of bit parts, narrations, and interviews which debased his talent, dozens of projects which died for want of persistence and financing, the story of a fat, aging jester exiled from his audience and no longer able to triumph over impossible obstacles with wit and torrential imagination might well seem tragic." When Joss Ackland played Falstaff on the stage in 1982, he said that he was more inspired by Welles than by Welles's performance as Falstaff, stating that "like Falstaff, I believe he could have achieved so much, but it was frittered away." Kenneth S. Rothwell has called Hal's rejection of Falstaff allegorical to Hollywood's rejection of Welles. Welles had become deeply depressed in the late 1950s after the disappointment of making Touch of Evil, his intended Hollywood comeback. Welles's biographer Simon Callow has compared Falstaff to Welles's father Richard Head Welles, stating that like Falstaff, Welles's father was "a drunkard, a trickster, a braggart, a womanizer, a gentleman and a charmer — and he is rejected by the person he loves the most." Welles's father was an alcoholic and womanizer who would often take a teenage Welles along with him when he was indulging in his vices. Welles observed his father much like Falstaff is observed by Hal and depends on his young protégé to bail him out of trouble. The love triangle between Prince Hal and his two father figures, Henry IV and Falstaff, is also similar to Welles's relationships with his father and the two men who became surrogate fathers to him: family friend Dr. Maurice Bernstein and Todd School for Boys headmaster Roger Hill. Both of Welles's surrogate fathers disapproved of Richard Welles's lifestyle and negative influence on Welles. When he was fifteen Welles took the advice of Roger Hill and told his father that he would not see him again until he cleaned up his act and stopped drinking. Welles's father died shortly afterwards, alone and lonely, and Welles always blamed himself for his father's death, stating "I always thought I killed him." Welles's alleged biological son Michael Lindsay-Hogg, who was born out of wedlock to Welles and actress Geraldine Fitzgerald, first met Welles when he was 15 and later worked on the 1960 stage play Chimes at Midnight. This was the only significant amount of time that the two spent together and afterwards Lindsay-Hogg only saw Welles sporadically. Like Welles, Lindsay-Hogg had two surrogate fathers in addition to his biological father. In the late 1950s when she was 16, Welles's eldest daughter Christopher Welles Feder cut off all ties with Welles under pressure from her mother, who disapproved of Welles's influence on her. Welles and Feder later reconnected but their relationship never fully recovered. Welles's youngest daughter Beatrice, who resembles her father as a young boy, appears in the film version of Chimes at Midnight.

= Python (programming language) = Python is a widely used high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Its design philosophy emphasizes code readability, and its syntax allows programmers to express concepts in fewer lines of code than possible in languages such as C + + or Java. The language provides constructs intended to enable clear programs on both a small and large scale. Python supports multiple programming paradigms, including object-oriented, imperative and functional programming or procedural styles. It features a dynamic type system and automatic memory management and has a large and comprehensive standard library. Python interpreters are available for many operating systems, allowing Python code to run on a wide variety of systems. Using third-party tools, such as Py2exe or Pyinstaller, Python code can be packaged into stand-alone executable programs for some of the most popular operating systems, so Python-based software can be distributed to, and used on, those environments with no need to install a Python interpreter. CPython, the reference implementation of Python, is free and open-source software and has a community-based development model, as do nearly all of its variant implementations. CPython is managed by the non-profit Python Software Foundation. = = History = = Python was conceived in the late 1980s, and its implementation began in December 1989 by Guido van Rossum at Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in the Netherlands as a successor to the ABC language (itself inspired by SETL) capable of exception handling and interfacing with the operating system Amoeba. Van Rossum is Python's principal author, and his continuing central role in deciding the direction of Python is reflected in the title given to him by the Python community, benevolent dictator for life (BDFL). About the origin of Python, Van Rossum wrote in 1996: Over six years ago, in December 1989, I was looking for a "hobby" programming project that would keep me occupied during the week around Christmas. My office... would be closed, but I had a home computer, and not much else on my hands. I decided to write an interpreter for the new scripting language I had been thinking about lately: a descendant of ABC that would appeal to Unix / C hackers. I chose Python as a working title for the project, being in a slightly irreverent mood (and a big fan of Monty Python's Flying Circus). Python 2.0 was released on 16 October 2000 and had many major new features, including a cycle-detecting garbage collector and support for Unicode. With this release the development process was changed and became more transparent and community-backed. Python 3.0 (which early in its development was commonly referred to as Python 3000 or py3k), a major, backwards-incompatible release, was released on 3 December 2008 after a long period of testing. Many of its major features have been backported to the backwards-compatible Python 2.6.x and 2.7.x version series. = = Features and philosophy = = Python is a multi-paradigm programming language: object-oriented programming and structured programming are fully supported, and many language features support functional programming and aspect-oriented programming (including by metaprogramming and metaobjects (magic methods)). Many other paradigms are supported via extensions, including design by contract and logic programming. Python uses dynamic typing and a mix of reference counting and a cycle-detecting garbage collector for memory management. An important feature of Python is dynamic name resolution (late binding), which binds method and variable names during program execution. The design of Python offers some support for functional programming in the Lisp tradition. The language has map (), reduce () and filter () functions; list comprehensions, dictionaries, and sets; and generator expressions. The standard library has two modules (itertools and functools) that implement functional tools borrowed from Haskell and Standard ML. The core philosophy of the language is summarized by the document The Zen of Python (PEP 20), which includes aphorisms such as: Beautiful is better than ugly Explicit is better than implicit Simple is better than complex Complex is better than complicated Readability counts Rather than requiring all desired functionality to be built into the language's core, Python was designed to be highly extensible. Python can also be embedded in existing applications that need a programmable interface. This design of a small core language with a large standard library and an easily extensible interpreter was intended by Van Rossum from the start because of his frustrations with ABC, which espoused the opposite mindset. While offering choice in coding methodology, the Python philosophy rejects exuberant syntax, such as in Perl, in favor of a sparser, less-cluttered grammar. As Alex Martelli put it: "To describe something as clever is not considered a compliment in the Python culture." Python's philosophy rejects the Perl "there is more than one way to do it" approach to language design in favor of "there should be one — and preferably only one — obvious way to do it". Python's developers strive to avoid premature optimization, and moreover, reject patches to non-critical parts of CPython that would offer a marginal increase in speed at the cost of clarity. When speed is important, a Python programmer can move time-critical functions to extension modules written in languages such as C, or try using PyPy, a just-in-time compiler. Cython is also available, which translates a Python script into C and makes direct C-level API calls into the Python interpreter. An important goal of Python's developers is making it fun to use. This is reflected in the origin of the name, which comes from Monty Python, and in an occasionally playful approach to tutorials and reference materials, such as using examples that refer to spam and eggs instead of the standard foo and bar. A common neologism in the Python community is pythonic, which can have a wide range of meanings related to program style. To say that code is pythonic is to say that it uses Python idioms well, that it is natural or shows fluency in the language, that it conforms with Python's minimalist philosophy and emphasis on readability. In contrast, code that is difficult to understand or reads like a rough transcription from another programming language is called unpythonic. Users and admirers of Python, especially those considered knowledgeable or experienced, are often referred to as Pythonists, Pythonistas, and Pythoneers. = = Syntax and semantics = = Python is intended to be a highly readable language. It is designed to have an uncluttered visual layout, often using English keywords where other languages use punctuation. Further, Python has fewer syntactic exceptions and special cases than C or Pascal. = = = Indentation = = = Python uses whitespace indentation, rather than curly braces or keywords, to delimit blocks; this feature is also termed the off-side rule. An increase in indentation comes after certain statements; a decrease in indentation signifies the end of the current block. = = = Statements and control flow = = = Python's statements include (among others): The assignment statement (token '=', the equals sign). This operates differently than in traditional imperative programming languages, and this fundamental mechanism (including the nature of Python's version of variables) illuminates many other features of the language. Assignment in C, e.g., x

= 2, translates to "typed variable name x receives a copy of numeric value 2". The (right-hand) value is copied into an allocated storage location for which the (left-hand) variable name is the symbolic address. The memory allocated to the variable is large enough (potentially quite large) for the declared type. In the simplest case of Python assignment, using the same example, x = 2, translates to "(generic) name x receives a reference to a separate, dynamically allocated object of numeric (int) type of value 2." This is termed binding the name to the object. Since the name's storage location doesn't contain the indicated value, it is improper to call it a variable. Names may be subsequently rebound at any time to objects of greatly varying types, including strings, procedures, complex objects with data and methods, etc. Successive assignments of a common value to multiple names, e.g., x

= 2; y = 2; z = 2 result in allocating storage to (at most) three names and one numeric object, to which all three names are bound. Since a name is a generic reference holder it is unreasonable to associate a fixed data type with it. However at a given time a name will be bound to some object, which will have a type; thus there is dynamic typing. The if statement, which conditionally executes a block of code, along with else and elif (a contraction of else-if). The for statement, which iterates over an iterable object, capturing each element to a local variable for use by the attached block. The while statement, which executes a block of code as long as its condition is true. The try statement, which allows exceptions raised in its attached code block to be caught and handled by except clauses; it also ensures that clean-up code in a finally block will always be run regardless of how the block exits. The class statement, which executes a block of code and attaches its local namespace to a class, for use in object-oriented programming. The def statement, which defines a function or method. The with statement (from Python 2.5), which encloses a code block within a context manager (for example, acquiring a lock before the block of code is run and releasing the lock afterwards, or opening a file and then closing it), allowing Resource Acquisition Is Initialization (RAII) -like behavior. The pass statement, which serves as a NOP. It is syntactically needed to create an empty code block. The assert statement, used during debugging to check for conditions that ought to apply. The yield statement, which returns a value from a generator function. From Python 2.5, yield is also an operator. This form is used to implement coroutines. The import statement, which is used to import modules whose functions or variables can be used in the current program. The print statement was changed to the print () function in Python 3. Python does not support tail call optimization or first-class continuations, and, according to Guido van Rossum, it never will. However, better support for coroutine-like functionality is provided in 2.5, by extending Python's generators. Before 2.5, generators were lazy iterators; information was passed unidirectionally out of the generator. As of Python 2.5, it is possible to pass information back into a generator function, and as of Python 3.3, the information can be passed through multiple stack levels. = = = Expressions = = = Some Python expressions are similar to languages such as C and Java, while some are not: Addition, subtraction, and multiplication are the same, but the behavior of division differs (see Mathematics for details). Python also added the * * operator for exponentiation. As of Python 3.5, it supports matrix multiplication directly with the @ operator, versus C and Java, which implement these as library functions. Earlier versions of Python also used methods instead of an infix operator. In Python, = = compares by value, versus Java, which compares numerics by value and objects by reference. (Value comparisons in Java on objects can be performed with the equals () method.) Python's is operator may be used to compare object identities (comparison by reference). In Python, comparisons may be chained, for example a < = b < = c. Python uses the words and, or, not for its boolean operators rather than the symbolic & &, | |,! used in Java and C. Python has a type of expression termed a list comprehension. Python 2.4 extended list comprehensions into a more general expression termed a generator expression. Anonymous functions are implemented using lambda expressions; however, these are limited in that the body can only be one expression. Conditional expressions in Python are written as x if c else y (different in order of operands from the c? x: y operator common to many other languages). Python makes a distinction between lists and tuples. Lists are written as [1, 2, 3], are mutable, and cannot be used as the keys of dictionaries (dictionary keys must be immutable in Python). Tuples are written as (1, 2, 3), are immutable and thus can be used as the keys of dictionaries, provided all elements of the tuple are immutable. The parentheses around the tuple are optional in some contexts. Tuples can appear on the left side of an equal sign; hence a statement like x, y = y, x can be used to swap two variables.

Python has a "string format" operator%. This functions analogous to printf format strings in C, e.g. "spam =% s eggs =% d"% ("blah", 2) evaluates to "spam = blah eggs = 2". In Python 3 and 2.6 +, this was supplemented by the format () method of the str class, e.g. "spam = {0} eggs = {1}" .format ("blah", 2). Python has various kinds of string literals: Strings delimited by single or double quote marks. Unlike in Unix shells, Perl and Perl-influenced languages, single quote marks and double quote marks function identically. Both kinds of string use the backslash (\) as an escape character and there is no implicit string interpolation such as "$spam". Triple-quoted strings, which begin and end with a series of three single or double quote marks. They may span multiple lines and function like here documents in shells, Perl and Ruby. Raw string varieties, denoted by prefixing the string literal with an r. No escape sequences are interpreted; hence raw strings are useful where literal backslashes are common, such as regular expressions and Windows-style paths. Compare "@ -quoting" in C #. Python has array index and array slicing expressions on lists, denoted as a [key], a [start: stop] or a [start: stop: step]. Indexes are zero-based, and negative indexes are relative to the end. Slices take elements from the start index up to, but not including, the stop index. The third slice parameter, called step or stride, allows elements to be skipped and reversed. Slice indexes may be omitted, for example a [:] returns a copy of the entire list. Each element of a slice is a shallow copy. In Python, a distinction between expressions and statements is rigidly enforced, in contrast to languages such as Common Lisp, Scheme, or Ruby. This leads to duplicating some functionality. For example: List comprehensions vs. for-loops Conditional expressions vs. if blocks The eval () vs. exec () built-in functions (in Python 2, exec is a statement); the former is for expressions, the latter is for statements. Statements cannot be a part of an expression, so list and other comprehensions or lambda expressions, all being expressions, cannot contain statements. A particular case of this is that an assignment statement such as a

= 1 cannot form part of the conditional expression of a conditional statement. This has the advantage of avoiding a classic C error of mistaking an assignment operator = for an equality operator = = in conditions: if (c = 1) {...} is valid C code but if c = 1:... causes a syntax error in Python. = = = Methods = = = Methods on objects are functions attached to the object's class; the syntax instance.method (argument) is, for normal methods and functions, syntactic sugar for Class.method (instance, argument). Python methods have an explicit self parameter to access instance data, in contrast to the implicit self (or this) in some other object-oriented programming languages (e.g., C + +, Java, Objective-C, or Ruby). = = = Typing = = = Python uses duck typing and has typed objects but untyped variable names. Type constraints are not checked at compile time; rather, operations on an object may fail, signifying that the given object is not of a suitable type. Despite being dynamically typed, Python is strongly typed, forbidding operations that are not well-defined (for example, adding a number to a string) rather than silently attempting to make sense of them. Python allows programmers to define their own types using classes, which are most often used for object-oriented programming. New instances of classes are constructed by calling the class (for example, SpamClass () or EggsClass ()), and the classes are instances of the metaclass type (itself an instance of itself), allowing metaprogramming and reflection. Before version 3.0, Python had two kinds of classes: old-style and new-style. Old-style classes were eliminated in Python 3.0, making all classes new-style. In versions between 2.2 and 3.0, both kinds of classes could be used. The syntax of both styles is the same, the difference being whether the class object is inherited from, directly or indirectly (all new-style classes inherit from object and are instances of type). = = = Mathematics = = = Python has the usual C arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /,%). It also has * * for exponentiation, e.g. 5 * * 3 = = 125 and 9 * * 0.5 = = 3.0, and a new matrix multiply @ operator is included in version 3.5. The behavior of division has changed significantly over time: Python 2.1 and earlier use the C division behavior. The / operator is integer division if both operands are integers, and floating-point division otherwise. Integer division rounds towards 0, e.g. 7 / 3 = = 2 and -7 / 3 = = -2. Python 2.2 changes integer division to round towards negative infinity, e.g. 7 / 3 = = 2 and -7 / 3 = = -3. The floor division / / operator is introduced. So 7 / / 3 = = 2, -7 / / 3 = = -3, 7.5 / / 3 = = 2.0 and -7.5 / / 3 = = -3.0. Adding from _ _ future _ _ import division causes a module to use Python 3.0 rules for division (see next). Python 3.0 changes / to be always floating-point division. In Python terms, the pre-3.0 / is classic division, the version-3.0 / is real division, and / / is floor division. Rounding towards negative infinity, though different from most languages, adds consistency. For instance, it means that the equation (a + b) / / b = = a / / b + 1 is always true. It also means that the equation b * (a / / b) + a% b = = a is valid for both positive and negative values of a. However, maintaining the validity of this equation means that while the result of a% b is, as expected, in the half-open interval [0, b), where b is a positive integer, it has to lie in the interval (b, 0] when b is negative. Python provides a round function for rounding a float to the nearest integer. For tie-breaking, versions before 3 use round-away-from-zero: round (0.5) is 1.0, round (-0.5) is − 1.0. Python 3 uses round to even: round (1.5) is 2, round (2.5) is 2. Python allows boolean expressions with multiple equality relations in a manner that is consistent with general use in mathematics. For example, the expression a < b < c tests whether a is less than b and b is less than c. C-derived languages interpret this expression differently: in C, the expression would first evaluate a < b, resulting in 0 or 1, and that result would then be compared with c. Python has extensive built-in support for arbitrary precision arithmetic. Integers are transparently switched from the machine-supported maximum fixed-precision (usually 32 or 64 bits), belonging to the python type int, to arbitrary precision, belonging to the python type long, where needed. The latter have an "L" suffix in their textual representation. The Decimal type / class in module decimal (since version 2.4) provides decimal floating point numbers to arbitrary precision and several rounding modes. The Fraction type in module fractions (since version 2.6) provides arbitrary precision for rational numbers. Due to Python's extensive mathematics library, it is frequently used as a scientific scripting language to aid in problems such as numerical data processing and manipulation. = = Libraries = = Python has a large standard library, commonly cited as one of Python's greatest strengths, providing tools suited to many tasks. This is deliberate and has been described as a "batteries included" Python philosophy. For Internet-facing applications, many standard formats and protocols (such as MIME and HTTP) are supported. Modules for creating graphical user interfaces, connecting to relational databases, pseudorandom number generators, arithmetic with arbitrary precision decimals, manipulating regular expressions, and doing unit testing are also included. Some parts of the standard library are covered by specifications (for example, the Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) implementation wsgiref follows PEP 333), but most modules are not. They are specified by their code, internal documentation, and test suite (if supplied). However, because most of the standard library is cross-platform Python code, only a few modules need altering or rewriting for variant implementations. The standard library is not needed to run Python or embed it in an application. For example, Blender 2.49 omits most of the standard library. As of January 2016, the Python Package Index, the official repository of third-party software for Python, contains more than 72,000 packages offering a wide range of functionality, including: graphical user interfaces, web frameworks, multimedia, databases, networking and communications test frameworks, automation and web scraping, documentation tools, system administration scientific computing, text processing, image processing = = Development environments = = Most Python implementations (including CPython) can function as a command line interpreter, for which the user enters statements sequentially and receives the results immediately (read – eval – print loop (REPL)). In short, Python acts as a command-line interface or shell. Other shells add abilities beyond those in the basic interpreter, including IDLE and IPython. While generally following the visual style of the Python shell, they implement features like auto-completion, session state retention, and syntax highlighting. In addition to standard desktop integrated development environments (Python IDEs), there are also web browser-based IDEs, Sage (intended for developing science and math-related Python programs), and a browser-based IDE and hosting environment, PythonAnywhere. = = Implementations = = The main Python implementation, named CPython, is written in C meeting the C89 standard. It compiles Python programs into intermediate bytecode, which is executed by the virtual machine. CPython is distributed with a large standard library written in a mixture of C and Python. It is available in versions for many platforms, including Windows and most modern Unix-like systems. CPython was intended from almost its very conception to be cross-platform. PyPy is a fast, compliant interpreter of Python 2.7 and 3.2. Its just-in-time compiler brings a significant speed improvement over CPython. A version taking advantage of multi-core processors using software transactional memory is being created. Stackless Python is a significant fork of CPython that implements microthreads; it does not use the C memory stack, thus allowing massively concurrent programs. PyPy also has a stackless version. MicroPython is a lean, fast Python 3 variant that is optimised to run on microcontrollers. Other just-in-time compilers have been developed in the past, but are now unsupported: Google began a project named Unladen Swallow in 2009 with the aims of speeding up the Python interpreter by 5 times, by using the LLVM, and of improving its multithreading ability to scale to thousands of cores. Psyco is a just-in-time specialising compiler that integrates with CPython and transforms bytecode to machine code at runtime. The emitted code is specialised for certain data types and is faster than standard Python code. In 2005, Nokia released a Python interpreter for the Series 60 mobile phones named PyS60. It includes many of the modules from the CPython implementations and some added modules to integrate with the Symbian operating system. This project has been kept up to date to run on all variants of the S60 platform and there are several third party modules available. The Nokia N900 also supports Python with GTK widget libraries, with the feature that programs can be both written and run on the target device. There are several compilers to high-level object languages, with either unrestricted Python, a restricted subset of Python, or a language similar to Python as the source language: Jython compiles into Java byte code, which can then be executed by every Java virtual machine implementation. This also enables the use of Java class library functions from the Python program. IronPython follows a similar approach in order to run Python programs on the .NET Common Language Runtime. The RPython language can be compiled to C, Java bytecode, or Common Intermediate Language, and is used to build the PyPy interpreter of Python. Pyjamas compiles Python to JavaScript. Shed Skin compiles Python to C + +. Cython and Pyrex compile to C. A performance comparison of various Python implementations on a non-numerical (combinatorial) workload was presented at EuroSciPy '13. = = Development = = Python's development is conducted largely through the Python Enhancement Proposal (PEP) process. The PEP process is the primary mechanism for proposing major new features, for collecting community input on an issue, and for documenting the design decisions that have gone into Python. Outstanding PEPs are reviewed and commented upon by the Python community and by Van Rossum, the Python project's benevolent dictator for life. Enhancement of the language goes along with development of the CPython reference implementation. The mailing list python-dev is the primary forum for discussion about the language's development; specific issues are discussed in the Roundup bug tracker maintained at python.org. Development takes place on a self-hosted source code repository running Mercurial. CPython's public releases come in three types, distinguished by which part of the version number is incremented: Backwards-incompatible versions, where code is expected to break and must be manually ported. The first part of the version number is incremented. These releases happen infrequently — for example, version 3.0 was released 8 years after 2.0. Major or "feature" releases, which are largely compatible but introduce new features. The second part of the version number is incremented. These releases are scheduled to occur roughly every 18 months, and each major version is supported by bugfixes for several years after its release. Bugfix releases, which introduce no new features but fix bugs. The third and final part of the version number is incremented. These releases are made whenever a sufficient number of bugs have been fixed upstream since the last release, or roughly every 3 months. Security vulnerabilities are also patched in bugfix releases. Many alpha, beta, and release-candidates are also released as previews, and for testing before final releases. Although there is a rough schedule for each release, this is often pushed back if the code is not ready. The development team monitors the state of the code by running the large unit test suite during development, and using the BuildBot continuous integration system. The community of Python developers has also contributed over 72,000 software modules (as of January 2016) to the Python Package Index (PyPI), the official repository of third-party libraries for Python. The major academic conference on Python is named PyCon. There are special mentoring programmes like the Pyladies. = = Naming = = Python's name is derived from the television series Monty Python's Flying Circus, and it is common to use Monty Python references in example code. For example, the metasyntactic variables often used in Python literature are spam and eggs, instead of the traditional foo and bar. Also, the official Python documentation often contains various obscure Monty Python references. The prefix Py- is used to show that something is related to Python. Examples of the use of this prefix in names of Python applications or libraries include Pygame, a binding of SDL to Python (commonly used to create games); PyS60, an implementation for the Symbian S60 operating system; PyQt and PyGTK, which bind Qt and GTK, respectively, to Python; and PyPy, a Python implementation originally written in Python. = = Uses = = Since 2003, Python has consistently ranked in the top ten most popular programming languages as measured by the TIOBE Programming Community Index. As of June 2016, it is the fourth most popular language. It was ranked as Programming Language of the Year for the year 2007 and 2010. It is the third most popular language whose grammatical syntax is not predominantly based on C, e.g. C + +, Objective-C (note, C # and Java only have partial syntactic similarity to C, such as the use of curly braces, and are closer in similarity to each other than C). An empirical study found scripting languages (such as Python) more productive than conventional languages (such as C and Java) for a programming problem involving string manipulation and search in a dictionary. Memory consumption was often "better than Java and not much worse than C or C + +". Large organizations that make use of Python include Google, Yahoo!, CERN, NASA, and some smaller ones like ILM, and ITA. The social news networking site, Reddit, is written entirely in Python. Python can serve as a scripting language for web applications, e.g., via mod _ wsgi for the Apache web server. With Web Server Gateway Interface, a standard API has evolved to facilitate these applications. Web frameworks like Django, Pylons, Pyramid, TurboGears, web2py, Tornado, Flask, Bottle and Zope support developers in the design and maintenance of complex applications. Pyjamas and IronPython can be used to develop the client-side of Ajax-based applications. SQLAlchemy can be used as data mapper to a relational database. Twisted is a framework to program communications between computers, and is used (for example) by Dropbox. Libraries like NumPy, SciPy and Matplotlib allow the effective use of Python in scientific computing, with specialized libraries such as BioPython and Astropy providing domain-specific functionality. Sage is a mathematical software with a "notebook" programmable in Python: its library covers many aspects of mathematics, including algebra, combinatorics, numerical mathematics, number theory, and calculus. Python has been successfully embedded in many software products as a scripting language, including in finite element method software such as Abaqus, 3D parametric modeler like FreeCAD, 3D animation packages such as 3ds Max, Blender, Cinema 4D, Lightwave, Houdini, Maya, modo, MotionBuilder, Softimage, the visual effects compositor Nuke, 2D imaging programs like GIMP, Inkscape, Scribus and Paint Shop Pro, and musical notation program or scorewriter capella. GNU Debugger uses Python as a pretty printer to show complex structures such as C + + containers. Esri promotes Python as the best choice for writing scripts in ArcGIS. It has also been used in several video games, and has been adopted as first of the three available programming languages in Google App Engine, the other two being Java and Go. Python has been used in artificial intelligence tasks. As a scripting language with module architecture, simple syntax and rich text processing tools, Python is often used for natural language processing tasks. Many operating systems include Python as a standard component; the language ships with most Linux distributions, AmigaOS 4, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD and OS X, and can be used from the terminal. Many Linux distributions use installers written in Python: Ubuntu uses the Ubiquity installer, while Red Hat Linux and Fedora use the Anaconda installer. Gentoo Linux uses Python in its package management system, Portage. Python has also seen extensive use in the information security industry, including in exploit development. Most of the Sugar software for the One Laptop per Child XO, now developed at Sugar Labs, is written in Python. The Raspberry Pi single-board computer project has adopted Python as its main user-programming language. LibreOffice includes Python and intends to replace Java with Python. Python Scripting Provider is a core feature since Version 4.0 from 7 February 2013. = = Languages influenced by Python = = Python's design and philosophy have influenced several programming languages, including: Boo uses indentation, a similar syntax, and a similar object model. However, Boo uses static typing (and optional duck typing) and is closely integrated with the .NET Framework. Cobra uses indentation and a similar syntax. Cobra's "Acknowledgements" document lists Python first among languages that influenced it. However, Cobra directly supports design-by-contract, unit tests, and optional static typing. ECMAScript borrowed iterators, generators, and list comprehensions from Python. Go is described as incorporating the "development speed of working in a dynamic language like Python". Groovy was motivated by the desire to bring the Python design philosophy to Java. Julia was designed "with true macros [.. and to be] as usable for general programming as Python [and] should be as fast as C". Calling to or from Julia is possible; to with PyCall.jl and a Python package pyjulia allows calling, in the other direction, from Python. OCaml has an optional syntax, named twt (The Whitespace Thing), inspired by Python and Haskell. Ruby's creator, Yukihiro Matsumoto, has said: "I wanted a scripting language that was more powerful than Perl, and more object-oriented than Python. That's why I decided to design my own language." CoffeeScript is a programming language that cross-compiles to JavaScript; it has Python-inspired syntax. Swift is a programming language invented by Apple; it has some Python-inspired syntax. Python's development practices have also been emulated by other languages. The practice of requiring a document describing the rationale for, and issues surrounding, a change to the language (in Python's case, a PEP) is also used in Tcl and Erlang because of Python's influence. Python has been awarded a TIOBE Programming Language of the Year award twice (in 2007 and 2010), which is given to the language with the greatest growth in popularity over the course of a year, as measured by the TIOBE index.

= Lisa the Vegetarian = "Lisa the Vegetarian" is the fifth episode of the seventh season of the American television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 15, 1995. In the episode, Lisa decides to stop eating meat after bonding with a lamb at a petting zoo. Her schoolmates and family members ridicule her for her beliefs, but with the help of Apu, Paul, and Linda McCartney, she commits to vegetarianism. Directed by Mark Kirkland, "Lisa the Vegetarian" is the first full-length episode David S. Cohen wrote for The Simpsons. David Mirkin, the show runner at the time, supported the episode in part because he had just become a vegetarian himself. Former Beatle Paul McCartney and his then wife Linda McCartney guest star in the episode. Paul McCartney's condition for appearing was that Lisa would remain a vegetarian for the rest of the series. The episode makes several references to McCartney's musical career, and his song "Maybe I'm Amazed" plays during the closing credits. The inaugural airing of "Lisa the Vegetarian" was watched by 14.6 million viewers and finished 47th in the ratings for the week of October 9 – 15, 1995, with a 9.0 Nielsen rating. It was the fourth highest-rated show on the Fox network that week. The episode received generally positive reviews from television critics. It has won two awards, an Environmental Media Award and a Genesis Award, for highlighting environmental and animal issues. = = Plot = = The Simpson family visit Story Town Village, an amusement park for babies, as a special treat for Maggie. In the village, there is a petting zoo, where Lisa is enamored by a cute lamb. That night, Marge serves lamb chops for dinner, but Lisa is troubled by the connection between the dish and its living counterpart, and announces that she will no longer eat meat. In response, Bart and Homer mock her relentlessly. Reaction at school is no better; when Lisa requests a vegetarian alternative to the cafeteria food, Principal Skinner labels her an "agitator". The students are then forced to watch a Meat Council propaganda film, "The Meat Council Presents Meat and You: Partners in Patriotism", starring Troy McClure, which portrays eating meat as a patriotic duty, and criticizes vegetarianism. Lisa is unimpressed by the film, but her classmates tease her. Homer and Bart continue to give Lisa a hard time at home, particularly since Homer is preparing to host a barbecue, complete with roast pig. Bart and Homer even form a conga line and sing, "You don't win friends with salad!" On the day of the barbecue, Lisa makes gazpacho for all the guests as an alternative to meat, but the partygoers laugh in her face. Enraged and deeply hurt, she climbs aboard a riding mower and drives away with the roast pig in tow. Homer and Bart chase her, but she pushes the pig off a slope and they are too late. The pig rolls through bushes, into a river, and is shot into the air by a dam spillway's suction. At home, Homer reprimands Lisa for ruining his party and demands an apology, but Lisa refuses to apologize and chews him out for serving a meat-based dish. They fight and she leaves the house, not wanting to live in a house with a "prehistoric carnivore." As Lisa walks along, she decides that she can no longer fight the pressure to eat meat, prompting her to grab a hot dog from the grill at the Kwik-E-Mart and take a bite. However, Apu, himself a vegan, reveals that she has eaten a tofu dog, which he subtly switched out and none of his loyal customers had noticed the change. Apu takes Lisa through a secret passageway hidden behind the cooler section assigned to non-alcoholic beer leading to the Kwik-E-Mart roof where they meet Paul and Linda McCartney. The McCartneys explain that they are old friends of Apu from Paul's days in India, and discuss their interest in animal rights. After a brief discussion, Apu asks Lisa what happened at home that made her upset. She reveals everything and while he understands, Apu warns Lisa that forcing others to accept her views can do a lot more harm than good. She is committed once more to vegetarianism, but realizes that she should tolerate those who disagree with her views. Inspired, Lisa begins to return home and finds Homer frantically searching for her. Homer apologizes for his behavior, but Lisa admits she was wrong as well. She apologizes to Homer, admitting she had no right to ruin his barbecue; he forgives her and offers her a "veggie back" ride home. The final credits play over the still airborne roast pig. = = Production = = = = = Writing = = = "Lisa the Vegetarian" was the first full-length episode David X. Cohen wrote for The Simpsons. His most prominent work for the show to that point had been the "Nightmare Cafeteria" segment in the season six episode "Treehouse of Horror V". The idea for "Lisa the Vegetarian" came to him while he was working on another Simpsons script. Cohen could not concentrate on his task because he was waiting for lunch, and on the back of the script he scribbled, "Lisa becomes a vegetarian?" Cohen showed the note to Simpsons writer Brent Forrester, who liked the idea. Show runner David Mirkin then approved the story when Cohen pitched it to him. Mirkin had just become a vegetarian himself, and later noted that many of Lisa's experiences in the episode were based on his own. Writer Bill Oakley suggested the episode's barbecue scenes. Cohen's first draft contained a more philosophical argument between Lisa and Homer about eating meat, but Oakley told Cohen that the story needed something more specific to serve as the basis of Homer and Lisa's dispute. George Meyer, a writer known among the Simpsons staff for his "bizarre physical jokes", contributed the idea of the barbecue pig getting caught in the spillway and flying into the air. Cohen credits Simpsons writer John Swartzwelder for inspiring the scene in which Homer finds it impossible to believe that bacon, ham and pork chops could possibly come from the same animal. According to Cohen it was based on a real statement made by Swartzwelder, who was going on and on about how amazing the pig is for the variety of cuts of meat that come from it. In the episode, Ralph Wiggum coins the phrase, "Oh boy, sleep! That's where I'm a Viking!" The term caused a point of contention with some fans curious whether or not he meant he was literally a Viking in his dreams or if he meant sleeping was just something he excelled at. Mirkin confirmed on Twitter that the line was meant to be taken literally, stating "We weren't writing Ralph as capable of metaphor." = = = Voice acting = = = At the time the episode was being written, Paul McCartney was the only living member of The Beatles who had never appeared on The Simpsons. John Lennon died before the show was created, but Ringo Starr and George Harrison had guest starred in 1991 ("Brush with Greatness") and 1993 ("Homer's Barbershop Quartet"), respectively. The Simpsons staff wanted to bring McCartney onto the show, and David Mirkin thought "Lisa the Vegetarian" would be an attractive story, since McCartney is a vegetarian himself. McCartney agreed to appear, but requested that Lisa remain a vegetarian for the rest of the series, rather than revert to meat-eating in the next episode. The Simpsons staff promised that she would remain a vegetarian, resulting in one of the few permanent character changes made in the show. McCartney's wife Linda was also recruited to appear in the episode. She told Entertainment Weekly that the episode was a chance for her and her husband "to spread the vegetarian word to a wider audience." Paul and Linda were both long-time fans of The Simpsons. Mirkin later said that recording with the McCartneys was one of the most "amazing" experiences of his life. He flew to London and met the couple at Paul McCartney's recording studio, where the McCartneys spent an hour recording their parts. Simpsons creator Matt Groening was supposed to go with Mirkin to London, but missed his plane. Groening commented that having McCartney and the rest of The Beatles on The Simpsons "was a dream come true for all of us." Linda McCartney died of cancer at age 56 on April 17, 1998. The Simpsons' season nine episode "Trash of the Titans", which aired on April 26, 1998, was dedicated to her memory. Simpsons executive producer Mike Scully said, "It just seemed like the right thing to do. Everyone here was surprised and saddened by her death." = = = Directing and animating = = = The episode was directed by Mark Kirkland, who was intrigued by the story because he had not seen many television episodes about vegetarianism. The designs for Paul and Linda McCartney are unusual for The Simpsons in that the characters have brown and blue irises, respectively. Most Simpsons characters simply have black spots in the centers of their eyes. In one scene of the episode, Homer sprays two bottles of lighter fluid onto his grill, causing viewers to anticipate an explosion when Homer throws a match on it. When he does release the match, however, the grill barely ignites. A similar scene appears in an older episode of The Simpsons, "Treehouse of Horror", although in that episode, Homer uses a single bottle of lighter fluid and causes an explosion. Mirkin enjoyed the joke enough to reuse parts of it in "Lisa the Vegetarian", adding new twists to further enhance the comedic effect. The old sketches from the "Treehouse of Horror" episode were used to help the animators animate the scene. = = Cultural references = = The episode features several references to The Beatles and McCartney's solo career. For instance, McCartney tells Lisa that playing his 1970 song "Maybe I'm Amazed" backwards will reveal "a recipe for a really rippin 'lentil soup". A modified version of the song plays in the final scene, then over the closing credits of the episode; when played backwards, McCartney can be heard reciting the recipe in the song. Mirkin had McCartney record the recipe, which was later added in reverse over the original song. McCartney thought it was "very funny" that the staff wanted to "send up the whole cult thing" of backmasking on the Beatles' songs. "A secret lentil soup recipe seemed a nice parody of that," he said. One of the backwards snippets says, "Oh, and by the way, I'm alive," a reference to the "Paul is dead" urban legend. When Lisa, Apu, and the McCartneys gather on the Kwik-E-Mart roof, Apu tells Lisa, "I learned long ago to tolerate others rather than forcing my beliefs on them. You know, you can influence people without badgering them always. It's like Paul's song, 'Live and Let Live'." Paul corrects Apu and says the song's title is actually "Live and Let Die". In the same scene, Apu refers to himself as the "fifth Beatle", and Linda alludes to a line in the Beatles' 1969 song "Octopus's Garden". The McCartneys later ask Lisa if she would like to hear a song, and Apu sings part of "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", to which the McCartneys snap along. = = Release = = "Lisa the Vegetarian" originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 15, 1995. It finished 47th in the ratings for the week of October 9 – 15, 1995, with a Nielsen rating of 9.0, equivalent to approximately 8.63 million viewing households. The episode was the fourth highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following The X-Files, Fox NFL Sunday, and Melrose Place. "Lisa the Vegetarian" was later selected for release in a 2000 video collection of episodes titled The Simpsons – Raiders of the Lost Fridge. Other episodes included in the collection set were "Guess Who's Coming to Criticize Dinner?", "King-Size Homer", and "Burns Verkaufen der Kraftwerk". "Lisa the Vegetarian" was later included in The Simpsons' season seven DVD set, which was released on December 13, 2005. David X. Cohen, Mark Kirkland, Matt Groening, and David Mirkin participated in the episode's DVD audio commentary. The episode won an Environmental Media Award in the "Best Television Episodic Comedy" category, which has been awarded every year since 1991 to the best television episode or film with an environmental message. The episode has also received a Genesis Award in the "Best Television Comedy Series, Ongoing Commitment" category. The Genesis Award is awarded annually by the Humane Society of the United States to honor works that raise the public's understanding of animal issues. = = = Critical reviews = = = "Lisa the Vegetarian" has received positive reviews from television critics and the staff of The Simpsons. Among the show's staff, Mirkin, Kirkland, Groening and writer Ian Maxtone-Graham list it as one of their favorite episodes. In the DVD audio commentary for the episode, Mirkin called the opening sequence at the petting zoo one of his favorite set pieces in the show's history. He thought it was "absolutely hilarious", and praised Kirkland for his animation. Mirkin also enjoyed the use of Apu in the episode, because Apu shows Lisa that "the way to get people to change is through tolerance and understanding." Groening considers the joke in which the family forms a conga line one of the "high-points" in the history of The Simpsons. Television critics praised "Lisa the Vegetarian" for its humor. John Serba of the Grand Rapids Press named it his favorite episode, "because the tale of Lisa's conversion to vegetarianism has more humorous scenes per square inch than any other episode." The Ventura County Reporter's Matthew Singer thought it was "overflowing with great individual scenes", particularly Troy McClure's Meat Council propaganda video, which he said "may be the funniest isolated segment in the history of the show." MSNBC's Patrick Enright, who listed the episode as his second favorite of the series, highlighted the "You don't win friends with salad!" song as "one of those archetypal Simpsons moments, one in which the writers hit a joke so long that it goes from funny to unfunny and back to funny again." Reviewers of the episode have also praised it for its character development. Todd Gilchrist of IGN said he thinks the key to The Simpsons' longevity is its "sentimental but not gooey" approach to storytelling and character development. He took "Lisa the Vegetarian" as an example and said: "Lisa sabotages Homer's barbecue, which results in an unceremonious death for his prize pig. But rather than simply punctuating the episode with an iconic image of the porker soaring through the air, the writers actually develop a story into which the joke fits. The comedic effect is actually intensified because we care about the characters, are invested in the story, and primed for a great gag." The Niagara Gazette's Phil Dzikiy said that "the character development and storytelling is perfect", noting that the episode was "equally hilarious, touching and satirical". The McCartneys' guest appearance received mixed reactions from critics. Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, the authors of I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, called it a "superb" performance. Singer, however, thought their cameo was poorly integrated into the show, and Dzikiy thought it seemed "a little forced". IGN ranked McCartney's performance in this episode, along with Ringo Starr's performance in "Brush with Greatness", and George Harrison's performance in "Homer's Barbershop Quartet", as the tenth best guest appearance in The Simpsons' history. They added that "Although none of these appearances were really large, the fact that the most popular band of all time appeared on The Simpsons is a large statement on the popularity and importance of the show." Simon Crerar of Times Online named Paul and Linda McCartney's performance in the episode as one of the thirty-three "funniest Simpsons cameos ever", and Larry Dobrow and Mike Errico of Blender listed it as the eighth best band cameo in the show's history.

= Marie Lloyd = Matilda Alice Victoria Wood, (12 February 1870 – 7 October 1922), professionally known as Marie Lloyd / ˈmɑːri /; was an English music hall singer, comedian and musical theatre actress during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. She was best known for her performances of songs such as "The Boy I Love Is Up in the Gallery", "My Old Man (Said Follow the Van)" and "Oh Mr Porter What Shall I Do". She received both criticism and praise for her use of innuendo and double entendre during her performances, and enjoyed a long and prosperous career, during which she was affectionately called the "Queen of the Music Hall". Born in London, she was showcased by her father at the Eagle Tavern in Hoxton. In 1884, she made her professional début as Bella Delmere; she changed her stage name to Marie Lloyd the following year. In 1885, she had success with her song "The Boy I Love Is Up in the Gallery", and she frequently topped the bill at prestigious theatres in London's West End. In 1891, she was recruited by the impresario Augustus Harris to appear in that year's spectacular Theatre Royal, Drury Lane Christmas pantomime Humpty Dumpty. She starred in a further two productions at the theatre, Little Bo Peep (1892) and Robinson Crusoe (1893). By the mid-1890s, Lloyd was in frequent dispute with Britain's theatre censors due to the risqué content of her songs. Between 1894 and 1900, she became an international success when she toured France, America, Australia and Belgium with her solo music hall act. In 1907, she assisted other performers during the music hall war and took part in demonstrations outside theatres, protesting for better pay and conditions for performers. During the First World War, in common with most other music hall artists, she supported recruitment into the armed services to help the war effort, touring hospitals and industrial institutions to help boost morale. In 1915, she performed her only wartime song "Now You've Got Your Khaki On", which became a favourite among front-line troops. Lloyd had a turbulent private life that was often the subject of press attention: she was married three times, divorced twice, and frequently found herself giving court testimony against two of her husbands who had physically abused her. In later life, she was still in demand at music halls and had a late success in 1919 with her performance of "My Old Man (Said Follow the Van)", which earned her an extended audience. Privately, she suffered from bouts of ill-health and became alcohol-dependent, both of which imposed restrictions on her performing career by the 1920s. In 1922, she gave her final performance at the Alhambra Theatre, London, during which she became ill on stage. She died a few days later at the age of 52. = = Biography = = = = = Family background and early life = = = Lloyd was born on 12 February 1870 in Hoxton, London. Her father John Wood (1847 – 1940), was an artificial flower arranger and waiter, and his wife Matilda Mary Caroline née Archer (1849 – 1931), was a dressmaker and costume designer. Lloyd was the eldest of nine children and became known within the family circle as Tilley. The Wood family were respectable, hard-working, and financially comfortable. Lloyd often took career advice from her mother, whose influence was strong in the family. Lloyd attended a school in Bath Street, London, but disliked formal education and often played truant; with both her parents working, she adopted a maternal role over her siblings, helping to keep them entertained, clean and well cared-for. Along with her sister Alice, she arranged events in which the Wood children performed at the family home. She enjoyed the experience of entertaining her family and decided to form a minstrel act in 1879 called the Fairy Bell troupe comprising her brothers and sisters. Lloyd and the troupe made their début at a mission in Nile Street, Hoxton, in 1880 and followed this with an appearance at the Blue Ribbon Gospel Temperance Mission later the same year. Costumed by Matilda, they toured local doss-houses in East London, where they performed temperance songs, teaching people the dangers of alcohol abuse. Eager to show off his daughter's talent, John secured her unpaid employment as a table singer at the Eagle Tavern in Hoxton, where he worked as a waiter. Among the songs she performed there was "My Soldier Laddie". Together with her performances at the Eagle, Lloyd briefly contributed to the family income by making babies' boots, and, later, curled feathers for hat making. She was unsuccessful at both and was sacked from the latter after being caught dancing on the tables by the foreman. She returned home that evening and declared that she wanted a permanent career on the stage. Although happy to have her performing in her spare time, her parents initially opposed the idea of her appearing on the stage full-time. She recalled that when her parents "saw that they couldn't kick their objections as high as [she] could kick [her] legs, they very sensibly came to the conclusion to let things take their course and said 'Bless you my child, do what you like'." = = = Early career and first marriage = = = On 9 May 1885, at the age of 15, Lloyd made her professional solo stage début at the Grecian music hall (in the same premises as the Eagle Tavern), under the name "Matilda Wood". She performed "In the Good Old Days" and "My Soldier Laddie", which proved successful, and earned her a booking at the Sir John Falstaff music hall in Old Street where she sang a series of romantic ballads. Soon after this, she chose the stage name Bella Delmere and appeared on stage in costumes designed by her mother. Her performances were a success, despite her singing other artists' songs without their permission, a practice which brought her a threat of an injunction from one of the original performers. News of her act travelled; that October, she appeared at the Collins music hall in Islington in a special performance to celebrate the theatre's refurbishment, the first time she had appeared outside Hoxton, and two months later, she was engaged at the Hammersmith Temple of Varieties and the Middlesex Music Hall in Drury Lane. On 3 February 1886, she appeared at the prestigious Sebright Music Hall in Bethnal Green, where she met George Ware, a prolific composer of music hall songs. Ware became her agent and, after a few weeks, she began performing songs purchased from little-known composers. As her popularity grew, Ware suggested that she change her name. "Marie" was chosen for its "posh" and "slightly French" sound, and "Lloyd" was taken from an edition of Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper. Lloyd established her new name on 22 June 1886, with an appearance at the Falstaff Music Hall, where she attracted wide notice for the song "The Boy I Love Is Up in the Gallery" (which was initially written for Nelly Power by Lloyd's agent George Ware). By 1887, her performance of the song had become so popular that she was in demand in London's West End, including the Oxford Music Hall, where she excelled at skirt dancing. George Belmont, the Falstaff's proprietor, secured her an engagement at the Star Palace of Varieties in Bermondsey. She soon began making her own costumes, a skill she learned from her mother, and one she used for the rest of her career. She undertook a month-long tour of Ireland at the start of 1886, earning £10 per week after which she returned to East London to perform at, amongst others, the Sebright Music Hall, Bethnal Green. On 23 October, The Era called her "a pretty little soubrette who dances with great dash and energy." By the end of 1886, Lloyd was playing several halls a night and earned £100 per week. She was now able to afford new songs from established music hall composers and writers, including "Harry's a Soldier", "She Has a Sailor for a Lover", and "Oh Jeremiah, Don't you Go to Sea". By 1887, Lloyd began to display a skill for ad lib, and to gain a reputation for her impromptu performances. It was during this period that she first sang "Whacky-Wack" and "When you Wink the Other Eye", a song which introduced her famous wink at the audience. Unlike her West End audiences who enjoyed her coarse humour, her "blue" performances did not impress audiences in the East End. While appearing at the Foresters music hall in Mile End, she met and began dating Percy Charles Courtenay, a ticket tout from Streatham, London. The courtship was brief, and the couple married on 12 November 1887 at St John the Baptist, Hoxton. In May 1888, Lloyd gave birth to a daughter, Marie (1888 – 1967). The marriage was mostly unhappy, and Courtenay was disliked by Lloyd's family and friends. Before long, Courtenay became addicted to alcohol and gambling, and grew jealous of his wife's close friendship with the 13-year-old actress Bella Burge, to whom Lloyd had rented a room in the marital house. He also became angry at the numerous parties Lloyd hosted for fellow members of the music hall profession including Gus Elen, Dan Leno and Eugene Stratton. In October 1888, Lloyd returned from maternity leave and joined rehearsals for the 1888 – 89 pantomime The Magic Dragon of the Demon Dell; or, The Search for the Mystic Thyme, in which she was cast as Princess Kristina. The production, which was staged between Boxing Day and February at the Britannia theatre in Hoxton, gave her the security of working close to home for a two-month period. The engagement also gave her much-needed experience of playing to a big audience. The following year, she appeared at more Bohemian venues including the Empire and the Alhambra theatres, the Trocadero Palace of Varieties, and the Royal Standard playhouse. In 1889, she gave birth to a stillborn child, which further damaged her marriage. By the start of the 1890s, Lloyd had built up a successful catalogue of songs, which included "What's That For, Eh?", about a little girl who asks her parents the meaning of various everyday household objects. Her biographer and theatre historian W. J. MacQueen-Pope described the song as being "blue" and thought that it spoke volumes about her reputation thanks to her "wonderful wink, and that sudden, dazzling smile, and the nod of the head." Similar-styled songs followed; "She'd Never had her Ticket Punched Before", told the story of a young, naive woman travelling to London on her own by train. This was followed by "The Wrong Man Never Let a Chance go By"; "We Don't Want to Fight, But, by Jingo, If we Do"; "Oh You Wink the Other Eye" and "Twiggy Vous" — a song which won her much success and increased her popularity abroad. After an evening's performance at the Oxford music hall, a French well-wisher requested a conversation and to meet Lloyd backstage. Flanked by Courtenay, she appeared at the stage door, where Courtenay threatened the man with violence as both had become suspicious of his interest in her. She took a chance and invited the man into her dressing room, where he identified himself as a member of the French government. He confirmed to her that "Twiggy Vous" was "most popular in Paris"; she was delighted at the news. At the end of the year, Lloyd returned to London where she appeared in the Christmas pantomime Cinderella in Peckham alongside her sister Alice. = = = 1890s = = = = = = = Drury Lane and success = = = = Between 1891 and 1893, Lloyd was recruited by the impresario Augustus Harris to appear alongside Dan Leno in the spectacular and popular Theatre Royal, Drury Lane Christmas pantomimes. While lunching with Harris in 1891 to discuss his offer, Lloyd played coy, deliberately confusing the theatre with the lesser known venue the Old Mo so as not to appear conscious of Drury Lane's successful reputation; she compared its structure to that of a prison. Secretly, she was thrilled with the offer, for which she would receive £100 per week. The pantomime seasons lasted from Boxing Day to March and were highly lucrative, but Lloyd found working from a script restrictive. Her first role was Princess Allfair in Humpty Dumpty; or, The Yellow Dwarf and the Fair One, which she dismissed as being "Bloody awful, eh?" She received mixed reviews for her opening performance. The Times described her as being "playful in gesture, graceful in appearance, but not strong in voice." Despite the weak start (which Lloyd blamed on nerves), the pantomime received glowing reviews from the theatrical press. The London Entr'acte thought that she "delivere [d] her text quite pungently, and sings and dances with spirit too." She was noted for her acrobatic dancing on stage, and was able to display handstands, tumbles and high kicks. As a boy, the writer Compton Mackenzie was taken to the show's opening night and admitted that he was "greatly surprised that any girl should have the courage to let the world see her drawers as definitely as Marie Lloyd." Lloyd's biographer Midge Gillies defines 1891 as being the year that she officially "made it" thanks to a catalogue of hit songs and major success in the halls and pantomime. When she appeared at the Oxford music hall in June, the audience cheered so loudly for her return that the following act could not be heard; The Era called her "the favourite of the hour". During the summer months, she toured North England, including Liverpool, Birmingham and Manchester. At the last she stayed an extra six nights due to popular demand, which caused her to cancel a trip to Paris. The 1892 pantomime was Little Bo Peep; or, Little Red Riding Hood and Hop O 'My Thumb, in which she played Little Red Riding Hood. The production was five hours long and culminated with the show's harlequinade. During one scene, her improvisational skills caused some scandal when she got out of bed to pray, but instead reached for a chamber pot. The stunt angered Harris, who ordered her not to do it again or risk immediate dismissal. Max Beerbohm, who was in a later audience, asked "Isn't Marie Lloyd charming and sweet in the pantomime? I think of little besides her." On 12 January 1892, Lloyd and Courtenay brawled drunkenly in her Drury Lane dressing room after an evening's performance of Little Bo-Peep. Courtenay pulled a decorative sword off the wall and threatened to cut her throat; she escaped from the room with minor bruises and reported the incident to the Bow Street police station. In early 1893, she travelled to Wolverhampton where she starred as Flossie in another unsuccessful piece called The A.B.C Girl; or, Flossie the Frivolous, which, according to MacQueen-Pope, "ended the Queen of Comedy's career as an actress". Lloyd made her American stage début in 1893, appearing at Koster and Bial's Music Hall in New York. She sang "Oh You Wink the Other Eye", much to the delight of her American audiences. Other numbers were "After the Pantomime" and "You Should Go to France and See the Ladies Dance", which both required her to wear provocative costumes. Her performances pleased the theatre proprietors, who presented her with an antique tea and coffee service. News of her success reached home, and the London Entr'acte reported that "Miss Marie Lloyd made the biggest hit ever known at Koster and Bial's variety hall, New York." Upon her return to London, Lloyd introduced "Listen With the Right Ear", which was an intended follow-up to "Oh You Wink the Other Eye". Shortly after her return, she sailed to France, to take up an engagement in Paris. Her biographer Daniel Farson thought that she received "greater acclaim than any other English comedienne who had preceded her". She changed the lyrics to some of her best-known songs for her French audience and retitled them, "The Naughty Continong"; "Twiggy Vous"; "I'm Just Back from Paris" and "The Coster Honeymoon in Paris". At Christmas in 1893, she returned to London to honour her final Drury Lane commitment, starring as Polly Perkins in Robinson Crusoe. The part allowed her to perform "The Barmaid" and "The Naughty Continong" and saw her perform a mazurka with Leno. Talking to a friend years later about her Drury Lane engagements, she admitted that she was "the proudest little woman in the world". In May 1894, Courtenay followed Lloyd to the Empire, Leicester Square, where she was performing, and attempted to batter her with a stick, shouting: "I will gouge your eyes out and ruin you!" His assault missed Lloyd, but struck Burge in the face instead. As a result of the incident, Lloyd was sacked from the Empire for fear of a reprisal. Lloyd left the marital home, moving to 73 Carleton Road, Tufnell Park and successfully applied for a restraining warrant, which prevented Courtenay from contacting her. A few weeks later, Lloyd began an affair with the music hall singer Alec Hurley, which resulted in Courtenay initiating divorce proceedings in 1894 on the grounds of her adultery. That year, together with a short tour of the English provinces, Lloyd travelled to New York with Hurley, where she appeared at the Imperial Theatre, staying for two months. On her return to England, she appeared in the Liverpool Christmas pantomime as the principal boy in Pretty Bo-Peep, Little Boy Blue, and the Merry Old Woman who lived in a Shoe. Her performance was praised by the press, who called her "delightfully easy, graceful and self-possessed." = = = = Risqué reputation and transatlantic tours = = = = By 1895, Lloyd's risqué songs were receiving frequent criticism from theatre reviewers and influential feminists. As a result, she often experienced resistance from strict theatre censorship which dogged the rest of her career. The writer and feminist Laura Ormiston Chant, who was a member of the Social Purity Alliance, disliked the bawdiness of music hall performances, and thought that the venues were attractive to prostitutes. Her campaign persuaded the London County Council to erect large screens around the promenade at the Empire Theatre in Leicester Square, as part of the licensing conditions. The screens were unpopular and protesters, among them the young Winston Churchill, later pulled them down. That November at the Tivoli theatre, Lloyd performed "Johnny Jones", a ditty about a girl who is taught the facts of life by her best male friend. The song, although not lyrically obscene, was considered to be offensive largely because of the manner in which Lloyd sang it, adding winks and gestures, and creating a conspiratorial relationship with her audience. Social reformers cited "Johnny Jones" as being offensive, but less so compared to other songs of the day. Upon the expiry of a music hall's entertainments licence, the Licensing Committee tried to use the lyrical content of music hall songs as evidence against a renewal. As a result, Lloyd was summoned to perform some of her songs in front of a council committee. She sang "Oh! Mr Porter" (composed for her by George Le Brunn), "A Little of What You Fancy" and "She Sits Among the Cabbages and Peas", which she retitled "I Sits Amongst the Cabbages and Leeks" after some protest. The numbers were sung in such a way that the committee had no reason to find anything amiss. Feeling disgruntled at the council's interference, she then rendered Alfred Tennyson's drawing-room ballad "Come into the Garden, Maud" and displayed leers and nudges, to illustrate each innuendo. The committee were left stunned at the performance, but Lloyd argued afterwards that the rudeness was "all in the mind". Despite their opposing views on music hall entertainment, Lloyd and Chant shared similar political views, and were wrongly assumed by the press to be enemies. An inspector who reported on one of Lloyd's performances at the Oxford music hall thought that her lyrical content was fine but her knowing nods, looks, smiles and the suggestiveness in her winks to the audience suggested otherwise. The restrictions imposed on the music halls were, by now beginning to affect trade, and many were threatened with closure. To avoid social unrest, Hackney council scrapped the licensing restrictions on 7 October 1896. In 1896, Lloyd sailed to South Africa with her daughter, who appeared as Little Maudie Courtenay on the same bill as her mother. Lloyd came to the attention of Barney Barnato, a British entrepreneur who was responsible for mining diamond and gold. Barnato lavished gifts on her in an attempt to woo her, but his attempts were unsuccessful; nevertheless, the two remained friends until his death in 1897. The tour was a triumph for Lloyd, and her songs became popular among her South African audience. She performed "Wink the Other Eye", "Twiggy-Vous", "Hello, Hello, Hello", "Whacky, Whacky, Whack!", "Keep Off the Grass", and "Oh! Mr Porter". Feeling satisfied at the success she had achieved, Lloyd returned to London once the two-month tour had ended. The following year, Lloyd travelled to New York where she re-appeared at Koster and Bial's Music Hall. Her first song was about a young woman who lacked confidence in finding a suitor. The chorus, "Not for the very best man that ever got into a pair of trousers", proved hilarious; The Era observed that the line "tickled the audience immensely". Following this, she performed a song about a French maid who appeared innocent and petite at first sight, but turned out not to be so. The Era described the character as being "not so demure as she looked, for she confided to her auditors that she 'knew a lot about those tricky little things they don't teach a girl at school'." Many other songs followed and were all warmly received. At the conclusion of each performance, she received gifts from the audience including bouquets and floral structures. The Era commented that "Miss Lloyd's clever character work, her versatility and unflagging endeavours to please were rewarded with deserved success". After the tour, Lloyd returned to London, and moved to Hampstead with Hurley. That Christmas, she appeared in pantomime, this time at the Crown Theatre in Peckham in a production of Dick Whittington in which she played the title role. In it, she sang "A Little Bit Off the Top", which MacQueen-Pope describes as being "one of the pantomime songs of the year". The Music Hall and Theatre Review was equally complimentary, saying: "Brilliant Repertory, Charming Dresses, A Unique Personality!" During the Christmas period of 1898 – 9, Lloyd returned to the Crown where she took her benefit, during which she appeared in Dick Whittington. The entertainment culminated with a song from Vesta Victoria, and a short piece called The Squeaker, starring Joe Elvin. = = = 1900s = = = In February 1900, Lloyd was the subject of another benefit performance at the Crown Theatre in Peckham. Kate Carney, Vesta Tilley and Joe Elvin were among the star turns who performed before the main piece, Cinderella, which starred Lloyd, her sister Alice, Kittee Rayburn and Jennie Rubie. The same year, although her divorce was not yet finalised, Lloyd went to live with Hurley in Southampton Row, London. Hurley, an established singer of coster songs, regularly appeared on the same bill as Lloyd; his calm nature was a contrast to the abusive personality of Courtenay. Lloyd and Hurley set sail for a tour of Australia in 1901, opening at Harry Rickards Opera House in Melbourne on 18 May with their own version of "The Lambeth Walk". After the successful two-month tour, Lloyd and Hurley returned to London where she appeared in the only revue of her career. Entitled The Revue, it was written by Charles Raymond and Phillip Yorke with lyrics by Roland Carse and music by Maurice Jacobi. It was staged at the Tivoli theatre, in celebration of the Coronation of King Edward VII. Lloyd and Courtenay's divorce became absolute on 22 May 1905, and she married Hurley on 27 October 1906. Hurley, although ecstatic with his earlier success in Australia, began feeling sidelined by his wife's popularity. MacQueen-Pope suggested that "[Hurley] was a star who had married a planet. Already the seeds of disaster were being sown." = = = = Music hall strikes of 1907 = = = = Shortly after her marriage to Hurley, Lloyd went to Bournemouth to recuperate from exhaustion. Within days she was back performing in London music halls. From the start of the new century, music hall artistes and theatre managers had been in dispute over working conditions, a reduction in pay and perks, and an increased number of matinée performances. The first significant rift was a 1906 strike, initiated by The Variety Artistes' Federation. The following year, the Music Hall War commenced, which saw the Federation fight for more freedom and better working conditions on behalf of music-hall performers. Although popular enough to command her own fees, Lloyd supported the strike, acted as a picket for the strikers and gave generously to the strike fund. To raise spirits, she often performed on picket lines and took part in a fundraising performance at the Scala Theatre. During one demonstration, she recognised someone trying to enter and shouted, "Let her through, girls, she'll close the music hall faster than we can." The singer was Belle Elmore, later murdered by her husband, Dr. Crippen. The dispute ended later the same year with a resolution broadly favourable to the performers. In 1909, Lloyd appeared at the Gaiety Theatre in Dundee where a critic for The Courier noted "Her bright smile and fascinating presence has much to do with her popularity, while her songs are of the catchy style, perhaps not what a Dundee audience is familiar with, but still amusing and of an attractive style." = = = = Relationship with Bernard Dillon = = = = Despite their marital problems, Lloyd went on an American tour with Hurley in 1908. She was eager to equal the success of her sister Alice, who had become popular in the country a few years previously. By 1910, Marie's relationship with Hurley had ended, due in part to her endless parties and her developing friendship with the jockey Bernard Dillon, winner of the 1910 Derby. Lloyd and the young sportsman began an open and passionate affair. For the first time, her private life eclipsed her professional career. She was seldom mentioned in the theatrical press in 1910, and when she did perform, it was not to the best of her abilities. The writer Arnold Bennett, who witnessed her on stage at the Tivoli Theatre in 1909, admitted that he "couldn't see the legendary cleverness of the vulgarity of Marie Lloyd" and accused her songs of being "variations of the same theme of sexual naughtiness." As with Courtenay years previously, the shy and retiring Dillon was finding it hard to adapt to Lloyd's elaborate and sociable lifestyle. Dillon's success on the racecourse was short lived. In 1911, he was expelled from the Jockey Club for borrowing £660 to bet on his own horses to win. Dillon's horses lost, and he ended up in debt to trainers. He became jealous of Lloyd's successful life in the spotlight. Depression led to drink and obesity, and he started to abuse her. Hurley, meanwhile, had initiated divorce proceedings, the strain of which caused him to drink heavily, which in turn finished his theatrical career. Lloyd left the marital home in Hampstead and moved to Golders Green with Dillon, a move which MacQueen-Pope describes as being "the worst thing she ever did." = = = Later years = = = A new show in London in 1912 showcased the best of music hall's talent. The Royal Command Performance took place at the Palace Theatre in London, which was managed by Alfred Butt. The show was organised by Oswald Stoll, an Australian impresario who managed a string of West End and provincial theatres. Stoll, although a fan of Lloyd's, disliked the vulgarity of her act and championed a return to a more family-friendly atmosphere within the music hall. Because of this, and her participation in the earlier music hall war, Stoll left her out of the line-up. He placed an advert in The Era on the day of the performance warning that "Coarseness and vulgarity etc are not allowed... this intimation is rendered necessary only by a few artists". In retaliation, Lloyd staged her own show at the London Pavilion, advertising that "every one of her performances was a command performance by order of the British public". She performed "One Thing Leads to Another", "Oh Mr Porter", and "The Boy I Love Is up in the Gallery" and was hailed as "the Queen of Comedy" by critics. The same year, she travelled to Devon where she appeared at the Exeter Hippodrome to much success. The Devon and Exeter Gazette, reported that Lloyd's performance of "Every Movement Tells a Tale", was "thoroughly enjoyed" by the audience and "[received] round after round of applause". The paper also praised her recital of a "Cockney girl's honeymoon in Paris", which was met by "roars of laughter". = = = = Scandal in America = = = = In 1913, Lloyd was booked by the Orpheum Syndicate to appear at the New York Palace Theatre. She and Dillon set sail on the RMS Olympic under the name Mr and Mrs Dillon and were met at the American port by her sister Alice, who had resided in the country for many years. Upon arrival, Lloyd and Dillon were refused entry when the authorities found out that they were not married, as they had claimed when applying for entry visas. They were detained and threatened with deportation on the grounds of moral turpitude and were sent to Ellis Island while an enquiry took place. Dillon was charged under the White Slave Act with attempting to take into the country a woman who was not his wife, and Lloyd was charged with being a passive agent. After a lengthy enquiry, a surety of $300 each, and an imposed condition that they were to live apart while in America, the couple were allowed to stay until March 1914. Alice later stated that "the indignity of the subsequent experience [while in custody] went to Marie's heart in a way she never survived. She could not bear to talk of that awful twenty-four hours." Despite the problems, the tour was a success, and Lloyd performed to packed theatres throughout America. Her act featured the songs "The Tiddly Wink", "I'd Like to Live in Paris All the Time (The Coster Girl in Paris)", and "The Aviator". The numbers were popular, partly due to the Americanisation of each song's lyrics. On a personal level, Lloyd's time in America was miserable and was made worse by the increasing domestic abuse she received from Dillon. The assaults caused her to miss several key performances, which angered the theatre manager, Edward Albee, who threatened her with a breach of contract action. She claimed that illness made it difficult for her to perform and protested at her billing position. The theatrical press were not convinced. The New York Telegraph speculated "In vaudeville circles her domestic relations are thought to be at the bottom of her attacks of disposition." Back in England, Hurley had died of pleurisy and pneumonia on 6 December 1913. Lloyd heard the news while appearing in Chicago and sent a wreath with a note saying "until we meet again". She was reported in The Morning Telegraph as saying: "With all due respect to the dead, I can cheerfully say that's the best piece of news I've heard in many years, for it means that Bernard Dillon and I will marry as soon as this unlucky year ends." Lloyd married Dillon on 21 February 1914, the ceremony taking place at the British Consulate in Portland, Oregon. When the tour finished, Lloyd commented, "[I will] never forget the humiliation to which I have been subjected and I shall never sing in America again, no matter how high the salary offered." = = = = First World War and final years = = = = Lloyd and Dillon returned to England in June 1914. Lloyd started a provincial tour of Liverpool, Aldershot, Southend, Birmingham and Margate, and finished the summer season at the London Hippodrome. She sang "The Coster Honeymoon in Paris" and "Who Paid the Rent for Mrs Rip Van Winkle?", the latter of which had been received particularly well with her American audiences. Within a fortnight, Britain was at war, which threw the music-hall world into disarray. The atmosphere in London's music halls had turned patriotic, and theatre proprietors often held charity events and benefits to help the war effort. Lloyd played her part and frequently visited hospitals, including the Ulster Volunteer Force Hospital in Belfast, where she interacted with wounded servicemen. She also toured munitions factories to help boost public morale, but received no official recognition for her work. During 1914, she scored a hit with "A Little of What you Fancy", which critics thought captured her life perfectly up until that point. The song is about a middle-aged woman who encourages the younger generation to enjoy themselves, rather than indulging in life's excitement herself. During the rendition, Lloyd depicts a young couple who cuddle and kiss on a railway carriage, while she sits back and recalls memories of her doing the same in years gone by. In January 1915, Lloyd appeared at the Crystal Palace where she entertained over ten thousand troops. At the end of that year, she performed her only war song, "Now You've Got your Khaki On", composed for her by Charles Collins and Fred W. Leigh, about a woman who found the army uniform sexy and thought that wearing it made the average pot-bellied gentleman look like a muscle-toned soldier. Lloyd's brother John appeared with her on stage dressed as a soldier and helped characterise the ditty. Following this, she sang the already well-established songs "If You Want to Get On in Revue", which depicted a young girl who offered sexual favours to promote her theatrical career, and "The Three Ages of Woman", which took a cynical look at men from a woman's perspective. She seldom toured during the war, but briefly performed in Northampton, Watford and Nottingham in 1916. By the end of that year, she had suffered a nervous breakdown which she blamed on her hectic workload and a delayed reaction to Hurley's death. During the war years, Lloyd's public image had deteriorated. Her biographer Midge Gillies thought that Lloyd's violent relationship with Dillon and professional snubs in public had left the singer feeling like "someone's mother, rather than their sweetheart." In July 1916, Dillon was conscripted into the army, but disliked the discipline of regimental life. He applied for exemption on the grounds he had to look after his parents and four brothers, but his claim was rejected. In a later failed attempt, he tried to convince army officials that he was too obese to carry out military duties. On the rare occasions when Dillon was allowed home on leave, he would often indulge in drinking sessions. One night, Lloyd's friend Bella Burge received a knock at the front door to find a hysterical Lloyd covered in blood and bruises. When asked to explain what had caused her injuries, she stated that she had caught Dillon in bed with another woman and had had a showdown with her husband. By 1917, Dillon's drinking had become worse. That June, two constables were called to Lloyd and Dillon's house in Golders Green after Dillon committed a drunken assault on his wife. Police entered the house and found Lloyd and her maid cowering beneath a table. Dillon confronted the constables and assaulted one of them, which resulted in him being taken to court, fined and sentenced to a month's hard labour. Lloyd began drinking to escape the trauma of her domestic abuse. That year, she was earning £470 per week performing in music halls and making special appearances. The following year, she performed perhaps her best known song, "My Old Man (Said Follow the Van)", which was written for her by Fred W. Leigh and Charles Collins. The song depicts a mother fleeing her home to avoid the rent man. The lyrics reflected the hardships of working class life in London at the beginning of the 20th century, and gave her the chance to costume the character in a worn out dress and black straw boater, while carrying a birdcage. By 1918, she had become popular with the British-based American soldiers, but had failed to capture the spirits of their English counterparts, and began feeling sidelined by her peers; Vesta Tilley had led a very successful recruitment drive into the services, and other music hall performers had been honoured by royalty. In July 1919, Lloyd was again left off the cast list for the Royal Variety Performance, which paid tribute to the acts who helped raise money and boost morale during the war years. She was devastated at the snub and grew bitter towards her rivals who had been acknowledged. Her biographer Midge Gillies compared Lloyd to a "talented old aunt who must be allowed to have her turn at the piano even though all everyone really wants is jazz or go to the Picture Palace". She toured Cardiff in 1919, and in 1920 she was earning £11,000 a year. Despite the high earnings, she was living beyond her means, with a reckless tendency to spend money. She was famous for her generosity, but was unable to differentiate between those in need and those who simply exploited her kindness. Her extravagant tastes, an accumulation of writs from disgruntled theatre managers, an inability to save money, and generous hand-outs to friends and family, resulted in severe money troubles during the final years of her life. = = = Decline and death = = = In 1920, Lloyd appeared twice at Hendon Magistrates Court and gave evidence of the abuse she had suffered from Dillon. Soon afterwards, she separated from him and, as a result, became depressed. When asked by prosecutors how many times Dillon had assaulted her since Christmas 1919, Lloyd replied "I cannot tell you, there were so many [occasions]. It has happened for years, time after time, always when he is drunk." By now, she was becoming increasingly unreliable on stage; she appeared at a theatre in Cardiff for a mere six minutes before being carried off by stage hands. During the performance, she seemed dazed and confused, and she stumbled across the stage. She was conscious of her weak performances and frequently cried between shows. Virginia Woolf was among the audience at the Bedford Music Hall on 8 April 1921 and described Lloyd as "A mass of corruption – long front teeth – a crapulous way of saying 'desire', and yet a born artist – scarcely able to walk, waddling, aged, unblushing." In April 1922, Lloyd collapsed in her dressing room after singing "The Cosmopolitan Girl" at the Gateshead Empire in Cardiff. Her doctor diagnosed exhaustion, and she returned to the stage in August. Her voice became weak, and she reduced her act to a much shorter running time. Her biographer Naomi Jacob thought that Lloyd was "growing old, and [she] was determined to show herself to her public as she really was... an old, grey-faced, tired woman". On 12 August 1921, Lloyd failed to show for an appearance at the London Palladium, choosing instead to stay at home and write her will. In early 1922, Lloyd moved in with her sister Daisy to save money. On 4 October, against her doctor's advice, she appeared at the Empire Music Hall in Edmonton, North London, where she sang "I'm One of the Ruins That Cromwell Knocked About a Bit". Her performance was weak, and she was unsteady on her feet, eventually falling over on stage. Her erratic and brief performance proved hilarious for the audience, who thought that it was all part of the act. A week later, while appearing at the Alhambra Theatre, she was taken ill on stage and was found later in her dressing room crippled with pain, complaining of stomach cramps. She returned home later that evening, where she died of heart and kidney failure three days later, aged 52. More than 50,000 people attended her funeral at Hampstead Cemetery on 12 October 1922. Lloyd was penniless at the time of her death and her estate, which was worth £7,334, helped to pay off debts that she and Dillon had incurred over the years. Writing in The Dial magazine the following month, T.S. Eliot claimed: "Among [the] small number of music-hall performers, whose names are familiar to what is called the lower class, Marie Lloyd had far the strongest hold on popular affection." Her biographer and friend MacQueen-Pope thought that Lloyd was "going downhill of her own volition. The complaint was incurable, some might call it heartbreak, perhaps a less sentimental diagnosis is disillusionment." The impersonator Charles Austin paid tribute by saying "I have lost an old pal, and the public has lost its principal stage favourite, one who can never be replaced."

= Prince Oana = Henry "Hank" Kawaihoa "Prince" Oana, Jr. (January 22, 1910 – June 19, 1976) was a professional baseball player for 23 years from 1929 to 1951. He played portions of three seasons in Major League Baseball as an outfielder for the Philadelphia Phillies in 1934, and as a pinch hitter and pitcher for Detroit Tigers in 1943 and 1945. When Oana debuted with the Phillies, he became the fourth Hawaiian player to appear in the major leagues. He compiled a .308 batting average and a 3.77 earned run average (ERA) in three major league seasons. Born in Hawaii, Oana played five sports in high school, and took up baseball professionally after he was noticed by Ty Cobb. He spent a few seasons in the minor leagues before joining the Phillies, who sent him back to the minors after six games in 1934. For the next decade, he played for various minor league teams, where his Hawaiian heritage proved to be both a selling point for teams and a hindrance to him making the majors, until the outbreak of World War II. Facing a shortage of active players, the Tigers signed him, and Oana played parts of 1943 and 1945 with the team. After 1945, he was sold to the Dallas Rebels, and he finished his professional career in 1951. He later operated a lakeside fishing business until his death in 1976. = = Early years = = Oana was born at Waipahu, Hawaii, the site of the former Oahu Sugar Company plantation, in 1910. His father, Henry Kawaihoa Oana, Sr., was a Native Hawaiian from Waialua and a 1896 graduate of Kamehameha School, who later worked as a bookkeeper at the sugarcane plantation and as a station agent at the local railroad depot. His mother Mary was of Portuguese descent. Oana attended Saint Louis School in Honolulu where he had the nickname "Nutsky," and was "a five-sport star" in baseball, football, basketball, track and swimming. He was a running back in football and was twice (1926 and 1927) selected for the Interscholastic League of Honolulu all-star team. = = Baseball career = = = = = Pacific Coast League = = = In his youth, Oana played for a Hawaiian "Aratani" baseball team that went on a tour of Japan in 1928. While barnstorming in Japan, Ty Cobb saw Oana playing and suggested he play professionally in the United States, and recommended Oana to the San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League. Oana heeded Cobb's advice and traveled to California in the winter of 1929 to try out with the Seals. He spent the 1929 season with the Globe Bears, San Francisco's affiliate in the Class D Arizona State League. Oana compiled a .374 batting average with the Bears in his first year of professional play. He compiled a .413 average in 79 games for the Globe Bears at the start of the 1930 season, and was promoted to San Francisco. He joined the Seals organization with the ability to pitch or play in the infield or the outfield. Ultimately, "[h] e found himself as an outfielder being blessed with a powerful throwing arm, great speed and an ability to whack the ball to the far reaches of the parks." Oana spent the next several seasons as an outfielder for the Seals (1929 – 1932) and the Portland Beavers (1933 – 1934), also in the Pacific Coast League. Oana compiled batting averages of .326 in 1930, .345 in 1931, and .332 in 1933. He also totaled 29 home runs, 63 doubles, and 11 triples in 686 at bats during the 1933 season, and led the Pacific Coast League with 163 RBIs. = = = Philadelphia Phillies = = = In November 1933, the Philadelphia Phillies acquired Oana from Portland in exchange for cash, Frank Ragland, Jimmy McLeod, and a player to be named later. Portland manager Spencer Abbott noted that the deal required the Phillies to pay "$2500 for a look" and $20,000 if he was retained for the years. "Oana made his major league debut on April 22, 1934, becoming the fourth Hawaiian player to play Major League Baseball. He appeared in only six games for the Phillies, four as the starting left fielder. He compiled a .238 batting average with one double and three RBIs in 21 at bats. On May 1, 1934 the Phillies sent Oana back to Portland after less than 10 days in the big leagues. = = = Hawaiian heritage and nickname = = = Oana's Hawaiian heritage was both a selling point for Pacific Coast League promoters and a handicap in terms of Oana's ability to make it to the major leagues. When Oana signed with the San Francisco Seals, team owner Charlie Graham advertised Oana as "a Hawaiian prince." Graham claimed that, while vacationing in Honolulu, he discovered Oana playing baseball in bare feet. With the popularity of swimmer Duke Kahanamoku, The Sporting News noted: "If Kahanamoku, the great swimmer, could be listed as a duke, Graham figured Oana should be at least a prince." Portland manager Spencer Abbott also boasted that he was the one who had invested Oana "with the halo of Hawaiian royalty." Oana's Hawaiian heritage was also a handicap in an era before racial integration of Major League Baseball. In January 1934, shortly after Oana had been acquired by the Phillies, The Sporting News wrote a feature story about Oana under the headline, "'Prince' Oana Pops Into the Big League Melting Pot: Adding Dash of Hawaii to Cuban and Indian Spice." Author Daniel M. Daniel offered Oana's promotion to the Phillies as evidence that, "while baseball is as American as America itself, it is also as cosmopolitan as our national population." Daniel wrote that, without going into the justice of the color line, the color line in baseball "is adhered to most strictly." Daniel wrote that, despite Oana's batting record, San Francisco owner Charlie Graham had difficulty selling Oana to a major league club, as some suggested that a full-blooded "Kanaka" may "not be welcome in the ranks of the big leagues." When the Seals signed Oana, he was rated as "an 'important money' prospect" who would likely draw five figures in a sale to a big league club. To overcome the color line, Graham backed away from the story that Oana was a full-blooded Hawaiian prince and noted that Oana's mother was Portuguese. However, Graham could still not find a major league buyer for Oana. When Oana was acquired by the Phillies at the end of the 1933 season, The Sporting News published a front-page story referring to Oana as a "full-blooded Hawaiian" and a "dark-skinned islander" who "comes from the royal stock of the old Hawaiian dynasty that ruled the islands before the United States took over the country. Hence, the title of prince, which he wears proudly." = = = Atlanta Crackers = = = After his brief stint with the Phillies, Oana was returned to Portland and shortly thereafter sold to the Atlanta Crackers of the Southern Association. Spencer Abbott, who had previously managed Portland and was then the manager in Atlanta, offered to allow Portland to name its price for Oana. Abbott paid $5,000 for Oana and recalled Atlanta's racially segregated bleachers furthered the rationale for acquiring Oana: At Atlanta we needed a powerful right-handed hitter who could hit the ball into those Negro bleachers in left field. We needed a hero for our colored citizens. Oana was the man. Abbott agreed to fly Oana to Atlanta and asked him to dress sharply and wear a lei. Abbott arranged for press and photographers to meet Oana at the Atlanta airport. He later recalled: "I sold them on the Hawaiian royalty stuff. It was not far off the beam, either, for Hank comes from the best stock in the islands – and he looked like a prince, tall, dark and handsome." Oana spent most of the 1934 season with the Crackers, compiling a .289 batting average and 17 home runs in 480 at bats. Despite playing less than the full season in the Southern Association, he led the circuit in home runs and finished second in the league with 100 RBIs. Finding no interest from major league clubs after his 1934 season in Atlanta, Oana reportedly expressed interest in pursuing a career as a professional wrestler, with one account indicating that he hoped to "cash in" on his "wrestling experience on the island with Japanese grapplers." = = = Later 1930s = = = Oana spent the 1935 and 1936 seasons with the Syracuse Chiefs of the International League. He hit .300 with 21 doubles, 8 triples, and 12 home runs in 320 at bats during the 1935 season. Oana spent the 1937 season with Knoxville and Little Rock in the Southern Association, but an injury in Little Rock forced him to finish the season playing semipro ball in North Carolina. Oana next spent two years playing for the Jackson Senators in 1938 and 1939. In 1938, he hit .320 with 39 doubles and 26 home runs, and in 1939, he hit .323 with 20 doubles, 12 triples, and a career-high 39 home runs. = = = Conversion to pitcher at Ft. Worth = = = At the end of the 1939 season, the Jackson club sole Oana to the Fort Worth Cats in the Texas League. He continued to play as an outfielder for Fort Worth in 1940 and 1941. However, his offensive production dropped with batting averages of .264 in 1940 and .253 in 1941. After the 1941 season, with his batting in decline, Oana worked as a pitcher during a barnstorming tour of Mexico. Rogers Hornsby took over as the manager at Fort Worth in 1942, and Oana badgered Hornsby for a chance as a pitcher. According to one account, Hornsby was reportedly prepared to release Oana, who was not hitting well, and said to Oana, "Hank, you hit like a pitcher," to which Oana replied, "I am a good pitcher." Hornsby initially thought that Oana was joking about being a pitcher, but finally relented and allowed him to pitch in relief one day in Houston. In Oana's first 76 innings as a pitcher in 1942, he compiled a 0.76 earned run average (ERA), threw 50 consecutive innings without an earned run, and pitched a no-hitter. In mid-July 1942, Oana's scoreless streak became national news, and resulted in a feature story in The Sporting News. In a total of 25 games as a pitcher during the 1942 season, Oana compiled a 16 – 5 record with a 1.72 ERA. = = = Detroit Tigers = = = In 1943, the Texas League disbanded due to the shortage of players during World War II. Oana was sold to the Milwaukee Brewers in February 1943, and he appeared in 20 games for that team. However, baseball commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis ruled that Oana was a free agent since the Texas League had disbanded. In late June 1943, Oana signed with the Detroit Tigers. In an introductory interview with the Detroit press, Oana had this to say about his supposed connection to Hawaiian royalty: When I first joined the Seals, stories were published that I was a Hawaiian prince. The more I denied them, the more people believed them. I'm plain plain Henry Oana. Just call me Hank. On July 3, 1943, Oana played a key role in a double-header sweep of the New York Yankees that Detroit general manager Jack Zeller said brought "the greatest thrills of any game he witnessed." In the second game of the double header, the Yankees led 5 – 2 in the third inning. Detroit manager Steve O'Neill brought in his newly acquired pitcher, Oana. O'Neill reportedly concluded that "the game was lost and so why waste his good pitchers." Oana gave up four more runs, and the Yankees led 9 – 3 after seven innings. Oana then held the Yankees scoreless in the eighth inning and hit a three-run home run in the bottom of the eighth inning. He held the Yankees scoreless again in the ninth inning, and the Tigers won the game with four runs in the bottom of the ninth. Oana was the winning pitcher and had his first major league home run in the same game. In all, Oana appeared in 10 games for the Tigers in 1943, all as a reliever, compiling a 3 – 2 record with a 4.50 ERA in 34 innings pitched. Oana also compiled a .385 batting average with two doubles, a triple, a home run, and seven RBIs in only 26 at bats for the 1943 Tigers. Late in the 1943 season, Oana was returned to the Milwaukee Brewers, appearing in several games until he sustained a fractured wrist. In December 1943, the Brewers sold Oana to the Buffalo Bisons of the International League. Oana compiled a 13 – 13 record with a 3.63 ERA in 38 games for the Bisons in 1944. He also spent most of the 1945 season in Buffalo, compiling a 15 – 14 record (4.20 ERA) in 31 games. In August 1945, on the recommendation of Buffalo manager Bucky Harris, the Tigers called him back up to the big leagues. With the Tigers were competing for the American League pennant, Oana appeared in three games, one as a starter. Oana compiled a 1.59 ERA in 11 innings for the 1945 Tigers team that won the pennant and the 1945 World Series. His only major league game as a starting pitcher was on September 12, 1945, against the Philadelphia Athletics: Oana allowed one hit through the first eight innings, pitched 10-2 / 3 innings and allowed only two runs, though the Tigers lost the game, 3 – 2, in the 16th inning. = = = Final years in the minors = = = After the 1945 season, Oana was sold to the Dallas Rebels of the Texas League. By July 1946, he was ranked among the league's top hitters and pitchers. He finished the 1946 season with a 24 – 10 record, a 2.54 ERA, a .303 batting average and seven home runs in 185 at bats. Oana remained in Dallas for two years, 1946 and 1947. He then played three years as a player-manager for the Austin Pioneers of the Big State League from 1948 to 1950. He concluded his career as the player-manager for the Texarkana Bears in 1951. He ended his minor league career with a .304 batting average with 2,292 hits, including 428 doubles, 130 triples, and 261 home runs. = = Personal and later life = = During his playing career, Oana developed a "reputation as a playboy," who "had too many extra-curricular activities." He was reported to have dressed like "a dandy", been "the Beau Brummel of baseball," and been idolized by fans for his "S-S appeal, socks and sex." Oana was married multiple times. With his first wife, Arma Puninani Richardson, he had two sons, George (born 1928) and Henry (born 1929). On October 1, 1935, he was married to Joyce Powell of Winter Haven, Florida. By 1942, he had remarried to Patricial Hall of Atlanta. In 1946, he was reported to be happily married to a Texas girl. He also had at least two marriages late in life, in 1968 to a woman named Cynthia, and in 1974 to Opal Gunn. Spencer Abbott, Oana's minor league manager in Portland and Atlanta, recalled that Oana "worried hell out of me." According to Abbott, Oana had friends in every town, and "it was tough for him to live anything resembling a Spartan life." Abbott speculated that, despite having major league talent, Oana's lifestyle may have held him back from becoming a star in the major leagues. In 1946, Abbott opined: "If he had been a less handsome fellow with the same ability he might have been a ten-year star now in the major leagues." Oana's baseball career ended in 1951, in part due to vision problems. In the spring of 1952, Oana underwent surgery in Austin, Texas, to remove cataracts from his right eye. He reportedly underwent eye surgery five times over the next 10 years and lived and worked during the late 1950s and early 1960s in a rehabilitation center for the blind in Austin, Texas. He worked there as an instructor teaching crafts to the totally blind. In 1965, the Associated Press reported that Oana's vision had returned and that he hoped to secure a job as a baseball coach, which would enable him to reimburse the Travis Association for the Blind for the assistance it provided while his vision was substantially lost due to cataracts in both eyes. In his later years, Oana regained much of his vision and continued living in Austin, Texas. He operated a lakeside fishing business and was also a captain with the Travis County Sheriff's Department. Oana died of a heart attack in 1976 at his home in Austin, Texas at the age of 66, and was buried at the Oakwood Cemetery Annex in Austin.

= M-209 (Michigan highway) = M-209 was a state trunkline highway in the lower peninsula of the US state of Michigan. It was located in Leelanau County in the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore. Until it was decommissioned, it was Michigan's shortest state highway. M-209 started at M-109 and went 0.543 miles (0.874 km) or just 956 yards (874 m) to Glen Haven. In 1996, M-209's designation was "abandoned", and the road was turned over to the jurisdiction of the Leelanau County Road Commission. = = Route description = = M-209 was the short connector route from M-109 to the Glen Haven unit of the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore west of Glen Arbor. The southern terminus of the highway was at the intersection with M-109 south of Glen Haven, a restored logging village on the shore of Lake Michigan on the Leelanau Peninsula. The roadway ran north from this intersection where M-109 made a 90 – degree corner through the south and east legs of a four-way intersection with M-209 and Dune Valley Road. M-209 ran past such attractions as the restored General Store and Blacksmith Shop. Also located in Glen Haven is the former Glen Haven Canning Co. building. This building was first used as a warehouse and later as a cannery for cherries in the 1920s. It has since been restored as the Cannery Boathouse housing historic wooden boats used in the Manitou Passage between Glen Haven, Glen Arbor and the North and South Manitou Islands. The northern terminus of M-209 was located in front of the former U.S. Coast Guard Life Saving Station, now restored as a maritime museum. The museum is located at the intersection of Glen Haven Road and Sleeping Bear Dunes Road. At the time of decommissioning, M-209 was a two-lane, paved road. Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore is a United States National Lakeshore located on the "little finger" of the lower peninsula of Michigan in Leelanau and Benzie counties. The park covers a 35-mile (56 km) stretch of Lake Michigan's eastern coastline, as well as North and South Manitou Islands. The park was authorized on October 21, 1970. = = History = = From its inception in the 1920s, M-209 was Michigan's shortest highway. It connected the small community of Glen Haven to M-109 just south of the community. Glen Haven was founded as a settlement called Sleeping Bearville with a sawmill and an inn in 1857. By 1881, there were 11 buildings in the community. The lifesaving station was built in 1901 and moved to its present location in 1931 before closing in 1941. M-209 was first assumed as a state trunkline in the 1920s. It would later serve the national lakeshore when the park was created on October 21, 1970. The Park Service purchased all of the village by the mid-1970s. The highway was turned over to Leelanau County control on June 5, 1996. It is now known only as Glen Haven Road. Since the transfer, M-212 in Cheboygan County is now the shortest highway in the state. = = Major intersections = = The entire highway was in Glen Arbor Township, Leelanau County.

= Eastern Area Command (RAAF) = Eastern Area Command was one of several geographically based commands raised by the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) during World War II. It was formed in May 1942, and controlled units based in New South Wales and southern Queensland. Headquartered in Sydney, Eastern Area Command was primarily responsible for air defence, aerial reconnaissance and protection of the sea lanes within its boundaries. The area continued to function following the end of the war, transferring its headquarters to Glenbrook, in the Blue Mountains, in 1949. By this time most of the RAAF's operational units were based within Eastern Area's boundaries. It was re-formed in October 1953 as Home Command (renamed Operational Command in 1959, and Air Command in 1987) under the RAAF's new functional command-and-control system. = = History = = = = = World War II = = = Prior to World War II, the Royal Australian Air Force was small enough for all its elements to be directly controlled by RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne. When war broke out, the RAAF began to decentralise its command structure, commensurate with expected increases in manpower and units. Between March 1940 and May 1941, Australia and Papua were divided into four geographically based command-and-control zones: Central Area, Southern Area, Western Area, and Northern Area. The roles of the area commands were air defence, protection of adjacent sea lanes, and aerial reconnaissance. Each was led by an Air Officer Commanding (AOC) who controlled the administration and operations of all air bases and units within his boundary. Central Area was disbanded in August 1941 and its responsibilities divided between Southern Area, Northern Area, and the newly formed No. 2 (Training) Group. The outbreak of the Pacific War resulted in Northern Area being split in January 1942 into North-Western and North-Eastern Areas, to counter separate Japanese threats to Northern Australia and New Guinea. Southern Area was also considered appropriate for division owing to its size, so the Air Board proposed assigning responsibility for operational and maintenance units within New South Wales to a new area command, Eastern Area, which would also assume control of units in southern Queensland from North-Eastern Area. Headquartered in the Sydney suburb of Edgecliff, Eastern Area Command was formed on 15 May 1942 under the leadership of Air Vice Marshal Bill Anderson. Staff numbered 114, including forty-five officers. Training units in New South Wales remained part of No. 2 (Training) Group. No. 5 (Maintenance) Group was formed in Sydney on 1 June, and took responsibility for all maintenance units initially controlled by Eastern Area Command. In September, the Allied Air Forces commander in the South West Pacific Area, Major General George Kenney, formed the majority of his US flying units into the Fifth Air Force, and most of their Australian counterparts into RAAF Command, led by Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock. Bostock exercised control of Australian air operations through the area commands, although RAAF Headquarters continued to hold overarching administrative authority, meaning that Bostock and his area commanders were ultimately dependent on the Chief of the Air Staff, Air Vice Marshal George Jones, for supplies and equipment. Of necessity, the RAAF's two northerly area commands were primarily responsible for bombing and air defence, while the other commands focussed on maritime patrol and anti-submarine warfare. Aircraft from Eastern Area flew over 400 patrol, anti-submarine, and convoy escort missions in January 1943. By April, the command was operating seven combat units: No. 5 Squadron, flying army cooperation missions with CAC Wirraways out of Kingaroy, Queensland; No. 23 Squadron, flying dive-bombing missions with Wirraways from Lowood, Queensland; No. 24 Squadron, flying dive-bombing missions with Wirraways from Bankstown, New South Wales; No. 32 Squadron, flying reconnaissance and bombing missions with Lockheed Hudsons from Camden, New South Wales; No. 71 Squadron, flying maritime reconnaissance and anti-submarine missions with Avro Ansons from Lowood; No. 73 Squadron, flying maritime reconnaissance and anti-submarine missions with Ansons from Nowra, New South Wales; and No. 83 Squadron, flying fighter missions with Wirraways from Strathpine, Queensland. Area headquarters staff numbered 626, including ninety-nine officers. Bristol Beauforts of No. 32 Squadron were credited with damaging a Japanese submarine on 19 June, but neither the RAAF nor the Royal Australian Navy was able to destroy any enemy submarines in coastal waters during 1943. Anderson handed over command of Eastern Area to Air Commodore John Summers in July 1943. Group Captain Alister Murdoch became senior air staff officer (SASO). On 22 October, Avro Lancaster Q-for-Queenie, piloted by Flight Lieutenant Peter Isaacson, "buzzed" the Eastern Area headquarters building in Edgecliff before flying under the Sydney Harbour Bridge, flouting regulations and becoming the largest aircraft to pull such a stunt. The same month, the Air Board proposed carving a new area command out of Eastern Area, which by then was considered too large to be controlled by one headquarters and therefore ripe for division. The new command, to be known as Central Area, would have been responsible for training and operational units in southern Queensland; the War Cabinet deferred its decision on the proposal. The concept was raised again in August 1944, and this time Central Area Command was to control maintenance units, as well as training and operations, in southern Queensland; once again, nothing came of the proposal. Air Commodore Alan Charlesworth was appointed AOC Eastern Area in December 1943. Japanese submarine activity had decreased in the months prior to Charlesworth taking command, and he was concerned that Allied ships were becoming complacent. He observed "a general slackening off in procedure; ships are seldom where they should be, and a minority of merchant ships identify themselves to aircraft". The RAAF's patrols had also settled into a predictable pattern that an observant submarine captain could easily avoid. Charlesworth relinquished command in September 1944 to take over North-Western Area. In December, aircraft from Eastern Area took part in the search for the German submarine U-862, but could not prevent it sinking the Liberty ship Robert J. Walker on Christmas; a Beaufort of No. 15 Squadron, based at Camden, located the wreck. No. 32 Squadron lost a Beaufort with its crew shortly after takeoff from Lowood during the search for U-862, which was called off in January 1945. That month, Air Commodore Leon Lachal became AOC Eastern Area, and held command for the duration of the Pacific War. = = = Post-war activity and reorganisation = = = Following the end of the Pacific War in August 1945, South West Pacific Area was dissolved and RAAF Headquarters again assumed full control of all its operational elements, including the area commands. According to the official history of the post-war Air Force, the AOC Eastern Area was considered "Australia's senior operational airman" and delegated by the Chief of the Air Staff with day-to-day responsibility for the nation's air defence. Most of the RAAF's bases and aircraft employed in operations were situated within Eastern Area's sphere of control in New South Wales and southern Queensland. Air Commodore Frank Lukis succeeded Lachal as AOC in December 1945. By the end of the month, headquarters staff numbered 1,122, including 104 officers. No. 82 (Bomber) Wing came under the control of Eastern Area Command in April 1946, when it moved to RAAF Station Amberley, Queensland; initially operating B-24 Liberators, the wing re-equipped with Avro Lincolns soon after. By this time Eastern Area headquarters occupied seven mansions in Point Piper, Sydney; it subsequently relocated to Bradfield Park. Lukis retired from the Air Force in May, and Charlesworth took over command. In July – August 1946, Eastern Area Command oversaw the establishment of No. 86 (Transport) Wing, operating C-47 Dakotas, at RAAF Station Schofields, New South Wales, displacing No. 78 (Fighter) Wing, which moved to RAAF Station Williamtown, and began operating P-51 Mustangs. The following month, Air Vice Marshal Jones proposed reducing the five mainland area commands (North-Western, North-Eastern, Eastern, Southern, and Western Areas) to three: Northern Area, covering Queensland and the Northern Territory; Eastern Area, covering New South Wales; and Southern Area, covering Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania. The proposal was part of a much larger plan to restructure the post-war RAAF; the Federal government rejected the plan and the wartime area command boundaries largely remained in place. Lachal succeeded Charlesworth as AOC Eastern Area in October, and held command until his retirement from the Air Force in July 1947. Lachal's successor as AOC Eastern Area, Air Vice Marshal Frank Bladin, was responsible for preparing the transfer of its headquarters from Bradfield Park to the former Lapstone Hotel at Glenbrook in the Lower Blue Mountains, a process that was completed in 1949. As well as commanding a view of the surrounding countryside, the property was within five kilometres (three miles) of the City of Penrith and thirty kilometres (twenty miles) of RAAF Station Richmond, and incorporated a disused railway tunnel that offered, according to government correspondence, "complete protection from Atom Bomb attack". An adjoining property, "Briarcliffe", was purchased soon afterwards to augment the new headquarters' accommodation facilities. Bladin completed his term as AOC Eastern Area in October 1948. Air Vice Marshal John McCauley was appointed AOC in March the following year. McCauley commanded Eastern Area during the early years of the Malayan Emergency, and oversaw the deployment of No. 90 (Composite) Wing to administer RAAF units stationed there — a Lincoln squadron detached from No. 82 Wing and a Dakota squadron from No. 86 Wing. Having re-equipped with de Havilland Vampire jets, No. 78 Wing departed Williamtown for garrison duties with the RAF on Malta in July 1952. In May 1953, Eastern Area's SASO, Group Captain Frank Headlam, announced that the Air Force was planning to re-equip No. 82 Wing with English Electric Canberra jet bombers, and also procure CAC Sabre swept-wing jet fighters. The Federal government retired Air Marshal Jones in 1952 and replaced him with Air Marshal Donald Hardman, RAF, who proceeded to re-organise the RAAF command-and-control system along functional lines, establishing Home (operational), Training, and Maintenance Commands in October 1953. The first was re-formed from Eastern Area Command as it was considered the RAAF's de facto operational organisation. The second was re-formed from Southern Area Command, as it was the hub of training services, controlling those in New South Wales and Queensland as well as Victoria and South Australia. The third and last functional command was formed from the extant Maintenance Group headquarters in Melbourne. The transition to a functional system was completed in February 1954, when the three new commands assumed control of operations, training and maintenance from Western, North-Western, and North-Eastern Areas. = = Aftermath = = The functional commands established in 1953 – 54 were revised in 1959. Home Command was renamed Operational Command, and Training and Maintenance Commands merged to become Support Command. Operational Command was renamed Air Command in 1987, and three years later Support Command split into Logistics Command and Training Command. Throughout the evolution from Home to Operational to Air Command, the headquarters remained at Glenbrook in the Blue Mountains. In 1997, logistics management became the responsibility of Support Command (Air Force), the RAAF component of the Defence-wide Support Command Australia (later subsumed by the Defence Materiel Organisation). Training Command was re-formed as Air Force Training Group, a force element group under Air Command, in 2006. Air Command thus became the sole command-level organisation in the RAAF. = = Order of battle = = As at May 1944, Eastern Area controlled the following squadrons: No. 11 Squadron, equipped with Consolidated PBY Catalinas, based in Rathmines No. 21 Squadron, equipped with Vultee Vengeances, based at Camden No. 32 Squadron, equipped with Bristol Beauforts, based at Lowood No. 107 Squadron, equipped with Vought Kingfishers, based at St. George's Basin

= Nels Nelsen = Nels Nelsen (3 June 1894 – 3 June 1943), born Nils Johan Nilsen and sometimes incorrectly referred to as Nels Nelson, was a Norwegian-born Canadian ski jumper and later ski jumping organizer. He was among the world's best ski jumpers during the 1920s, and held the world record of 73 meters from 1925 to 1930. Born in Salangen, he moved with his family to Revelstoke, British Columbia, in 1913. He quickly became the town's best ski jumper, making his debut in the town's Big Hill in 1916. He competed throughout Canada and the United States, and became Canadian champion five times. Despite holding the world record at the time, he was not allowed to participate in the 1928 Winter Olympics because the officials did not find it suitable for him to have to work his way to Switzerland. Nelsen worked for the Canadian Pacific Railway, and moved to North Vancouver, British Columbia, where he raised a family. Nelsen lost his hand in a hunting accident in 1933, and was forced to retire as a ski jumper. He continued as an organizer, and was among other things president of the Western Canada Amateur Ski Association and later vice-president of the Canadian Amateur Ski Association. In 1948, after Big Hill had been expanded, it was renamed Nels Nelsen Hill. Nelsen was inscribed in the U.S. National Ski Hall of Fame in 1971 and the Canadian Ski Hall of Fame in 1983. = = Early and personal life = = He was born Nils Johan Nilsen to a Norwegian family in Seljeskog in Salangen on 3 June 1894, as the oldest of six children. As a child, Nelsen was an active skier and ski jumper, with more than fifteen ski jumps located in the area. In 1913, his family emigrated to Big Eddy near Revelstoke. Once in Canada, he anglicized his name. His brother, Ivind Nilsen was also a champion ski jumper, and became among other things Boy's World Champion in 1922. Ivind, who chose not to anglicize his last name, was known for his supreme style, while Nels was better known for his length. Nelsen married Emma Pickard, with whom he had ten children. Except for a brief period as a ski instructor, he worked as a brakeman and conductor for the Canadian Pacific Railway, whose flexibility made it easer to participate in tournaments. He moved to North Vancouver where he raised his family. = = Athletic career = = Nelsen won the home-town Winter Carnival Tournament, setting the hill record of 56 meters (183 ft) in Big Hill in the inauguration tournament in 1916. With this and subsequent better distances, he would hold the hill record in Revelstoke until 1932. In 1916, he won the Championship of Canada Ski Jumping Contest, which he would subsequently defend every year until 1920. He continued by setting the Canadian amateur record in 1920, and breaking it again in 1921 and 1923. He was among the most successful jumpers in Canada from 1916 to 1925, taking home most trophies. Among his methods to improve his jumps was placing pieces of lead at the front or back of the skies to give optimal balance. Nelsen traveled throughout Canada and the United States to attend ski jumping competitions. In British Columbia, he attended competitions in Nelson, Trail, Rossland, Princeton, Kamloops, Sandon, Nakusp, Kimberley and Cranbrook. In Alberta, he attended tournaments in Calgary, Edmonton, Banff and Camrose; in eastern Canada in Ottawa and Montreal. In the United States, he attended events in Mount Rainier and Leavenworth in Washington; Dillon, Steamboat Springs and Denver in Colorado; Salt Lake City; and Brattleboro, Vermont. He became Canadian champion five times, in 1917, 1918, 1919, 1920 and 1922. His various best jumps were Canadian records from 1916 to 1932. During the 1925 Winter Carnival Tournament, Nelsen, sick with influenza, set a world record at the Big Hill. Jumping 73 meters (240 ft), the record remained until it was broken by Adolph Badrut at Bernina-Roseg-Schanze in Switzerland in 1930, who jumped 75 meters (246 ft). However, Bob Lymburne was able to again claim the world record for the Big Hill, when he jumped 82 meters (269 ft) in 1932. Although accepted as a record, it was not at the time favored in Europe to stress distance records. This was because it was regarded that simply building a larger hill would undoubtedly give a longer jump, and in part because such records did not take style into consideration. Nelsen and Melbourne McKenzie planned to travel to St. Moritz, Switzerland, to attend the 1928 Winter Olympics, but lack of funding meant that they planned for work for their fare on a freighter. These plans were stopped by officials from the British delegation, who felt it was inappropriate and not fitting for the team, and Nelsen never competed in any Winter Olympics. Nelsen kept his amateur status, but did well against professionals those times he competed against them. During the winter of 1932, he worked as a ski instructor in Quebec. In a hunting accident in 1932, he lost an arm, and never jumped again. = = Organizer career and legacy = = After arriving in Revelstoke, Nelsen was instrumental in the establishment of Revelstoke Ski Club and the Big Hill located within Mount Revelstoke National Park. In 1927, he helped establish a ski jump in Grouse Mountain in North Vancouver. After his accident, he started working to establish Field Ski Club in Field, British Columbia, where he spent time between trains. He promoted a strict adherence to the amateur code, and stated that debates regarding professionalism were disruptive for the United States National Ski Association. Traditionally, governing of skiing in Canada was split between the Canadian Amateur Ski Association (CASA) and the Western Canada Amateur Ski Association (WCASA). Nelsen was the latter's president, and after years of rivalry, which even reached the point where they did not recognize each other, Nelsen eventually was part of the negotiation for an amalgamation which took into consideration the needs of the western clubs. Nelsen subsequently became vice-president of CASA from 1934. He died of heart failure in Field on 3 June 1943 — his 49th birthday. In 1948, after Big Hill had been expanded, it was renamed Nels Nelsen Hill. Nelsen was inscribed in the U.S. National Ski Hall of Fame in 1971, the Canadian Ski Hall of Fame in 1983, and the following year in the BC Sports Hall of Fame.

= Manny Malhotra = Emmanuel "Manny" Noveen Malhotra (born May 18, 1980) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centre, who is currently an unrestricted free agent who last played with the Lake Erie Monsters in the American Hockey League (AHL) on a try-out basis. He previously played in the NHL for the Montreal Canadiens, Carolina Hurricanes, Vancouver Canucks, San Jose Sharks, Columbus Blue Jackets, Dallas Stars and the New York Rangers. Malhotra is known as a two-way forward and for his faceoff proficiency. = = Playing career = = Malhotra was drafted in the first round as the seventh overall pick of the 1998 NHL Entry Draft by the New York Rangers. He joined the NHL after a two-year career in the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) with the Guelph Storm, with served as captain in his final year. Winning a J. Ross Robertson Cup championship and subsequently appearing in the 1998 Memorial Cup with the Storm, Malhotra also earned a Bobby Smith Trophy, George Parsons Trophy and Memorial Cup All-Star honours as a junior. He played with the Rangers from 1998 to 2002. During this time he was assigned on numerous occasions to the team's AHL affiliate, the Hartford Wolf Pack, with whom he won a Calder Cup championship in 2000. At the 2001 – 02 trade deadline, he was dealt to the Stars and spent parts of three seasons with the club. Beginning in 2003 – 04, Malhotra began to see increased offensive production, marked by his acquisition off waivers by the Blue Jackets. After four seasons in Columbus, he signed a one-year contract with the Sharks in September 2009. He recorded a career-high in goals with San Jose, before joining the Canucks on a three-year deal. In his first season with Vancouver, Malhotra suffered a major injury to his left eye, requiring several surgeries. Despite having lost a significant amount of his vision, he returned the same year to compete in the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals. He struggled to play with the injury until Canucks management placed him on the injured reserve for the remainder of the 2012-13 season in February 2013. Internationally, Malhotra has represented Canada in under-18 competition, two World Junior Championships and one World Championship. Serving as team captain at the 2000 World Junior Championships, Malhotra led Canada to a bronze medal. = = = Guelph Storm = = = After playing minor hockey with the Mississauga Reps of the Metro Toronto Hockey League (MTHL), After being selected in the first round (17th overall) of the 1996 OHL Priority Selection, Malhotra played two seasons in the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) with the Guelph Storm, beginning in 1996 – 97. He scored 16 goals and 44 points over 61 games in his rookie season. In the 1997 playoffs, he added 14 points in 18 games as Guelph lost in the semifinals to the Ottawa 67's. The following season, he improved to 16 goals and 51 points over 57 games. He served as team captain while being assigned the primary role of shutting down opposing team's top forwards. Guelph advanced to the OHL Finals, where they defeated Ottawa in five games to capture the J. Ross Robertson Cup. Malhotra had 13 points in 12 games in the championship-winning playoff season. Earning a berth into the 1998 Memorial Cup, Guelph made it to the final, where they lost to the Portland Winter Hawks 4 – 3 in overtime. Malhotra ranked third in tournament scoring with a goal and seven points over five games. He was named to the Memorial Cup All-Star Team and was awarded the George Parsons Trophy as the tournament's most sportsmanlike player. = = = New York Rangers = = = In the off-season, Malhotra was drafted by the New York Rangers in the first round, seventh overall, of the 1998 NHL Entry Draft. The Rangers scouted him as a strong, physical player with good hockey sense and character, comparing him to Adam Graves. He was surprised to have been selected by the Rangers, as they were one of the only teams to have not interviewed or met with him prior to the draft. He anticipated being drafted by the Calgary Flames at sixth overall, as the team's general manager, Al Coates had previously drafted him into the OHL as general manager of the Storm. With the 1998 – 99 approaching, Malhotra had not yet signed an NHL contract with the Rangers by October. League rules stipulated that if he did not sign by October 8, 1998, he would be required to return to junior for the entire campaign. The night before the deadline, Malhotra and the Rangers agreed to a three-year deal worth the rookie-maximum of $975,000 with performance-based incentives that could have increased his salary to $2 million. Making the immediate jump from junior to the NHL at the age of 18, he became the second player of Indian heritage to play in the NHL. Malhotra recorded eight goals and 16 points over 73 games as a rookie. During the season, the Rangers were interested in acquiring Vancouver Canucks forward Pavel Bure. It was reported that Canucks general manager Brian Burke had requested Malhotra to be involved in a trade that would have sent him along with Niklas Sundstrom, Dan Cloutier and the Rangers' first-round pick in the 1999 draft in exchange for Bure. However, Rangers general manager Neil Smith refused to include Malhotra and the deal never materialized. The following season, he struggled to earn a regular spot on the Rangers' roster and was often a healthy scratch. Rangers head coach John Muckler publicly declared before the beginning of the Malhotra's second NHL campaign that he would be nothing more than a career third-liner. Malhotra's potential was often at the centre of an ongoing dispute between Muckler and Smith. Malhotra suffered an ankle injury in November that sidelined him for four games. Upon his recovery, his play was judged by team management to have suffered and he began to be benched. Meanwhile, the Canadian national junior team wanted the Rangers to loan him to them for the 2000 World Junior Championships. On December 12, 1999, general manager Neil Smith obliged and assigned Malhotra for the international tournament. He was then sent for a two-week conditioning assignment with the Rangers' American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Hartford Wolf Pack. On March 14, 2000, he was sent back down to the OHL on March 14, 2000, in order to retain his eligibility for later AHL assignment in the season. Malhotra had dressed for only four games in the two months between his return from the World Junior Championships in early-January and his junior reassignment. He was pointless in the 27 games total he played with the Rangers that season. Returning to Guelph, he played in five regular season and six playoff games. Upon his junior club's first-round playoff elimination, he was reassigned to the Wolf Pack where he recorded a goal and six points over 12 games to finish the regular season. He then added three points in 23 post-season contests, helping the Wolf Pack to the franchise's first Calder Cup championship. Malhotra returned to the Wolf Pack the following season after failing to make the Rangers' roster out of training camp. With New York deep at the centre position, his AHL assignment was predicated on him learning to play wing. He received numerous call-ups to New York and finished the 2000 – 01 campaign with 11 points over 28 games in the AHL and 12 points over 50 games in the NHL. The season also marked a management change as Glen Sather took over as general manager, marking the departure of Smith, who had drafted Malhotra and regarded him as untradeable during his tenure. Fifty-six games into his 2001 – 02 season with the Rangers, Sather dealt Malhotra to the Dallas Stars at the trade deadline, along with winger Barrett Heisten, in exchange for forwards Martin Rucinsky and Roman Lyashenko. Although he had established himself as an effective forechecker and defensive forward, Malhotra did not materialize into the offensive player the Rangers hoped he would be. = = = Post-New York = = = Malhotra welcomed the trade to Dallas as an opportunity for more playing time, as he was sparsely used with the Rangers. However, he saw limited success with the Stars. Following his trade, he recorded one point, a goal, in 16 games to finish the 2001 – 02 season. He was re-signed by Dallas to a two-year contract on June 27, 2002. In 2002 – 03, he recorded 10 points over 59 games. He appeared in his first Stanley Cup playoffs as the Stars qualified for the 2003 post-season as the top seed in the Western Conference. They were eliminated in the second round by the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. After going pointless in nine games early the following season, the Stars waived Malhotra on November 19, 2003. Two days later, he was picked up by the Columbus Blue Jackets. Malhotra improved with the Blue Jackets, notching 12 goals and 25 points over 56 games following the trade. He missed the final six games of the regular season with a bruised ankle. His ice time rose from an average of nine minutes a game with Dallas the previous season to 14 minutes in Columbus. Due to the NHL lockout, Malhotra spent the 2004 – 05 season overseas in Europe. He initially signed with HDD Olimpija Ljubljana of Slovenia on October 8, 2004, and recorded 27 points over 26 games (including both Slovenian league and inter-league play). On December 12, he signed with HV71 Jönköping of the Swedish Elite League. He notched seven points in 20 games with the club. Returning to Columbus as NHL resumed play the following season, Malhotra spent 2005 – 06 centering Columbus' third line. Despite missing 24 games due to injury with back spasms in November and a shoulder injury in January, he improved his points total for the second straight NHL season with 10 goals and 21 assists. The Blue Jackets re-signed him in the off-season to a three-year contract on June 20, 2006. In the first year of his new contract, he tallied nine goals and 25 points over a full 82-game season. Malhotra missed 11 games with a recurring knee injury in December 2007. Late in the 2007 – 08 season, on March 17, 2008, he recorded a career-high three points in one game (two goals and an assist) in a 4 – 3 win against the Detroit Red Wings. He finished the campaign with 11 goals and 29 points. Early in the 2008 – 09 season, Malhotra missed five games with a lower-body injury. He recorded a career-high 24 assists and 35 points over 77 games during the campaign. As Columbus was plagued with numerous injuries over the course of the season, Malhotra was used on various lines while also in a shutdown role, playing against top opposing forwards. His contract was not renewed by the Blue Jackets in the 2009 off-season and he became an unrestricted free agent. After failing to sign with an NHL team, Malhotra accepted an invitation to the San Jose Sharks' training camp on September 17, 2009. Five days later, he signed a one-year, $700,000 deal with the team. He went on to record a career-high 14 goals and plus-17 rating, along with 19 assists for 33 points, in his only season with the Sharks. He centred the team's third line and earned time playing wing on the powerplay. The Sharks did not re-sign him, however, and he became an unrestricted free agent for the second consecutive summer on July 1, 2010. Looking back on his time in San Jose, Malhotra called it the "most enjoyable season [he's] had as a pro," being able to play for a winning team and have a long playoff run for the first time in his NHL career. = = = Vancouver Canucks = = = On his first day of free agency on July 1, 2010, Malhotra signed a three-year, $7.5 million deal with the Vancouver Canucks that included a no-trade clause. Malhotra was named an alternate captain during away games for the Canucks before the season began. He scored his first goal as a Canuck on October 22, during a 5 – 1 win against the Minnesota Wild. Malhotra settled into to the Canucks' lineup as the team's third-line centre, often playing with wingers Raffi Torres and Jannik Hansen, while playing significant time on the penalty kill and matching up against opposing team's best forwards. His success as a defensive specialist earned him early consideration for the Selke Trophy as the league's best two-way forward. In an article on the NHL's website, he was chosen as the front-runner for the award at the mid-way point of the campaign. He was also credited with allowing the team to use Ryan Kesler in a more offensive role (Kesler was the team's previous shutdown centre); as a result, the second-line centre recorded career-highs in goals and points. Near the end of the season, Malhotra was struck in the eye by a puck during a game against the Colorado Avalanche on March 16, 2011. He immediately left the ice and underwent eye surgery the following day. It was announced on March 21, 2011 that Malhotra would not be returning to the lineup for the rest of the regular season and the playoffs, without further comment on Malhotra's condition. Eight days later, he underwent a second successful surgery on his eye. Limited to 72 games, Malhotra recorded his third consecutive 30-point season with 11 goals and 19 assists, while playing on the Canucks' third line with Raffi Torres and Jannik Hansen. His 61.7% faceoff percentage ranked second in the league behind David Steckel. The campaign also included the 100th goal of his NHL career, scored in a 3-0 win against the Anaheim Ducks on March 6, 2011. On a team-basis, Malhotra's first season with the Canucks saw them earn the Presidents' Trophy for having the best regular season record in the league. In the midst of his recovery, Malhotra made an appearance during the team's pre-game ceremony at Rogers Arena, co-accepting the trophy with captain Henrik Sedin. Despite original statements from the team that he would not return for the playoffs, Malhotra began working his way up from light practices with the team in May 2011. By the end of the month, he was cleared by doctors to play in the Stanley Cup Finals. Though he remained out of the lineup for Game 1, he returned for the following contest and played the rest of the series as the team's fourth-line centre (late-season acquisition Maxim Lapierre filled in for Malhotra on the third line). Playing against the Boston Bruins, the Finals went to a seventh game, which the Canucks lost. Malhotra's regular season performance earned him six first-place votes out of 125 for the Selke Trophy. He ranked fifth in balloting, as teammate Ryan Kesler won the distinction at the year-end Awards Ceremony. Having lost a significant amount of his vision in his left eye, Malhotra struggled in his first full season since the injury in 2011 – 12. He was supplanted as the Canucks' third-line centre by rookie Cody Hodgson and later Samuel Pahlsson. Canucks head coach Alain Vigneault assessed Malhotra during the season as "not the same physical player he was before," adding that "He's still contributing but not maybe to the degree that he was before he got injured." Playing left wing on the fourth line, he remained an integral part of the team by playing on the penalty kill and taking important defensive zone faceoffs. Near the end of the campaign, Malhotra was chosen as the Canucks' nominee for the Bill Masterton Trophy, an annual NHL award for perseverance, sportsmanship and dedication to hockey. With a diminished offensive role, Malhotra finished his second season in Vancouver with 7 goals and 18 points over 78 games, as well as a -10 plus-minus rating. He remained among the league's elite in terms of faceoffs, however, ranking fourth with a 58.5% percentage. Continuing to struggle with his eye injury, Malhotra was put on the injured reserve a month into the 2012-13 season. Fearing for his long-term health, Canucks general manager Mike Gillis took him out of the lineup for the season, a decision that he described as the "hardest thing [he has] done in [his] job." Malhotra had appeared in nine games without recording a point. = = = Carolina Hurricanes = = = At the end of the 2013 NHL season, Malhotra became an unrestricted free agent. After being unsigned by an NHL team at the start of the 2013 – 14 season and looking to continue his playing career Malhotra signed a 25-game professional try out (PTO) contract with the AHL's Charlotte Checkers. The Carolina Hurricanes signed Malhotra to a one-year two way contract on October 31 and he made his Carolina debut against the New York Rangers on November 2. On November 6, Manny scored his first NHL goal in 19 months, scoring a game winner in overtime against the Flyers. As a measure of the amount of respect he has earned in the locker room in just a few weeks, Manny was selected to be an interim Assistant Captain while Tim Gleason is out with an injury. After Gleason was traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs, Malhotra was officially declared Alternate Captain for the remainder of the season. = = = Montreal Canadiens = = = On July 1, 2014, Malhotra signed as a free agent to a one-year deal with the Montreal Canadiens. In the 2014 – 15 season, Malhotra was primarily used as the Canadiens fourth line center and face-off specialist. On February 28, 2015, Malhotra scored his first and only goal with Montreal in his 53rd appearance in a 4-0 victory over the Toronto Maple Leafs. Malhotra completed the season registering only 4 points in 58 contests. On May 15, 2015, it was announced by Canadiens GM Marc Bergevin, that Malhotra would not return to the Montreal Canadiens next season. In July 2015, Malhotra officially became a Free Agent and proceeded to go un-signed over the summer. Two months into the 2015 – 16 season, Malhotra returned within the Columbus Blue Jackets organization by signing a professional try-out contract with American Hockey League affiliate, the Lake Erie Monsters on December 3, 2015. = = International career = = In the summer of 1997, Malhotra captained Canada's under-18 team to a championship at the 3 Nations Cup in the Czech Republic. Canada finished as tournament champions, going undefeated over six games against the Czech Republic and Slovakia in the three-country competition. The following year, Malhotra was named to the Canadian national under-20 team for the 1998 World Junior Championships, held in Finland. He was the second-youngest player on the team, behind Vincent Lecavalier. Malhotra was pointless in seven games as Canada was defeated in the quarterfinal by Russia 2 – 1. The following year, he was not available for the tournament as he was playing in the NHL with the Rangers. In 2000, however, he was loaned to Team Canada by the Rangers' organization, as he was still eligible as a junior. Serving as team captain, he notched two assists over seven games in the tournament, held in Sweden. Canada earned the bronze medal, defeating the United States 4 – 3 in a shootout. Malhotra debuted with Canada's men's team at the 2002 World Championships in Sweden. He recorded no points in seven games as Canada was eliminated in the quarterfinal by Slovakia. = = Personal life = = Malhotra was born and raised in Mississauga, Ontario. His father, Shadi was born in Lahore and worked as a research chemist for Xerox. He holds over 110 patents and is now retired. His mother, Lise, is a French-Canadian and was a stay-at-home mom. His parents both hold doctorate degrees from the Université Laval in Quebec City – his father's in polymer chemistry and his mother's in biochemistry – and prioritized education for Malhotra. Due to his mother's French background, he spoke both French and English at home. Malhotra has three siblings, two brothers and a sister. Malhotra started playing organized hockey at the age of seven. He attended John Fraser Secondary School in Mississauga before graduating from Our Lady of Lourdes in Guelph, Ontario. Malhotra moved to Guelph to begin his OHL career with the Guelph Storm, during which time he was awarded the Bobby Smith Trophy as the OHL's scholastic player of the year in 1998. He has referred to it as the award he is most proud of in his hockey career. In 2009, he received the National Leadership Award in a ceremony at his former high school in Guelph. In his initial years with the Rangers, the organization arranged for him to live with former player Doug Sulliman and his family. In September 2007, Malhotra married Joann Nash, sister of National Basketball Association (NBA) star Steve Nash and former Vancouver Whitecaps FC midfielder Martin Nash. Malhotra and Joann had their first child in the summer of 2008, a boy named Caleb. Their second son, Isaiah, was born on September 30, 2012. = = Career statistics = = = = = Regular season and playoffs = = = = = = International = = = = = Awards = =

= Ways and Means (The West Wing) = "Ways and Means" is the 47th The West Wing episode and 3rd of the third season. It originally aired on NBC October 24, 2001. The episode sees the beginnings of President Bartlet's Congressional hearings, as well as negotiations over the estate tax. Written by Aaron Sorkin, Eli Attie and Gene Sperling, and directed by Alex Graves, the episode contains the first appearances by Mark Feuerstein as Clifford "Cliff" Calley. There are also guest appearances by Thom Barry, Nicholas Pryor and Miguel Sandoval. = = Plot = = The subpoenas are handed out in the hearing over Bartlet's concealment of his multiple sclerosis. The special prosecutor, Clement Rollins (Pryor), appears to be both fair and responsible, but C.J. believes the White House will be better served in the public eye if investigated by a partisan agent. She therefore decides — against the strong objections of White House counsel Oliver Babish — to present Rollins as an ally of the administration, thereby forcing Congress to take control over the investigation. Meanwhile Donna, unwittingly, becomes entangled in potential problems over the hearings. Ainsley Hayes sets her up on a date with the Republican House Government Oversight Committee counsel Clifford Calley, but even though the date seems to go well, Calley then leaves her quite abruptly in the middle of the street. Donna later realizes the reason: his congressional committee is the one that will be in charge of the investigation, and a relationship between the two could constitute a conflict of interest. While Sam and Bruno are concerned about the loyalty of a powerful California union official (Sandoval), Toby and Josh are preparing for a meeting with the congressional opposition to re-negotiate the estate tax — or the "death tax" as the Republicans have labeled it — but are then surprised by a last-minute cancellation. It soon becomes clear that the Republicans are planning to repeal the estate tax altogether, and might have the votes to do so. An attempt to win over the black caucus, led by Congressman Mark Richardson (Barry), fails. At a loss over what to do, an initiative comes from unexpected quarters. The previously over-cautious political strategist, Doug Wegland, suggests the president responds by doing something he has never done before: veto the bill. President Bartlet himself is confronted with a forest fire in Wyoming, and decides to follow the counter-intuitive advice of his experts, and let the fire burn. Meanwhile he is still struggling to deal with the death of his perennial personal secretary, Mrs. Landingham. Charlie insists that it is necessary to appoint a new person to fill the position, but the president is reluctant to take the step. As the episode ends, Bartlet is searching for a good pen, and realizes the full depth of his dependence on Mrs. Landingham. = = Production = = According to Sorkin, the episode benefited greatly from input by two former White House employees. The scene where Donna stays up all night sorting through documents in cartons was the idea of Eli Attie, Al Gore's chief speechwriter. Meanwhile Gene Sperling, Bill Clinton's chief economic adviser, came up with the sub-plot involving the estate tax. Sorkin, however, had certain misgivings about the estate tax story's appeal, considering the prevalent bipartisan spirit of the time, in the aftermath of the 9 / 11 attacks. In one scene Sam Seaborn speaks to a Latino labor leader, and as the discussion heats up he switches into Spanish. The lobbyist, Victor Campos, claims that he has been used for public relations purposes, something Sam denies. Rob Lowe, who plays Seaborn, had to learn to speak the language convincingly especially for this episode. Sorkin commented, "I tend to torture Rob a little." = = Cultural references = = In one scene, C.J. says that special prosecutor Rollins was the editor of the Yale Law Review. There is no such thing as the Yale Law Review, though the journal of legal scholarship affiliated with the Yale Law School is called the Yale Law Journal.

= Amir al-ʿarab = The amir al-ʿarab (also known as amir al-ʿurban; translation: "commander of the Bedouin") was a title denoting the commander or leader of the Bedouin tribes in Syria in successive Muslim states during the Middle Ages. The title was used as early as the 11th century, but was formally turned into a state institution by the Ayyubid Sultanate and strengthened by the latter's Mamluk successors. The office was preserved under the early Ottomans (16th – 17th centuries), at least ceremonially, but its importance had faded by then. The jurisdiction of the amir al-ʿarab was generally limited to central and northern Syria, and he often held iqtaʿat (fiefs) in the Syrian steppe, which formed the imarat al-ʿarab (emirate of the Bedouin). The imarat al-ʿarab was created both to co-opt the often rebellious Bedouin tribes of Syria and to enlist their support as auxiliary troops. Under the Mamluks, some of the principal duties of the amir al-ʿarab were guarding the desert frontier against the Mongol Ilkhanate in Iraq and Anatolia, ensuring Bedouin loyalty to the state, gathering intelligence on enemy forces, protecting infrastructure, villages and travelers from raids and providing horses and camels to the sultan. In return, the amir al-ʿarab was given iqta'at, an annual salary, official titles and honorary robes. Under the Ayyubids, numerous Arab emirs held the post at any given time and were endowed with iqtaʿat. However, with the onset of Mamluk rule in Syria in 1260, it became a hereditary office consolidated by members of the Al Fadl dynasty, direct descendants of the Tayyid clan of Banu Jarrah. The office remained in the household of the Al Fadl emir, Isa ibn Muhanna, with occasional interruption, well into the early Ottoman era, during which Isa's descendants took over leadership of the Mawali tribe. Under the Ottomans, the role of the amir al-ʿarab appeared centered on providing camels to the state and guarding the Hajj pilgrim caravan in return for annual payments. = = Administration = = The Ayyubids founded the imarat al-ʿarab (emirate of the Bedouins) as a formal state institution. However, due to the fractious nature of the Ayyubid political system, the appointed amir al-ʿarab (pl. umara al-ʿarab) was often unable to maintain authority over all of the Bedouin chieftains, who generally viewed the amir al-ʿarab as their equal rather than their superior. Under the Mamluks, the amir al-ʿarab was appointed by the sultan in Egypt and was considered a state official. His iqtaʿ (fief; pl. iqtaʿat) grants were given to him in a diploma delivered by the sultan's chancery or picked up by the amir al-ʿarab himself if he was visiting the sultan's court in Cairo. In the Mamluk provinces of Damascus, Aleppo and the capital, Cairo, a department called the mihmandāriyya dealt with managing Bedouin affairs and receiving the amir al-ʿarab. The amir al-ʿarab and the other Bedouin emirs were classified as arbāb al-suyūf (men of the sword), i.e. part of the military hierarchy. The rank of an amir al-ʿarab was equal to an amir miʿa muqaddam alf (emir of one hundred [mounted troops], commander of one thousand) and nāẓir al-jaysh (head of the army) of the province of Damascus and the na'ib (governor) of Homs. The early Ottomans preserved the imarat al-arab at least during the 16th century, during which the title was referred to as amir ʿarab-i Shām. However, the rights and role of the amir al-arab and his status in the Ottoman administration in Ottoman Syria are not well-defined in the contemporary sources, according to historian Muhammad Adnan Bakhit. The provincial records of Damascus Eyalet (Province of Damascus), whose jurisdiction extended throughout Syria until the mid-16th century, do not mention the emirate's function. Moreover, Bakhit asserts that it is unclear if the sultan's ratification was required for the Bedouin tribes or the provincial government to recognize the amir al-arab. = = = Incorporation into iqtaʿ system = = = Most chieftains under the Ayyubids were incorporated into the iqtaʿ system and received customary payments from the Ayyubids. The Ayyubids' Mamluk successors paid closer attention to the Bedouin tribes of Syria as they considered the region to be an important frontier in the wars with the Crusaders in the coastal areas and the Mongol Ilkhanate in Anatolia and Iraq. The Mamluks relied on the Bedouin as auxiliary troops and were wary of their unstable, but much-needed, loyalty to the state, and referred to the iqtaʿat of the amir al-ʿarab as an "iqtaʿ iʿtidād (fief of reliance). This status officially precluded the Bedouin from the military service required of iqtaʿ-holders, indicating" a special relationship "between the state and the Bedouin, according to historian Tsugato Sato. In practice, however, the Bedouin of Syria were often called on to participate as auxiliary troops in military expeditions or in emergency situations. The Bedouin iqtaʿat were small compared to those of the mamluk (manumitted slave soldier) emirs, though a number of sultans granted particularly generous iqtaʿat to the amir al-ʿarab. The distribution of iqtaʿat to the tribes was done, at least in part, to persuade them not plunder the unfortified towns and villages of the countryside as they were normally wont to do, and to induce them to cooperate with the state. The frequent rebellion of the tribes also motivated the Mamluks to incorporate them into the iqtaʿ system. The iqtaʿ of the amir al-ʿarab would often be confiscated in cases of rebellion against the sultan. In general, Salamiyah and Palmyra consistently served as iqtaʿat of the amir al-ʿarab, continuing into the early Ottoman era, when the iqtaʿ was supplanted by the timar. Besides Salamiyah and Palmyra, the Ottomans granted the amir al-ʿarab timar grants in the Hawran plain south of Damascus. = = = Duties = = = In return for iqtaʿat, annual customary payments, and honorary titles and robes, the amir al-ʿarab was expected to command his horsemen as auxiliaries in the wars against the Mongols, the Crusaders, their allies and rebellious Mamluk emirs. Another expectation of the amir al-ʿarab and the lower-ranking tribal chieftains was intelligence gathering regarding enemy movements near the frontier. Among the official duties of the amir al-ʿarab and the Syrian Bedouin tribes was the defense of the sultanate's boundaries, and maintenance and oversight of the roads, bridges and mountain passes of the desert and within their iqtaʿat. This also entailed the protection of merchant travelers and the annual Hajj pilgrim caravan, which traversed Bedouin territory to reach the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina in the Hejaz. Tribesmen also served as desert guides for the army and state officials. The amir al-ʿarab was further responsible for collecting zakat (dues) on the livestock of the Bedouin tribes. During Sultan Baybar's reign (1260 – 1277), a barid (postal route) was created between Egypt and Syria, which enabled the sultan to remain constantly notified of developments in the provinces. It served as a major centralizing factor in the Mamluk state, and each postal station required transport horses, which the tribes provided. According to Sato, the tribes' supply of horses and camels was "indispensable for the maintenance" of the barid. Noble horses and young camels were also provided by the amir al-ʿarab to the royal stables of the Mamluk sultans on an annual basis. Under the early Ottomans, the amir al-ʿarab was required to provision the sultan's stables with 1,050 young camels and 30 young horses, the collective annual value of which was 240,000 akçe. This formed part of the sultan's revenue from the Damascus Eyalet. = = History = = = = = Origins = = = The Syrian Desert, which extended from Balis to Ayla, had been inhabited by Arab Bedouin tribes in pre-Islamic times (before mid-7th century). In the 250 years after the Muslim conquest of Syria in the 630s, the Bedouin were brought under the authority of the Rashidun (632 – 661), Umayyad (661 – 750) and early Abbasid (750 – 861) caliphates. Throughout this period, various Bedouin tribes participated in Umayyad dynastic struggles, the Abbasid Revolution, the rebellious Kharijite and Alid movements and isolated revolts. Following the Abbasid decline in 861, state authority in the Syrian Desert receded significantly, leaving the local Bedouin tribes to fill the void. The Hamdanid dynasty (890 – 1004), from the Banu Taghlib tribe, represented the new-found strength of the Bedouin, and according to 14th-century historian Ibn Khaldun, they commanded the subservience of all Bedouin tribes in the Syrian Desert and Upper Mesopotamia. Other tribal dynasties that emerged in this region before or after the heyday of the Hamdanids included the Uqaylids (990 – 1096), Numayrids, the Banu Assad and Banu Khafaja. By the late 10th century, the Jarrahids (970s – mid 11th century) of Banu Tayy and the Mirdasids (1024 – 1080) of Banu Kilab dominated southern and northern Syria, respectively, first in association with the Qarmatians, and then as nominal partners of the Fatimids, who ruled Syria between 977 and 1071. As a result of the Seljuk invasion in the latter half of the 11th century, only the Banu Rabi'ah, a branch of the Jarrahids, remained as an influential force in the Syrian Desert by the end of the century. There is scant information about the authorities' management of the Syrian Desert Bedouin between the early 11th and mid-13th centuries. Likewise, the origins of the title of amir al-ʿarab are unclear. A number of medieval Muslim chroniclers referred to Salih ibn Mirdas (d. 1029), the founder of the Mirdasid emirate in Aleppo, as amir ʿarab al-Sham, which translates from Arabic as "commander of the Bedouin of Syria". Hassan ibn Mufarrij, the Jarrahid chieftain and ally of Salih, was also referred to as amir al-ʿarab by medieval sources. According to historian Suhayl Zakkar, the "value" of the title "is not known but at least indicates the high position of its holder". Moreover, Zakkar asserts: It is not known whether Salih was the first holder of this title or whether, indeed, it had existed previously. The origin of it is obscure for whether it was created by the tribes of Syria after Islam or whether it existed in Arabia before the rise of Islam and was then carried to Syria after the Islamic conquest in the 7th century is not known. Zakkar speculates that the amir al-ʿarab could have been a "revival or continuation" of a pre-Islamic (mid-6th century) political tradition among the Bedouin of Syria whereby the chieftain of the Ghassanids, vassals of the Byzantine Empire, served as the supreme Arab phylarch (tribal chieftain), giving him formal authority over the Bedouin tribes of Syria. In early Muslim chronicles, there is often references to sayyid ahl al-badiya (master of the desert dwellers) or sayyid Qays (master of the tribes of Qays), which Zakkar believes are possible "starting points which, in the course of time, developed to the title of Amir Arab al-Sham". During the Zengid period in Syria (1128 – 1182), some Bedouin chieftains were accorded iqtaʿat, paid taxes called ʿidād on their livestock, and performed military duties. = = = Ayyubid era = = = The groundwork for regulating Bedouin affairs in Syria was laid by the Ayyubid Sultanate's founder, Saladin (r. 1171 – 1193); in 1182, the latter entrusted the governor of Damascus, Ibn al-Muqaddam, as the muḥakkim (arbitrator) and overseer of "all the Arabs" and who was "responsible for... making the customary payments to them and collecting the customary dues from them". According to historian Mustafa A. Hiyari, Saladin's brother and successor, Sultan al-Adil (r. 1200 – 1218), founded the formal institution of the imarat al-ʿarab (emirate of the Bedouin) and appointed Haditha ibn Ghudayya as the first amir al-ʿarab. Haditha was a grandson of the Jarrahid emir Fadl ibn Rabi'ah, the progenitor of the Al Fadl clan of Banu Rabi'ah. Members of the clan were direct descendants of the Fatimid-era Jarrahid governor of Palestine, Mufarrij ibn Daghfal ibn al-Jarrah (d. 1013). By the late 12th century, the Banu Rabi'ah and its sub-clans, Al Fadl, Al Mira and Al Faraj, together with the sub-clans of its ancestral tribe, the Tayy, dominated the desert and steppe regions between Homs in the west to the eastern banks of the Euphrates River and southward to central Najd and Hejaz. However, despite their influence, the Mamluk historian al-Hamdani (d. 1300) maintains that "no member of this clan [Banu Rabi'ah] was appointed as amir al-ʿarab by diploma from the sultan" until Haditha's appointment by al-Adil. Meanwhile, leaders of the Kilab continued to hold the title of amir al-ʿarab after the Ayyubid conquest of Aleppo in 1182. As a result, Haditha's jurisdiction initially did not extend to the Aleppo region (northern Syria). However, during the latter half of az-Zahir Ghazi (r. 1193 – 1216) of Aleppo's reign, the Kilab were brought under Haditha's authority and were stripped of the amir al-ʿarab title. According to medieval Arab historian Ibn al-Adim (d. 1262), the Kilab's status was downgraded because of the growing power of the Tayy clans, while al-Hamdani asserts that the numerically-superior Kilab were weakened by a divided leadership. Following the extension of Haditha's jurisdiction to their traditional territory, some of the Kilab migrated north to Anatolia, while those who remained became allies of Haditha's Al Fadl clan. Following al-Adil's death in 1218 and the death of Haditha a few years later, the imarat al-ʿarab was divided by Sultan al-Kamil (r. 1218 – 1238) between Haditha's sons Mani and Ali, who founded the independent Al Ali branch of Al Fadl, and their kinsman, Ghannam ibn Abi Tahir of the Al Faraj clan. As Mani's position was bolstered by his cooperation with the Ayyubids in their military campaigns and keeping the Bedouin in check, al-Kamil dismissed Ghannam and Ali, leaving Mani as the sole amir al-ʿarab. When Mani died in 1232 / 33, he was succeeded by his son Muhanna I after an agreement between the Ayyubid emirs of Homs and Damascus, al-Mujahid Shirkuh II and al-Ashraf Musa, respectively, without input from the sultan of Egypt. From this period until 1260, only scant information is available about the imarat al-ʿarab. However, it is known that in 1240, Muhanna I was replaced by Tahir ibn Ghannam by the Ayyubid regent of Aleppo, Dayfa Khatun, for Tahir's support against her dynastic opponents. Some years later, the title was bestowed on Ali or his son Abu Bakr. = = = Mamluk era = = = The Mamluk Sultanate annexed Syria in 1260, and maintained the imarat al-ʿarab in Syria. In 1260 – 1261, sultans Qutuz or Baybars replaced Ali or Abu Bakr with Isa ibn Muhanna, who was granted Sarmin and half of Salamiyah as his iqtaʿ. Ahmad ibn Tahir and Zamil ibn Ali contested Isa's appointment, with the former demanding part of the emirate and the latter seeking to replace Isa. Baybars did not accord Ahmad ibn Tahir a share but gave him iqta'at elsewhere in Syria, whereas Zamil opened a rebellion against Isa. The latter called for Mamluk support and Zamil was consequently apprehended by Mamluk troops from Aleppo. He was imprisoned in Cairo but soon after released after Baybars mediated between him, Isa and other Banu Rabi'ah emirs. A further challenge to Isa came from his powerful kinsman, Ahmad ibn Hajji of Al Mira, who eventually desisted from confronting Isa when Baybars gave him virtual independence in the southern Syrian Desert. Ahmad ibn Hajji was referred to malik al-ʿarab (king of the Bedouin) in Mamluk sources and numerous tribes came under his authority. Relations between Isa and the state were generally cooperative with few exceptions, and he participated in nearly all Mamluk military campaigns against the Mongol Ilkhanate. Toward the end of his reign, in 1281, Isa received the oasis town of Palmyra as additional iqtaʿ from Sultan Qalawun. His son Muhanna ibn Isa succeeded him following his death in 1284. Muhanna and his brother Fadl ibn Isa, who served as amir al-ʿarab in between Muhanna's dismissals, vacillated between the Mamluks under Sultan an-Nasir Muhammad and the Ilkhanate between 1311 and 1330. Afterward, the Al Fadl became firmly part of the Mamluk camp. An-Nasir Muhammad particularly lavished the Al Fadl emirs with iqta'at, gifts and honors to the extent that Muhanna criticized the policy as over-indulging the Bedouin, and in the process, weakening the Muslim army. The imarat al-ʿarab remained in the hands of Isa's household, particularly the direct descendants of Muhanna (Al Muhanna), through the remainder of Mamluk rule (1260 – 1516) with brief interruptions during which emirs from Al Ali held the post. By 1352, Al Muhanna numbered 110, all of whom held their own emirate and iqta'at. According to Mustafa A. Hiyari: The manipulation of the emirate [sic] by Al Muhanna for such a long time was the result of their ability to serve the interests of the Mamluk state more than any other clan. Their prestige was such that they were able to maintain peace and order among the tribes and — what was much more important — to secure the safety of the hajj and trade routes. That is why the sultans of Egypt and their provincial governors (sing. na'ib) in Damascus and Aleppo tried always to keep them under control and use every possible way to bring them back under the authority of the sultanate when they revolted, because their remaining outside Mamluk authority would lead to continuous threats to the state's interests, the outcome of which would be the attacking and looting of the trade caravans, the disruption of the hajj, and considerable damage to the countryside. Muhanna was succeeded by his son Muzaffar ad-Din Musa, who had remained loyal to an-Nasir Muhammad during his father's defection to the Ilkhanate. An-Nasir Muhammad granted him substantial iqtaʿat in return for his loyalty and the supply of noble Arabian horses, which an-Nasir Muhammad was particularly fond of. An-Nasir Muhammad's lavish treatment of Musa and his family significantly empowered the Al Fadl and created "ties of obligation" that "could not be ignored by his [an-Nasir Muhammad's] successors without provoking a Bedouin mutiny", according to historian Amalia Levanoni. This was especially so as central government control over Syria increasingly diminished during the power vacuum following an-Nasir Muhammad's death. Rivalry over the imarat al-ʿarab between the descendants of Muhanna and Fadl also intensified during this period. When Isa ibn Fadl was made amir al-ʿarab in 1342 and was transferred the Al Muhanna's iqtaʿat, the Al Muhanna responded by assaulting Fadl's offspring and plundering caravans traveling the roads of northern Syria. This included a raid on a Rahba-bound caravan from Baghdad in which Al Muhanna tribesmen looted all of its merchandise. Isa was replaced by his brother Sayf in 1343, after which Muhanna's son Fayyad defeated Sayf in battle and seized 20,000 of his camels. Ahmad ibn Muhanna, who had been imprisoned in 1342, was reappointed amir al-ʿarab in 1345, and was succeeded two years later by Fayyad. Fayyad died shortly after his appointment and replaced by his brother Hayar. For the next thirty years, Hayar rebelled and reconciled with the Mamluks and during times of rebellion he was often replaced by his brother Zamil and cousin Mu'ayqil ibn Fadl; sometimes the latter two ruled jointly. In 1380, Hayar's son Nu'ayr was appointed amir al-ʿarab. He was dismissed several times for revolting against the sultan's authority by supporting rebel governors in Syria. His last reign ended with his execution in 1406. Nu'ayr's son Ijl had sided against his father and backed Sultan an-Nasir Faraj, who appointed him in place of Nu'ayr. After Ijl was killed by a Mamluk rebel in 1412, the power of the Al Fadl largely diminished. Nonetheless, members of the clan from Hayar's line continued to fill the post of amir al-ʿarab, with Husayn ibn Nu'ayr succeeding Fadl. However, from then on, mentions of the imarat al-ʿarab "in the histories are scanty and confused", according to historian Tritton. In 1427, Nu'ayr's grandson, Adhra ibn Ali was killed by his cousin Qirqmas and succeeded by his brother Mudlij ibn Ali, who was killed by Qirqmas in 1429. Qirqmas died in 1436, though it is not clear if he had been appointed amir al-ʿarab. A grandson of Nu'ayr, Sayf ibn Ali, killed the amir al-ʿarab and his cousin, Sulayman ibn Assaf, in 1480, but was himself killed by Amir ibn Ijl the following year in revenge. Sayf's son was recorded as the amir al-ʿarab in 1496. = = = Ottoman era = = = The Mamluks were driven out of Syria by the Ottoman Turks after the Battle of Marj Dabiq in 1516. The Mamluk-appointed amir al-ʿarab, Mudlij ibn Zahir, a direct descendant of Hayar, was kept in his position by Ottoman sultan, Selim I, after the two met in the aftermath of Marj Dabiq. Mudlij acted as a law unto himself and fought against the Ottoman governor of Damascus, Isa Pasha al-Fanari, in 1530. Mudlij remained amir al-ʿarab until his death in 1538. He was succeeded by his son Zahir, who was killed sometime later by his kinsman Ahmad al-Uradi. The latter was challenged by Zahir uncles, Dandan and Fayyad, but they were unsuccessful as Ahmad commanded the loyalty of most of the Bedouin tribes. Ahmad died in 1615 and was succeeded by his son Shadid until he was killed by Zahir's son, Mudlij II. The latter did not gain the imarat al-ʿarab, however, and Shadid was replaced by Fayyad, who held the post until his death in 1618. Afterward, Fayyad's son Husayn was appointed but then Mudlij II was recognized as amir al-ʿarab after he challenged Husayn. Husayn and Mudlij both sought the support of Emir Fakhr ad-Din II, a Druze chieftain of the Banu Ma'an who became a powerful semi-autonomous force in Syria. Husayn was ultimately strangled by the Ottoman governor of Aleppo in 1623, after Mudlij II bribed him. Mudlij II continued serving as amir al-ʿarab for an undetermined length of time. = = List of umara al-ʿarab = = = = = Ayyubid emirs = = = = = = Mamluk emirs = = = = = = Ottoman emirs = = =

= Battle of Sattelberg = The Battle of Sattelberg took place between 17 and 25 November 1943, during the Huon Peninsula campaign of the Second World War. Involving forces from Australia, the United States and Japan, the fighting centred on the Sattelberg mission station which was situated atop a hill about 900 metres (3,000 ft) above sea level, approximately 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) inland from Finschhafen, New Guinea. Following the Australian landing at Scarlet Beach, a large force of Japanese had retreated inland towards Sattelberg. Holding the high ground, the Japanese subsequently threatened the Australian lines of communication as they proceeded to advance south towards Finschhafen, and in order to neutralise this threat, the Australian 26th Brigade was tasked with capturing the mission. Over the course of 10 days they advanced west from Jivevaneng up the southern approaches to the mission, reducing the Japanese position with armour, artillery and air support, before the Japanese finally abandoned Sattelberg and withdrew north to Wareo, having suffered heavy casualties and running low on supplies. = = Background = = Following the fall of Lae in September 1943, the Australians continued their advance north along the New Guinea coast towards the Huon Peninsula, with the aim of securing Finschhafen, where large scale air and naval facilities could be constructed for operations that were planned against New Britain. On 22 September 1943, less than a week after Lae had been captured, Brigadier Victor Windeyer's Australian 20th Brigade was detached from the 9th Division by Major General George Wootten, the divisional commander, and landed at Scarlet Beach (north of Siki Cove), to the east of Katika and about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) to the north of Finschhafen. The landing was only lightly opposed, and the Australians began to advance south towards Katika where Japanese resistance was stronger, but was nevertheless overcome by the early afternoon. As the 20th Brigade advanced south towards their objective at Finschhafen, intelligence indicated that the Japanese were moving to the high ground to the west at Sattelberg, which was situated about 900 metres (3,000 ft) above sea level. Captured documents showed that three infantry battalions were being concentrated at an old Lutheran mission station that had been established at Sattelberg in the 19th century during the German colonial administration of the area. Concerned for the security of his lines of communication due to the presence of Japanese on his flank, the Australian brigade commander adopted more cautious tactics, while reinforcements were called for. Heavy fighting ensued, but Finschhafen fell to the Australians on 2 October. Following this, the 9th Division was tasked with advancing towards Sio, further around the coast on the northern side of the Huon Peninsula. The Japanese in the area around Finschhafen were growing in strength, however, as a large number of the 4,000 to 5,000 men that had garrisoned Finschhafen had managed to escape inland, while the rest of the 20th Division, under the command of Lieutenant General Shigeru Katagiri, was being moved from Bogadjim, south of Madang, to provide reinforcements. Wootten considered that the threat posed by this force meant that Sattelberg would have to be captured before the 9th Division could undertake its advance towards Sio. = = Prelude = = = = = Advance on Finschhafen = = = During the advance on Finschhafen, a company from the 2 / 17th Battalion, which had been tasked with securing the beachhead and the flank, had been sent to Sattelberg but had been unable to occupy it due to the strength of the Japanese force already there. As captured orders had revealed Japanese plans to breakthrough to the coast, it was decided to place the company into a blocking position east of Sattelberg along the coast road around Jivevaneng. In this position, from 25 September onwards they were subjected to a number of attacks as they attempted to deflect attacks by the Japanese 3rd Battalion, 80th Infantry Regiment, which were aimed at breaking through to Heldsbach Plantation, directly south of the beachhead at Siki Cove. On 30 September the 2 / 17th were replaced by a company from the 2 / 43rd Battalion, and over the next couple of days, a whole battalion of Japanese surrounded the position and attacked it eight times. Four attempts by the Australians to relieve the company failed, before an attack on Kumawa by the 2 / 17th Battalion on 5 October cut the Japanese supply lines and provoked a strong counterattack, which subsequently drew pressure off the beleaguered company, and enabled it to be relieved on 7 October. As the threat of Japanese counterattack grew, the 24th Brigade landed at Langemak Bay on 10 October to reinforce the 20th Brigade. The following day, Wootten was able to establish his divisional headquarters at Finschhafen, and preparations began for the Australians to attack the Japanese force around Sattelberg. During this time, the Japanese were also planning an offensive. On 10 October, the Japanese 20th Division's commander, Katagiri, arrived at Sattelberg having trekked overland from Sio. After taking over operational control of the forces there, on 12 October he issued orders for an attack to commence on 16 October. This attack was conceptualised as consisting of two infantry regiments, the 79th and 80th, supported by three artillery batteries from the 26th Field Artillery Regiment, a company from the 20th Engineer Regiment and the divisional signals unit. As a part of this offensive, the 80th Infantry Regiment would continue to make attacks on the Australian forces around Jivevaneng, while the 79th Infantry Regiment would drive towards Katika and attempt to break through to the coast to attack the beachhead at Scarlet Beach, where a seaborne assault would be made concurrently by 70 men from the Sugino Craft Raiding Unit. The Australians had learned about Katagiri's plans and as a result the 9th Division commander, Wootten, decided to put off his own offensive plans while the Japanese attack was dealt with. It came in the early hours of 17 October, and over the course of the following week heavy fighting ensued around Katika and Jivevaneng. Forewarned, the Australians were able to check these attacks with assistance from American support units, and by the time that the Japanese called off their offensive on 25 October, the Japanese 20th Division had suffered 352 men killed and 564 wounded, while the Australians had suffered 228 casualties. It was during the early stages of this fighting that an American soldier, Private Nathan Van Noy, from the 532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment, performed the deeds that resulted in him being posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor. = = = Japanese preparations = = = With the 79th Infantry Regiment having lost around 50% of its strength and with ammunition and food running low (by the end of the month, they had been reduced to quarter rations), the Japanese divisional commander, Katagiri, made the decision to call off the attack in order to pull back from Jivevaneng and Katika and regroup on the higher ground further west around the mission. This order was passed on the morning of 24 October, and by the morning of 27 October the Japanese 20th Division's subunits had managed to regroup to the east of Sattelberg. Following this, Katagiri received orders from the 18th Army commander, General Hatazō Adachi, who delivered them personally at Sattelberg, for the 20th Division to prepare to hold the mission and to engage in offensive operations in the immediate vicinity. As a part of this plan, Katagiri decided that he would use the 80th Infantry Regiment to defend Sattelberg, while the 79th would concentrate in the Nongora area with the intention of launching a counter-attack upon the Australian forces advancing from Katika, near the Song River on 25 November. Around Sattelberg, the 80th Infantry Regiment was deployed in five key locations. Three companies from the regiment's 2nd Battalion established a position at the 2,200 feature (known as "Saheki-yama" to the Japanese), and another three companies from the 3rd Battalion were positioned astride the Sattelberg road at "Miyake-dai", or the 2,600 feature. Another two companies were positioned to the south of the main position at "Yamada-yama", while the remainder of the regiment was entrenched around the mission itself — the "Kanshi-yama" — where they had established a formidable "fortress", and around the Japanese commander's "keep" which was positioned on the 3,200 feature, known as the "Katagiri-yama". The strength of these forces was estimated by the Australian commander, Wootten, to be around 2,800 men in the immediate vicinity of Sattelberg mission, with a further 2,400 around Nongora and another 1,000 to the north at Gusika. These estimates were confirmed after the fighting. The Japanese defenders were supported by the 4th Air Army, with fighter and bomber aircraft from the 6th and 7th Air Divisions flying close support missions against Australian artillery positions, carrying out bombing operations around the Finschhafen area, and dropping supplies by air around Sattelberg and Wareo throughout October. = = = Allied preparations = = = Prior to the attack on Sattelberg, the Australians needed reinforcements. Although initially the Allied higher commanders were reluctant to provide these, on 25 October the Militia 4th Brigade was detached from the 5th Division and placed under the operational control of the 9th Division. These troops were subsequently used in a defensive role around the beachhead to free up the rest of the 9th Division for the offensive operations. The 2 / 43rd Battalion, from the 24th Brigade, was also brought up on 30 September, ahead of the rest of the brigade which arrived later in October. Nevertheless, by the end of September, the Allies perceived the situation around Finschhafen to be "reasonably secure", and American engineer and construction units, including the 808th Engineer Aviation Battalion, started to arrive in October. By December they had begun work constructing an airfield and other base facilities around Dreger Harbour. Following this, Wootten began finalising his plans for assaulting Sattelberg. Because the 20th Brigade had borne the brunt of the fighting following the landing in September, the 26th Brigade, which had landed at Langemak Bay on the night of 20 October under Brigadier David Whitehead, was chosen to spearhead the attack. At the same time, the 20th and 24th Brigades, operating in the central and northern sectors, would continue patrolling operations in order to keep the Japanese off balance. Support for the 26th Brigade's attack would be provided by divisional assets, including Matilda tanks from 'C' Squadron, 1st Tank Battalion, whose presence the Australians took great lengths to keep secret, artillery from the 2 / 12th Field Regiment and later (after it was found that the 25-pdrs could not be transported up the Sattelberg Road), the 2nd Mountain Battery, and support-by-fire from the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion. The 2 / 13th Field Company supplied engineer detachments to each battalion, while air assets were provided by the United States 5th Air Force and No. 4 Squadron, Royal Australian Air Force, which was an Army co-operation squadron that was equipped with Boomerangs and Wirraways, and provided aerial observation in support of artillery operations. Vengeance dive bombers from No. 24 Squadron, RAAF also provided support, while Japanese supply lines were disrupted by Allied aircraft and PT boats. Supplies for the operation were landed by American landing craft from the 532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment and brought forward using vehicles or carried by local porters. They were then "dumped" around Jivevaneng and Kumawa, where they could be distributed to individual battalions. However, the heavy rain that had fallen at the end of October hampered the buildup of stores and consequently delayed Australian preparations. As a result, their plans were not finalised until 15 November. At this time, Whitehead began issuing his orders. The concept of operations called for the capture of the 2,200 feature — so called by the Australians because that was its height in feet — first, before a subsequent westward advance to the mission. The 2 / 48th Battalion would advance west from Jivevaneng along the Sattelberg road supported by tanks from the 1st Tank Battalion, while the 2 / 24th Battalion would advance north-west across Siki Creek and capture the 2,200 feature. The 2 / 23rd Battalion, which would hand over its defensive duties to the 2 / 4th Commando Squadron, would start further south from Kumawa, protecting the left flank, and after paralleling the Sattelberg road, they would marry up with the 2 / 48th at a position called "Steeple Tree Hill", or the 2,600 feature, by the Australians ("Miyake-dai" to the Japanese), where it was planned to halt for resupply and re-appreciation before undertaking the final attack. It was decided that tanks, which would provide direct fire support for use against the Japanese bunker systems that were believed to be around Sattelberg, would only be employed along the Sattelberg road, as considerable engineer support was required to move the Matildas into position in the closed terrain. = = Battle = = = = = Initial Australian attack = = = On 17 November, fighting for the main position around Sattelberg commenced. The previous night, in order to prepare for the attack on the 2200 feature, the 2 / 48th Battalion captured Green Ridge, a small but important feature that dominated the Sattelberg road. The capture of the ridge secured a start line forward of Jivevaneng for Whitehead's 26th Brigade to launch the first stage of their attack upon Sattelberg. The following day, the 2 / 48th Battalion handed over responsibility for the defence of the ridge to a company from the 2 / 23rd Battalion, and the attack commenced amidst heavy supporting artillery and machine-gun fire. In response, the Japanese artillery from Sattelberg fired a limited barrage onto the Australians on Green Ridge. The terrain upon which the Australians advanced hampered their movement considerably. Consisting mainly of steep "razor-back" ridges and thick jungle which restricted the tactics that Whitehead could employ, the 26th Brigade mainly employed infiltration tactics, advancing on "narrow fronts" using columns of troops consisting of an infantry company forward, followed by a troop of tanks with an engineer section in support. Initially the Japanese were surprised by the presence of the Matilda tanks as their noise had been masked by the artillery and rocket barrage, and a number of positions were abandoned by Japanese soldiers who were put to flight upon seeing the tanks, however, as the day progressed the opposition stiffened and the defenders recovered after the initial shock. Progress subsequently became very slow, and as the 2 / 48th Battalion approached "Coconut Ridge" (designated Highland 5 by the Japanese) at around midday, one of the Matildas was disabled when it lost a track to an improvised explosive device which had been placed under the road by the defending Japanese. With the tanks isolated from their infantry support, a small Japanese team advanced from cover to attack a second tank which had come up to support the first, and taking the machine gunner by surprise, they placed an explosive charge in front of it. Although the resulting explosion did not knock the tank out of action, it trapped its crew inside for the rest of the day. Firing upon the Australians with machine-guns, mortars and grenades, the Japanese defenders upon Coconut Ridge held up the advance. Throughout the rest of the day, the 2 / 48th Battalion undertook a series of flanking attacks in which at least 80 Japanese were killed, however by nightfall the Japanese still held the ridge, and the 2 / 48th Battalion withdrew to a nearby knoll to reorganise, having suffered six killed and 26 wounded. Elsewhere, the other two Australian battalions had also found the going slow: the 2 / 24th had dug in east of the 2200 feature, while the 2 / 23rd had only managed to advance about half the expected distance. The Japanese abandoned Coconut Ridge that night, while in the morning the Australians brought up three replacement tanks. At around 7: 00 am, an Australian patrol scouted the ridge and an hour later a platoon attack was put in, confirming that the defenders had gone. As battlefield clearance operations got underway, the tanks that had been disabled the day before were also repaired, bringing the total number of Matildas available to seven. In the early afternoon, the advance was resumed, however the Australians only managed to progress a further 250 yards (230 m) before they were halted by stiff opposition from Japanese armed with 37 mm anti-tank guns. A number of these pieces were destroyed and at least 40 Japanese were killed or wounded, but Japanese snipers inflicted a number of casualties upon the Australians, and although none were fatal it prevented any further gains as the 2 / 48th spent most of the day hunting the snipers in the trees. Elsewhere, in front of the 2,200 feature and on the southern flank, only limited progress was made by the Australians, who suffered a number of casualties from Japanese 75 mm mountain guns before these were silenced by a bombardment by the 2 / 12th Field Regiment. At dusk, the Australians dug in less than 30 yards (27 m) from the Japanese defence line and sporadic fighting continued throughout the night. That night, Wootten decided to take stock of the slow progress along the southern and central routes. Based on captured documents, Australian intelligence reports placed the number of Japanese troops around the mission at about 2,000 men. These men were believed to be from the 80th Infantry Regiment, which the Australians felt was close to exhaustion and unlikely to be able to withstand any further pressure. As a result of this information, Wootten decided to change the concept of operations. Although the 2 / 24th Battalion's attack on the 2,200 feature had originally been intended to serve as a holding action, the lack of progress by the 2 / 48th and 2 / 23rd encouraged Wootten to order the 26th Brigade's commander, Whitehead, to concentrate his efforts upon the 2,200 feature, turning the drive on Sattelberg into a "double-pronged" attack, with the 2 / 24th also attempting to break through to Sattelberg. The following day, 19 November, the Australians came up against a series of prepared defences which further slowed their progress. Throughout the night the Japanese had dug a number of anti-tank ditches, about 6 feet (1.8 m) wide and 4 feet (1.2 m) deep, which Australian engineers had to fill before the tanks could continue. Progress was made, however, and amidst hand-to-hand fighting troops from the 2 / 48th managed to seize part of the 2,600 feature (Steeple Tree Hill), after engineers under the command of Lieutenant (later Captain) Augustus Spry, helped clear the way through the use of two fougasses that were fashioned out of 4-gallon drums filled with petrol, which were exploded in order to stun the Japanese and provide a smoke screen while the infantry attacked. The Japanese launched a counter-attack as dusk fell, but this was repelled with heavy losses: the Australians had 20 men killed or wounded, while the Japanese left behind 46 killed, as well as a number of machine-guns and mortars, as they withdrew from the position. The 2 / 23rd Battalion to the south, up against the same defensive system that was delaying the 2 / 48th, was also held up further, while on the northern route, the 2 / 24th found the 2,200 feature unoccupied, but was unable to proceed further after they came under heavy machine-gun and artillery fire. The fourth day of the assault, 20 November, brought no forward movement for the Australians at the 2,200 feature as the 80th Infantry Regiment's 2nd Battalion fought tenaciously to prevent the 2 / 24th from moving forward. Nevertheless, it was a different story for the Australians on the main road as the 3rd Battalion, 80th Infantry Regiment was forced back towards "Point 7". At the start of the day, the Australian 2 / 48th Battalion had only been able to advance a further 250 yards (230 m) before their progress was held up by thick scrub which delayed their tank support, however, to the south, the 2 / 23rd Battalion moved up the southern slope of Steeple Tree Hill and over the course of the afternoon gradually forced the defenders back. The 2 / 48th made slow progress but by 6: 35 pm they reported that they had reached the summit of the hill and as night fell, the two Australian battalions were separated by about 300 yards (270 m). Caught between two groups of Australians, during the course of the night the two Japanese companies that had been holding the position abandoned it, and fell back towards the main defensive position at Sattelberg. = = = Japanese counter-attack = = = For the Japanese, the supply situation around Sattelberg was worsening. Although some supplies were successfully air dropped, the defenders were reduced to consuming only a third of the standard daily ration and Katagiri's supply of artillery shells was very low, despite adherence to strict fire discipline. Given the desperate supply situation, which was made all the worse when the 24th Brigade cut the track between Gusika and Wareo, the Japanese 18th Army commander, Adachi, gave Katagiri approval to withdraw from Sattelberg after 20 November. Katagiri subsequently ordered Colonel Sadahiko Miyake, the commander of the 80th Infantry Regiment, to inflict as many casualties upon the Australians as possible and then begin a progressive withdrawal to Wareo. Nevertheless, Katagiri was determined to launch a counterattack further to the north-east. When formulating his defence plans in October, he had originally intended to launch an attack from Nongora with the 79th Infantry Regiment on 25 November, however, with the Australians advancing steadily towards the main position at Sattelberg, Katagiri decided to bring this forward in order to take some of the pressure off the troops defending the mission. After moving into position on 21 November, the attack was launched the following day. Wootten had predicted this, based upon documents that had been captured by the Australians, and Brigadier Selwyn Porter's 24th Brigade had thoroughly prepared for the onslaught. The 79th Infantry Regiment crossed the Song River and attacked Scarlet Beach from the west, while the 2nd Battalion, 238th Infantry Regiment, which had been detached from the 41st Division, attacked south from Gusika. By using infiltration tactics the Japanese skirted around the lead elements of the 24th Brigade in an attack that was intended to roll up the Australian rear elements, however, the Australians in turn attacked the flanks of the Japanese units, mauling their supply columns and inflicting heavy casualties upon them. This had the effect of squeezing the strength out of the Japanese counterattack and forcing them into undertaking piecemeal attacks which were dealt with by the Australians with relative ease. As a result, although the fighting around Scarlet Beach continued until 28 November when the Japanese units that had been involved were withdrawn towards Wareo, it did not have the urgency to affect the 26th Brigade's advance on Sattelberg and was largely broken up by 23 November. = = = Australian attack resumed = = = After being forced off Steeple Tree Hill, Miyake, commanding the main Japanese defensive unit, the 80th Infantry Regiment, decided to concentrate his defence upon the saddle at "Point 10" which was positioned to the west of the 2,200 feature, at Sattelberg itself and on the 3,200 feature to the north-west. An intense five-day Allied aerial bombardment, which had begun on 19 November, had destroyed the majority of the Japanese guns around Sattelberg, and the ammunition and food situation had become critical, despite the arrival of several tonnes of rice at Wareo the day before. Throughout 21 November, there was a lull in the battle as the Australians paused for resupply. However, by the end of the day Whitehead had made good his supply situation and the advance resumed the following day. In an effort to find the best possible route, the Australians sent out small reconnaissance patrols and based on the intelligence they gained Whitehead produced a new set of orders prior to stepping off on 22 November. The 2 / 48th continued to advance along the road; the 2 / 23rd were to break track beyond Steeple Tree Hill at a location dubbed "Turn-Off Corner" and advance around behind the mission, to attack the 3,200 feature, while the 2 / 24th Battalion were to advance west, attempting to bypass the main Japanese positions in front of the 2,200 feature via an adjacent saddle to assist in the capture of Sattelberg, while also sending a detachment further north to secure Palanko. Following the fall of Steeple Tree Hill, the Japanese were less inclined to engage the Australian forces, nevertheless the advance continued to be frustratingly slow for the Australian commanders. The terrain over which the final part of the advance was undertaken was particularly taxing on the troops involved. Many of the slopes up which they were required to advance had gradients of at least 45 degrees, which meant that even reasonably short distances took considerable time To make matters worse, near the junction of the Siki Creek, a landslide caused by the Allied bombing, coupled with a number of land mines that the Japanese had planted, blocked the main road to Sattelberg, meaning that the soldiers from the 2 / 48th would have to make the final attack on Sattelberg without armoured support. In an effort to counter this problem, Whitehead determined that the tanks would be re-allocated to the 2 / 23rd, in the hope that a new route would be opened up by the engineers. Although he was being pressured by the divisional commander to increase the speed of the advance, Whitehead was said to be reasonably happy with the progress being made by the 2 / 48th along the central route, although he had misgivings about the performance of the 2 / 23rd on the left and the 2 / 24th on the right. To some extent, the failure of the 2 / 24th to take the 2,200 feature could be attributed to the importance which the Japanese commander, Katagiri, placed upon its defence, however, Whitehead believed that the battalion's commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Andrew Gillespie, was procrastinating and being overly cautious in his tactics. Nevertheless, it was later realised that the terrain which the 2 / 24th faced was more formidable than first thought, and that in order for the battalion to make progress, they too, like the 2 / 48th, would need tanks. Some attempt was made by the Australians to bring these up from the rear areas, but ultimately the fighting around Sattelberg came to an end before this could be effected. On the brigade's left, south of the main route, the pace of the 2 / 23rd's advance had also caused Whitehead some concern. Indeed, Whitehead went as far to express this to the 2 / 23rd's commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Frederick Tucker, who pointed out that his lack of progress had been caused by the large number of tasks that the battalion had been assigned, namely the competing demands to secure the flank while attempting to move quickly through broken country in order to make its scheduled rendezvous with the 2 / 48th. On 23 November, Allied bombers attacked the fortress at Sattelberg, as well as defensive positions around Kumawa. The 2 / 48th, nearing their objective, cautiously began to probe the outer positions, while to the north, three companies from the 2 / 24th managed to reach the saddle that lay below the north-eastern approach to the mission, although there was still uncertainty as to whether or not the Japanese had withdrawn from the 2,200 feature. To the south-west, the 2 / 23rd began skirting north around the main positions at Sattelberg, making for the 3,200 feature. After they had struck Turn-Off Corner, the infantry from the 2 / 23rd were accompanied by engineers from the 2 / 13th Field Company, who were tasked with laying down a makeshift road, over which the tanks that had been re-allocated to the 2 / 23rd would traverse. = = = Final assault = = = By 24 November the Australians were within striking distance of the mission atop the summit. A reconnaissance patrol the previous evening had provided the Australian commander with the idea to send a company from the 2 / 48th over the Siki Creek and attack the mission from the south-east up a steep escarpment that was covered in thick kunai grass, which offered an attacking force a degree of concealment. A red roofed hut stood at the point where the attack was aimed. This was about 300 metres (330 yd) below the Lutheran church that formed the main part of the mission. Around the hut, the Japanese had constructed a number of reinforced defensive positions and although they had not been damaged by the numerous aerial attacks that had been launched by the Allies during the previous week, it was believed that because the approach was so difficult, it might be lightly defended. During the morning, while a diversionary attack was made by the 2 / 23rd Battalion, and patrols from the 2 / 24th to the north attempted to break through, a company from the 2 / 48th, under the command of Captain Deane Hill, attempted to reach the summit at Sattelberg. Two platoons launched attacks during the early afternoon, but were beaten back by the twenty Japanese defenders that were dug in around the spur. Late in the afternoon, a third platoon, 11 Platoon, under the command of Sergeant (later Lieutenant) Tom Derrick, attempted another attack from further to the right of the position but it too was checked by machine-gun fire and lobbed grenades. As the light began to fade, Derrick reported his lack of progress to his company commander and was subsequently ordered to withdraw, so that another attempt could be made in the morning. Derrick's response to this order was to obfuscate, however, and instead of withdrawing, he subsequently led his platoon forward, attacking 10 Japanese positions with grenades as his men supported him with Bren and Owen submachine-gun fire. After stopping about 100 yards (91 m) from the summit, Derrick's platoon continued to hold their position through the night. Elsewhere, the 2 / 24th Battalion reported that they were just below the crest of the 2,200 feature, the last Japanese defensive position to the north, and that they would capture it the following morning, before proceeding on to their secondary objective at Palanko. Believing that the key to taking Sattelberg lay in having the 2 / 24th in a position to support the 2 / 48th's final attack, Whitehead pressured for the tanks to get up to the 2 / 24th as soon as possible. The following morning, at first light, spurred on by the example provided by 11 Platoon, reinforcements from the 2 / 48th came up to complete the capture of Sattelberg. Just after dawn, a heavy artillery barrage was brought down on the summit by Australian artillery in preparation for the final attack. At 8: 25 am patrols were sent out from 'B' Company, 2 / 48th Battalion, and they subsequently reported that the Japanese had abandoned the position sometime during the night. Indeed, it was later established that Miyake, who had been in command of the troops gathered around the mission and had been given permission to abandon Sattelberg if the situation became untenable, had decided to withdraw from the position soon after Derrick's attack. Fifty minutes later, the lead elements of the 2 / 48th Battalion entered the main mission complex, which was found to be quite badly damaged. Finally, at 10: 00 am, upon the insistence of the 2 / 48th Battalion's commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Robert Ainslie, Derrick was given the honour of raising the Australian flag over the mission, signifying that the battle had come to an end. Shortly after this, the tanks finally reached the 2 / 24th Battalion, and the 2,200 feature was also captured. Upon completion of the flag-raising ceremony, a company from the 2 / 48th moved on to the 3,200 feature, which had also been abandoned, while further to the west, the 2 / 23rd, along with the 2 / 4th Commando Squadron cleared Mararuo and in the process found evidence that the Japanese had withdrawn towards Wareo. = = Aftermath = = During the fighting around Sattelberg, the Australians lost 49 men killed and a further 118 wounded. In the circumstances, this was considered to be light. Japanese casualties are unknown, but are believed to have been "heavy": a large number of Japanese bodies were found during the advance on Sattelberg, while another 59 were counted around the 2 / 24th's position on the 2200 feature, and captured documents indicated that the defenders had been close to starvation. A large quantity of weapons were also captured, including two 75 mm artillery pieces, three 37 mm anti-tank guns and 18 Type 92 Heavy Machine Guns (colloquially known as "Woodpeckers"), as well as a considerable number of mortars, light machine-guns and assorted small arms. Following the capture of Sattelberg on 25 November, the 26th Brigade continued to advance to the north. Further fighting ensued as they pushed on over difficult terrain to Wareo, where they arrived on 8 December. After the Australians took Wareo, the Japanese began to fall back to Sio, where subsequent fighting took place throughout December 1943 and early 1944. For his actions during the final assault on the mission, Derrick was awarded the Victoria Cross — his nation's highest military decoration. Derrick was the fourth soldier from the 2 / 48th Battalion to receive the award; by the end of the hostilities the 2 / 48th had the distinction of being the most highly decorated Australian Army unit of the Second World War. The following Australian units received the battle honour of "Sattelberg" for their involvement in the battle: 1st Tank Battalion, 2 / 23rd Battalion, 2 / 24th Battalion, 2 / 48th Battalion and the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion.

= Acquacotta = Acquacotta (pronounced [ˌakkwaˈkɔtta]; Italian for "cooked water") is a broth-based hot soup in Italian cuisine that was originally a peasant food. Its preparation and consumption dates back to ancient history, and it originated in the coastal area of named Maremma in southern Tuscany and northern Lazio. The dish was invented in part as a means to make hardened, stale bread edible. In contemporary times, ingredients can vary, and additional ingredients are sometimes used. Variations of the dish include Aquacotta con funghi and Aquacotta con peperoni. = = History = = Acquacotta is a simple traditional dish originating in the coastal region of Italy known as Maremma, which spans the southern half of Tuscany's coast and runs into northern Lazio. The word "acquacotta" means "cooked water" in the Italian language. It was originally a peasant food, and has been described as an ancient dish, the recipe of which was derived in part by people who lived in the Tuscan forest working as colliers (charcoal burners), who were typically very poor and are "traditionally among the poorest of people". It was also prepared and consumed by farmers and shepherds in the Maremma area. Historically, the soup was sometimes served as an antipasto dish, the first course in an Italian meal. It remains a popular dish in Maremma and throughout Italy. Acquacotta was invented in part as a means to make stale, hardened bread edible. People that worked away from home for significant periods of time, such as woodcutters and shepherds, would bring bread and other foods with them (such as pancetta and salt cod) to hold them over. Acquacotta was prepared and used to marinate the stale bread, thus softening it. A legend about acquacotta exists in relation to the concept of stone soup, which is generally based upon a premise of a poor traveler who arrived at a village having only a stone, but convinced the villagers to add ingredients to his stone soup, creating acquacotta; variations of the legend exist. = = = Ingredients = = = Historically, acquacotta's primary ingredients were water, stale bread, onion, tomato and olive oil, along with various vegetables and leftover foods that may have been available. In the earlier 1800s, some preparations used agresto, a juice derived from half-ripened grapes, in place of tomatoes, which were not a common food in Italy prior to "the latter decades of the nineteenth century". = = In contemporary times = = Contemporary preparations of acquacotta may use stale, fresh, or toasted bread, and can include additional ingredients such as vegetable broth, eggs, cheeses such as Parmigiano-Reggiano and Pecorino Toscano, celery, garlic, basil, beans such as cannellini beans, cabbage, kale, lemon juice, salt, pepper, potatoes and others. Some versions may use edible mushrooms such as porcini, wild herbs, and leaf vegetables / greens such as arugula, endive, mint, chard, chicory, dandelion greens, watercress, valerian and others. As the greens boil down, they contribute to the broth's flavor. The dish may be topped with a poached egg. Contemporary versions may be prepared in advance from a few hours to a day, stored in a cold place or refrigerated, and then reheated prior to serving. It can also be preserved by freezing. = = Variations = = Acquacotta con funghi is an aquacotta soup variation that uses porcini mushrooms as a primary ingredient. Additional ingredients include bread, stock or water, tomato conserva, Parmesan cheese, eggs, mentuccia, wild mint, garlic, olive oil, salt and pepper. This variation's flavor and aroma has been described as based upon the porcini mushrooms that are used; parsley may also be used. Acquacotta con peperoni is an aquacotta soup variation that includes celery, red pepper and garlic.

= The Set Up (Parks and Recreation) = "The Set Up" is the 13th episode of the second season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation, and the nineteenth overall episode of the series. It originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 14, 2010. In the episode, Leslie (Amy Poehler) is set up on a blind date with an MRI technologist, played by Poehler's then-husband, comedic actor Will Arnett. The episode was directed by Troy Miller and written by Katie Dippold. In addition to Arnett's performance, "The Set Up" featured the first of several guest appearances by Justin Theroux, who portrayed a love interest for Leslie, and Ben Schwartz, who played Tom's fast-talking friend Jean-Ralphio. According to Nielsen Media Research, "The Set Up" was seen by 4.59 million households, which was considered consistent with other second season episodes. "The Set Up" received generally positive reviews. = = Plot = = When Leslie (Amy Poehler) learns Pawnee is being sued by the previous owners of the lot where she is seeking to build a park, Ann (Rashida Jones) refers her to her lawyer friend Justin Anderson (Justin Theroux), who she calls "the greatest guy ever". Justin helps Leslie resolve the issue, and the two seem to get along very well together. Having recently broken up with her boyfriend, Leslie asks Ann to set her up on a date, but is surprised when Ann hesitates to set her up with Justin. Instead, she arranges a date with Chris (Will Arnett) an MRI technologist Ann works with. The date goes poorly, with Chris appearing annoyed upon learning Leslie attended a rival college, and that she was a director of regular parks, not amusement parks. When Leslie said she has never received an MRI, Chris takes her to the hospital to receive one. Chris makes uncomfortable comments, remarking that Leslie has an excellent uterus ("could easily have triplets right off the bat") and asking whether she is having her period, presumably in anticipation of sex later. Leslie rejects his advances when the date ends, prompting him to make an angry goodbye, even though Leslie still needs to give him a ride home. Meanwhile, Mark (Paul Schneider) grows suspicious that Ann harbors romantic feelings for Justin. He eventually confronts Ann and accuses her of trying to "save" Justin for a possible relationship in the future. Mark asks Ann's ex-boyfriend Andy (Chris Pratt), who also recalls Ann's infatuation with Justin. Andy scolds Ann for hurting Mark's feelings, then tries to trick her into thinking she was still dating him, which does not work. Realizing her behavior was inappropriate, Ann sets Leslie up on a date with Justin. Meanwhile, Ron (Nick Offerman) deals with complaints from local residents due to a new town policy requiring public officials to deal more directly to the public. Ron calls the policy "my hell", and seeks a new assistant to protect him from the citizens. Tom (Aziz Ansari) volunteers to find Ron an assistant, but during job interviews he asks questions about "real-world expertise", such as what tie he should wear to the club and what to text girls after a party. Tom brings forward a fast-talking candidate named Jean-Ralphio (Ben Schwartz), whose personality closely resembles Tom's. Ron hates him right away. April (Aubrey Plaza) draws attention around the office for showing up late and slacking off at work. Bored with her internship, April insists she cannot wait to leave the parks department. However, after spending time with Andy at the town hall shoeshine stand where he works, April decides she wants to stay closer to him and volunteers to be Ron's assistant. She also convinces Andy to sell his band's CDs at the hall, which proves successful. When she slams the door on Tom while he tries to talk to them, Ron immediately hires her. = = Production = = "The Set Up" was directed by Troy Miller and written by Katie Dippold. It featured guest appearances by Will Arnett as MRI technologist Chris and Justin Theroux as Ann's lawyer friend Justin, Arnett is the real-life husband of Amy Poehler, who plays protagonist Leslie Knope. It was not Poehler who arranged for him to be on the show, but rather Parks and Recreation co-creator Michael Schur, who is a good friend of Arnett and felt he would be a good fit for the character. Their date scenes marked the second on-screen pairing between a Parks and Recreation actor and their real-life spouse; Megan Mullally, the wife of actor Nick Offerman, guest starred as Ron Swanson's ex-wife Tammy in the episode, "Ron and Tammy". Although Theroux was slated to make appearances in multiple Parks and Recreation episodes, Arnett was scheduled to appear only in "The Set Up". "The Set Up" also marked the first of several recurring appearances by Ben Schwartz as Tom's friend Jean-Ralphio Saperstein. Schur said the character was invented because the Parks and Recreation staff liked the actor and tried to find a way to work him into the show. = = Cultural references = = At the start of the episode, Leslie had a large framed photo of Dave Sanderson, the Pawnee police officer she had recently broken up with in the episode "Christmas Scandal". Sanderson was played by stand-up comedian Louis C.K. in several of Parks and Recreation episodes. When asked about her ideal man, Leslie said she wanted somebody with the brains of film star George Clooney and the body of Joe Biden, the 67-year-old Vice President of the United States. April said she was late for work because she had to finish watching the 2002 teenage horror-film Swimfan. = = Reception = = In its original American broadcast on January 14, 2010, "The Set Up" was seen by 4.59 million households, according to Nielsen Media Research. The viewership was considered consistent with other second season episodes. "The Set Up" drew a 2.1 rating / 6 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49. The episode received generally positive reviews. Entertainment Weekly writer Sandra Gonzalez favorably compared the on-screen pairing of Poehler and Arnett to the comedic chemistry between Jennifer Aniston and her then-husband Brad Pitt when he guest-starred on the sitcom Friends. However, Gonzalez said the Poehler and Arnett scenes were "the best worst first date I ’ d seen on TV in a while". Gonzalez also said she continued to be bored by the subplots involving Ann and Mark. Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club complimented "The Set Up" and said the characters played off each other well, but added the episode "felt a little too plot driven to ascend to A-material heights". Heisler particularly praised the performances of Chris Pratt and Will Arnett, who he said displayed a subtler sense of humor than in his role on the television series Arrested Development. TV Squad writer Kona Gallagher praised the episode, and said she was glad the writers found a reason to keep April in the show without keeping her on as an intern indefinitely. Gallagher also said the jealousy issue was handled well between Mark and Ann, giving the impression of true feelings between the characters. Alan Sepinwall of The Star-Ledger praised the decision of April becoming Ron's assistant because of the comedic potential of the duo. Sepinwall said although Theroux was charming and funny, Arnett "didn't quite fit into the show's low-key, naturalistic vibe". = = DVD release = = "The Set Up", along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation, was released on a four-disc DVD set in the United States on November 30, 2010. The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode.

= Great Storm of 1975 = The Great Storm of 1975 (also known as the Super Bowl Blizzard, Minnesota's Storm of the Century, or the Tornado Outbreak of January, 1975) was an intense storm system that impacted a large portion of the Central and Southeast United States from January 9 to January 12, 1975. The storm produced 45 tornadoes in the Southeast U.S. resulting in 12 fatalities, while later dropping over 2 feet (61 cm) of snow and killing 58 people in the Midwest. This storm remains one of the worst blizzards to ever strike parts of the Midwest, as well as one of the largest January tornado outbreaks on record in the United States. = = Meteorological synopsis = = The storm originated over the Pacific Ocean and crashed into the Northwest Pacific coast with damaging gale-force winds on January 8, 1975. By January 9 it had cleared the Rocky Mountains and began to redevelop and strengthen. At the same time, Arctic air was being drawn southward from Canada into the Great Plains, and large amounts of warm tropical air from the Gulf of Mexico were being pulled northward into much of the eastern U.S. The storm was a classic Panhandle Hook which moved from Colorado into Oklahoma before turning northward towards the Upper Midwest. It produced record low barometric pressure readings in the Midwest, with the pressure falling to an estimated 28.38 in (961 mb) just north of the Minnesota border in Canada. = = Tornado outbreak = = = = = Tornado summary event = = = An unusual feature of this outbreak was that daytime heating, typically a key ingredient in the formation of tornadoes, had very little impact on their development. Rather, as the storm system pulled out into the central plains, strong thunderstorms and tornadoes quickly began to form despite the late hours. The first two tornadoes in the outbreak touched down after 10: 00 p.m. CST on January 9 in Oklahoma and Louisiana. From there the progression of the twisters shifted eastward through the overnight and early morning hours, setting the stage for what would turn out to be a record setting day on January 10. Texas saw five tornadoes between 1: 30 a.m. – 3: 30 a.m., one tornado touched down in Arkansas at 6: 00 a.m., Louisiana saw seven tornadoes between 5: 30 a.m. – 8: 00 a.m. (killing one person), Mississippi had five tornadoes between 8: 15 a.m. – 10: 00 a.m. (killing nine), and Illinois and Indiana each experienced three lunch-hour tornadoes. The tornadic line of storms then shifted into Alabama (killing one) and Florida during the afternoon and evening hours. Mississippi and Alabama were the two states hardest hit by this outbreak. Alabama saw the most twisters of any state with 13, but Mississippi saw the largest and deadliest tornado. An F4 tornado that tore through Pike, Lincoln, Lawrence, and Simpson Counties at 8: 14 a.m. killed nine people and injured over 200; severely damaging 38 blocks in the town of McComb. The 39 tornadoes that touched down on January 10 marked the most active tornadic day in January in U.S. history at that time. The 52 tornadoes that touched down during January 1975 also set a U.S. record for the most tornadoes during that month. Both of these records were eventually broken in January of 1999. After a calm day on January 11, four more tornadoes touched down in Florida and Georgia on January 12, killing one person in Florida. By the time the outbreak was done it had produced 45 tornadoes, killed 12 people, injured 377 and caused $42 million in damages. = = Confirmed tornadoes = = = = = January 9 event = = = = = = January 10 event = = = = = = January 12 event = = = = = Blizzard = = As the storm system began to move northeastward out of Oklahoma, the cool air behind pulled down behind the system interacted with the moisture being pulled northward to produce snow over a large part of the Midwest. The snow began falling on Friday, January 10 and continued for the next two days. Snowfall of a foot (30.5 cm) or more was common from Nebraska to Minnesota, with a high amount of 27 inches (69 cm) in Riverton, Minnesota. The heaviest snow fell to the west of the low pressure center, which tracked from northeast Iowa through central Minnesota up to Lake Superior. Sustained winds of 30 – 50 mph (48 – 80 km / h) with gusts from 70 – 90 mph (113 – 145 km / h) produced snowdrifts up to 20 feet (6 m) in some locations. Some roads were closed for up to 11 days. Sioux Falls, South Dakota saw visibilities of below 1 ⁄ 4 mile (0.4 km) for 24 straight hours, and just east of Sioux Falls a 2,000-foot (610 m) broadcast tower collapsed under the storm's fury. In Willmar, Minnesota, 168 passengers were trapped in a stranded train for hours, unable to walk to shelter because of dangerously low wind chill values. In Omaha, Nebraska a foot (31 cm) of snow fell, Sioux Falls saw 7 inches (18 cm), Duluth, Minnesota saw 8 inches (20 cm), and International Falls, Minnesota saw 24 inches (61 cm). Record low pressures were recorded in communities in Nebraska, Minnesota, Illinois, and Wisconsin, with a low of 28.55 in (966.8 mb) in Duluth, Minnesota. In all, approximately 58 people died from effects of the blizzard and over 100,000 farm animals were lost. The combination of snowfall totals, wind velocities, and cold temperatures made this one of the most severe blizzards the Upper Midwest has experienced. = = Record events = = This storm system had, in part, a large effect on the weather in the entire eastern half of the country. A number of different weather records (at the time) were set during the four days of this storm, especially in daily high temperatures, wind gusts, low barometric pressure readings, and number of tornadoes. = = = Daily high temperatures = = = = = = = January 10 = = = = Chicago, Illinois: 60 ° F (15.6 ° C) Indianapolis, Indiana: 62 ° F (16.7 ° C) Louisville, Kentucky: 66 ° F (18.9 ° C) South Bend, Indiana: 61 ° F (16.1 ° C) = = = = January 11 = = = = New York City, New York: 65 ° F (18.3 ° C) Providence, Rhode Island: 61 ° F (16.1 ° C) Washington DC: 75 ° F (23.9 ° C) = = = Low pressure measurements = = = Duluth, Minnesota: 28.55 in (966.8 mb) Minneapolis, Minnesota: 28.62 in (969.2 mb) Rochester, Minnesota: 28.67 in (970.9 mb) Milwaukee, Wisconsin: 28.86 in (977.3 mb) Rockford, Illinois: 28.87 in (977.6 mb) St. Louis, Missouri: 28.93 in (979.7 mb) = = = Tornadoes = = = Most tornadoes on one day in January: 39 Most tornadoes in the United States during January: 52

= Poquita Ropa = Poquita Ropa (English: Few Clothes) is the twelfth studio album by Guatemalan singer-songwriter Ricardo Arjona. It was released on August 24, 2010 through Warner Music. It was recorded in Mexico City, New York, and Los Angeles and was produced by Lee Levin and Dan Warner under their production name Los Gringo, with additional works from Matt Rollings and Brian Lang. Markedly different in style from his previous albums, Poquita Ropa was produced using as few musical instruments as possible. Arjona's goal was to produce the songs "almost as they were born"; he achieved this by using nonexistent sounds to make the songs sound more acoustic. Arjona achieved a production style that made the songs sound like a capella performances, and he said that "music and women look better with little clothes." The album was critically and commercially successful, became his third number one album on the Billboard Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums chart, and also topped the charts in Argentina and Mexico. It was certified Platinum in Argentina and Mexico, and was certified Gold in Chile, Colombia and the United States. The album was nominated at the 53rd Grammy Awards for Best Latin Pop Album. Poquita Ropa was given generally positive reviews; Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic considered the album a "stripped-down acoustic effort" and said that it was "impressive". Poquita Ropa spawned three singles. "Puente", a song with Cuban influences, was released as the lead single from the album and peaked at number 36 on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart. The other two singles released were "Vida" and "Marta", both of which failed to appear on the charts. Instead of promoting the album with a worldwide tour, Arjona produced an eponymous film which was broadcast on HBO and A & E. It was directed by Joaquín Cambre, and features Mexican telenovela actress Edith González. = = Composition = = With Poquita Ropa, Arjona wanted to drastically change his musical style. He tried to use as few instruments as possible, resulting in a production that sounds like a capella performances. Arjona said about the album, "music and women look better with little clothes", and that "they [the songs] are like women; they get things up and are so concerned about this that they forget that the less clothes, more beauty. The songs are often overwhelmed by ourselves, because we saturate them with arrangements looking to exalt their qualities and we end up hiding them." Arjona produced the album with the assistance of Dan Warner, who has worked with Shakira, Celine Dion and Christina Aguilera. Jason Birchmeier from Allmusic commented that Poquita Ropa "finds Arjona at his most naked, backed by spare arrangements of acoustic guitar, piano, and Hammond B-3 along with occasional touches of strings, woodwinds, and chorus vocals." Poquita Ropa was the first album that Arjona recorded without producer Tommy Torres, whose last production was 5to Piso (2008). The album is similar in style to Arjona's work on Galería Caribe (2000). "Puente", the lead single, is eight minutes and thirty seconds long and is divided into three parts. The first part is an a cappella song with a piano accompaniment. The second part is a ballad with Caribbean and Latin sounds, with some salsa and Cuban influences. The third is a mixture of salsa and merengue, with Cuban influences. Mónica Maristain from newspaper La Nación compared it with "Habana", a 1999 song by Fito Páez. = = Lyrical content = = When asked about "Puente" 's main theme, Arjona commented, "Although many believe is a threshed topic, it isn't for a Cuban, be it on the island or Florida. The status of this dispute hasn't changed since 1959 and I've never seen something as disgusting as a rivalry between people occasioned from politics. Chávez can fight with Uribe, Fidel with Obama, but what has this to do with two third-generation cousins that inherit an enmity for a politic matter [?]". In the song, Arjona sings: "Habana / siempre en las mitades, tan mitad española, tan mitad africana / saben bien las olas que en cada ventana siempre hay un testigo / Habana." He also said that "Puente" was the only song that was "not allowed to undress". "Vida", the second single, is considered by Arjona to be an autobiographical song. He said that it "contains a good dose of the life of my old man", as a reference to his father, Don Ricardo Arjona, who died in 2010. In an interview, music video director Joaquín Cambre said that, "'Vida' is a sweet song, exciting and bitter nonetheless. I tried to represent that mix of feelings crafting an ambience of hope inside of a story that inevitably has a tragic end. Ricardo Arjona plays the song while listening to the story playing on an old disc." Arjona said that "Marta" is "one of those songs with brushworks related to something that happened, put on the magnifying glass of the author." When asked if "Escribir Una Canción" could be considered a guide for songwriters, he stated that "there are no guides to write songs. If any, songwriters would stop writing songs and start writing guides." Arjona also said that "Mi País" was "the story of anybody who left their land and searched for life in another place, with all that huge dose of nostalgia and memory those moments carries.", and that he wrote the song when he left Guatemala. "Que Voy A Hacer Conmigo" was originally included as a rock song on his 1991 album Del Otro Lado del Sol, but the lyrics were slightly changed on the new version. Arjona stated that it was a difficult process to leave the songs "almost as they were born", and that he had to convince the people who worked on the album that "it was the way the songs were to be", without adding any sounds. = = Release and promotion = = Poquita Ropa was released first in Spain on 6 August 2010, and was made available in the United States, Latin America, and the rest of Europe on 15 August 2010. The compact disc version of the album was released in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Latin America on 24 August 2010. A deluxe edition was released on iTunes, and contained the track "Estas Ganas de Llorar". = = = Singles = = = "Puente", the lead single from the album, was released on 9 August 2010. The song is a political-charged anthem to Havana, the relationship between Cuba and the United States, the international economic blockade against Cuba, and Cuban emigration to Florida. The song reached number 36 on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart. "Puente" is one of Arjona's least successful lead singles. The music video was filmed in Mexico and Argentina. The second single, "Vida", was released on 7 December 2010. Its music video was filmed in Mexico and was directed by Argentinian filmmaker Joaquín Cambre. The third and last single from the album was "Marta", released on 29 March 2011. It became the second consecutive single from Poquita Ropa to fail to chart in the United States. The accompanying music video featured Mexican telenovela actress Edith González. = = = Film = = = On 12 February 2011, HBO premiered the film Poquita Ropa – Una Historia Apasionada, a compilation of the music videos for all of the songs on the album, interlaced into one story and with a duration of 67 minutes. It was directed by Joaquín Cambre, and co-starred Arjona, González, Edgar Vivar, Daniel Arenas, Mimi Morales, and Kenny. Poquita Ropa – Una Historia Apasionada was produced in Argentina and Mexico. Jesús Grovas, HBO's corporate communication manager for Mexico and Central America said that it was "a pleasure to have on screen the music of a songwriter like Ricardo Arjona, which is warranty of quality". The film was later broadcast by A & E. = = Reception = = = = = Commercial performance = = = In the United States, Poquita Ropa sold over nine thousand copies in its first week, debuting at number one the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart, on the week ending 11 September 2010, becoming Arjona's third studio album to reach number one on that chart, following Galería Caribe (2000) and 5to Piso (2008). The following week, it fell to number two as Enrique Iglesias' Euphoria regained the top position. Poquita Ropa also debuted at number one on the Latin Pop Albums chart on the week ending 11 September 2010. It became Arjona's fourth album to reach number one, after Galería Caribe, 5to Piso and Quién Dijo Ayer (2007). Poquita Ropa also debuted at number 43 on the Billboard 200, becoming his highest entry on that chart. The album was also commercially successful outside the United States. In Mexico, Poquita Ropa debuted at number 29, and jumped to number one in its second week. It remained at number one for two consecutive weeks, before dropping to number five. The album was the 31st best-selling album of 2010 in Mexico. Poquita Ropa also peaked at number one in Argentina, and at number two in Chile. On the 2010 year-end chart, Poquita Ropa was the 43rd best-selling album on the Latin Albums chart, and the 12th best-selling album on the Latin Pop Albums chart. Poquita Ropa was certified Platinum by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers (CAPIF), denoting 40,000 copies sold. It was also certified Platinum by the Mexican Association of Producers of Phonograms and Videograms (AMPROFON), denoting 60,000 copies sold. In the United States, Poquita Ropa was certified Gold (Latin) by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting 50,000 copies shipped. It was certified Gold in Chile, denoting sales of 5,000 copies, and in Colombia, denoting sales of 10,000 copies. = = = Critical response = = = Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic gave the album a positive review, and wrote that it was a "stripped-down acoustic effort", and considered it "impressive". An editor from El Carabobeño said that Poquita Ropa was "an album of ghetto and concept, with flawless production and carried out with the right amount of instruments." = = Track listing = = Following, the track list of Poquita Ropa as is shown in Allmusic. All songs written and composed by Ricardo Arjona. iTunes Bonus Track = = Personnel = = The credits are taken from the iTunes exclusive digital booklet. = = = Technical credits = = = = = Chart performance = = = = Release history = =

= 1988 – 89 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season = The 1988 – 89 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was an active season that featured several storms moving near or over the Mascarene Islands or Madagascar. The eleven tropical storms was two greater than average, of which five became tropical cyclones – a storm with maximum sustained winds over 10 minutes of 120 km / h (75 mph) or greater. Storms were monitored by the Météo-France office (MFR) on Réunion island in an official capacity, as well as the American Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) on an unofficial base. The season began early with Moderate Tropical Storm Adelinina forming in early November, and continued through the middle of April. Adelinina was one of two storms to form in November, the other being Tropical Cyclone Barisaona which crossed from the adjacent Australian basin. After no activity in December, there were four storms in January, including the most notable of the season – Cyclone Firinga. The storm caused ₣1 billion (1989 francs, $157 million 1989 USD) in damage when it struck Réunion. Tropical Cyclone Calasanjy also formed in the month, causing heavy damage when it struck western Madagascar. Three storms formed in February, the second of which, Hanitra, also crossed from the Australian basin. This storm, as well as later Tropical Cyclone Krisy, were the strongest of the season, attaining peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 150 km / h (95 mph). Tropical Cyclone Jinabo was the first of three storms to form in quick succession in late March, the others being Krisy and Tropical Storm Lezissy. Jinabo originated off the east coast of Madagascar and dropped heavy rainfall on Réunion. Krisy took a similar track and passed within 100 km (60 mi) of Rodrigues and Mauritius, causing heavy crop damage. Lastly, Tropical Storm Lezissy merged with Krisy and dissipated on April 11 to end the season. = = Seasonal summary = = During the season, the Météo-France office (MFR) on Réunion island issued warnings in tropical cyclones within the basin. Using satellite imagery from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the agency estimated intensity through the Dvorak technique, and warned on tropical cyclones in the region from the coast of Africa to 90 ° E, south of the equator. At the time, the World Meteorological Organization recognized the MFR as a Regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre, and would later label the agency as a Regional Specialized Meteorological Center in 1993. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC), which is a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force, also issued tropical cyclone warnings for the southwestern Indian Ocean. The season's 11 named storms is slightly above the long term average, while the five tropical cyclones – a storm attaining maximum sustained winds of at least 120 km / h (75 mph) – was the same as the long term average. There was an ongoing La Niña event in the middle of the season. The MFR considered the tropical cyclone year to begin on August 1 and continue to July 31 of the following year. In addition to the storms monitored by the MFR, the JTWC tracked a storm in March that formed off the west coast of Madagascar on March 7. It moved generally to the south or south-southeast, failing to intensify beyond 1 ‑ minute winds of 65 km / h (40 mph). After passing west of Madagascar, the storm dissipated on March 11. = = Storms = = = = = Moderate Tropical Storm Adelinina = = = The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) over the eastern Indian Ocean was the origin of what would become Tropical Storm Adelinina. On October 30, the JTWC began monitoring the system to the south of Diego Garcia, and classified it as Tropical Cyclone 01S on November 1. On the next day, the MFR began issuing advisories on the system and quickly upgraded it to Moderate Tropical Storm Adelinina. The agency estimated 10 ‑ minute winds of 65 km / h (40 mph) as the storm moved to the southeast. By contrast, the JTWC assessed that Adelinina rapidly intensified into the equivalent of a minimal hurricane on November 2, estimating peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 140 km / h (85 mph) the next day. Without strengthening further, Adelinina began weakening on November 4, turning to the east and later turning back to the northwest; the track was influenced by a ridge to the south. Adelinina completed its five-day loop on November 7 as it crossed westward over its former track. That day, the MFR re-upgraded the system to tropical storm status, but discontinued advisories on November 8. = = = Tropical Cyclone Barisaona = = = On November 5, a tropical depression formed in the Australian basin south of Indonesia from a trough. It moved slowly and erratically to the west, only gradually organizing. On November 8, the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 02S. Before entering the south-west Indian Ocean, the Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) estimated that the system reached 10 ‑ minute winds of 105 km / h (65 mph). However, the BoM did not include the system in its annual summary of the season, and at the time it was considered a tropical depression in the Australian region. On November 12, the system crossed 90 ° E, classified as Moderate Tropical Storm Barisaona by the MFR. By that time, the storm was moving steadily to the west-southwest, steered by a ridge to the south, and it attained tropical cyclone status two days later. Also on November 14, the MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 135 km / h (85 mph), based on the well-defined eye. Barisaona briefly weakened to tropical storm status on November 15, only to regain tropical cyclone status the next day. On November 16, the JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 185 km / h (115 mph). A passing trough turned the cyclone to the southwest. It gradually weakened thereafter, and JTWC discontinued advisories on November 20. The MFR tracked Barisaona for a few more days as a ridge steered the system back to the north; the system dissipated on November 23. = = = Tropical Cyclone Calasanjy = = = The origins of Calasanjy were from the ITCZ in the Mozambique Channel off the northwest coast of Madagascar in early January. An area of disturbed weather moved southwestward at first, but gradually curved to the northwest. On January 9, the MFR classified it as a tropical disturbance, but upgraded it to Moderate Tropical Storm Calasanjy on the next day. Also on January 10, the JTWC designated the storm as Tropical Cyclone 06S. By that time, Calasanjy was just off the east coast of Mozambique, although it executed a tight loop to the southeast spare a landfall. Moving along its former path, the storm gradually intensified – the JTWC upgraded it to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane on January 12, and the MFR upgraded Calasanjy to tropical cyclone status two days later. Both agencies estimated peak winds of around 135 km / h (85 mph). Later on January 14, Calasanjy made landfall in western Madagascar near Morondava, and soon after moving ashore it turned to the southwest, its motion changed due to a ridge to the southeast. It weakened to tropical depression status before re-emerging into the Mozambique Channel on January 16, becoming extratropical the next day. Cyclone Calasanjy caused heavy damage in western Madagascar, with a peak wind gust of 195 km / h (120 mph) in Maintirano. The storm caused the Morondava River to increase to a flow rate of 2,702 m3 / s (95,420 ft3 / s), with a peak height of 4.08 m (13.4 ft) during the storm. Reforms enacted after previous cyclones Kamisy and Honorinina helped facilitate repairs following this storm. = = = Tropical Depression Dona = = = On January 10, a tropical disturbance formed east-northeast of St. Brandon, which is a small archipelago belonging to Mauritius. It originally consisted of a small, weak vortex, although it gradually organized. The system moved to the southwest and quickly intensified into a tropical depression, reaching peak winds of 50 km / h (30 mph). Despite it only being a depression, the Mauritius Meteorological Service named the depression Dona due to the threat to the island. The system turned more to the south ahead of a trough, passing east of St. Brandon and later to the west of Rodrigues. Later, Dona turned to the southeast, dissipating on January 14 without affecting land. = = = Severe Tropical Storm Edme = = = On January 20, a tropical disturbance formed about 240 km (150 mi) west of the Cocos Islands. That day, the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 07S, although it had monitored the system for the preceding three days. The nascent disturbance moved to the south and gradually intensified, becoming Moderate Tropical Storm Edme on January 21. On the next day, the JTWC upgraded the storm to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane, as Edme was aided by favorable upper level conditions beneath an anticyclone. On January 23, the agency estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 215 km / h (130 mph); however, the MFR only assessed peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 115 km / h (70 mph), just shy of tropical cyclone status. By the time of peak intensity, Edme had begun moving southwestward and thereafter weakened due to increasing wind shear, imparted by a trough in the Westerlies. On January 26, the storm weakened to tropical depression status as it turned to the south. Edme dissipated the following day. = = = Tropical Cyclone Firinga = = = Firinga developed on January 24 well to the northeast of Mauritius. After initially moving to the southeast, it began a southwest motion that it would continue for several days. During that time, the system intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Firinga, and the JTWC upgraded it to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane on January 28. Early the next day, it intensified to tropical cyclone status, reaching peak winds of 135 km / h (85 mph). Around that time, Firinga passed 50 km (30 mi) west of Mauritius, producing 190 km / h (120 mph) wind gusts. Shortly thereafter, the cyclone struck Réunion, still at peak intensity, producing wind gusts as strong as 216 km / h (134 mph). Firinga turned more to the south as it weakened, degenerating into a tropical disturbance on January 31. It fluctuated in intensity after turning to the southeast and executing a loop to the southwest, dissipating on February 7. On Mauritius, Firinga destroyed 844 homes. Heavy crop damage occurred on the island, and damage nationwide was estimated at $60 million (1989 USD). One person was killed in Mauritius. The storm dropped torrential rainfall in the southern portion of Réunion, including 24 ‑ hour totals of 1,309 mm (51.5 in) at Pas de Bellecombe and 1,199 mm (47.2 in) at Casabois, both of which set records for the locations. The rains caused widespread river flooding and resulted in 32 mudslides. Firinga isolated several towns from the flooding and left power and water outages. A total of 2,746 houses were damaged or destroyed, leaving 6,200 people homeless. Damage was estimated at around ₣1 billion (1989 francs, $157 million 1989 USD), and there were 10 deaths on the island. = = = Severe Tropical Storm Gizela = = = A tropical disturbance formed on February 16 to the southeast of Diego Garcia. It moved to the west-southwest, intensifying into Moderate Tropical Storm Gizela on February 18. That day, the JTWC began classifying it as Tropical Cyclone 12S. Due to a passing trough, Gizela turned to the south and southeast, gradually strengthening. On February 20, the MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 95 km / h (60 mph), while the JTWC upgraded it to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane. Influenced by a ridge, Gizela turned back to the southwest and slowly weakened while remaining far away from any landmasses. On February 22, it weakened to tropical depression status while turning to the south, and Gizela dissipated two days later. = = = Tropical Cyclone Leon-Hanitra = = = A weak low pressure area was evident in the Australian basin as early as February 13 between the Cocos Islands and Christmas Island. It meandered for several days, executing a small loop, before beginning a westward motion. After passing south of the Cocos Islands, the system intensified into a tropical storm on February 18 and was named Leon. On the next day, the storm crossed into the south-west Indian Ocean, whereupon the Mauritius Meteorological Service renamed it Hanitra. The storm quickly intensified once it entered the basin. The JTWC, which designated the storm as Tropical Cyclone 11S, upgraded Hanitra to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane late on February 19. On February 22, the agency estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 230 km / h (145 mph), by which time Hanitra had begun a steady southwest motion. By contrast, the MFR assessed slower strengthening, only upgrading it to tropical cyclone status on February 23 and estimating peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 150 km / h (95 mph). The storm gradually accelerated to the south and weakened, becoming extratropical over time. The motion shifted to the southeast on February 28, and Hanitra dissipated the next day. = = = Moderate Tropical Storm Iana = = = Before Iana formed, there was a persistent area of cloudiness across the Mozambique Channel in late February. A low pressure area originated over eastern Mozambique and moved eastward over water, emerging near Beira. On February 25, a tropical disturbance formed off the west coast of southern Madagascar and moved east-northeastward, steered by a ridge to the south. Shortly thereafter, the center passed just north of Europa Island. By the next day, it intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Iana, reaching peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 85 km / h (50 mph). Late on February 26, the storm made landfall in western Madagascar near Morombe. Iana weakened slightly while moving east-southeastward through the country, emerging into the Indian Ocean on February 27 near Farafangana. On the next day, the storm weakened to tropical depression status as it curved southward. Iana became extratropical the next day. The storm was not tracked by the JTWC. On Europa Island, Iana produced 86 km / h (53 mph) wind gusts, while on Madagascar, gusts peaked at 80 km / h (49 mph) at Morondava. = = = Severe Tropical Storm Jinabo = = = A tropical disturbance originated just east of St. Brandon on March 23, initially consisting of a disorganized area of convection without a distinct center. Moving briskly westward, it slowly organized, becoming Moderate Tropical Storm Jinabo on March 25. That day, the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 19S. The storm turned to the southwest due to a trough in the region, bringing it parallel to the east coast of Madagascar. On March 26, the JTWC upgraded Jinabo to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane, and early the next day, the MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 115 km / h (70 mph). Around that time, the storm stalled about 110 km (70 mi) east of the coast of Madagascar, later turning to the southeast due to a ridge. Quickly weakening, Jinabo was only a minimal tropical storm by March 29. On the next day, it turned back to the south. Jinabo weakened to tropical depression status on March 31 and dissipated the next day, having become extratropical and joining the westeries. The storm brought gusty winds and rainfall to Madagascar and Réunion. On the former island, gusts reached 107 km / h (67 mph) at Mahanoro along the coast. On Réunion, the storm drenched the island for six days, with a peak of 565 mm (22.2 in) at Sainte-Rose. = = = Tropical Cyclone Krisy = = = About a week after Jinabo formed, another tropical disturbance formed in the basin on March 28 south of Diego Garcia. In its formative stages, it moved erratically, although generally to the southwest. On March 30, it intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Krisy, the same day that the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 21S. Due to a ridge to the south, Krisy's track shifted to the west that day before turning southward on April 1. During that time, the JTWC assessed that Krisy intensified to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane. The MFR upgraded the storm to cyclone status on April 2, and on that day the JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 195 km / h (120 mph). On April 3, the MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 150 km / h (95 mph) as the cyclone turned to the west-southwest. Over the next few days, the storm slowly weakened, passing 100 km (60 mi) north of Rodrigues on April 5 as a moderate tropical storm. On the next day, Krisy brushed the east coasts of Mauritius and Réunion, passing just 30 km (18 mi) east of the former island. It weakened to tropical depression status on April 7 while curving to the south and later to the east, becoming extratropical. A ridge turned the remnants of Krisy to the north toward Tropical Depression Lezissy, and the two systems merged on April 11. Krisy first affected Rodrigues, producing 122 km / h (76 mph) gusts and 97.6 mm (3.84 mm) of rainfall. Gusts reached 90 km / h (56 mph) on Réunion, and high waves affected the island for several days. However, effects were worst on Mauritius. While passing south of the island, Krisy produced wind gusts of 155 km / h (96 mph) at Plaisance Airport on Mauritius. Rainfall on the island reached 182 mm (7.2 in) over a 24 period. On the island, the passages of Firinga and Krisy decreased the output of the sugar crop by 20,000 tons, accounting for 15% of the sugar cane, mostly in the southeastern portion of the island. Several other crops were affected by the two cyclones, resulting in a 50% decrease of the banana output. As Krisy struck just two months after Firinga, residents heeded alerts and were well-prepared, and 800 people sought shelter. There were no direct deaths, although one farmer committed suicide due to the threat of the storm. = = = Moderate Tropical Storm Lezissy = = = The final storm of the season formed on April 6 to the east-southeast of Diego Garcia while Krisy was active near Rodrigues. That same day, the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 24S. It quickly intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Lezissy as it took a westward trajectory, reaching peak winds of 85 km / h (50 mph) by late on April 6. Influenced by a broad area of low pressure, Lezissy turned to the southwest, gradually weakening. It approached former Cyclone Krisy, and the two systems merged by April 11, both losing their circulations and leaving behind a disorganized remnant low.

= Instant Karma! = "Instant Karma!" – sometimes referred to as "Instant Karma! (We All Shine On)" – is a song written by English musician John Lennon, released as a single on Apple Records in February 1970. In the UK, the single was credited to "Lennon / Ono with the Plastic Ono Band". The song reached the top five in the British and American singles charts, competing with the Beatles' "Let It Be" in America, where it became the first solo single by a member of the band to sell a million copies. "Instant Karma!" was written, recorded and released within a period of ten days, making it one of the fastest-released songs in pop music history. The recording was produced by Phil Spector, marking a comeback for the American producer after his self-imposed retirement in 1966, and leading to him being offered the producer's role on the Beatles' Let It Be album (1970). Recorded at London's Abbey Road Studios, "Instant Karma!" employs Spector's signature Wall of Sound technique and features contributions from George Harrison, Klaus Voormann, Alan White and Billy Preston. The B-side was a song composed and performed by Yoko Ono, titled "Who Has Seen the Wind?" Recently shorn of the long hair synonymous with their 1969 campaign for world peace, Lennon and Ono promoted the single with an appearance on Britain's Top of the Pops. "Instant Karma!" has appeared on many Lennon compilations, including Shaved Fish (1975), Lennon Legend (1997) and Power to the People: The Hits (2010). A version recorded at the "One to One" concerts in August 1972 was included on his posthumously released Live in New York City album (1986). The song continues to receive critical praise as one of the finest recordings from Lennon's solo career. Paul Weller, Duran Duran and U2 are among the acts who have covered "Instant Karma!", the chorus of which inspired the title to Stephen King's 1977 novel The Shining. = = Background = = Together with his wife, Yoko Ono, John Lennon spent New Year 1970 in Aalborg, Denmark, establishing a relationship with Ono's former husband, artist Tony Cox, and visiting Cox and Ono's daughter Kyoko. The visit coincided with the start of what Lennon termed "Year 1 AP (After Peace)", following his and Ono's much-publicised Bed-Ins and other peace-campaign activities throughout 1969. To mark the new era, on 20 January 1970, the couple shaved off their shoulder-length hair, an act that Britain's Daily Mirror described as "the most sensational scalpings since the Red Indians went out of business". Lennon and Ono pledged to auction the shorn hair for a charitable cause, having similarly announced on 5 January that they would donate all future royalties from their recordings to the peace movement. Also while in Denmark, the Lennons, Cox and the latter's current partner, Melinde Kendall, discussed the concept of "instant karma", whereby the causality of one's actions is immediate rather than borne out over a lifetime. Author Philip Norman writes of the concept's appeal: "The idea was quintessential Lennon – the age-old Buddhist law of cause and effect turned into something as modern and synthetic as instant coffee and, simultaneously, into a bogey under the stairs that can get you if you don't watch out." = = Composition = = On 27 January 1970, two days after returning to the UK, Lennon woke up with the beginnings of a song inspired by his conversations with Cox and Kendall. Working at home on a piano, Lennon developed the idea and came up with a melody for the composition, which he titled "Instant Karma!" The song employs a similar chord structure to that of "Three Blind Mice" and "Some Other Guy", after Lennon had used the same progression in his 1967 composition for the Beatles, "All You Need Is Love". Later in 1970, he would adopt the melody of "Three Blind Mice", an English nursery rhyme, for his song "My Mummy's Dead". In their book The Words and Music of John Lennon, Ben Urish and Kenneth Bielen suggest that in the first verse of "Instant Karma!", Lennon rebukes his listeners with the sarcastic lines: "Get yourself together / Pretty soon you're gonna be dead." Norman comments on the "hippie catchphrase of the moment" contained in the first of these two lines, which together provide a warning that is "obviously not to be taken literally". Author Mark Hertsgaard notes the lyric "Why in the world are we here?" as a further example of Lennon "asking what purpose his life on earth was to serve", after his 1966 composition "Strawberry Fields Forever". As with "Give Peace a Chance" and "Power to the People" – Lennon singles from 1969 and 1971 respectively – the chorus has an anthem-like quality, as he sings: "We all shine on, like the moon and the stars and the sun." Norman describes the chorus as Lennon restating his message of "peace campaigning and non-violent, optimistic togetherness". Lennon biographer John Blaney writes that the song is an appeal "for mankind to take responsibility for its fate" and that it was "Lennon developing his own brand of egalitarianism". Lennon completed the writing of "Instant Karma!" in an hour. He then telephoned bandmate George Harrison and American producer Phil Spector, who was in London at the invitation of the Beatles' Apple Corps manager, Allen Klein. According to Lennon's recollection, he told Spector: "Come over to Apple quick, I've just written a monster." = = Recording = = Although still officially a member of the Beatles, Lennon had privately announced his departure from the group in September 1969. He was now keen to issue "Instant Karma!" immediately as a single, the third under his and Ono's Plastic Ono Band moniker. The recording session took place at Abbey Road Studios in north-west London, on the evening of 27 January. Lennon's fellow musicians at the session were Harrison, Klaus Voormann, Alan White and Billy Preston – all of whom had performed at the December 1969 Peace for Christmas Concert, as part of the Plastic Ono Supergroup. The recording engineer for "Instant Karma!" was EMI mainstay Phil McDonald. Spector produced the session, arriving late after Harrison had found him at Apple's office and persuaded him to attend. According to author Bruce Spizer, the line-up for the basic track, before overdubs, was Lennon (vocals, acoustic guitar), Harrison (electric guitar), Preston (organ), Voormann (bass) and White (drums). Lennon later recalled of the recording: "Phil (Spector) came in and said, 'How do you want it?' And I said, '1950s' and he said 'Right' and BOOM!... he played it back and there it was." The song uses a similar amount of echo to 1950s Sun Records recordings. The musicians recorded ten takes, the last of which was selected for overdubbing. To create what Spector biographer Mark Ribowsky terms a "four-man Wall of Sound" production, Lennon added grand piano onto the basic track, while Harrison and White shared another piano and Voormann played electric piano. In addition, Beatles aide Mal Evans overdubbed chimes (or tubular bells) and White added a second, muffled drum part. With Lennon feeling that the chorus was missing something, Preston and Evans were sent to bring in a group of people from a nightclub to provide backing vocals. These newcomers and all the musicians, along with Allen Klein, then added chorus vocals, with Harrison directing the singing. Although Lennon and Spector disagreed over the bass sound, Lennon was "ecstatic" about the producer's work on "Instant Karma", author Peter Doggett writes. White's drums assumed the role of a lead instrument, positioned prominently in the mix, of which Spector biographer Richard Williams would write in 1972: "No Beatles record had ever possessed such a unique sound; Spector had used echo to make the drums reverberate like someone slapping a wet fish on a marble slab, and the voices sounded hollow and decayed." Spector wanted to add a string section to the track in Los Angeles, but Lennon insisted that the recording was complete. Having only recently returned to producing, after the commercial failure of Ike & Tina Turner's 1966 single "River Deep – Mountain High" in America, Spector had "passed the audition", according to Beatles Forever author Nicholas Schaffner. "Instant Karma!" was the first of many Beatles-related recordings that Spector worked on during the early 1970s, starting with the band's final album release, Let It Be (1970). = = = "Who Has Seen the Wind?" = = = As with the Plastic Ono Band's previous singles, "Give Peace a Chance" and "Cold Turkey", Lennon and Ono recorded an Ono composition as a B-side. Produced by Lennon, "Who Has Seen the Wind?" was recorded at Trident Studios in central London, also in late January 1970. The opening verse, sung a cappella by Ono, is from a work by nineteenth-century English poet Christina Rossetti. The instrumentation on the recording includes Lennon playing acoustic guitar; John Barham, Harrison's regular collaborator and arranger, on harpsichord; Ono on flute; and various percussion instruments. Spizer suggests that Harrison may also have participated, on acoustic guitar. = = Release = = "Instant Karma!" ranks as one of the fastest-released songs in pop music history, arriving in UK record stores just ten days after it was written. Lennon remarked to the press that he "wrote it for breakfast, recorded it for lunch, and we're putting it out for dinner". Apple Records issued the single on 6 February 1970 in Britain – credited to the Plastic Ono Band – and on 20 February in America, where the A-side was retitled "Instant Karma! (We All Shine On)" and credited to John Ono Lennon. Spector remixed "Instant Karma!" for the US release without Lennon's knowledge. As with "Cold Turkey", the single's standard Apple Records A-side face label carried the words "PLAY LOUD", in both the UK and America. Reflecting the tender sound of "Who Has Seen the Wind?", the B-side label read "PLAY QUIET" (or "PLAY SOFT" in the US). The front of the US picture sleeve featured a black-and-white photo of Lennon along with a prominent producer's credit for Spector, while the reverse had a similar picture of Ono. = = = Promotion = = = Following a year of highly publicised peace campaigning by the Lennons in 1969, Apple press officer Derek Taylor was concerned that they had exhausted the media's interest in their causes. On 4 February 1970, Lennon and Ono donated a large plastic bag full of their hair, along with Apple's poster for the new single, to north London-based black power activist Michael X, in return for a pair of Muhammad Ali's bloodstained boxing shorts. The "final proof" of the Lennons' "overexpose [ure]", according to Taylor, was that there was a large press turnout for the event yet "nobody printed anything". On 11 February, Lennon and Ono filmed an appearance on BBC Television's Top of the Pops to promote "Instant Karma!", accompanied by White, Voormann, Evans and BP Fallon. While the other musicians mimed their contributions, Lennon sang a live vocal over a mix of the song's instrumental track, prepared by EMI engineer Geoff Emerick. This was the first appearance on the program by any member of the Beatles since 1966, as well as the public unveiling of the Lennons' new cropped look. Two versions of "Instant Karma!" – known as "knitting" and "cue card" – were taped for Top of the Pops, and aired on 12 and 19 February, respectively. The clips differ from one another in terms of Lennon's attire and the nature of Ono's role as, in author Robert Rodriguez's description, "an onstage focal point around which all activity was staged"; in addition, Lennon's vocal was treated with echo for the 19 February broadcast. In the "knitting" clip, Lennon is wearing a black polo-neck jumper as Ono sits beside his piano, blindfolded, and knitting throughout. In "cue card", Lennon wears a flower-pattern shirt under a denim jacket, while Ono holds up a series of cryptically worded cue cards, the messages on which include "Smile", "Hope" and "Peace", as she speaks into a microphone. Although Ono appears to have a more active role, she is again blindfolded and the words she speaks cannot be heard. Rodriguez describes both clips as "terrifically engaging, providing suitably dynamic visuals to a powerful song", yet he considers that the "cue card" performance "captures much more of the ambience, with frequent shots of White's stellar work and the studio dancers". = = = Commercial success and aftermath = = = "Instant Karma!" was commercially successful, peaking at number 3 on America's Billboard Hot 100 chart, number 2 in Canada, and number 5 on the UK Singles Chart. The single also reached the top ten in several other European countries and in Australia. The release took place two months before Paul McCartney announced the break-up of the Beatles, whose penultimate single, the George Martin-produced "Let It Be", Lennon's record competed with on the US charts. "Instant Karma!" went on to become the first single by a solo Beatle to achieve US sales of 1 million, earning gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America on 14 December 1970. Until Lennon's death in December 1980, "Instant Karma!" remained his sole RIAA-certified gold single. Despite the stated intentions for Lennon and Ono's Year 1 AP, the proceeds from the auctioning of their hair benefited Michael X's Black House commune rather than the peace movement, and, in the words of Beatles Diary author Barry Miles, the pledge to donate their royalties was also "discreetly forgotten". In March 1970, Lennon publicly split with the organisers of the planned Toronto Peace Festival, as he and Ono began treatment under Arthur Janov's Primal Therapy. Before heading to California in April for intensive therapy through the summer, Lennon accused McCartney of using the Beatles' break-up to sell his album McCartney, and admitted that he wished that he himself had announced the break-up months before to promote his own solo release. = = Critical reception = = On release, Chris Welch of Melody Maker declared: "Instant hit! John Lennon is singing better than ever. With a beautiful rock 'n' roll echo chamber on his mean but meaningful vocals and some superb drumming, it makes up the Plastics' best piece of boogie yet." Writing in the NME in 1975, Charles Shaar Murray wrote of the song's "volcanically desperate optimism" and rated it "a classic". Shaar Murray added, with reference to "Cold Turkey" also: "I can't remember anybody else who put out two such utter killers in a row over the same period of time." Village Voice critic Robert Christgau has described "Instant Karma!" as Lennon's "best political song", while other reviewers consider it his finest post-Beatles recording. In their 1975 book The Beatles: An Illustrated Record, Roy Carr and Tony Tyler describe "Instant Karma!" as a "snappy little rocker" that "owes as much to the skilful production of Phil Spector as to the vitality of the overall performance", on which "[d] rummer Alan White excels." Carr and Tyler remark that "Who Has Seen the Wind?" "would have made a marvellous soundtrack for the movie of Henry James' 'The Turn of the Screw', being a somewhat sinister ditty sung à la Wunderkind". Bruce Spizer describes Ono's song as "evok [ing] images of minstrels at a Renaissance fair" and considers the single "a far cry … and welcome relief from the avant-garde discs issued by John and Yoko in 1969". Another to highlight White's drumming amid the "collective genius" of all the participants on "Instant Karma!", author Robert Rodriguez concludes of Lennon's activities on 27 January 1970: "Not many days in the history of rock and roll proved as everlastingly fruitful." In 1981, NME critic Bob Woffinden wrote of the single: "It was excellent. Lennon was characteristically simple and direct, but this time on a song with one of those magically catchy refrains." Among Lennon's biographers, Ben Urish and Kenneth Bielen view "Instant Karma!" as "a chiding though positive message for humanity", while Jon Wiener praises Lennon's "rich, deep voice" on a recording where the sound is "irresistible". Philip Norman describes the song as "similar to 'Cold Turkey' in tempo but far more relaxed and humorous", adding that Spector's production gave Lennon's voice "a taut expressiveness it had not had since 'Norwegian Wood'". While noting the significance of the session for George Harrison's career, author Simon Leng praises the recording as being "full of urgency and sheer excitement". In 1989, Rolling Stone magazine ranked "Instant Karma!" the 79th best single of the previous 25 years. In NME Originals: Beatles – The Solo Years 1970 – 1980, David Stubbs lists the song second among Lennon's "ten solo gems" (behind "Cold Turkey"), with the comment: "'Instant Karma!' epitomises the Lennon paradox, melding hippie idealism and rock'n'roll primal energy in an exhilarating mix." Matt Melis of Consequence of Sound placed it third on his 2009 list of "Top Ten Songs by Ex-Beatles". According to the website Acclaimed Music, "Instant Karma!" has also appeared in the following critics' best-songs lists and books, among others: Dave Marsh's The 1001 Greatest Singles Ever Made (1989; at number 638), 1000 Songs that Rock Your World by Dave Thompson (2011; number 56), the NME's "The 100 Best Songs of the 1970s" (2012; number 77), and Q magazine's "The 1001 Best Songs Ever" (2003; number 193). The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame includes the track among its "500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll". = = Re-releases and live version = = "Instant Karma!" 's first appearance on a Lennon album, albeit slightly edited in length, was the 1975 compilation Shaved Fish. Urish and Bielen observe that the "advertising hyperbole" inherent in the song's title, through the inclusion of an exclamation mark, is given extra emphasis on this album cover. The song has featured – often with the full title "Instant Karma! (We All Shine On)" – on numerous posthumous compilations, including The John Lennon Collection (1982), the Lennon box set (1990), Lennon Legend (1997), Working Class Hero: The Definitive Lennon (2005) and Power to the People: The Hits (2010). "Who Has Seen the Wind?" appeared as a bonus track on the 1997 Rykodisc reissue of the couple's third album of experimental music, Wedding Album (1969). Lennon played "Instant Karma!" at his last full-length concert performance – the One to One benefit shows held at Madison Square Garden, New York, on 30 August 1972. His backing band comprised the group Elephant's Memory, in addition to Ono and drummer Jim Keltner. The 1986 album and video Live in New York City contains the afternoon performance of the song. In July 1992, "Instant Karma!" was re-released as a single in the Netherlands, backed by "Oh My Love". Originally, copies of it were given away with early editions of The John Lennon Video Collection. When released in the rest of Europe (barring the UK), this single reissue gained two extra B-sides: "Mother" and "Bless You". Of the two 1970 Top of the Pops performances, the "cue card" version appeared on The John Lennon Video Collection in October 1992, while the "knitting" performance was remixed and extended for release on the Lennon Legend DVD (2003). The "knitting" version was also included on the 2003 UK single "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)", released on 8 December that year. = = Cover versions and cultural references = = Artists who have covered "Instant Karma!" include Toad the Wet Sprocket, Paul Weller, Duran Duran, Tater Totz with Cherie Currie and Tokio Hotel. In 2007, the song provided the title for Amnesty International's multi-artist compilation of Lennon compositions, Instant Karma: The Amnesty International Campaign to Save Darfur, for which U2 recorded a cover version. The title of Stephen King's horror novel The Shining (1977) came from Lennon's line "We all shine on …" King has said that he was going to call the book The Shine, before realising that "shine" had been used as a derogatory term for black people. In 1988, Ono allowed the footwear and apparel company Nike to feature "Instant Karma!" in an advertising campaign, after a public outcry the previous year had forced her to withdraw permission for the use of Lennon's Beatles composition "Revolution". Instant Karma Records was named after the song, and the Flaming Lips recorded their track "I Don't Understand Karma" in 2009 as a reply to "Instant Karma!" = = Personnel = = The following musicians contributed to the recording of "Instant Karma!": John Lennon – lead vocals, acoustic guitar, piano, backing vocals George Harrison – electric guitar, piano, backing vocals Klaus Voormann – bass guitar, electric piano, backing vocals Alan White – drums, piano, backing vocals Billy Preston – organ, backing vocals Yoko Ono – backing vocals Mal Evans – chimes, handclaps, backing vocals uncredited – tambourine Allen Klein and several dozen revellers from London's Hatchett Club – backing vocals = = Charts and certifications = =

= Thanjavur = Thanjavur, formerly Tanjore, is a city in the south Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is an important center of South Indian religion, art, and architecture. Most of the Great Living Chola Temples, which are UNESCO World Heritage Monuments, are located in and around Thanjavur. The foremost among these, the Brihadeeswara Temple, is located in the centre of the city. Thanjavur is also home to Tanjore painting, a painting style unique to the region. Thanjavur is the headquarters of the Thanjavur District. The city is an important agricultural centre located in the Cauvery Delta and is known as the "Rice bowl of Tamil Nadu". Thanjavur is administered by a municipal corporation covering an area of 36.33 km2 (14.03 sq mi) and had a population of 222,943 in 2011. Roadways are the major means of transportation, while the city also has rail connectivity. The nearest airport is Tiruchirapalli International Airport, located 59.6 km (37.0 mi) away from the city. The nearest seaport is Karaikal Port, which is 94 km (58 mi) away from Thanjavur. Scholars believe the name Thanjavur is derived from Tanjan, a legendary demon in Hindu mythology. While the early history of Thanjavur remains unclear, the city first rose to prominence during the reign of Medieval Cholas when it served as the capital of the empire. After the fall of Cholas, the city was ruled by various dynasties like Pandyas, Vijayanagar Empire, Madurai Nayaks, Thanjavur Nayaks, Thanjavur Marathas and the British Empire. It has been a part of independent India since 1947. = = History = = According to local legend, the word Thanjavur is derived from "Tanjan", an asura (giant) in Hindu mythology who was killed in what is now Thanjavur by the Hindu god Neelamegha Perumal, a form of Vishnu. The word Thanjavur is indeed a Tamil name. "Than" -cold, "chei" -farmland, "ur" - city, a city surrounded by cold farmlands.The word "Thancheiur" has become "Thanjavur" There are no references to Thanjavur in any of the Sangam period (third century BC to fourth century AD) Tamil records, though some scholars believe that the city has existed since that time. Kovil Venni, situated 15 miles (24 km) to the east of the city, was the site of the Battle of Venni between the Chola king Karikala and a confederacy of the Cheras and the Pandyas. The Cholas seemed to have faced an invasion of the Kalabhras in the third century AD after which the kingdom faded into obscurity. The region around present day Thanjavur was conquered by the Mutharayars during sixth century, who ruled it up to 849. The Cholas came to prominence once more through the rise of the Medieval Chola monarch Vijayalaya (841 – 878) in about 850. Vijayalaya conquered Thanjavur from the Mutharayar king Elango Mutharayar and built a temple dedicated to Hindu goddess Nisumbhasudani. His son Aditya I (871 – 901) consolidated the hold over the city. The Rashtrakuta king Krishna II (878 – 914), a contemporary of the Chola king Parantaka I (907 – 950), claims to have conquered Thanjavur, but there are no records to support the claim. Gradually, Thanjavur became the most important city in the Chola Empire and remained its capital till the emergence of Gangaikonda Cholapuram in about 1025. During the first decade of the eleventh century, the Chola king Raja Raja Chola I (985 – 1014) constructed the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur. The temple is considered to be one of the best specimens of South Indian temple architecture. When the Chola Empire began to decline in the 13th century, the Pandyas from the south invaded and captured Thanjavur twice, first during 1218 – 19 and then during 1230. During the second invasion, the Chola king Rajaraja III (1216 – 56) was set in exile and he sought the help of the Hoysala king Vira Narasimha II (1220 – 35) to regain Thanjavur. Thanjavur was eventually annexed along with the rest of the Chola kingdom by the Pandya king Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I (1268 – 1308) in 1279 and the Chola kings were forced to accept the suzerainty of the Pandyas. The Pandyas ruled Thanjavur from 1279 to 1311 when their kingdom was raided and annexed by the forces of Malik Kafur (1296 – 1306) and Delhi Sultanate. The Sultanate extended its authority directly over the conquered regions from 1311 to 1335 and then through the semi-independent Ma'bar Sultanate from 1335 to 1378. Starting from the 1350s, the Ma'bar Sultanate was steadily absorbed into the rising Vijayanagar Empire. Thanjavur is believed to have been conquered by Kampanna Udayar during his invasion of Srirangam between 1365 and 1371. Deva Raya's inscription dated 1443, Thirumala's inscription dated 1455 and Achuta Deva's land grants dated 1532 and 1539 attest Vijayanagar's dominance over Thanjavur. Sevappa Nayak (1532 – 80), the Vijayanagar viceroy of Arcot, established himself as an independent monarch in 1532 (1549, according to some sources) and founded the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom. Achuthappa Nayak (1560 – 1614), Raghunatha Nayak (1600 – 34) and Vijaya Raghava Nayak (1634 – 73) are some of the important rulers of the Nayak dynasty who ruled Thanjavur. Thanjavur Nayaks were notable for their patronage of literature and arts. The rule of the dynasty came to an end when Thanjavur fell to the Madurai Nayak king Chokkanatha Nayak (1662 – 82) in 1673. Vijaya Raghunatha Nayak, the son of Chokkanatha, was killed in a battle and Chokkanatha's brother Alagiri Nayak (1673 – 75) was crowned as the ruler of the empire. Thanjavur was successfully conquered in 1674 by Ekoji I (1675 – 84), the Maratha feudatory of the sultan of Bijapur and half-brother of Shivaji (1627 / 30-80) of the Bhonsle dynasty. Ekoji founded the Thanjavur Maratha kingdom which ruled Thanjavur till 1855. The Marathas exercised their sovereignty over Thanjavur throughout the last quarter of the 17th and the whole of the 18th century. The Maratha rulers patronized Carnatic music. In 1787, Amar Singh, the regent of Thanjavur, deposed the minor Raja, his nephew Serfoji II (1787 – 93) and captured the throne. Serfoji II was restored in 1799 with the assistance of the British, who induced him to relinquish the administration of the kingdom and left him in charge of Thanjavur fort and surrounding areas. The kingdom was eventually absorbed into British India in 1855 by the Doctrine of Lapse when Shivaji II (1832 – 55), the last Thanjavur Maratha ruler, died without a legitimate male heir. The British referred to the city as Tanjore in their records. Five years after its annexation, the British replaced Negapatam (modern-day Nagapattinam) with Thanjavur as the seat of the district administration. Under the British, Thanjavur emerged as an important regional centre. The 1871 India census recorded a population of 52,171, making Thanjavur the third largest city in the Madras Presidency. After India's independence, Thanjavur continued as the district headquarters. = = Geography and climate = = Thanjavur is located at 10.8 ° N 79.15 ° E  / 10.8; 79.15 The tributaries of river Cauvery, namely, the Grand Anaicut canal (Pudhaaru), Vadavaaru and Vennaaru rivers flow through the city. Thanjavur is situated in the Cauvery delta, at a distance of 314 km (195 mi) south-west of Chennai and 56 km (35 mi) east of Tiruchirappalli. While the plains immediately adjoining the Cauvery river have been under cultivation from time immemorial, most of Thanjavur city and the surrounding areas lie in the "New Delta" – a dry, barren upland tract which has been brought under irrigation during the early 19th century. To the south of Thanjavur city, is the Vallam tableland, a small plateau insterspersed at regular intervals by ridges of sandstone. The nearest seaport is Nagapattinam which is 84 km (52 mi) east of Thanjavur. The nearest airport is Tiruchirapalli International Airport, located at a distance of 56 km (35 mi). The city has an elevation of 57 m (187 ft) above mean sea level. The total area of the city is 36.33 km2 (14.03 sq mi). The period from November to February in Thanjavur is pleasant, with a climate full of warm days and cool nights. The onset of summer is from March, with the mercury reaching its peak by the end of May and June. The average temperatures range from 81 ° F (27 ° C) in January to 97 ° F (36 ° C) in May and June. Summer rains are sparse and the first monsoon, the South-West monsoon, sets in June and continues till September. North-East monsoon sets in October and continues till January. The rainfall during South-West monsoon period is much lower than that of North-East monsoon. North-East monsoon is beneficial to the district at large because of the heavy rainfall and the Western ghats feeding the river Cauvery. The average rainfall is 37 inches (940 mm), most of which is contributed by the North-East monsoon. = = Tourism and culture = = Thanjavur is an important pilgrim centre and a major tourist destination of Tamil Nadu. South Zone Culture Centre in Thanjavur is one of the regional cultural centres established by the Government of India to preserve and promote cultural heritage of India. There were 2,002,225 Indian and 81,435 foreign tourist arrivals in 2009 to Thanjavur. The most visited monument in Thanjavur is the Brihadeeswarar Temple, whose construction, the historian Percy Brown described as "a landmark in the evolution of building art in South India". Built in the 11th century by the Chola king Raja Raja Chola I (985 – 1014), the temple is dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. The walls of the sanctum are covered with wall paintings from the Chola and Nayak periods. The temple was designated an UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. It is replicated in the Gangaikonda Cholesvarar Temple constructed by Raja Raja's son Rajendra Chola I (1012 – 44). The Thanjavur Maratha palace was the official residence of the Bhonsle family who ruled over the Thanjavur region from 1674 to 1855. It was originally constructed by the rulers of Thanjavur Nayak kingdom and after their fall, it served as the official residence of the Thanjavur Marathas. When most of the Thanjavur Maratha kingdom was annexed by the British Empire in 1799, the Thanjavur Marathas continued to hold sway over the palace and the surrounding fort. The southern side of the third quadrangle of the palace has 190 ft (58 m) tower like building, called the Goodagopuram. The Saraswathi Mahal Library, established around 1700 and located in the premises of the palace, contains over 30,000 Indian and European manuscripts written on palm leaf and paper. Over eighty per cent of its manuscripts are in Sanskrit and many of them are on palm leaves. The Tamil works include treatise on medicine, and commentaries on Sangam literature. The Rajaraja Chola art gallery is located inside the palace – it has a large collection of stone and bronze images from the ninth to 12th centuries. Most of the idols present in the gallery were collected from various temples in the Thanjavur district. The Sivaganga Park is situated to the east of the Brihadeeswarar Temple and encompasses the Sivaganga Tank believed to have been built by the king Raja Raja Chola. It was created as a people's park by the Tanjore municipality in 1871 – 72. It has a collection of plants, animals and birds and serves as a zoo for children within the city. Schwartz Church, a historic monument located in the palace garden, was built in 1779 by Serfoji II as a token of affection for Rev. C.V. Schwartz of the Danish Mission. There are five museums in the city namely Archeological Museum, Tamil University Museum located with the Tamil University premises, the Saraswathi Mahal Library Museum located inside the Saraswathi Mahal, Nayak Durbar Hall Art Museum and Rajaraja Chola Museum. Raja Rajan Manimandapam is one of the tourist attractions in Thanjavur, built during the Thanjavur Tamil Conference in 1991. "Sangeetha Mahal" has a permanent handicrafts exhibition centre. Thanjavur is the cradle for many of the arts and crafts in South India. Carnatic music was codified in Thanjavur and the art flourished during the Nayak rule in the 16th century. Bharathanatyam, a classical dance form of South India, had its major styles developed in Thanjavur. Sathaya Thiruvizha is the annual birthday festival of Raja Raja Chola held during October every year. Thanjavur is the base for the Tyagaraja Aradhana, a Carnatic music festival held annually during January – February at Thiruvaiyaru, located 13 km (8.1 mi) away from the city. Thanjavur painting is a major form of classical South Indian painting from Thanjavur. It dates back to about 1600s, the period of Nayakas of Thanjavur, who encouraged art, classical dance, music literature, both in Telugu and Tamil. The art is usually a combination of raised and painted surfaces, with the Hindu god Krishna being the most popular image depicted. In modern times, these paintings have become souvenirs of festive occasions in South India, wall decors, and collectors' items for art lovers. = = Economy = = The major occupation of the inhabitants of the city is tourism and service-oriented industry, while the traditional occupation is agriculture. Thanjavur is known as the "Rice bowl of Tamil Nadu". Paddy is the crops and the other crops grown are blackgram, banana, coconut, gingelly, ragi, red gram, green gram, sugarcane and maize. The total percentage of land fit for cultivation is 58%. There are three seasons for agriculture in Thanjavur – Kuruvai (June to September), Samba (August to January) and Thaladi (September, October to February, March). The total rice production has been maintained at 10.615 L.M.T and 7.077 L.M.T. The city acts as a focal point for food grains transported from the adjoining areas of the Cauvery Delta. Organic farming is gradually being known to the farmers of Thanjavur. To maximise agricultural produce organic farming is being implemented. Though agriculture is the main economic activity, only 7% of the population is involved in it. There is a lot of agricultural related trading that forms the key economic activity in the city. Thanjavur is an important centre of silk weaving in Tamil Nadu. There were 200 silk weaving units in the city in 1991 with around 80,000 people working in them. The sarees produced in the villages surrounding Thanjavur are sold in Thanjavur and neighbouring towns. Increasing production costs and competition from large-scale producers have reduced the number of people involved in the production. The city produces bell metal craft like Thanjavur metal plates, bronze images bowls, napkins and powder boxes made of copper and bronze. The city is a major manufacturer of pith works consisting of models of Hindu idols, mosques, garlands and other bird figurines. Manufacture of musical instruments like veena, tambura, violin, mrithamgam, thavil and kanjira is another economic activity in the city. All major nationalised banks such as State Bank of India, Indian Bank, Central Bank of India, Punjab National Bank, Indian Overseas Bank and private banks like ICICI Bank, City Union Bank have their branches in Thanjavur. All these banks have their automated teller machines located in various parts of the city. = = Demographics = = According to 2011 census, Thanjavur had a population of 222,943 with a sex-ratio of 1,042 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929. A total of 19,860 were under the age of six, constituting 10,237 males and 9,623 females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 9.22% and .21% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the city was 83.14%, compared to the national average of 72.99%. There were a total of 78,005 workers, comprising 803 cultivators, 2,331 main agricultural labourers, 2,746 in house hold industries, 65,211 other workers, 6,914 marginal workers, 110 marginal cultivators, 235 marginal agricultural labourers, 322 marginal workers in household industries and 6,247 other marginal workers. As per the religious census of 2011, Thanjavur (M) had 82.87% Hindus, 8.34% Muslims, 8.58% Christians, 0.01% Sikhs, 0.01% Buddhists, 0.06% Jains, 0.11% following other religions and 0.01% following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference. As of 2008, a total 2,013.34 ha (4,975.1 acres) (55.4%) of the land was used for residential, 11.32 ha (28.0 acres) (3.06%) for commercial, 82.68 ha (204.3 acres) (2.28%) for industrial, 320.2 ha (791 acres) (8.81%) for public & semi public, 108.11 ha (267.1 acres) (2.98%) for educational and 996.85 ha (2,463.3 acres) (27.47%) for agriculture. Tamil is the widely spoken language, with the standard dialect being Central Tamil dialect. Telugu, Thanjavur Marathi and Saurashtra are other languages spoken in the city. Thanjavur is the cultural and political center of the Thanjavur Marathi people. While Hindus form the majority, the city also has a substantial population of Muslims and Christians. Roman Catholics in Thanjavur are affiliated to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Tanjore and Protestants are affiliated to the Trichy – Tanjore Diocese of the Church of South India. The workforce is predominantly involved in service industry involving trade and commerce. With the expansion of the city area, the opportunities for agriculture is limited and only 7% of population is involved in it. = = Transport = = The National Highways 67, 45C, 226 and 226 Extn pass through Thanjavur. The city is connected with Chennai, Coimbatore, Erode, Karur, Tirupur, Vellore, Perambalur, Ariyalur, Mysuru, Salem, Cuddalore, Viluppuram, Tiruchirappalli, Madurai, Kumbakonam, Mayiladuthurai, Karaikal, Mannargudi, Pattukkottai, Dindigul, Pudukkottai, Karaikudi, Tirunelveli, Bengaluru, Ernakulam, Nagercoil, Tirupathi, Trivandrum and Ooty through regular bus services. Thanjavur had a single bus terminus located at the heart of the city. An integrated bus terminus, called New Bus stand was constructed in 1997 near Raja Serfoji College to handle the passenger traffic. Thanjavur has a well-maintained sub-urban public transport system. Government and private buses operate frequently between the two bus termini and other towns and villages like Vallam, Budalur, Mohamed Bunder, Nadukkavery, Pillaiyarpatti, Vallam Pudursethi, Sengipatti, Vadakkur North and Kuruvadipatti. The railway line connecting Tiruchirappalli Junction railway station to Chennai Egmore via Thanjavur, the Main Line is a historical line established by South Indian Railway Company in 1879. The Great South Indian Railway Company (GSIR) operated a broad gauge rail service between Nagapattinam and Tiruchirapalli via Thanjavur between 1861 and 1875. During 1875 it was converted to a meter gauge line (MG line). Modern day Thanjavur railway junction has three rail heads leading to Tiruchirapalli, Kumbakonam and Thiruvarur. Thanjavur is connected by rail with most important cities and towns in India. There are daily express trains to Chennai, Mysore, Ernakulam, Thrissur, Palakkad, Coimbatore, Erode, Tiruppur, Tiruchirapalli, Salem, Karur, Madurai, Tirunelveli, Rameswaram, Tiruchendur, Cuddalore, Dharmapuri, Viluppuram, Chengalpattu, Mannargudi, Bengaluru, Dindigul, Karaikudi, Manamadurai and weekly trains to Tirupati, Nellore, Itarsi, Visakhapatnam, Hubli, Vasco da Gama, Goa, Vijayawada, Nagpur, Jabalpur, Satna, Katni, Allahabad, Varanasi and Bhubaneswar. There are frequent passenger trains from the city to towns like Thiruvarur, Nagapattinam, Karaikal, Tiruchirapalli, Kumbakonam, Mayiladuthurai and Nagore. In the early 1990s, Thanjavur was connected with Chennai via the Vayudoot flight service, which was stopped due to poor patronage. A full-fledged air force station is operational at Thanjavur. Thanjavur Air Force Station was to become a major air base by 2012, to handle Fighter, Transport aircraft and also refuelling aircraft. However, the establishment and activation of air base has been delayed as of March 2013. The IAF will base a squadron of its Sukhoi Su-30 Supermaneuverability Fighter aircraft at Thanjavur, making it the first fighter squadron in Tamil Nadu. The nearest airport is Tiruchirapalli International Airport. The nearest Seaport is located at Nagapattinam. = = Administration and politics = = The municipality of Tanjore was created in 1866 as a third grade municipality as per Town Improvements Act 1865 and initially consisted of 12 members. The number was increased to 18 in 1879 and 24 in 1883. In 1897, the members were empowered to elect a Municipal Chairperson to lead them. Tanjore was upgraded to a second grade municipality in 1933 and first grade in 1943. Since 1983, Thanjavur has been a special grade municipality. a As of 2008, the municipality covers an area of 36.33 km2 (14.03 sq mi) and has a total of 51 members. The functions of the municipality are devolved into six departments: General, Engineering, Revenue, Public Health, Town planning and the Computer Wing. All these departments are under the control of a Municipal Commissioner who is the supreme executive head. The legislative powers are vested in a body of 62 members, one each from the 62 wards. The legislative body is headed by an elected Chairperson assisted by a Deputy Chairperson. On 10 April 2013, the state government announced in the Assembly that Thanjavur municipality will be upgraded to a Municipal corporation. Thanjavur City Corporation is likely to have an area of 110.27 km2 (42.58 sq mi) of area, with a population of 3,20,828 and an income of ₹411.8 million (US $6.1 million). The villages Pudupattinam, Nanjikottai, Neelagiri, Melaveli, Pillaiyarpatti, Ramanathapuram, Pallieri, Vilar and Inathukanpatti are likely to be added to the municipal corporation limits. Thanjavur became City Corporation on February 19, 2014. Thanjavur comes under the Thanjavur State Assembly Constituency and it elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years. From the 1977 elections, the assembly seat was won by Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) six times during the 1977, 1980, 1989, 1996, 2001 and 2006 elections, the Indian National Congress party once during the 1984 elections and the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) twice during the 1991 and 2011 elections. The current MLA of the constituency is M. Rengasamy from AIADMK. M. Karunanidhi, who served as the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu for a record five terms, was elected from the Thanjavur assembly constituency in the 1962 elections. Thanjavur is also a part of the Thanjavur Lok Sabha constituency and elects a member to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India, once every five years. The Lok Sabha seat has been held by the Indian National Congress for Seven terms during 1951 – 56, 1957 – 62, 1962 – 1967, 1980 – 84, 1984 – 1989, 1989 – 91 and 1991 – 96, Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam for Seven terms during 1967 – 71, 1971 – 77, 1996 – 98, 1998 – 99, 1999-04, 2004 – 09 and 2009 – present and All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam for one term during 1977 – 80. R. Venkataraman, who served as the President of India from 1987 to 1992, was elected from the Thanjavur Lok Sabha constituency in the 1951 elections. Law and order in the city is maintained by the Thanjavur sub division of the Tamil Nadu Police, headed by a Deputy Superintendent (DSP). The Thanjavur district level police administration is headed by a Deputy Inspector General of Police, whose office is located in the city. There are six police stations in the city, one of them being an all-women police station. There are special units like prohibition enforcement, district crime, social justice and human rights, district crime records and special branch that operate at the district level police division headed by a Superintendent of Police (SP). = = Education = = Thanjavur has a total of four Universities, namely the Tamil University, SASTRA University, PRIST University and Periyar Maniammai University. The Tamil University is a state run institute, started during 1981 and obtained its statutory recognition from the University Grants Commission in 1983. It is the only one of its kind for the Tamil language doing higher research in Tamilology and advanced study in various allied branches like linguistics, translation, lexicography, music, drama and manuscriptology. Thanjavur has a total of 15 arts, science & management colleges and nine engineering colleges. The Thanjavur Medical College was established in 1961 and is one of the oldest medical colleges in Tamil Nadu. The Paddy Processing Research Centre (PPRC), which later became the Indian Institute of Crop Processing Technology (IICPT) in 2008, is a hub for food processing research. The Saraswati Mahal Library which dates back to the end of the 16th century and the Central Library, managed by the district administration are the two most prominent libraries in the city. There are 20 registered schools in Thanjavur, catering to the primary, secondary and higher secondary educational needs of the city. St.Peter's Higher Secondary School at Thanjavur was established by Rev. C F Schwartz during 1784. Originally established as a college, it was the first school in South India which taught English to the local populace. St.Antony's Higher Secondary School, established in 1885 by the Diocese of Thanjavur, is one of the oldest schools in Thanjavur district. Christian Missionaries played a prominent role in promoting English education in Thanjavur. Kalyanasundaram Higher Secondary School, established in 1891, is one of the oldest schools in the city. = = Utility services = = Electricity supply to Thanjavur is regulated and distributed by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB). The city along with its suburbs is a part of Trichy Electricity Distribution Circle. Water supply is provided by the Thanjavur Corporation from the Vadavar Canal, supplied through overhead tanks located in various parts of the city. During the 2000 – 01 period, a total of 31 million litres of water was supplied everyday for households in the city. About 110 metric tonnes of solid waste are collected from Thanjavur every day by door-to-door collection and subsequently the source segregation and dumping is carried out by the sanitary department of the Thanjavur Corporation. The coverage of solid waste management had an efficiency of 100% as of 2001. The underground drainage system covers 70% of the city and the remaining sewerage system for disposal of sullage is through septic tanks, open drains and public conveniences. The Corporation maintains a total of 155 km (96 mi) of storm water drains: 53.27 km (33.10 mi) surfaced drains and 101.73 km (63.21 mi) unlined drains. There are 37 hospitals and seven clinical labs in Thanjavur that take care of the health care needs of the citizens. There are a total of 9,745 street lamps: 492 sodium lamps, 2,061 mercury vapour lamps, 7,180 tube lights and twelve high mast beam lamps. The Corporation operates three markets, namely the Serfoji Market, Amarar Swaminathan Market and Kamaraj Market and another market, the Subramaniya Swami Koil Market, is maintained by the Subramania Swami Temple authority. Thanjavur comes under the Thanjavur Telecom circle of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL), India's state-owned telecom and internet services provider. Apart from telecom, BSNL also provides broadband internet service. The Regional Passport office Trichy operates a Passport Seva Kendra (PSK) in Thanjavur. Thanjavur PSK covers the Nagappattinam, Thiruvarur, Thanjavur, Pudukkottai, and Ariyalur revenue districts.

= Order of St Patrick = The Most Illustrious Order of Saint Patrick is a dormant British order of chivalry associated with Ireland. The Order was created in 1783 by George III at the request of the then Lord-Lieutenant, Lord Buckingham. The regular creation of knights of Saint Patrick lasted until 1922, when most of Ireland became independent as the Irish Free State. While the Order technically still exists, no knight of St Patrick has been created since 1936, and the last surviving knight, Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, died in 1974. The Queen, however, remains the Sovereign of the Order, and one officer, the Ulster King of Arms (now combined with Norroy King of Arms), also survives. St Patrick is patron of the order; its motto is Quis separabit?, Latin for "Who will separate [us]?": an allusion to the Vulgate translation of Romans 8: 35, "Who shall separate us from the love of Christ?" Most British orders of chivalry cover the entire kingdom, but the three most exalted ones each pertain to one constituent nation only. The Order of St Patrick, which pertains to Ireland, is the most junior of these three in precedence and age. Its equivalent in England, The Most Noble Order of the Garter, is the oldest order of chivalry in the United Kingdom, dating to the middle fourteenth century. The Scottish equivalent is The Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle, dating in its modern form to 1687. = = History = = = = = Early history = = = The order was founded in 1783, a year after the grant of substantial autonomy to Ireland, as a means of rewarding (or obtaining) political support in the Irish Parliament. The Order of the Bath, founded in 1725, was instituted for similar reasons. The statutes of the Order restricted membership to men who were both knights and gentlemen, the latter being defined as having three generations of "noblesse" (i.e. ancestors bearing coats of arms) on both their father's and mother's side. In practice, however, only Irish Peers (and occasional foreign princes with tenuous or no Irish connections) were ever appointed to the Order. The cross of St Patrick (a red saltire on a white background) was chosen as one of the symbols of the Order. A flag of this design was later incorporated into the Union Flag. Its association with St. Patrick or with Ireland prior to the foundation of the Order is unclear, however. One of the first knights was The 2nd Duke of Leinster, whose arms carry the same cross. The Order of St Patrick earned international coverage when, in 1907, its insignia, known generally as the Irish Crown Jewels, were stolen from the Bedford Tower in Dublin Castle shortly before a visit by the Order's Sovereign, King Edward VII. Their whereabouts remain a mystery. = = = Post-1922 = = = The last non-royal appointed to the order was James Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn in 1922, who served as the first Governor of Northern Ireland. When the Irish Free State left the United Kingdom that same year, the Irish Executive Council under W. T. Cosgrave chose to make no further appointments to the Order. The British government continued to entertain hopes for the order's revival as a pan-Irish institution. Therefore, while there was no legal or constitutional bar to the British government continuing to make appointments from among British subjects resident in Northern Ireland, it chose not to do so. Since then, only three people have been appointed to the Order, all members of the British Royal Family. The then-Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VIII and later Duke of Windsor) was appointed in 1927 and his younger brothers, Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, in 1934 and Prince Albert, Duke of York (later King George VI), in 1936. It is likely that these appointments were considered possible because the Irish Free State continued to recognise the British monarch as its official head of state. In 1937, however, the Irish Free State adopted a new constitution, rendering the Crown's position in Irish affairs ambiguous. The ambiguity was resolved 12 years later when the Irish Free State formally declared itself a republic and left the British Commonwealth. The basis for such appointments thus ceased and no further ones have been made. The Duke of Gloucester at his death in 1974 was the last surviving member of the Order. The last living non-royal member of the Order, the 9th Earl of Shaftesbury, died in 1961. The Order has, however, never actually been abolished and its resurrection has been discussed in Irish Government circles on a number of occasions and never pursued. = = = Possible revival = = = Prime Minister Winston Churchill suggested reviving the Order in 1943 to recognise the services of General The Hon. Sir Harold Alexander in Tunisia, but the opinion of the other ministers and civil servants was that it would upset the diplomatic balance between London and Dublin. Taoiseach Seán Lemass considered reviving the Order during the 1960s, but did not take a decision. The Constitution of Ireland provides, "Titles of nobility shall not be conferred by the State" (Article 40.2.1 °) and "No title of nobility or of honour may be accepted by any citizen except with the prior approval of the Government" (Article 40.2.2 °). Legal experts are divided on whether this clause prohibits the awarding of membership of the Order of St Patrick to Irish citizens, but some suggest that the phrase "titles of nobility" implies hereditary peerages and other noble titles, not lifetime honours such as knighthoods. In any case, an Irish citizen would require the approval of the Government of Ireland to receive an award from a reigning monarch of the United Kingdom in this manner. = = Composition = = = = = Members = = = The British monarch is Sovereign of the Order of St Patrick. The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the monarch's representative in Ireland, served as the Grand Master. The office of Lord Lieutenant was abolished in 1922; the last Lord Lieutenant and Grand Master was The 1st Viscount FitzAlan of Derwent. Rather oddly, the statutes of the Order did not provide that the Grand Master be admitted to the Order as a matter of right. While some Lords Lieutenant were in fact appointed to the Order, this seems to have been the exception rather than the rule. The Order originally consisted of fifteen knights in addition to the Sovereign. In 1821, however, George IV appointed six additional knights; he did not issue a Royal Warrant authorising the change until 1830. William IV formally changed the statutes in 1833, increasing the limit to twenty-two knights. The original statutes, based heavily on those of the Order of the Garter, prescribed that any vacancy should be filled by the Sovereign upon the nomination of the members. Each Knight was to propose nine candidates, of whom three had to have the rank of Earl or higher, three the rank of Baron or higher, and three the rank of Knight or higher, and a vote taken. In practice this system was never used; the Grand Master would nominate a Peer, the Sovereign would usually assent, and a chapter meeting held at which the knights "elected" the new member. The Order of St Patrick differed from its English and Scottish counterparts, the Orders of the Garter and the Thistle, in only ever appointing peers and princes. Women were never admitted to the Order of St Patrick; they were not eligible to become members of the other two orders until 1987. The only woman to be part of the Order was Queen Victoria, in her capacity as Sovereign of the Order. Although it was associated with the established Church of Ireland until 1871, several Roman Catholics were appointed to the order throughout its history. = = = Officers = = = The Order of St Patrick initially had thirteen officers: the Prelate, the Chancellor, the Registrar, the Usher, the Secretary, the Genealogist, the King of Arms, two heralds and four pursuivants. Many of these offices were held by clergymen of the Church of Ireland, the then-established church. After the disestablishment of the Church in 1871, the ecclesiastics were allowed to remain in office until their deaths, when the offices were either abolished or reassigned to lay officials. All offices except that of Registrar and King of Arms are now vacant. The office of Prelate was held by the Lord Archbishop of Armagh, the most senior clergyman in the Church of Ireland. The Prelate was not mentioned in the original statutes, but created by a warrant shortly afterwards, apparently because the Archbishop at the time had asked to be appointed to the post. Since the death of the last holder in 1885, the office of Prelate has remained vacant. The Church of Ireland's second highest cleric, the Lord Archbishop of Dublin, originally served as the Chancellor of the Order. From 1886 onwards, the office was held instead by the Chief Secretary for Ireland. Since the abolition of the position of Chief Secretary in 1922, the office of Chancellor has remained vacant. The Dean of St Patrick's Cathedral was originally the Registrar of the Order. In 1890, on the death of the Dean who had held the post in at the time of disestablishment, the office was attached to that of the King of Arms of the Order. This position was held by Ulster King of Arms, Ireland's chief heraldic official, a post which had been created in 1552. In 1943, this post was in effect divided in two, reflecting the partition of Ireland in the Government of Ireland Act, 1920. The position, insofar as it related to Northern Ireland, was combined with that of Norroy King of Arms (who had heraldic jurisdiction in the north of England). The post of Norroy and Ulster King of Arms still exists, and thus continues to hold the offices of Registrar and King of Arms of the Order of St Patrick. The office of Ulster King of Arms, insofar as it related to the Irish Free State (now officially called Ireland), became the position of Chief Herald of Ireland. The Order of St Patrick had six other heraldic officers, many more than any other British order. The two heralds were known as Cork Herald and Dublin Herald. Three of the four pursuivancies were untitled, the fourth was held by Athlone Pursuivant, an office founded in 1552. The Usher of the Order was "the Usher at Arms named the Black Rod". The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod in Ireland was distinct from the English officer of the same name, though like his counterpart he had some duties in the Irish House of Lords. (The latter continues to serve as Usher to the Order of the Garter and as Serjeant-at-Arms of the House of Lords.) The Irish post has been vacant since 1933. The offices of Secretary and Genealogist were originally held by members of the Irish House of Commons. The office of Secretary has been vacant since 1926. The position of Genealogist was left vacant in 1885, restored in 1889, but left vacant again in 1930. = = = Current officers and members = = = Sovereign: Elizabeth II Officers: Registrar and King of Arms: Timothy Duke (Norroy and Ulster King of Arms) Members: None = = Vestments and accoutrements = = For important occasions, such as Coronations and investitures of new members of the Order, Knights of St Patrick wore elaborate vestments: The mantle was a celestial blue robe lined with white silk. The star of the Order (see below) was depicted on the left of the mantle. A blue hood was attached to the mantle. The hat of the Order was originally of white satin, lined with blue, but was changed to black velvet by George IV. It was plumed with three falls of feathers, one red, one white and one blue. The collar was made of gold, consisting of Tudor roses and harps attached with knots. The two roses which comprise the Tudor rose were alternately enamelled white within red, and red within white. The central harp, from which the badge of the Order was suspended, was surmounted by a crown. On certain "collar days" designated by the Sovereign, members attending formal events wore the Order's collar over their military uniform, formal day dress, or evening wear. When collars were worn (either on collar days or on formal occasions such as coronations), the badge was suspended from the collar. Aside from these special occasions, however, much simpler accoutrements were used: The star of the Order was an eight-pointed figure, with the four cardinal points longer than the intermediate points. Each point was shown as a cluster of rays. In the centre was the same motto, year and design that appeared on the badge. The star was worn pinned to the left breast. The broad riband was a celestial blue sash worn across the body, from the right shoulder to the left hip. The badge was pinned to the riband at the left hip. Made of gold, it depicted a shamrock bearing three crowns, on top of a cross of St Patrick and surrounded by a blue circle bearing the motto in majuscules, as well as the date of the Order's foundation in Roman numerals ("MDCCLXXXIII"). The Grand Master's insignia were of the same form and design as those of the Knights. In 1831, however, William IV presented the Grand Master with a star and badge, each composed of rubies, emeralds and Brazilian diamonds. These two insignia were designated "Crown Jewels" in the Order's 1905 Statutes, and the designation "Irish Crown Jewels" was emphasised by newspapers when they were stolen in 1907, along with the collars of five Knights; they have not since been recovered. A number of items pertaining to the Order of St Patrick are held in museums in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. The robes of The 4th Baron Clonbrock, the 122nd Knight of the Order, are on display in the National Museum of Ireland, Dublin; the robe belonging to The 3rd Earl of Kilmorey is held by the Newry Museum; the National Gallery and Genealogical Museum in Dublin both have Stars of the Order; and the Ulster Museum (part of the National Museums and Galleries of Northern Ireland) in Stranmillis has a large collection on display and two mantles in storage. The Irish Guards take their capstar and motto from the Order. = = Chapel and Chancery = = The Chapel of the Order was originally in St Patrick's Cathedral in central Dublin. Each member of the Order, including the Sovereign, was allotted a stall in the choir of the Chapel, above which his (or her, in the case of Queen Victoria) heraldic devices were displayed. Perched on the pinnacle of a knight's stall was a helm, decorated with mantling and topped by his crest. Above the crest, the knight's heraldic banner was hung, emblazoned with his coat of arms. At a considerably smaller scale, to the back of the stall was affixed a piece of brass (a "stall plate") displaying its occupant's name, arms and date of admission into the Order. Upon the death of a Knight, the banner and crest were taken down and replaced with those of his successor. After the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland in 1871, the Chapel ceased to be used; the heraldic devices of the knights at the time were left in place at the request of Queen Victoria. The Order was without a ceremonial home until 1881 when arrangements were made to display banners, helms and hatchment plates (the equivalent of stall plates, in the absence of stalls) in the Great Hall, officially called St. Patrick's Hall, in Dublin Castle. On the establishment of the Irish Free State the banners of the living knights were removed. When the Hall was redecorated in 1962 it was decided that it should be hung with the banners of the members of the Order in 1922. The existing banners were repaired or new ones made; it is these banners which can be seen today. The Hall, which was renamed St Patrick's Hall from its association with the Order, also served as the Chancery of the Order. Installation ceremonies, and later investitures, were held here, often on St Patrick's Day, until they were discontinued. A banquet for the Knights was often held in the Hall on the occasion of an installation. St Patrick's Hall now serves as the location for the inauguration of the President of Ireland. Unlike many of the other British Orders, the stall plates (or hatchment plates) do not form a continuous record of the Knights of the Order. There are only 34 stall plates for the 80 or so knights appointed before 1871, (although others were destroyed in a fire in 1940), and 40 hatchments plates for the 60 knights appointed subsequently. In the case of the stall plates this was perhaps due to their size, 30x36 cm (12x14 in). = = Precedence and privileges = = Since the members of the Order were required to be knights, and in practice had higher rank, many of the privileges of membership were rendered moot. As knights they could prefix "Sir" to their forenames, but the form was never used in speech, as they were referred to by their peerage dignities. They were assigned positions in the order of precedence, but had higher positions by virtue of their peerage dignities. Knights used the post-nominal letters "KP". When an individual was entitled to use multiple post-nominal letters, KP appeared before all others, except "Bt" and "Btss" (Baronet and Baronetess), "VC" (Victoria Cross), "GC" (George Cross), "KG" (Knight of the Garter) and "KT" (Knight of the Thistle). Knights could encircle their arms with a depiction of the circlet (a blue circle bearing the motto) and the collar; the former is shown either outside or on top of the latter. The badge is depicted suspended from the collar. They were also entitled to receive heraldic supporters. This high privilege was, and is, only shared by members of the Royal Family, peers, Knights and Ladies of the Garter, Knights and Ladies of the Thistle, and Knights and Dames Grand Cross of the junior orders. (Of course, Knights of St Patrick, normally all being members of the British Royal Family or peers, were mostly entitled to supporters in any event.)

= Colton Point State Park = Colton Point State Park is a 368-acre (149 ha) Pennsylvania state park in Tioga County, Pennsylvania, in the United States. It is on the west side of the Pine Creek Gorge, also known as the Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania, which is 800 feet (240 m) deep and nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 m) across at this location. The park extends from the creek in the bottom of the gorge up to the rim and across part of the plateau to the west. Colton Point State Park is known for its views of the Pine Creek Gorge, and offers opportunities for picnicking, hiking, fishing and hunting, whitewater boating, and camping. Colton Point is surrounded by Tioga State Forest and its sister park, Leonard Harrison State Park, on the east rim. The park is on a state forest road in Shippen Township 5 miles (8 km) south of U.S. Route 6. Pine Creek flows through the park and has carved the gorge through five major rock formations from the Devonian and Carboniferous periods. Native Americans once used the Pine Creek Path along the creek. The path was later used by lumbermen, and then became the course of a railroad from 1883 to 1988. Since 1996, the 62-mile (100 km) Pine Creek Rail Trail has followed the creek through the gorge. The Pine Creek Gorge was named a National Natural Landmark in 1968 and is also protected as a Pennsylvania State Natural Area and Important Bird Area, while Pine Creek is a Pennsylvania Scenic and Wild River. The gorge is home to many species of plants and animals, some of which have been reintroduced to the area. The park is named for Henry Colton, a Williamsport lumberman who cut timber there starting in 1879. Although the Pine Creek Gorge was clearcut in the 19th and early 20th centuries, it is now covered by second-growth forest, thanks in part to the conservation efforts of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) in the 1930s. The CCC built the facilities at Colton Point before and shortly after the park's 1936 opening. Most of the CCC-built facilities remain in use, and have led to the park's listing as a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places. Since a successful publicity campaign in 1936, the park and gorge have been a popular tourist destination, attracting hundreds of thousands of visitors each year. Colton Point State Park was chosen by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (DCNR) Bureau of Parks for its "25 Must-See Pennsylvania State Parks" list, which praised its "spectacular vistas and a fabulous view of Pine Creek Gorge". = = History = = = = = Native Americans = = = Humans have lived in what is now Pennsylvania since at least 10,000 BC. The first settlers were Paleo-Indian nomadic hunters known from their stone tools. The hunter-gatherers of the Archaic period, which lasted locally from 7000 to 1000 BC, used a greater variety of more sophisticated stone artifacts. The Woodland period marked the gradual transition to semi-permanent villages and horticulture, between 1000 BC and 1500 AD. Archeological evidence found in the state from this time includes a range of pottery types and styles, burial mounds, pipes, bows and arrows, and ornaments. Colton Point State Park is in the West Branch Susquehanna River drainage basin, the earliest recorded inhabitants of which were the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannocks. They were a matriarchal society that lived in stockaded villages of large long houses, and "occasionally inhabited" the mountains surrounding the Pine Creek Gorge. Their numbers were greatly reduced by disease and warfare with the Five Nations of the Iroquois, and by 1675 they had died out, moved away, or been assimilated into other tribes. After this, the lands of the West Branch Susquehanna River valley were under the nominal control of the Iroquois. The Iroquois lived in long houses, primarily in what is now New York, and had a strong confederacy which gave them power beyond their numbers. They and other tribes used the Pine Creek Path through the gorge, traveling between a path on the Genesee River in modern New York in the north, and the Great Shamokin Path along the West Branch Susquehanna River in the south. The Seneca tribe of the Iroquois believed that Pine Creek Gorge was sacred land and never established a permanent settlement there. They used the path through the gorge and had seasonal hunting camps along it, including one just north of the park near what would later be the village of Ansonia. To fill the void left by the demise of the Susquehannocks, the Iroquois encouraged displaced tribes from the east to settle in the West Branch watershed, including the Shawnee and Lenape (or Delaware). The French and Indian War (1754 – 63) led to the migration of many Native Americans westward to the Ohio River basin. On November 5, 1768, the British acquired the New Purchase from the Iroquois in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, including what is now the Pine Creek Gorge east of the creek. The Purchase line established by this treaty was disputed, as it was unclear whether the border along "Tiadaghton Creek" referred to Pine Creek or to Lycoming Creek, further to the east. As a result, the land between them was disputed territory until 1784 and the Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix. After the American Revolutionary War, Native Americans almost entirely left Pennsylvania; some isolated bands of natives remained in Pine Creek Gorge until the War of 1812. = = = Lumber era = = = Prior to the arrival of William Penn and his Quaker colonists in 1682, up to 90 percent of what is now Pennsylvania was covered with woods: more than 31,000 square miles (80,000 km2) of eastern white pine, eastern hemlock, and a mix of hardwoods. The forests near the three original counties, Philadelphia, Bucks, and Chester, were the first to be harvested, as the early settlers used the readily available timber and cleared land for agriculture. By the time of the American Revolution, logging had reached the interior and mountainous regions, and became a leading industry in Pennsylvania. Trees furnished fuel to heat homes, tannin for the state's many tanneries, and wood for construction, furniture, and barrel making. Large areas of forest were harvested by colliers to fire iron furnaces. Rifle stocks and shingles were made from Pennsylvania timber, as were a wide variety of household utensils, and the first Conestoga wagons. By the early 19th century the demand for lumber reached the Pine Creek Gorge, where the surrounding mountainsides were covered with eastern white pine 3 to 6 feet (1 to 2 m) in diameter and 150 feet (50 m) or more tall, eastern hemlock 9 feet (3 m) in circumference, and huge hardwoods. Each acre (0.4 ha) of these virgin forests produced 100,000 board feet (200 m3) of white pine and 200,000 board feet (500 m3) of hemlock and hardwoods. For comparison, the same area of forest today produces a total of only 5,000 board feet (10 m3) on average. According to Steven E. Owlett, environmental lawyer and author, shipbuilders considered pine from Pine Creek the "best timber in the world for making fine ship masts", so it was the first lumber to be harvested on a large scale. The original title to the land that became Colton Point State Park was sold to the Wilhelm Wilkins Company in 1792. Pine Creek was declared a public highway by the Pennsylvania General Assembly on March 16, 1798, and rafts of spars were floated down the creek to the Susquehanna River, then to the Chesapeake Bay and the shipbuilders at Baltimore. The lumbermen would then walk home, following the old Pine Creek Path at the end of their journey. As the 19th century progressed, fewer pines were left and more hemlocks and hardwoods were cut and processed locally. By 1810 there were 11 sawmills in the Pine Creek watershed, and by 1840 there were 145, despite a flood in 1832 which wiped out nearly all the mills along the creek. Selective harvesting of pines was replaced by clearcutting of all lumber in a tract. The first lumbering activity close to what is now Colton Point was in 1838 when William Dodge and partners built a settlement at Big Meadows and formed the Pennsylvania Joint Land and Lumber Company. Dodge's company purchased thousands of acres of land in the area, including what is now Colton Point State Park. In 1865 the last pine spar raft floated down the creek, and on March 28, 1871 the General Assembly passed a law which allowed construction of splash dams and allowed creeks to be cleared to allow loose logs to float better. The earliest spring log drives floated up to 20,000,000 board feet (50,000 m3) of logs in Pine Creek at one time. These logs floated to the West Branch Susquehanna River and to sawmills near the Susquehanna Boom at Williamsport. Log drives could be dangerous: just north of the park is Barbour Rock, named for Samuel Barbour, who lost his life on Pine Creek there after breaking up a log jam. Hemlock wood was not widely used until the advent of wire nails, but the bark was used to tan leather. After 1870 the largest tanneries in the world were in the Pine Creek watershed, and required 2,000 pounds (900 kg) of bark to produce 150 pounds (70 kg) of quality sole leather. In 1879 Henry Colton, who worked for the Williamsport Lumber Company, supervised the cutting of white pine on the land owned by Silas Billings; this land would later become the park. Colton gave his name to the Colton Point overlook on the west rim of the Pine Creek Gorge. Deadman Hollow Road in the park is named for a trapper whose decomposed body was found in his own bear trap there in the early 20th century. Fourmile Run flows through the park: its O'Connor Branch is named for the dead trapper's brothers, who were loggers in the area. In 1883 the Jersey Shore, Pine Creek and Buffalo Railway opened, following the creek through the gorge. The new railroad used the relatively level route along Pine Creek to link the New York Central Railroad (NYC) to the north with the Clearfield Coalfield to the southwest, and with NYC-allied lines in Williamsport to the southeast. By 1896 the rail line's daily traffic included three passenger trains and 7,000,000 short tons (6,400,000 t) of freight. In the surrounding forests, log drives gave way to logging railroads, which transported lumber to local sawmills. There were 13 companies operating logging railroads along Pine Creek and its tributaries between 1886 and 1921, while the last log drive in the Pine Creek watershed started on Little Pine Creek in 1905. By 1900 the Leetonia logging railroad was extended to the headwaters of Fourmile Run, which has several high waterfalls that prevented logs from being floated down it. In 1903 the line reached Colton Point and Bear Run, which is the northern border of the park today. Lumber on Fourmile Run that had been previously inaccessible was harvested and transported by train, initially to Leonard Harrison's mill at Tiadaghton. When that mill burned in 1905, the lumber went to the Leetonia mill on Cedar Run in Elk Township. The old-growth forests were clearcut by the early 20th century and the gorge was stripped bare. Nothing was left except the dried-out tree tops, which became a fire hazard. As a result, much of the land burned and was left barren. On May 6, 1903, the Wellsboro newspaper had the headline "Wild Lands Aflame" and reported landslides through the gorge. The soil was depleted of nutrients, fires baked the ground hard, and jungles of blueberries, blackberries, and mountain laurel covered the clearcut land, which became known as the "Pennsylvania Desert". Floods swept the area periodically and much of the wildlife was wiped out. = = = Conservation = = = George Washington Sears, an early conservationist who wrote under the pen name "Nessmuk", was one of the first to criticize the Pennsylvania lumber industry and its destruction of forests and creeks. In his 1884 book Woodcraft he wrote of the Pine Creek watershed where A huge tannery... poisons and blackens the stream with chemicals, bark and ooze.... The once fine covers and thickets are converted into fields thickly dotted with blackened stumps. And, to crown the desolation, heavy laden trains of 'The Pine Creek and Jersey Shore R.R.' go thundering [by] almost hourly... Of course, this is progress; but, whether backward or forward, had better be decided sixty years hence. Nessmuk's words went mostly unheeded in his lifetime and did not prevent the clearcutting of almost all the virgin forests in Pennsylvania. Sears lived in Wellsboro from 1844 until his death in 1890, and was the first to describe the Pine Creek Gorge. He also described a trip to what became Leonard Harrison State Park and the view west across the gorge to what became Colton Point State Park: after a 6-mile (10 km) buggy ride, he had to hike 7 miles (11 km) through tangles of fallen trees and branches, down ravines, and over banks for five hours. At last he reached "The Point", which he wrote was "the jutting terminus of a high ridge which not only commands a capital view of the opposite mountain, but also of the Pine Creek Valley, up and down for miles". The land on which Colton Point State Park sits was sold to the Commonwealth in the late 19th century for $2.50 per acre ($6.25 per ha) by the Pennsylvania Joint Land and Lumber Company, which had no further use for it. Elsewhere in the gorge the state bought land abandoned by lumber companies, sometimes for less than $2 per acre ($5 per ha). These purchases became the Tioga State Forest, which was officially established in 1925. As of 2015 the state forest encompasses 165,052 acres (66,794 ha), mostly in Tioga County, and surrounds Colton Point State Park to the north, west, and south. Leonard Harrison State Park is on the eastern border of Colton Point. In 1922, Wellsboro lumber baron Leonard Harrison donated his picnic grounds on the eastern rim of the gorge to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, which named it "Leonard Harrison State Forest Park". Harrison also built two cabins, named "Wetumka" and "Osocosy", on the west side of Pine Creek, just north of the mouth of Fourmile Run. Sometime after 1903, former Pennsylvania Governor William A. Stone built a cabin named "Heart's-ease" just south of the mouth of Fourmile Run. In 1966 these cabins were still standing and were three of "only four man-made structures inside the canyon proper", but by 1993 only Stone's cabin and one of Harrison's cabins remained. As of 2004, these properties were still owned by the Stone family, and are part of a small parcel of private land within the park. = = = Modern era = = = The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) started work on the park in June 1935, and it opened as "Colton Point State Forest Park" in 1936. The CCC, founded by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Great Depression, created jobs for unemployed young men from throughout the United States. Much of the work of the CCC at Colton Point is still visible as of 2015, and is one of many examples of the work of the CCC throughout northcentral Pennsylvania. In 1936, the year the park opened, Larry Woodin of Wellsboro and other Tioga County business owners began a tourism campaign to promote the Pine Creek Gorge as "The Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania". Greyhound Bus Lines featured a view of the canyon from a Leonard Harrison lookout on the back cover of its Atlantic Coast timetable. The bus line's Chicago to New York City tour had an overnight stay in Wellsboro and a morning visit to the canyon for $3. More than 300,000 tourists visited the canyon by the autumn of 1936, and 15,000 visited Leonard Harrison over Memorial Day weekend in 1937. That year more visitors came to the Pine Creek Gorge than to Yellowstone National Park. In response to the heavy use of the local roads, the CCC widened the highways in the area, and guides from the CCC gave tours of the canyon. Colton Point originally opened with only "limited facilities", but the success of the tourism campaign led to the park's expansion by the CCC. New facilities were added in 1938, and included buildings such as picnic pavilions, latrines, and a concession stand, as well as "stone cook stoves, tables, and developed trails and overlooks... an amazing amount of work in one year". The CCC also built the road to the park and planted stands of larch, spruce and white pine for reforestation. On February 12, 1987, the entire 368-acre (149 ha) park was listed in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), including "eight buildings and nine structures". The park has five CCC-built picnic shelters: pavilions 1, 3, and 4 are made of stone and timber with stone fireplaces, while pavilions 2 and 5 each has log columns that support a pyramidal roof. The CCC also built six rustic latrines with clapboard siding and gable roofs, and an underground reservoir that is covered with a low hipped roof. Additional structures constructed by the CCC include three overlooks and a rectangular gable-roofed maintenance building with wane edge siding and exposed rafters made of logs. The structures built by the CCC are noteworthy in that they exemplify the rustic style of construction that was prevalent at national and state parks built during the Great Depression. Workers used locally found, natural materials in construction that blended with the natural surroundings. Not all of the CCC's work has survived. A concession stand was built by the CCC and sold food and souvenirs from the late 1930s to at least 1953, but was not listed on the 1986 NRHP nomination form. The CCC also built a brick and stone incinerator, but it is in ruins now. The Pennsylvania Geographic Board dropped the word "Forest" and officially named it "Colton Point State Park" on November 11, 1954. The first major change in the park was in 1970, when a camping area was established. That same decade saw the completion of a new water system in 1973, and a holding tank dump station was added to the camping area in 1977. A park office was built in 1983, but as of 2009 the park headquarters are in the adjoining Leonard Harrison State Park and the Colton Point office does not appear on the official park map. Pine Creek was named a state scenic river on December 4, 1992, which ensured further protection of Pine Creek Gorge in its natural state. In 1997 the park's Important Bird Area (IBA) was one of the first 73 IBAs established in Pennsylvania. In 2000 the park became part of the Hills Creek State Park complex, an administrative grouping of eight state parks in Potter and Tioga counties. As of 2004, the park does not have telephone or electrical lines, although it uses solar cells for limited electricity needs. The second half of the 20th century also saw significant changes to the rail line through the Pine Creek Gorge. Regular passenger service on the canyon line ended after the Second World War, and in 1960 the second set of train tracks was removed. Conrail abandoned the section of the railroad that passed through the gorge on September 21, 1988. The right-of-way eventually became the Pine Creek Rail Trail, which follows the path of the former Pine Creek Path. The first section of the rail trail opened in 1996 and included the 1-mile (1.6 km) section in the park: as of 2015 the Pine Creek Rail Trail is 62 miles (100 km) long. Colton Point State Park continued to attract national attention in the post-war era. The New York Times featured the park and its "breath-taking views of the gorge" as well as its trails and location in the wilds of the state forest in a 1950 article, and in 1966 praised the whitewater boating on Pine Creek and the park's "outstanding look-out points". The Pine Creek Gorge, including Colton Point and Leonard Harrison State Parks and a 12-mile (19 km) section of Tioga State Forest, was named a National Natural Landmark (NNL) in April 1968. A 1973 New York Times article on whitewater canoeing noted the damage along Pine Creek done by Hurricane Agnes the year before. Another Times story in 2002 noted the park for its beauty and wildlife, and cited it as a starting point for hiking the West Rim Trail. In the new millennium, the two state parks on either side of the Pine Creek Gorge are frequently treated as one. A 2002 New York Times article called Colton Point and Leonard Harrison state parks "Two State Parks, Divided by a Canyon" and noted their "overlooks offer the most spectacular views". Colton Point and Leonard Harrison were each included in the list of state parks chosen by the DCNR Pennsylvania Bureau of Parks for its "25 Must-See Pennsylvania State Parks" list. The DCNR describes how they "offer spectacular vistas and a fabulous view of Pine Creek Gorge, also known as Pennsylvania's Grand Canyon". It goes on to praise their inclusion in a National Natural Landmark and State Park Natural Area, hiking and trails, and the Pine Creek Rail Trail and bicycling. = = Pine Creek Gorge = = Colton Point State Park lies on the west side of the Pine Creek Gorge, also known as the Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania. A sister park, Leonard Harrison State Park, is on the east side, and the two parks combined form essentially one large park that includes parts of the gorge and creek and parts of the plateau dissected by the gorge. Pine Creek has carved the gorge nearly 47 miles (76 km) through the dissected Allegheny Plateau in northcentral Pennsylvania. The canyon begins in southwestern Tioga County, just south of the village of Ansonia, and continues south to near the village of Waterville in Lycoming County. The depth of the gorge in Colton Point State Park is about 800 feet (240 m) and it measures nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 m) across. The Pine Creek Gorge National Natural Landmark includes Colton Point and Leonard Harrison State Parks and parts of the Tioga State Forest along 12 miles (19 km) of Pine Creek between Ansonia and Blackwell. This federal program does not provide any extra protection beyond that offered by the land owner. The National Park Service's designation of the gorge as a National Natural Landmark notes that it "contains superlative scenery, geological and ecological value, and is one of the finest examples of a deep gorge in the eastern United States." The gorge is also protected by the state of Pennsylvania as the 12,163-acre (4,922 ha) Pine Creek Gorge Natural Area, which is the second largest State Natural Area in Pennsylvania. Within this area, 699 acres (283 ha) of Colton Point and Leonard Harrison State Parks are designated a State Park Natural Area. The state Natural Area runs along Pine Creek from Darling Run in the north (just below Ansonia) to Jerry Run in the south (just above Blackwell). It is approximately 12 miles (19 km) long and 2 miles (3 km) wide, with state forest roads providing all of the western border and part of the eastern border. Within the park, Pine Creek and the walls of the gorge "visible from the opposite shoreline" are also protected by the state as a Pennsylvania Scenic River. In 1968 Pine Creek was one of only 27 rivers originally designated as eligible to be included in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System, and one of only eight specifically mentioned in the law establishing the program. Before Pine Creek could be included in the federal program, the state enacted its State Scenic Rivers Act, then asked that Pine Creek be withdrawn from the national designation. There was much local opposition to its inclusion, based at least partly on mistaken fears that protection would involve seizure of private property and restricted access. Eventually this opposition was overcome, but Pennsylvania did not officially include it as one of its own state Scenic and Wild Rivers until November 25, 1992. The state treated Pine Creek as a state scenic river between 1968 and 1992. It protected the creek from dam-building and water withdrawals for power plants, and added public access points to reduce trespassing on private property by visitors to the creek. = = Geology and climate = = Although the rock formations exposed in Colton Point State Park and the Pine Creek Gorge are at least 300 million years old, the gorge itself formed about 20,000 years ago, in the last ice age. Pine Creek had flowed northeasterly until then, but was dammed by rocks, soil, ice, and other debris deposited by the receding Laurentide Continental Glacier. The dammed creek formed a lake near what would later be the village of Ansonia, and the lake's glacial meltwater overflowed the debris dam, reversing the flow of Pine Creek. The creek flooded to the south and quickly carved a deep channel on its way to the West Branch Susquehanna River. The park is at an elevation of 1,637 feet (499 m) on the Allegheny Plateau, which formed in the Alleghenian orogeny some 300 million years ago, when Gondwana (specifically what became Africa) and what became North America collided, forming Pangaea. Although the gorge and its surroundings seem to be mountainous, the area is a dissected plateau. Years of erosion have cut away the soft rocks, forming the valleys, and left the hardest of the ancient rocks relatively untouched on the top of sharp ridges, giving them the appearance of "mountains". The land on which Colton Point State Park sits was once part of the coastline of a shallow sea that covered a great portion of what is now North America. The high mountains to the east of the sea gradually eroded, causing a buildup of sediment made up primarily of clay, sand and gravel. Tremendous pressure on the sediment caused the formation of the rocks that are found today in the Pine Creek drainage basin: sandstone, shale, conglomerates, limestone, and coal. Five major rock formations present in Colton Point State Park are from the Devonian and Carboniferous periods. The youngest of these, which forms the highest points in the park and along the gorge, is the early Pennsylvanian Pottsville Formation, a gray conglomerate that may contain sandstone, siltstone, and shale, as well as anthracite coal. Low-sulfur coal was once mined at three locations within the Pine Creek watershed. Below this is the late Mississippian Mauch Chunk Formation, which is formed with grayish-red shale, siltstone, sandstone, and conglomerate. Millstones were once carved from the exposed sections of this conglomerate. Together the Pottsville and Mauch Chunk formations are some 300 feet (91 m) thick. Next below these is the late Devonian and early Mississippian Huntley Mountain Formation, which is made of relatively soft grayish-red shale and olive-gray sandstone. This is relatively hard rock and forms many of the ridges. Below this is the red shale and siltstone of the Catskill Formation, about 760 feet (230 m) thick and some 375 million years old. This layer is relatively soft and easily eroded, which helped to form the Pine Creek Gorge. Cliffs formed by the Huntley Mountain and Catskill formations are visible north of the park at Barbour Rock. The lowest and oldest layer is the Lock Haven Formation, which is gray to green-brown siltstone and shale over 400 million years old. It forms the base of the gorge, contains marine fossils, and is up to 600 feet (180 m) thick. The Allegheny Plateau has a continental climate, with occasional severe low temperatures in winter and average daily temperature ranges of 20 ° F (11 ° C) in winter and 26 ° F (14 ° C) in summer. The mean annual precipitation for the Pine Creek watershed is 36 to 42 inches (914 to 1,070 mm). The highest recorded temperature at the park was 104 ° F (40 ° C) in 1936, and the record low was − 30 ° F (− 34 ° C) in 1934. = = Ecology = = Descriptions from early explorers and settlers give some idea of what the Pine Creek Gorge was like before it was clearcut. The forest was up to 85 percent hemlock and white pine; hardwoods made up the rest of the forest. The area was inhabited by a large number of animal species, many of which have vanished by the end of the 20th century. A herd of 12,000 American bison migrated along the West Branch Susquehanna River in 1773. Pine Creek was home to large predators such as wolves, lynx, wolverines, panthers, fishers, bobcats and foxes; all are locally extinct except for the last three as of 2007. The area had herds of elk and deer, and large numbers of black bears, river otters, and beavers. In 1794, two of the earliest white explorers to travel up Pine Creek found so many rattlesnakes on its banks that they had to sleep in their canoe. Further upstream, insects forced them to do the same. The virgin forests cooled the land and streams. The creeks and runs flowed more evenly year-round, since centuries of accumulated organic matter in the forest soil caused slow percolation of rainfall into them. Pine Creek was home to large numbers of fish, including trout, but dams downstream on the Susquehanna River have eliminated the shad, salmon, and eels once found here by blocking their migrations. Habitat for land animals was destroyed by the clearcutting of forests, but there was also a great deal of hunting, with bounties paid for large predators. = = = State Natural Area and wildlife = = = While Colton Point and Leonard Harrison State Parks and parts of the surrounding Tioga State Forest are now the Pine Creek Gorge National Natural Landmark, it is their status as part of a Pennsylvania State Natural Area that provides the strongest protection for them. Within this Natural Area, logging, mining, and drilling for oil and gas are prohibited. Furthermore, only foot trail access is allowed. In 1988 the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources, precursor to the DCNR, described it as about 95% State owned, unroaded, and designated the Pine Creek Gorge Natural Area. It is a place of unique geologic history and contains some rare plant communities, an old growth hemlock stand,... active bald eagle nest [s]... and is a major site of river otter reintroduction. Departmental policy is protection of the natural values of the Canyon from development and overuse, and restoration of the area to as near a natural condition as possible. The gorge has over 225 species of wildflowers, plants and trees, with scattered stands of old growth forest on some of its steepest walls. The rest of the gorge is covered with thriving second growth forest that can be over one hundred years old. Since clearcutting, nearly 90 percent of the forest land has burnt at least once. Typical south-facing slopes here have mountain laurel below oak and hickory trees, while north-facing slopes tend to have ferns below hemlocks and hardwoods. Large chestnuts and black cherry can also be found. The Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania is known for its fall foliage, and Colton Point State Park is a popular place to observe the colors, with the first three weeks of October as the best time to see the leaves in their full color. Red leaves are found on red maple, black cherry, and red oak, while orange and yellow leaves are on black walnut, sugar maple, tulip poplar, chestnut oak, aspen and birch, and brown leaves are from beech, white oak, and eastern black oak trees. Despite the logging, there are some old-growth hardwoods and hemlocks on Fourmile Run. Plants of "special concern" in Pennsylvania that are found in the gorge include Jacob's ladder, wild pea, and hemlock parsley. There are over 40 species of mammals in the Pine Creek Gorge. Colton Point State Park's extensive forest cover makes it a habitat for "big woods" wildlife, including white-tailed deer, black bear, wild turkey, red and gray squirrels. Less common creatures include bobcats, coyote, fishers, river otters, and timber rattlesnakes. There are over 26 species of fish in Pine Creek, including trout, suckers, fallfish, and rock bass. Other aquatic species include crayfish and frogs. Several species have been reintroduced to the gorge. White-tailed deer were imported from Michigan and released throughout Pennsylvania to reestablish what had once been a thriving population. The current population of deer in Pennsylvania are descended from the original stock introduced since 1906, after the lumbermen had moved out of the area. The deer population has grown so much that today they exceed their carrying capacity in many areas. River otters were successfully reintroduced in 1983 and now breed in the gorge. Despite the otters' diet of 5 percent trout, some anglers fear the animals would deplete the game fish in the gorge. Fishers, medium-sized weasels, were reintroduced to Pine Creek Gorge as part of an effort to establish a healthy population of fishers in Pennsylvania. Prior to the lumber era, fishers were numerous throughout the forests of Pennsylvania. They are generalized predators and will hunt any smaller creatures in their territory, including porcupines. Elk have been reintroduced west of the gorge in Clinton County and occasionally wander near the west rim of the canyon. Coyotes have come back on their own. Invasive insect species in the gorge include gypsy moth larvae, which eat all the leaves off trees, especially oaks, and hemlock woolly adelgids, which weaken and kill hemlocks. Invasive plant species include purple loosestrife and Japanese knotweed. = = = Important Bird Area = = = Colton Point State Park is part of Important Bird Area # 28, which encompasses 31,790 acres (12,860 ha) of both publicly and private held land. State managed acreage accounts for 68 percent of the total area and includes Colton Point and Leonard Harrison State Parks and the surrounding Tioga State Forest lands. The Pennsylvania Audubon Society has designated all 368 acres (149 ha) of Colton Point State Park as part of the IBA, which is an area designated as a globally important habitat for the conservation of bird populations. Ornithologists and bird watchers have recorded a total of 128 species of birds in the IBA. Several factors contribute to the high total of bird species observed: there is a large area of forest in the IBA, as well as great habitat diversity, with 343 acres (139 ha) of open water that is used by many of the birds, especially bald eagles. The location of the IBA along the Pine Creek Gorge also contributes to the diverse bird populations. In addition to bald eagles, which live in the IBA year round and have successfully established a breeding population there, the IBA is home to belted kingfishers, scarlet tanagers, black-throated blue warblers, common mergansers, blue and green herons, hermit thrushes, and wood ducks. Large numbers of ospreys use the gorge during spring and fall migration periods. The woodlands are inhabited by wild turkeys and Pennsylvania's state bird the ruffed grouse. Swainson's thrush breeds in the IBA and the Northern harrier breeds and overwinters in Pine Creek Gorge. A variety of warblers is found in Colton Point State Park. The Pennsylvania Audubon Society states that Pine Creek Gorge is "especially rich in warbler species, including Pine, Black-throated blue, Black-throated green, Blackburnian, and Black-and-white." Many of these smaller birds are more often heard than seen as they keep away from the trails and overlooks. = = Recreation = = = = = Trails = = = Colton Point State Park has some challenging hikes in and around the Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania, with 4.0 miles (6.4 km) of trails that feature very rugged terrain, pass close to steep cliffs, and can be very slick in some areas. Governor Robert P. Casey took a hiking tour of the park in July 1990, and in 2003 the DCNR reported that 18,239 people used the trails in the park. Rim Trail is a relatively flat 1-mile (1.6 km) loop trail, which follows the perimeter of Colton Point and links all of the canyon viewing areas. Turkey Path is a difficult trail, 3 miles (5 km) long (down and back within the park), that follows Four Mile Run down the side of the canyon, descending over 800 feet (240 m) to Pine Creek and the rail trail at the bottom of the gorge. It was originally a mule drag used to haul timber to the creek. There is a 70-foot-tall (21 m) cascading waterfall about 0.5 miles (0.80 km) down the trail. The park website classifies it as a "down and back trail" since there is no bridge across Pine Creek. The Turkey Path continues in Leonard Harrison State Park, going from a point on Pine Creek just downstream of the end of the trail in Colton Point up to the Leoanrd Harrison overlook on the east rim of the gorge. According to Owlett, the creek can be forded with care when the water is low, and the Turkey Path connects the two parks. Pine Creek Rail Trail is a 62-mile-long (100 km) rail trail from Wellsboro Junction, just north of Wellsboro, south through the Pine Creek Gorge to Jersey Shore: 1 mile (1.6 km) of this trail is in Colton Point and Leonard Harrison State Parks. A 2001 article in USA Today said the scenic beauty of the Grand Canyon of Pennsylvania made the trail one of "10 great places to take a bike tour" in the world. West Rim Trail is a 30.5-mile-long (49.1 km) hiking trail that runs along the west rim of the Pine Creek Gorge from near the village of Ansonia in the north to Rattlesnake Rock near the village of Blackwell in the south. It is mostly on Tioga State Forest land, but passes through the extreme north of the park and then forms the western border of the park in the south. When the West Rim Trail opened in 1982, it was 21 miles (34 km) long and ended just south of the park, but it was extended 9 miles (14 km) north in 1985, passing through Colton Point. It was chosen by Outside Magazine as its "Best Hike in Pennsylvania" in April 1996. = = = Camping and picnics = = = Camping is a popular pastime at Colton Point State Park; 1,989 persons have used the camping facilities in 2003. With no modern amenities like flush toilets or showers, the campsites take on a rustic nature. There are outhouses, fire rings, a sanitary dump station and picnic tables at the campground. An Organized Group Tenting area, intended for organized youth or adult groups, can accommodate up to 90 campers. 1,490 campers used the area in 2003. The park also has approximately 100 picnic tables and five CCC-built picnic shelters which can be reserved. These facilities were used by 15,379 picnickers in 2003. = = = Hunting, fishing, and whitewater = = = Hunting is permitted in 100 acres (40 ha) of Colton Point State Park, and is regulated by the Pennsylvania Game Commission. The common game species are ruffed grouse, eastern gray squirrels, wild turkey, white-tailed deer, and black bears. The hunting of groundhogs is prohibited. More acres of forested woodlands are available for hunting on the grounds of the adjacent Tioga State Forest. Fishing is permitted at Colton Point State Park. Anglers must descend the Turkey Path to reach Pine Creek. The species of fish found in Pine Creek are trout, smallmouth bass, and some panfish. There are several small trout streams that are accessible from within the park. Historically, the stretch of Pine Creek in the park has been fished by notable anglers, including President Theodore Roosevelt and Pennsylvania Governor William A. Stone. Edward Gertler writes in Keystone Canoeing that Pine Creek "is possibly Pennsylvania's most famous canoe stream" and attributes this partly to the thousands who decide to boat on it after they "peer into Pine Creek's spectacular abyss from the overlooks of Leonard Harrison and Colton Point state parks". The park contains 1 mile (1.6 km) of Pine Creek, which is classified as Class 1 to Class 2 whitewater. Boaters do not normally start or end their run in the park: it is part of the 16.8-mile (27.0 km) trip from Ansonia (Marsh Creek) south to Blackwell (Babb Creek). = = Nearby state parks = = Colton Point State Park is in Shippen Township, and is 5 miles (8 km) south of U.S. Route 6 and the village of Ansonia on Colton Road. The following state parks are within 30 miles (50 km) of Colton Point State Park:

= Call the Shots = "Call the Shots" is a song by British girl group Girls Aloud from their fourth studio album, Tangled Up (2007). The song was written by Miranda Cooper, with inspiration from an article about the advance of women in business, and Brian Higgins, Tim Powell, Lisa Cowling, and Giselle Somerville also received songwriting credits. Polydor Records originally intended to release it as a single for The Sound of Girls Aloud: The Greatest Hits (2006); however, "Something Kinda Ooooh" was selected instead. In September 2007, "Call the Shots" leaked online, and on 26 November of the same year, it was released as the second single from Tangled Up through Fascination Records, a week after the album's release. Produced by Xenomania, the dance-pop and pop rock song showcases a more mature side from Girls Aloud, and received positive reviews from music critics, with one deeming it as the "greatest pop song of the 21st century". In 2008, the song won the award for the Popjustice £20 Music Prize, an annual prize awarded by a panel of judges organised by music website Popjustice to the singer (s) of the best British pop single of the past year. "Call the Shots" proved to be commercially successful upon its release, charting at number three on the UK Singles Chart, continuing the band's string of hits by becoming their sixteenth consecutive single to chart within the top ten, and being later certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry. The song also peaked at number nine on the Irish Singles Chart. The accompanying music video was directed by Sean de Sparengo, and features the girls in purple dresses performing on Malibu Beach at night with flames and white fabric surrounding them. Each member of the band is also shown other locations, following several story lines. "Call the Shots" was promoted through numerous live appearances, including a high-profile performance on The X Factor, and has since been performed on three of Girls Aloud's subsequent concert tours. Several artists and bands including Coldplay and Mark Morriss have covered the song. = = Background and release = = The first part of "Call the Shots" to be composed was the instrumentation, which was done by Xenomania in 2005. The lyrics of the song were written in 2006, when songwriter Miranda Cooper was "inspired by an article she read on something called (coincidentally) the Miranda Complex, named after the ambitious lawyer in Sex and the City, about how women are earning more than men and pushing ahead." Polydor Records originally intended to release it as a single for The Sound of Girls Aloud: The Greatest Hits (2006) the same year, but was deemed "too downbeat, when a greatest hits single needs to be a celebration." Nicola Roberts, Cheryl Cole, Sarah Harding and Kimberley Walsh recorded vocals for the song in London, England, while Nadine Coyle recorded her vocals in Los Angeles. Cole deemed the song her favourite from Tangled Up, adding that it gave her "goosebumps". An early version of "Call the Shots" leaked online in September 2007. On 16 November 2007, Tangled Up was released, with "Call the Shots" being released for digital download on 26 November 2007, through Polydor Records, while it was also made available on two different CD single formats the same day. The first disc included a live cover version of Amy Winehouse's 2007 single "Rehab", as performed on the BBC Radio 1 programme Jo Whiley's Live Lounge. The second CD format featured an original composition entitled "Blow Your Cover", co-written by Girls Aloud with Xenomania. The Tony Lamenza Remix of "Call the Shots" was being included on the CD single also at first, however, the Xenomania Club Mix was selected instead. The Tony Lamenza Remix was then included on the Singles Box Set, released in 2009. = = Composition = = "Call the Shots" is a dance-pop and pop rock track written in the key of D major and with a moderate tempo of 126 beats per minute. Unlike previous singles released by the band, the song follows the verse – chorus form. The lyrics are concerned with the ending of a relationship, and opens with a repetitive melody followed by Coyle singing, "Static tone on the phone, I'll be breaking again / Must be something better babe". As the chorus begins, the five members of the group trade lines and sing, "Just 'cause you're raising the bet and call the shots now on me / It really doesn't faze me how you spend your time", with Alexis Petridis of The Guardian stating that "only anterograde amnesia could wipe [this part] from your brain". During the middle-eight, Roberts sings lyrics that were the inspiration for Girls Aloud's autobiography Dreams that Glitter – Our Story, released in 2008: "I've seen life burn bright, seen it shimmer / Then fade like starlight to a glimmer, oh no / I've seen life flow by like a river / So full of twilight, dreams that glitter". Alex Fletcher of Digital Spy said that the instrumentation of "Call the Shots" was based on 1990s dance productions, and added that it incorporated "oohs" and "ah ah ahs" that "reverberate around an infectious chorus," while John Lucas of Allmusic wrote that the song showcased a more mature side from Girls Aloud. = = Reception = = = = = Critical response = = = "Call the Shots" received positive reviews from music critics. Alex Fletcher of Digital Spy rated the song four out of five stars, writing that it is "more tasteful" than few of Girls Aloud's previous releases. Daily Star journalist Kim Dawson said "Call the Shots" is one of the band's best singles, while another reviewer for the same newspaper deemed the song "classy electronic Euro-pop with real edge." Jennie McNulty of Marie Claire said that the song "has a wonderfully ambient feel, echoing an arty electro band", while Alexis Petridis of The Guardian wrote that Tangled Up "begins disappointingly" with "Call the Shots" as the opening track because the song's structure is "a bit commonplace" compared to Girls Aloud's previous singles such as "Biology" (2005). On the countdown of the top singles of 2007, Digital Spy placed "Call the Shots" at number 17, commenting that the band had not lost "their knack for making supremely catchy pop hits." In 2008, the song won the Popjustice £20 Music Prize – Girls Aloud's fourth win. Popjustice writer Peter Robinson deemed it as the "greatest pop song of the 21st century." = = = Chart performance = = = Following the availability of "Call the Shots" due to the release of Tangled Up, the song entered the UK Singles Chart at number nine. The following week, "Call the Shots" rose six places to peak at number three. It managed to stay at number three the following week, but slipped to number five in its fourth week. Through the Christmas week chart, the single managed to stay in the top ten, returning to its debut position of number nine. "Call the Shots" was certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry. On the chart issue of 22 November 2007, the song debuted at number 44 in Ireland, reaching a new peak at number 9 the following week. It attained the same peak on the European Hot 100 Singles chart. = = Music video = = The accompanying music video for "Call the Shots" was directed by Sean de Sparengo, and filmed in October 2007 in Malibu, California, while Girls Aloud were filming The Passions of Girls Aloud. The video features the girls in purple dresses performing on Malibu Beach at night with flames and white fabric surrounding them. The girls are also shown in different locations with individual story lines. Cole is simply seen looking out of a sunny window. Walsh is sat in front of a mirror, putting on make-up; her fictional boyfriend comes to get her and they hug, though she appears to be sad. Coyle is seated on a couch, flipping through photographs featuring her and a man. She takes a lighter to the photos and sets them alight. Roberts is lying down by a swimming pool, running her fingers through the water. A young man walks up to her with a bouquet of flowers and tosses them into the water. Harding watches her boyfriend in the shower and goes through his phone. The video premiered on 17 October 2007. = = Live performances and covers = = Girls Aloud first performed "Call the Shots" at a charity ball in aid of children's charity UNICEF on 10 November 2007. The band also performed the song on The X Factor on 17 November 2007, on The Paul O'Grady Show on 21 November 2007, on This Morning on 27 November 2007, and on Top of the Pops on 25 December 2007. "Call the Shots" was performed on 2008's Tangled Up Tour, and, later that year, at The Girls Aloud Party TV special held by ITV1, and at the V Festival. For 2009's Out of Control Tour, the band began the performance on a smaller, specially-constructed stage in the centre of the arena, and flew back to the main stage before it ended. The same year, Bloc Party covered the song for BBC Radio 1's Live Lounge. In 2013, the song was performed during the second act of the Ten: The Hits Tour. "Call the Shots" was also covered by several artists and bands such as Coldplay, David Jordan, Fyfe Dangerfield, Malcolm Middleton, and Mark Morriss. = = Formats and track listings = = These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of "Call the Shots". = = Credits and personnel = = Guitar – Nick Coler, Owen Parker Keyboard – Miranda Cooper, Brian Higgins, Matt Gray, Tim Powell, Toby Scott Mastering – Dick Beetham for 360 Mastering Mixing – Jeremy Wheatley Production – Brian Higgins, Xenomania Programming – Miranda Cooper, Brian Higgins, Matt Gray, Tim Powell, Toby Scott Songwriting – Miranda Cooper, Brian Higgins, Tim Powell, Lisa Cowling, Giselle Somerville Vocals – Girls Aloud Published by Warner / Chappell Music and Xenomania Music Credits adapted from the liner notes of Tangled Up. = = Charts and certifications = = = = Release history = =

= Árpád = Árpád (Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈaːrpaːd]; c. 845 – c. 907) was the head of the confederation of the Hungarian tribes at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries. He may have been either the sacred ruler or kende of the Hungarians, or their military leader or gyula, although most details of his life are debated by historians, because different sources contain contradictory information. Despite this, many Hungarians refer to him as the "founder of our country", and Árpád's preeminent role in the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin has been emphasized by some later chronicles. The dynasty descending from Árpád ruled the Kingdom of Hungary until 1301. = = Biography = = = = = Early life = = = Árpád was the son of Álmos who is mentioned as the first head of the confederation of the Hungarian tribes by all Hungarian chronicles. His mother's name and family are unknown. According to historian Gyula Kristó, Árpád was born around 845. His name derived from the Hungarian word for barley (árpa). The Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (r. 913 – 959) states that the Hungarians "had never at any time had any other prince" before Árpád, which is in sharp contrast to the Hungarian chronicles' report of the position of Árpád's father. In Porphyrogenitus's narration, the Khazar khagan initiated the centralization of the command of the Hungarian tribes in order to strengthen his own suzerainty over them. The khagan initially wanted to appoint a chieftain named Levedi to lead the Hungarians. However, Levedi did not accept this offer and suggested that either Álmos or Árpád should be promoted instead of him. The khagan approached the Hungarians with this new proposal. They preferred Árpád to his father, because he was "greatly admired for wisdom and counsel and valour, and capable of this rule". Thereafter, Árpád was made "prince according to the custom... of the Chazars, by lifting him upon a shield." Constantine Porphyrogenitus refers to Árpád as "great prince of Hungary" (Greek: μέγας Τουρχίας άρχωυ). The reliability of the Byzantine emperor's report of Árpád's election is debated by modern historians: for instance, Victor Spinei states that it is "rather vague and scarcely credible", but András Róna-Tas writes that its core is reliable. The latter historian adds that Árpád's election was promoted by Álmos who forced Levedi kende to renounce. Accordingly, in Róna-Tas's view, Árpád succeeded Levedi as sacred ruler or kende, which enabled his father to preserve his own position of the actual leader of the Hungarians or gyula. = = = Towards the Hungarian Conquest = = = The earliest reliable source of Árpád's life is an early 10th-century document, the Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk. It narrates that the Byzantine Emperor Leo VI the Wise (r. 886 – 912) sent his envoy Nicetas Sclerus to the Hungarians in 894 or 895 "to give presents" and incite them against the Bulgarian Empire. Sclerus met with their two leaders, Árpád and Kurszán, at the Lower Danube. Sclerus's mission succeeded: a Hungarian army soon crossed the Danube on Byzantine ships against Bulgaria. An interpolation in Porphyrogenitus's text suggests that the invading Hungarians were under the command of Árpád's son, Liüntika. The positions held by Árpád and Kurszán at the time of their negotiations with Sclerus are debated by historians. Spinei wrote that Árpád was the gyula, and Kurszán was the kende. In contrast, Kristó said that Kurszán was the gyula and Árpád represented his father, Álmos kende. At that time, the Bulgarians had disregarded the peace treaty and were raiding through the Thracian countryside. Justice pursued them for breaking their oath to Christ our God, the emperor of all, and they quickly met up with their punishment. While our forces were engaged against the Saracens, divine Providence led the [Hungarians], in place of the Romans, to campaign against the Bulgarians. Our Majesty's fleet of ships supported them and ferried them across the Danube. [Providence] sent them out against the army of the Bulgarians that had so wickedly taken up arms against Christians and, as though they were public executioners, they decisively defeated them in three engagements, so that the Christian Romans might not willingly stain themselves with the blood of the Christian Bulgarians. The Hungarian army defeated the Bulgarians, but the latter hired the Pechenegs against them. The Bulgarians and Pechenegs simultaneously invaded the Hungarians' territories in the western regions of the Pontic steppes in 895 or 896. The destruction of their dwelling places by the Pechenegs forced the Hungarians to leave for a new homeland across the Carpathian Mountains towards the Pannonian Plain. The Illuminated Chronicle says that Árpád's father Álmos "could not enter Pannonia, for he was killed in Erdelw" or Transylvania. Engel, Kristó and Molnár, who accept the reliability of this report, wrote that Álmos's death was a ritual murder, similar to the sacrifice of the Khazar khagans in case of a disaster affecting their people. In contrast with them, Róna-Tas states that even if the report on Álmos's murder "reflects true event, the only possible explanation would be that Árpád or someone in his entourage" killed the aged prince. Spinei rejects the Illuminated Chronicle's report on Álmos's murder in Transylvania, because the last mention of Álmos in the contrasting narration of the Gesta Hungarorum is connected to a siege of Ungvár (Uzhhorod, Ukraine) by the Hungarians. The latter chronicle says that Álmos appointed Árpád "as leader and master" of the Hungarians on this occasion. = = = Reign = = = Árpád's name "is completely unknown" to all sources written in East Francia, which was one of the main powers of the Carpathian Basin at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries. These sources, including the Annales Alamannici and the Annales Eisnidlenses, only mention an other Hungarian leader, Kurszán. According to Kristó and other historians, these sources suggest that Kurszán must have been the gyula commanding the Hungarian forces, while Árpád succeeded his murdered father as the sacred kende. Proposing a contrasting theory, the Romanian historian Curta wrote that Kurszán was the kende and Árpád gyula only succeeded him when Kurszán was murdered by Bavarians in 902 or 904. In contrast to nearly contemporaneous sources, Hungarian chronicles written centuries after the events — for instance, the Gesta Hungarorum and the Illuminated Chronicle — emphasize Árpád's pre-eminent role in the conquest of the Carpathian Basin. The Gesta Hungarorum also highlights Árpád's military skills and his generosity. This chronicle also emphasizes that Tétény, one of the heads of the seven Hungarian tribes, acquired "the land of Transylvania for himself and his posterity" only after Árpád had authorized him to conquer it. Having crossed the Danube, they encamped beside the Danube as far as Budafelhévíz. Hearing this, all the Romans living throughout the land of Pannonia, saved their lives by flight. Next day, Prince Árpád and all his leading men with all the warriors of Hungary entered the city of King Attila and they saw all the royal palaces, some ruined to the foundations, others not, and they admired beyond measure the stone buildings and were happier than can be told that they had deserved to take without fighting the city of King Attila, of whose line Prince Árpád descended. They feasted every day with great joy in the palace of King Attila, sitting alongside one another, and all the melodies and sweet sounds of zithers and pipes along with all the songs of minstrels were presented to them... Prince Árpád gave great lands and properties to the guests staying with them, and, when they heard this, many guests thronged to him and gladly stayed with him. The Gesta Hungarorum says that Árpád took "an oath of the leading men and warriors of Hungary," and "had his son, Prince Zoltán elevated" to prince in his life. However, the reliability of this report and the list of the grand princes in the Gesta Hungarorum is dubious. For instance, it ignores Fajsz, who ruled when Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus was completing his De Administrando Imperio around 950. = = = Death = = = The date of Árpád's death is debated. The Gesta Hungarorum states that he died in 907. However, Kristó wrote that he actually died in 900 or later because the Gesta says 903 is the starting date of the Hungarian "land-taking" instead of its actual date around 895. If the Gesta's report on his funeral is reliable, Árpád was buried "at the head of a small river that flows through a stone culvert to the city of King Attila" where a village, Fehéregyháza, developed near Buda a century later. = = Legacy = = The Hungarians arrived in their new homeland within the Carpathians under Árpád. Árpád is the principal actor in the Gesta Hungarorum, which attributes "almost all memorable events" of the "Hungarian land-taking" to him. Furthermore, until the extinction of the male line of his dynasty in 1301, Hungary was ruled by "a single line of princes", all descending from Árpád. Árpád is still famed among the Hungarians as honalapító or the "founder of our country". = = Family = = Porphyrogenitus says Árpád "had four sons: first, Tarkatzous; second, Ielech; third, Ioutotzas; fourth, Zaltas". However, he also refers to one "Liuntikas, son of" Árpád; Kristó wrote that Liuntikas (Liüntika) was an alternative name of Tarkatzous (Tarhos). The name and family of the mother of Árpád's sons are unknown. The following is a family tree presenting Árpád's ancestors and his descendants to the end of the 10th century: * Liüntika and Tarkatzus are supposed to have been identical. * * The father of Tas was one of Árpád's four or five sons, but his name is unknown. * * * All later grand princes and kings of Hungary descended from Taksony.

= James B. Longacre = James Barton Longacre (August 11, 1794 – January 1, 1869) was an American portraitist and engraver, and from 1844 until his death the fourth Chief Engraver of the United States Mint. Longacre is best known for designing the Indian Head cent, which entered commerce in 1859, and for the designs of the Shield nickel, Flying Eagle cent and other coins of the mid-19th century. Longacre was born in Delaware County, Pennsylvania in 1794. He ran away to Philadelphia at age 12, becoming an apprentice in a bookstore. His artistic talent developed and he was released to apprentice in an engraving firm. He struck out on his own in 1819, making a name providing illustrations for popular biographical books. He portrayed the leading men of his day; support from some of them, such as South Carolina Senator John C. Calhoun, led to his appointment as chief engraver after the death of Christian Gobrecht in 1844. In Longacre's first years as a chief engraver, the Philadelphia Mint was dominated by Mint Director Robert M. Patterson and Chief Coiner Franklin Peale. Conflict between Longacre and the two men developed after Congress ordered a new gold dollar and double eagle, with both to be designed by Longacre. Peale and Patterson nearly had Longacre fired, but the chief engraver was able to convince Treasury Secretary William M. Meredith that he should be retained. Both Patterson and Peale left the Mint in the early 1850s, ending the conflict. In 1856, Longacre designed the Flying Eagle cent. When that design proved difficult to strike, Longacre was responsible for the replacement, the Indian Head cent, issued beginning in 1859. Other coins designed by Longacre include the silver and nickel three-cent pieces, the Shield nickel, and the two-cent piece. In 1866 – 1867, he redesigned the coins of Chile. Longacre died suddenly on New Year's Day 1869; he was succeeded by William Barber. Longacre's coins are generally well-regarded today, although they have been criticized for lack of artistic advancement. = = Early life; private sector career = = James Barton Longacre was born on a farm in Delaware County, Pennsylvania on August 11, 1794. His mother Sarah (Barton) Longacre died early in his life; his father, Peter Longacre, was the descendent of early Swedish settlers of North America. When Peter Longacre remarried, his son found the home life intolerable, and James Longacre left home at the age of 12, seeking work in the nearby city of Philadelphia. He apprenticed himself at a bookstore; the owner, John E. Watson, took the boy into his family. Over the following years, Longacre worked in the bookstore, but Watson realized that the boy's skill was in portraiture. Watson granted Longacre a release from his apprenticeship in 1813 so that he could follow an artistic muse, but the two remained close, and Watson would often sell Longacre's works. Longacre became apprenticed to George Murray, principal in the engraving firm Murray, Draper, Fairman & Co. at 47 Sansom Street in Philadelphia. This business derived from the firm established by the Philadelphia Mint's first chief engraver, Robert Scot. Longacre remained at the Murray firm until 1819; his major work there was portraits of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and John Hancock which were placed on a facsimile of the Declaration of Independence by publisher John Binns; the work cost Binns a total of $9,000 (equal to $139,128 today). Also employed at the Murray firm from 1816 was the man who would be Longacre's predecessor as chief engraver, Christian Gobrecht. Longacre's work at the company gave him a good reputation as an engraver skilled in rendering other artists' paintings as a printed engraving, and in 1819, he set up his own business at 230 Pine Street in Philadelphia. Longacre's first important commission were plates for S.F. Bradford's Encyclopedia in 1820; an engraving of General Andrew Jackson by Longacre based on a portrait by Thomas Sully achieved wide sales. Longacre then agreed to engrave illustrations for Joseph and John Sanderson's Biographies of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence, published in nine volumes between 1820 and 1827. Although the venture was marked by criticism of the writing, sales were good enough that the project was completed. Numismatic writer Richard Snow suggests that the books sold on the strength of the quality of Longacre's illustrations. Longacre also completed a series of studies of actors in their roles in 1826 for The American Theatre. With lessons learned from the Sanderson series, Longacre proposed to issue his own set of biographies illustrated with plates of the subjects. He was on the point of launching this project, having invested $1,000 of his own money (equal to $23,703 today) in preparation, when he learned that James Herring of New York City was planning a similar series. In October 1831, he wrote to Herring, and the two men agreed to work together on The American Portrait Gallery (later called the National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans), published in four volumes between 1834 and 1839. Herring was an artist, but much of the work of illustrating fell to Longacre, who travelled widely in the United States to sketch subjects from life. He again sketched Jackson, who was by now president, as well as former president James Madison, both in July 1833. He met many of the political leaders of the day, who were impressed by his portraits. Among these advocates was the former vice president, South Carolina Senator John C. Calhoun. In July 1832, Niles' Register described a Longacre engraving, "one of the finest specimens of American advancement in the art". Longacre had married Eliza Stiles in 1827; between 1828, when their daughter Sarah was born, and 1840, they had three boys and two girls. Sales of the Gallery lagged due to the Panic of 1837; Longacre was forced to declare bankruptcy and travel through the southern and midwestern states, peddling his books from town to town, with his wife and elder daughter managing shipping and finances at home. Later in 1837, he was able to return to Philadelphia and open a banknote engraving firm with partners, Toppan, Draper, Longacre & Co. With great demand for engraving for notes being issued by state banks, the firm prospered, and had offices at 60 Walnut Street in Philadelphia and a branch at 1 Wall Street in New York. According to Snow, Longacre was known as the best engraver in the country. = = = Longacre engravings, 1819 – 1844 = = = = = Chief engraver (1844 – 1869) = = = = = Appointment = = = Gobrecht's death in July 1844 left the United States Bureau of the Mint (generally, "Mint") without a chief engraver. Among those who hoped for appointment were Philadelphia banknote engraver Charles Welsh, and Allen Leonard, who had modeled the Mint's medal for former president John Quincy Adams. Through the influence of Senator Calhoun, however, Longacre secured the appointment. According to coin historian Don Taxay, Longacre did not attempt to gain the support of Mint Director Robert M. Patterson in seeking the appointment from President John Tyler, and "if Patterson resented the slight, however, he was more annoyed by Leonard's importunities." Longacre was commissioned by President Tyler on September 16, 1844; his was a recess appointment as the post of chief engraver required Senate confirmation, and that body was not then sitting. Tyler transmitted Longacre's nomination to the Senate on December 17, 1844, which confirmed Longacre without recorded opposition on January 7, 1845. According to numismatist David Lange, Longacre was glad to get the position because engravers were receiving less work due to the advent of daguerrotype photography. According to coin dealer and author Q. David Bowers, upon appointment as chief engraver, Longacre "found that he had entered a hornet's nest of intrigue, politics, and infighting, dominated by Franklin Peale, chief coiner since 1839". Peale sent Mint personnel to work on his private residence, and in addition to his official duties — mostly performed by his predecessor, Adam Eckfeldt, who continued in his work without pay despite his retirement — he had a thriving side business preparing dies for private medals using government resources. Peale controlled access to dies and materials, and was close to Director Patterson; the two men later proved to have been skimming metal from bullion deposits. The remaining Mint officers were cronies of Patterson, and Longacre found himself a loner among them. Walter Breen, in his comprehensive volume on U.S. coins, suggests that Patterson resented Longacre because of the engraver's sponsorship by Calhoun, whom the director disliked as a southerner. = = = Patterson / Peale years (1844 – 1853) = = = In Longacre's first years as chief engraver, no original designs were required for coins. Gobrecht had redesigned every denomination of U.S. coinage between 1835 and 1842, and his successor had time to learn arts necessary for coin production that he had not needed as a maker of print engravings. These arts included coin design, making of punches for design elements, and die sinking. Longacre's work in the private sector had involved cutting lines into a copper plate which was then used to print reproductions. Patterson wrote in August 1845 to Treasury Secretary Robert J. Walker that Longacre "is a gentleman of excellent character, highly regarded in this community, and has acquired some celebrity as an engraver of copper; but he is not a Die-Sinker. Indeed I do not know that he has ever made an attempt in this art." By December of that year, the Mint director had written to Walker in praise of Longacre, stating that the engraver had "more taste and judgment in making devices for an improved coinage here than have been exhibited by any of his predecessors. He has shown too that he is quite competent to make the required model from his drawings." Taxay attributed Patterson's lavish praise of Longacre to continued attempts by Leonard to gain the post of chief engraver. A number of blunders can be seen among the early coins produced at the Mint under Longacre, though it is uncertain to whom these errors should be attributed. These include the 1844 half dollar struck at the New Orleans Mint (1844-O) with a doubled date, and the 1846 half dollar with the 6 overlying an identical digit, but one which had been placed horizontally. Bowers indicates that Longacre likely delegated such work, although in 1849 he wrote that his daily work was punching dates into working dies. Tom DeLorey, in his 2003 article on Longacre, notes that Peale and his staff often made punches without consulting the Engraver's Department (headed by Longacre), and believes the chief coiner more likely to be responsible. Despite the charged atmosphere at the Philadelphia Mint, Longacre avoided conflict with Patterson and Peale until March 1849, when Congress authorized a gold dollar and double eagle or twenty-dollar gold piece, both new coins. By then, Patterson had come to desire Longacre's departure as he was deemed a threat to Peale's medal business, and opposed new coins which would require the chief engraver's skills. According to Richard Snow in his book on Flying Eagle and Indian Head cents, "having an ethical chief engraver threatened their sideline." The conflict came over the use of the Contamin portrait lathe, necessary in the making of dies both for Longacre in producing the new coins and Peale in his medal business. When Longacre complained that Peale was monopolizing the device, Peale decided to sabotage Longacre's coin work and have him removed from his position. In early 1849, according to a letter written by Longacre the following year, the chief engraver was approached by a member of the Mint staff, warning him that another officer (plainly Peale) sought to have the engraving work done outside of the Mint, making Longacre redundant. The outside engraver in question was Frenchman Louis Bouvet, whom Patterson had prepare a design for the half eagle, though it was not adopted. Longacre's response to the information was to spend much of March 1849 preparing the dies for the gold dollar, at some cost to his health, as he later related. He demanded that Patterson hire assistance for him, but found the director willing only to have work contracted out. Longacre was unwilling to consent to this, as he could not supervise work done outside the Mint (he did get help within the Mint from assistant engraver Peter Filatreu Cross, who worked on the reverse of the gold dollar). Longacre proceeded with work on the double eagle through late 1849, and described the obstacles set in his path by Peale: The plan of operation selected for me was to have an electrotype mould made from my model, in copper, to serve as a pattern for a cast in iron. The operations of the galvanic battery for this purpose were conducted in the apartments of the chief coiner. The galvanic process failed, my model was destroyed in the operation. I had, however, taken the precaution to make a cast in plaster... From this cast, as the only alternative, I procurred [sic] a metallic one which, however, was not perfect; but I thought I should be able to correct the imperfections in the engraving of the die... this was a laborious task, but seasonably completed, entirely by my own hand. The die then had to be hardened in the coining department; it unluckily split in the process. When Longacre completed the double eagle dies, they were rejected by Peale, who stated that the design was engraved too deeply to fully impress the coin, and the pieces would not stack properly. Taxay, however, noted that the one surviving 1849 double eagle displays no such problems, and by appearance would be level in a stack. Peale complained to Patterson, who wrote to Treasury Secretary William M. Meredith asking for Longacre's removal on December 25, 1849 on the ground he could not make proper dies. Patterson that day promised the position to engraver Charles Cushing Wright, effective when Longacre was ousted. Meredith questioned whether a competent replacement could be found; Patterson assured him that one could. Longacre objected to Patterson that Peale was delaying acceptance of revised double eagle dies, the director did not reply in writing, but met with Longacre, told him the administration had decided to terminate him, and that he should send in his resignation without delay. Longacre, after thinking the matter over, did not do so, but instead went to Washington on February 12, 1850 to meet with Meredith. He found that the secretary had been lied to about a number of matters. According to Snow, Longacre did not seek retribution, content to be allowed to continue his work in peace. The double eagle went into production in March 1850, though Patterson complained that the coins did not strike well. The double eagle quickly became the favored way to hold gold, and in the years to come more gold would be struck into double eagles than into all other denominations combined. Patterson wrote again to request Longacre's ouster on April 1, 1850, alleging that President Zachary Taylor had decided that Longacre be dismissed. Despite these attempts, Longacre remained in his position. Also in 1850, Longacre's wife Elizabeth (generally Eliza) died. The Mint officials clashed again in 1851, after Congress authorized a silver three-cent piece. Longacre prepared a design showing a star on one side and the Roman numeral III on the other, which initially won Patterson's approval. Peale, however, persuaded Patterson to change his mind and authorize the chief coiner to propose a version himself, copying design elements Gobrecht had used in 1836. The issue was submitted to the new Treasury Secretary, Thomas Corwin, who selected Longacre's proposal — Longacre had taken the precaution of sending the secretary a letter explaining his imagery. In July 1851, Patterson retired and President Fillmore replaced him with Thomas Eckert. Peale's medal business suffered a setback when Adam Eckfeldt, who was still performing the duties of chief coiner, died in 1852. In 1854, Mint Director James Ross Snowden fired Peale after the extent to which he had used Mint labor for private gain became public. Nevertheless, the firing caused considerable press attention, a Senate investigation, and a large demand for compensation by Peale. With his enemies gone, life at the Mint improved for Longacre. = = = = Early coins = = = = = = = Prolific designer (1853 – 1863) = = = Faced with a rise in silver prices, Congress decreased the silver content of the half dime, dime, quarter and half dollar in 1853. Longacre was asked to alter Gobrecht's designs so new coins could be distinguished from old. He proposed placing rays around the heraldic eagle on the reverses of the quarter and half dollar, and arrows by the date for all of the affected denominations. As the act requiring the reduction in weight allowed the Mint to hire outside artists to do the work, Snowden allowed for public designs for the new pieces. No public entry was found suitable, and Longacre's proposal was adopted. The rays tended to shorten die life and were dropped within a year; the arrows were dispensed with after 1855. In 1853, Congress authorized a three-dollar piece. In a note found among his papers, Longacre wrote that his task was to make the coin as easy as possible to distinguish from the quarter eagle, which at $2.50 was close in value. Longacre produced a design for an Native American princess, which he made different from Gobrecht's Liberty design on the quarter eagle with a thinner and wider planchet. At the time, a female Native American was often used to represent America in art, and a depiction of Liberty as an Indian princess was in accord with contemporary practices. The chief engraver wrote to Mint Director Snowden that the three-dollar piece, which went into production in 1854, was the first time he had been allowed artistic freedom in designing a coin. The gold dollar was altered the same year to make the planchet both thinner and wider; Longacre modified his princess design for the gold dollar. For the reverse of the coins, Longacre created a wreath of wheat, corn, tobacco, and cotton, blending the agricultural products of the North and the South. This wreath would also be used on the reverse of the Flying Eagle cent in 1856; reused on the dime beginning in 1860, the "cereal wreath" would be Longacre's last surviving design on coinage, remaining with modifications until the 1916 abandonment of the Barber dime. In the mid-1850s, Longacre was engaged by the Navy Department to design a medal to be presented to Captain Duncan Ingraham. Longacre produced the imagery used for the reverse; the obverse was by Assistant Engraver Cross. Although Bowers describes Longacre as having been "strictly ethical in the duties of his office", when the Treasury Department learned that Longacre accepted a $2,200 payment from the Navy for his work, they required that he repay the money under a federal law barring compensation of this kind. Other than his design for the 1867 Assay Commission medal, and his similar, wreathed reverses for the commission medals in 1860, 1861, and 1868, the Ingraham work was Longacre's only medal made for the government. After a rise in commodity prices, the Mint to sought to replace the large copper cent with a smaller version. Beginning in 1850, a number of pattern coins were struck in attempts to find a replacement coin. Designs and formats varied; at first, Mint authorities considered an annular, or holed, cent. In 1854 and 1855, much experimentation was done, some with a Liberty Head design as featured on the large cent; others with a flying eagle design adapted by Longacre from the Gobrecht dollar of 1836. Gobrecht's design said to have been modeled on Peter the eagle, a tame bird which frequented the Philadelphia Mint in the 1830s until it was caught up in machinery and killed; Peter, in stuffed form, was subsequently placed on exhibit at the Philadelphia Mint. The flying eagle design was adopted for a large issue of experimental patterns given to government officials and others in 1856; that coin was then used for the regular issue from 1857. The reverse featured Longacre's cereal wreath, which led to difficulties in coining; the head and tail of the eagle on the obverse opposed the wreath, making those design points particularly hard to strike in the tough copper-nickel alloy which was used. Beginning in 1859, the cent featured a Longacre design of Liberty wearing a Native American headdress. What is called the "laurel wreath", though actually olive, adorned the reverse of the cent in 1859; beginning in 1860, a reverse with an oak wreath and shield was placed on the cent. The replacement of the wreath is for reasons unknown; the shield was added because of Snowden's desire to give the coin a "more national character". This reverse is generally credited to Longacre; Snow speculates that it may have been created by Assistant Engraver Anthony C. Paquet. By numismatic legend, Longacre's Indian Head cent design was based on the features of his daughter Sarah; the tale runs that she was at the mint one day when she tried on the headdress of one of a number of Native Americans who were visiting and her father sketched her. However, Sarah Longacre was 30 years old and married, not 12 as in the tale, in 1858 and Longacre himself stated that the face was based on a statue of Venus in Philadelphia on loan from the Vatican. James Longacre did often sketch his elder daughter, and there are resemblances between the depiction of Sarah Longacre and the various representations of Liberty on Longacre's coins of the 1850s. These tales were apparently extant at the time, as Snowden, in writing to Treasury Secretary Howell Cobb in November 1858, denied that the coin was based "on any human features in the Longacre family". Lee F. McKenzie, in his 1991 article on Longacre, notes that any artist can be influenced by many things, but calls the story "essentially false". = = = = Mid-tenure designs = = = = = = = Civil War issues and later career = = = The Civil War brought economic disturbances which resulted in the removal of some coins, including the base-metal cent, from circulation. Paper currency (valued as low as three cents), postage stamps, and private tokens, filled the gap. Many of the tokens were cent-sized, but thinner and made of bronze. Mint authorities took notice that these metal pieces were successfully circulating, and obtained legislation for a bronze cent. Longacre's Indian head design continued in its place with the new metal; later in 1864 he engraved his initial "L" in the headdress. The act which authorized the bronze cent also issued a two-cent piece; Longacre furnished a design, which Lange calls a "particularly attractive composition" with arrows and a laurel wreath flanking a shield. However, art historian Cornelius Vermeule stated that elements of the design "need only flanking cannon to be the consummate expressions of Civil War heraldry." Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase favored placing an expression of the nation's faith in God in a time of war on the coinage, and wrote to Mint Director Pollock, "You will cause a device to be prepared without unnecessary delay with a motto expressing in the fewest tersest terms possible this national recognition." Several mottos were considered by Pollock, including "God Our Trust" and "God and Our Country". Longacre's two-cent piece was the first coin inscribed with "In God We Trust". Nickel had been removed from the cent over the objection of Pennsylvania industrialist Joseph Wharton, who had large interests in the metal; his congressman, Thaddeus Stevens, had fought against the act. In 1864, Wharton published a pamphlet arguing for a coinage in which all coins less than ten cents would be made of a copper-nickel alloy with 25% nickel, just over twice the percentage which the cent had contained. In March 1865, Congress passed legislation for a three-cent coin of that alloy, intended to retire fractional currency of that denomination. Longacre furnished a head of Liberty for the coin resembling his other depictions of the goddess which he had made in the past 16 years; for the reverse he used the "laurel" wreath from the 1859 cent surrounding the Roman numeral III borrowed from the silver three-cent piece. Wharton and others seeking to promote the use of nickel remained powerful in Congress, and in 1866 secured authorization for a five-cent coin of copper nickel. Longacre prepared a number of designs; Pollock selected Longacre's design of a shield (similar to the two-cent piece) and a starry circle for the reverse, and the Shield nickel began to be struck that year. Mint Assayer William DuBois wrote to Longacre, "it is truly pleasing to see a man pass the life of three score and ten and yet be able to produce the same artistic works as in earlier days." In 1865 Congress required the use of "In God We Trust" on all coins large enough to bear the inscription; in 1866, Longacre added the motto to all silver coins larger than the dime and all gold coins larger than the three-dollar piece. He also in 1867 made modifications to the design of the copper-nickel five-cent piece, or nickel as it was coming to be known. In 1865, Longacre engaged British-born engraver William Barber as assistant; William H. Key was also made an assistant in 1864 and remained at the Mint past Longacre's death. Some of the coinage which had vanished from circulation during the Civil War and had been exported to South America continued to be used in Chilean trade as nationals found their local coinage valued poorly with the American pieces. In 1866, the Chilean government instructed its representative in Washington to approach the U.S. State Department for permission to have their coinage dies made in America. The Andrew Johnson administration was happy to oblige; Treasury Secretary Hugh McCulloch gave the Chileans a letter of introduction to Longacre in Philadelphia. Longacre was engaged by the Chileans to redesign five silver and four gold coins, and he agreed, so long as permission from McCulloch was obtained for him to accept an outside fee. McCulloch was initially agreeable, but Mint Director Pollock raised objection on the ground that government property should not be used to enable private gain. Eventually, all parties reached agreement that Longacre could do the work at a total cost of $10,000 provided that he brought in an outside engraver to do some of the work under Longacre's supervision; the chief engraver selected Anthony C. Paquet, one of his former assistants. Resistance at the Mint dissolved with Pollock's resignation over President Johnson's Reconstruction policies, and the dies and hubs (from which more dies could be made) were created beginning in November 1866, probably in-house at the Philadelphia Mint. Longacre's designs for Chile were used until new ones were adopted in the 1890s. In 1867, Longacre proposed the use of aluminum in coins; this was rejected as the supply and price of the metal fluctuated considerably, and it then had a high intrinsic value. In 1868, Wharton's interests proposed making the dime into a copper-nickel piece and to modify the cent, three-cent piece, and nickel. The project was abandoned when it became clear the base-metal dime would be too large to be effectively struck in the tough copper-nickel alloy, but Longacre prepared a number of half dollar-size patterns. He also began work on re-engraving the designs of the gold pieces, and completed the $10 piece by year's end. = = = = Later designs = = = = = = Death and assessment = = James Longacre died suddenly at his home in Philadelphia on January 1, 1869. A memorial meeting was held at the Philadelphia Mint on January 5, attended by the facility's employees. The Director of the Mint, Henry Linderman, delivered a speech in praise of Longacre prior to the formal eulogy, which was given by Longacre's assistant, William Barber, who would be appointed as Longacre's successor. Like each of his predecessors, Longacre died in office. Longacre was recognized in an exhibit of 100 notable American engravers sponsored by the New York Public Library in 1928. In 1970, art historian Cornelius Vermeule, in his volume on U.S. coins, viewed Longacre and his works less favorably, "uniform in their dullness, lack of inspiration, and even quaintness, Longacre's contributions to patterns and regular coinage were a decided step backwards from the art of [Thomas] Sully, [Titian] Peale, [Robert] Hughes, and Gobrecht" and "whatever his previous qualities as an engraver of portraits, he seems not to have brought much imagination to his important post at the Philadelphia Mint." However, Vermeule considered the Flying Eagle cent more of a work of art, far above the mundane. In his 1991 article, McKenzie notes Vermeule's concerns, but considers Longacre's work important for its use of American symbols, including the representations of Native Americans. He believes Longacre's use of such symbols influenced later coin designers, such as George T. Morgan, Victor D. Brenner, and Augustus Saint-Gaudens. He particularly praises the ornate scroll on the reverse of the double eagle, calling it "unique in American numismatic art and enhances the elegance of a design befitting the highest-denomination U.S. coin", and applauds "the exciting innovation in symbolism and expression of national sentiment that he brought to U.S. numismatic art". According to Bowers, "Today, Longacre is widely admired by numismatists." Lange notes that Longacre's "artistic vision graced 60 years of American coins". Snow writes, In view of the admiration that Saint-Gaudens, Vermeule, and others had for Longacre's "recycled" design borrowed from Gobrecht, and the enthusiasm collectors have for Flying Eagle cents today, perhaps it is all for the best that some other motif was not created in the 1850s at the Mint when experiments to eliminate the cumbersome large copper cent were conducted. = = U.S. coins designed by Longacre = = Flying Eagle cent (1856 – 1858) Indian Head cent (1859 – 1909) Two-cent piece (1864 – 1873) Three-cent piece in silver (1851 – 1873) and nickel (1865 – 1889) Shield nickel (1866 – 1883) Liberty Seated half dime reverse (1860 – 1873) Liberty Seated dime reverse (1860 – 1891), reused with slight modification as reverse of Barber dime (1892 – 1916) Liberty Head gold dollar (1849 – 1889) Three-dollar piece (1854 – 1889) Liberty Head double eagle (1849-1907) = = = Books = = = Bowers, Q. David (2001). The Harry W. Bass, Jr. Museum Sylloge. Dallas, Tex.: Harry W. Bass, Jr. Foundation. ISBN 0-943161-88-6. Bowers, Q. David (2006). A Guide Book of Shield and Liberty Head Nickels. Atlanta, Ga.: Whitman Publishing. ISBN 0-7948-1921-4. Breen, Walter (1988). Walter Breen's Complete Encyclopedia of U.S. and Colonial Coins. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-14207-6. Coin World Almanac (3rd ed.). Sidney, Ohio: Amos Press. 1977. ASIN B004AB7C9M. Evans, George G. (1885). Illustrated History of the United States Mint (revised ed.). Philadelphia: George G. Evans. Retrieved January 14, 2013. Garrett, Jeff; Guth, Ron (2008). Encyclopedia of U.S. Gold Coins, 1795 – 1933 (second ed.). Atlanta, Ga.: Whitman Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7948-2254-5. Journal of the Executive Proceedings of the Senate of the United States of America VI. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. 1887. Lange, David W. (2006). History of the United States Mint and its Coinage. Atlanta, Ga.: Whitman Publishing. ISBN 0-7948-1972-9. Pessolano-Filos, Francis (1983). Margaret M. Walsh, ed. The Assay Medals and the Assay Commissions, 1841 – 1977. New York: Eros Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-911571-01-1. Snow, Richard (2009). A Guide Book of Flying Eagle and Indian Head Cents. Atlanta. Ga.: Whitman Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7948-2831-8. Taxay, Don (1983). The U.S. Mint and Coinage (reprint of 1966 ed.). New York: Sanford J. Durst Numismatic Publications. ISBN 0-915262-68-1. Vermeule, Cornelius (1971). Numismatic Art in America. Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-62840-3. = = = Other sources = = = "American Journal of Numismatics" 3 (9). New York: American Numismatic and Archaeological Society. January 1869. "Chile asks Longacre for dies in 1866". Iola, Wisc.: Krause Publications. Retrieved March 4, 2014. DeLorey, Tom (October 1985). "Longacre: Unsung engraver of the U.S. Mint". The Numismatist (Colorado Springs, Co.: American Numismatic Association): 1970 – 1978. Kay, Rick (April 2005). "The remarkable coinage of James B. Longacre". The Numismatist (Colorado Springs, Co.: American Numismatic Association): 36 – 37, 40 – 41. McKenzie, Lee F. (December 1991). "Longacre's influence on numismatic art". The Numismatist (Colorado Springs, Co.: American Numismatic Association): 1922 – 1924, 1979 – 1980. Smith, Pete (2012). "American numismatic biographies" (PDF). The Numismatic Bibliomania Society. Retrieved October 15, 2014.

= Philip Smith (criminal) = Philip John Smith (born 10 July 1965 in Gloucester, England) is a British spree killer serving a life sentence for the murders of three women in Birmingham. A former fairground worker employed at the Rainbow public house in the Digbeth area of the city, Smith killed his victims over a four-day period in November 2000, befriending two of them at the Rainbow before carrying out the crimes. All three victims were mutilated almost beyond recognition, but Smith was quickly identified as the killer because of the overwhelming evidence linking him to the deaths. Smith's first victim was Jodie Hyde, a recovering butane gas addict whom he met at the Rainbow before killing her hours later. He is thought to have strangled her before setting her body on fire near a recreation ground. Three days later, he met mother-of-three Rosemary Corcoran at the same public house and drove her to a rural location, where he bludgeoned her to death and drove over the body. Then, as he drove home, he hit care worker Carol Jordan with his car and, fearing capture, beat her to death. All three bodies were discovered soon after the murders were carried out. Smith was apprehended after he contacted West Midlands Police saying that he wished to make a statement about Corcoran's disappearance. At the time, however, her body had not been positively identified, and inquiries quickly established that some aspects of his account were false. The murder inquiry, named Operation Green, uncovered a large quantity of strong evidence incriminating Smith, but at first he denied responsibility. He maintained his innocence as his trial began in July 2001, but later in the proceedings he changed his plea to guilty and was sentenced to life imprisonment. The motive for his crimes was unclear, but police who arrested him believed that a "lack of permanent sexual relations" was a contributing factor. Detectives also investigated the death of a woman who had been a colleague of Smith at the Rainbow. Patricia Lynott, a divorced mother of two from Ireland who had moved to Birmingham, had been found dead in her flat in October 2000. Police had not treated the death as suspicious, but after they discovered her connection to Smith, her body was exhumed for a second post mortem. This proved to be inconclusive, and in January 2003 a coroner's jury in Birmingham recorded an open verdict after hearing that the cause of her death could not be determined. = = Background = = Philip John Smith was born in 1965 at the City Maternity Hospital in Gloucester and grew up in the city. The son of sawmill labourer Henry John Smith and his wife Rose Smith (née Luckins), he was the oldest of five siblings. The family lived in Midland Road, where they were neighbours of serial killers Fred and Rosemary West, before moving to Hailes Road on the Coney Hill Estate in 1971. He attended Coney Hill Infants and Junior School and later went to a special school for children with learning difficulties. The family had a modest income, and their situation became worse when Smith's father was injured in a motoring accident. Smith left school at 14 to join Billy Danter's Funfair, which toured extensively throughout the United Kingdom and also employed his father. He worked out of season as a farmhand, labourer and security guard. Smith moved from Gloucester to Tewkesbury and then Ross-on-Wye, where he lived with a female partner. They had a son in 1990 and two more children in 1992, but Smith left the family and moved to Cardiff when the relationship became difficult. He then spent a year in Ireland lodging with a travelling family who took pity on him while he was hitchhiking in Athlone, County Westmeath, Ireland. He told them he was an English gypsy visiting Ireland, and they allowed him to live rent-free in a spare caravan, while he contributed a portion of his unemployment benefit towards food. They asked him to leave because they were uncomfortable about sexual remarks he had made to young female members of the family. He moved to Birmingham towards the end of 1999 and stayed briefly at the Trinity Centre, a hostel for the homeless in Digbeth, before moving to a property managed by a housing association in Braithwaite Road in the Sparkbrook district of Birmingham. He became well-known locally and was a regular patron of the Shamrock Cafe on Stratford Road and of the Rainbow pub in Digbeth, where he was employed on a casual basis as an odd-jobber and served as an unofficial taxi driver for drinkers. Smith received over 30 criminal convictions for minor offences, beginning in May 1984 when he was fined £100 for theft. His record also included handling stolen goods, burglary and driving without a licence, but no violence. At 6 ft 4 in and weighing 22 stone, with a dishevelled appearance and a soft West Country accent, he was considered gentle by those he met. In an interview with the Birmingham Evening Mail following Smith's trial in July 2001, Jim Smith, proprietor of the Shamrock Cafe, said, "He was a gentle giant who we named 'Bigfoot' because his boots always used to leave black marks on the floor. Ninety-nine per cent of the time he had a dirty appearance and looked like he had been working on a car." = = Murder spree = = On 8 November 2000, Smith met 21-year-old Jodie Hyde, a recovering butane gas addict from Alum Rock, Birmingham, at the Rainbow public house, and they were seen leaving together. He took her to a hospital appointment and later killed her. Prosecutors believed that he strangled her at his flat and dumped her body near a recreation ground near Golden Hillock Road in Sparkbrook, where he set it alight. The still-smouldering remains were discovered at 6: 15 am next morning (9 November) by two patrolling police officers. The body was barely recognisable and had to be identified using fingerprints. A subsequent post mortem concluded that she had been strangled before being rolled up in a carpet and set on fire. Three days later, Smith met Rosemary Corcoran, a 25-year-old mother of three from Castle Vale at the same public house, and again they were seen leaving together. He drove her to Worcestershire before bludgeoning her to death and running over her body near Droitwich Spa. She was found at 8: 30 am on 12 November by a man walking his dog in a lane near Junction 5 of the M5 motorway. Smith's third victim was Carol Jordan, a 39-year-old care home worker and mother of six from Balsall Heath, who was killed as she walked to work. Smith hit her from behind with his car while driving back from Worcestershire, fracturing her hip. Fearing that he would be caught, Smith moved her to another location and beat her so much that dental records were required to identify her corpse. The body was discovered at 8: 50 am on 12 November on parkland next to Bell Barn Road, Lee Bank. = = Investigation = = = = = Initial statement = = = When staff at the Rainbow told him of Corcoran's disappearance on 13 November, Smith telephoned the police station at Castle Vale saying that he wished to give a statement. Significantly, his call came at 4: 00 pm, before the body found in Worcestershire had been positively identified as Corcoran's, and within an hour Smith had presented himself at Castle Vale. Detective Constable Ruth Wilkins later recalled Smith's phone call: "He said he would like to come to the police station to help with the inquiry and that he had seen [Corcoran] on Saturday night leave the pub with an unknown man. He insisted he would like to come over to the police station. He said he had been asked to contact the police by someone else and gave his mobile number." In his subsequent statement Smith admitted to being at the Rainbow with Corcoran and a male friend, but claimed they were later separated when they went to another public house, the Kerryman, and the male friend was ejected. Smith said that he and Corcoran then went to Monte Carlo's, a nightclub in Handsworth, and that when they left some time later, Corcoran was confronted by a man he described as a Teddy Boy, with whom she had argued at the Kerryman. Smith said that the man became aggressive, so he asked Corcoran if she wanted to go home. Claiming that she told him she did not, he said he then left her. = = = Evidence and murder charge = = = The murder investigation, named Operation Green, was led by Sir Edward Crewe, Chief Constable of West Midlands Police, and included 100 police officers and 50 support staff from the West Midlands and West Mercia forces. Detectives viewed hundreds of hours of CCTV footage, gathered more than 100 separate exhibits and interviewed witnesses. Evidence was analysed by scientists from the Forensic Science Service (FSS) in Birmingham. Martin Whittaker, the scientist who headed the FSS team, spoke of the huge volume of evidence: "The team pulled together every strand of forensic evidence to create a kind of 'spider's web' and in the centre of it all... was Philip Smith. In 20 years of working for the FSS, I have never had to deal with so much evidence in relation to one suspect. It was quite overwhelming." Although Smith maintained his innocence, detectives quickly gathered evidence linking him to Corcoran's death and those of the other two women. Witnesses had seen him leaving the Rainbow with both Corcoran and Hyde, and he was the last person to see them both alive. CCTV footage from around Birmingham showed his distinctive car visiting key locations linked to the investigation, and even captured Hyde getting out at one point to visit a chemist. Smith was seen buying petrol from a filling station and driving near the area where Hyde's body was later discovered. Corcoran was seen on camera struggling with Smith outside Monte Carlo's. CCTV footage showed him driving around Bromsgrove, a town close to Droitwich, after killing Corcoran, and later film showed him returning to Birmingham. At least two witnesses recalled seeing Smith with blood on him: a motorist who saw him buying petrol, and another who spoke with Smith about his appearance. Smith told the latter that he had been in a fight, although he had no visible signs of injury. In addition to the evidence of witnesses and CCTV cameras, there was substantial forensic evidence linking him to the murders. Investigators found over a dozen bloodstains on his car, on his clothing and in his flat, all matching the victims. There were bloodstains on the boots with which he had kicked both Corcoran and Jordan, which he was still wearing at the time of his arrest. Smith had tried to clean his clothes in the bath of his flat along with a pair of trousers belonging to Corcoran, and a bag containing items belonging to Hyde was discovered outside. Detectives matched the tyre marks from his car, which had four different types of tyre, to the Worcestershire murder scene and to Corcoran's body, over which he had driven. Paintwork and fragments of glass found on Jordan's body matched those from Smith's car, including a broken light cluster which he had thrown into the car's boot. Smith was charged with Corcoran's murder on 17 November 2000 and remanded in custody the following day. By this time her death had been linked to the killing of Hyde. Police interviewed Smith in connection with the deaths of Hyde and Jordan on 28 November and charged him with their murders two days later. While awaiting trial Smith was held as a Category A prisoner in the high-security Woodhill Prison in Buckinghamshire. = = Trial and sentence = = Smith's trial began at Leicester Crown Court on 3 July 2001, where he pleaded not guilty to the three murder charges. The case was prosecuted by Tim Raggatt, QC, and Smith was defended by Rachel Brand, QC. On the opening day of the trial Raggatt told the Court there was "powerful and compelling" scientific evidence linking Smith to the killings. Smith's defence was that traces of blood found on his clothes were there because police had tampered with evidence, while the trousers belonging to Rosemary Corcoran found at his flat had been among a bag of clothes Smith had stolen from outside an Oxfam shop. On 17 July Smith complained of feeling unwell with chest and eye pain while under cross-examination, and proceedings were briefly halted while he was treated for the symptoms of a panic attack. When Smith returned to the witness stand, he said he wished to speak to his barrister. Presiding judge Rafferty told him that he must answer questions, to which Smith replied: "I want to change my plea. I'm fed up with this. I want to change my plea." The charges were read to him again the following day, and he pleaded guilty. On 18 July 2001 Smith was sentenced to life imprisonment. In January 2005 Birmingham's Sunday Mercury newspaper reported that Smith had decided to change his plea after police agreed to return £400 confiscated from him during a raid on his flat after his arrest, and that he wanted the money to buy Mars bars in prison. Passing sentence, Rafferty said: "You robbed three innocent ladies of their lives. I suspect that their families will suffer the more as they simply don't understand why you did. The brutality of these ladies' deaths, designed by you to evade discovery, showing the coldness with which you dispatched them, is appalling. You should clearly have faced up like a man at the overwhelming nature of the Crown's case against you but you chose to put the victims' families through misery which you compounded by this trial." The motive for Smith's actions remained unclear after the trial, but police believed a "lack of permanent sexual relations" had been a contributing factor. = = Further inquiries = = As a result of their inquiries into Smith's background, police launched an investigation into the death of a fourth woman who was discovered to have had links to him. Patricia Lynott, a 47-year-old divorced mother of two, had moved to Birmingham from Athlone during the mid-1990s. On 23 October 2000, while she was employed at the Rainbow as a cleaner and to look after the licensee's children, she was found dead in the bedroom of her flat on Maxstoke Street, Bordesley Green. Police believed at first that she had died of natural causes. An autopsy failed to establish a cause of death, and her body was returned to Ireland for burial. Because Lynott had worked alongside Smith at the Rainbow Pub, West Midlands Police wished to re-examine the cause of her death. In early 2001, investigators asked the Irish authorities for a new post mortem, and on 8 March Lynott's body was exhumed by Gardai from a cemetery in Athlone and taken to Dublin City Morgue for further examination by Ireland's State Pathologist, Dr John Harbison. However, the results of this autopsy also proved inconclusive. An inquest into Lynott's death was held at Birmingham Coroner's Court in January 2003. The hearing was told that marks found on her back and an arm may have been bruising, but the pathologist who conducted the original post mortem could not be sure how she had died, because her body had lain undiscovered for up to seven days. It was also said that, despite her connection with Smith, police and four pathologists had failed to establish that Lynott had been murdered. The inquest jury returned an open verdict. Police also conducted a routine re-examination of other unsolved murder cases dating back 20 years in areas where Smith had lived. Officers from West Midlands Police held a conference in October 2001 with representatives from several other forces, including Gloucestershire and West Mercia, to share information about unsolved murder cases in their areas. Detectives interviewed Smith three times, but he refused to answer their questions, and no further charges were brought.

= Indian Institute of Management Lucknow = The Indian Institute of Management Lucknow (abbreviated IIM Lucknow or IIM-L) is an autonomous public business school located in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. It was established in 1984 as the fourth Indian Institute of Management (IIM) by the Government of India. IIM Lucknow offers post-graduate diploma, fellowship and executive programs in management. It is recognised as an "Institution of Excellence" by the India's Ministry of Human Resource Development. It is ranked among the top 5 B-schools in India. IIM Lucknow also serves as the mentor institution for the newly established IIM Rohtak and IIM Kashipur. The institute is situated in a 200-acre site in the northern outskirts of Lucknow. It has a satellite campus at Noida exclusively for executive education. The admission for the post graduate and fellowship programmes is done through Common Admission Test (CAT), while GMAT score is used for the executive MBA program. The programs are accredited by the Global accreditation body AMBA. The institute has tie ups with 24 leading B-schools across the world for student exchange. Many management events, competitions, cultural and sports events are organised by various committees throughout the year. = = History = = IIM Lucknow was established in 1984 and is currently a centrally funded institution. It is the fourth Indian Institute of Management to be established in India after IIM Calcutta, IIM Ahmedabad, and IIM Bangalore. Noted Academician Ishwar Dayal played a significant role in setting up the institution, who also served as the founding director of IIM Lucknow for a period of four years. Industrialist Hari Shankar Singhania, took over as the chairman of Board of Governors in 1992, served for a period of 15 years till 2007. The Post Graduate Programme (PGP) was started in 1985 – 86 with a strength of 30 students. When the institute was established, classes were held in rented rooms at Butler Palace and subsequently moved to Giri Institute of Developmental Studies. The current campus was built in 1992 in the outskirts of Lucknow. The institute runs with the mission to help improve management systems with regard to business, industry and public services through pursuit of excellence in management education, research, consultancy and training. Tie ups were made with three foreign universities in 2001 to start the student exchange program. The Agribusiness Course was started in 2004 with a strength of 13 students. In 2005, IIM Lucknow established a second campus at Noida leveraging its locational advantage of nearness to Delhi. The Noida campus was established exclusively for executive education. IIM Lucknow is the first IIM in the country to start an additional campus. = = Campus = = IIM Lucknow main campus spans 200 acres (81 ha) and is located in Prabandh Nagar on the outskirts of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. It is located at 21 kilometres (13 mi) away from Lucknow Railway Station and 31 kilometres (19 mi) from Lucknow Airport. IIM Lucknow also has a City office at Aliganj. = = = Academic infrastructure = = = The academic buildings are constructed in medieval Indian architectural style with red brick wall texture. All the major buildings in the campus are named in Sanskrit symbolising the activities conducted in them. The academic blocks (Bodhigrih-I and II) houses classrooms and seminar halls. The Faculty block (Chintan) houses faculty rooms and Fellowship classrooms. The Library (Gyanodaya) spanning 30,000 sq.ft has five reading halls with a total seating capacity for 250 people. The library houses a collection of 40,000 books, 500 periodicals and online subscription to 1600 e-journals and 34 e-databases. The library building also houses the computer centre, audio visual lab, Enterprise Resource Planning lab and a videoconferencing hall. The 15,000 sq.ft computer centre has a fibre optic backbone network and provides wireless connectivity to all the buildings in the campus. The Management Development Block (Manthan) catering to the short term executive programs has exclusive library, computer centre and guest house (Patanjali) for the participants. The Centre for Food and Agribusiness Management undertakes Agribusiness research and consultancy projects and also offers the Agribusiness Management course. The institute has an incubation centre (Abhiyan) for supporting the entrepreneurial plans of its students and alumni. = = = Social infrastructure = = = As a fully residential collegiate system, the institute provides housing to its students, faculty and research scholars. While the campus has separate sports fields for Football, Cricket, Basketball, Volleyball, Tennis, Badminton, most of the hostels have their own table tennis and badminton court. A fitness and recreation centre (Umang) was set up in 2010, which houses gymnasium, swimming pool, Squash and Billiards. The multipurpose utility hall (Samanjasya) is used to host most of the cultural activities in the campus. The campus has a health centre with residential and visiting doctors available round the clock. The centre also has an ambulance to reach associated hospitals. The two guest houses Chanakya and Patanjali has a total of 128 serviced rooms. The campus has a students activities complex which houses two banks, a medical shop, a travel agency, a super market, a post office, a saloon, a coffee shop, an icecream parlour and three restaurants. A Central school (Kendriya Vidyalaya) was established opposite the campus as a community school. = = = Environmental responsibility = = = Tree plantation campaign is undertaken every year on the foundation day and the campus, which was started in barren lands, has been converted into a natural ecosystem consisting of peacocks, monitor lizards, snakes, porcupines, monkeys, Great Indian horned owl and a variety of other birds. The college consists of open lawns and tree lined pathways. Rediff listed IIM Lucknow as one of the beautiful B-school campuses in India. = = Organisation = = = = = Governance = = = IIM Lucknow is an autonomous institution established as a registered society under the Union Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India. The IIM Council acts as an overseeing body to facilitate coordination among the different IIMs. The Board of Governors of IIM Lucknow is chaired by Jamshed J. Irani, the former Managing Director of Tata Steel. The board consists of 10 industrialists, four Government representatives and three academicians in addition to the Director and two deans of the institution. = = = Administration = = = The Director of IIM Lucknow, the head of the institution, is selected and appointed by the Appointments Committee of the Cabinet of Ministry of Human Resource Development. The institute has three separate deans for Academic affairs, Planning and development and Noida campus. Each of the academic programmes is overseen by a separate faculty chairperson. The non-academic functions such as Placements, Corporate and Media Relations, Alumni affairs, Admissions and Student affairs are also chaired by faculty and assisted by student committees. The office administration is carried out separately without the involvement of faculty and is headed by the Chief Administrative Officer. The elected body of Students' council coordinates all the student activities in the campus. IIM Lucknow has achieved 100% summer placements in 4 days. = = = Controversy on Director Appointments = = = MHRD issued a letter on September, 2014 (DO 4 / 4 / 2013-TS.V)) addressed to Jamshed J Irani, chairman, board of governors, IIM-L. It reads: “Competent authority have directed to assign additional charge of director IIM-L to Prof Srivastava for a period of six months with effect from 09-09-2014 or till appointment of regular director or until further order, whichever is earliest. ” The institute did not execute the order and incumbent director Devi Singh who completed his six months of extension period, on September 8 did not leave office even after receiving the letter. As a result, there was complete confusion at IIM-L campus for almost a week. The allegations against Devi Singh, who served two term as director of IIM-L, ranges from nepotism to mismanagement of accounts. The Central Vigilance Commission also asked the HRD ministry to `re investigate 'allegations of corruption against Devi Singh. In a letter to the higher education secretary, CVC secretary KS Ramasubban has asked the ministry as to why the case against Singh is being closed when specific allegations have not been answered. The CVC has taken exception to the fact that the case is being closed on the basis of an" emotional reply "by Singh. CVC sources said the ministry had taken Singh's reply as final." Without investigation how can general comments be taken as the final word? "a CVC official asked. CVC sources also said that the institute's Board of Governors had rejected allegations against Singh." This is not how an investigation is conducted, "the CVC official said, adding that the HRD ministry was to be blamed for not following the procedure. = = Academics = = IIM Lucknow conducts regular two-year diploma program in management, one year executive MBA program, fellowship program and a number of short term MDP programs. The Management programmes of IIM Lucknow are accredited by London-based AMBA association. = = = Post graduate education = = = = = = = Structure = = = = The Post Graduate Programme in Management (PGP) and Post Graduate Programme in Agribusiness Management (PGPABM) are full-time residential diploma courses. These are two-year programs, with the first year stretching from June to March in three ten-week trimesters, after which students undergo a two-month summer intership with a company or organisation. The specialisations offered in the second year are Finance, Marketing, Operations, Human Resources, Systems, Strategy and Economics; while the PGPABM course students specialise in Agribusiness. Course of independent study and dissertation are also available based on merit. As a part of Student exchange program, students spend three-month term in a foreign university during the period of October to December in their second Year. Every year around 50 students of IIM Lucknow are selected for the student exchange programs based on merit, while around 30 foreign students come to IIM Lucknow. IIM Lucknow has made student exchange relationships with 24 leading B schools in Europe, USA, Canada, Singapore and China. The current partner institutions are ESSEC Business School, Ecole De Management, Jean Moulin University, Reims School of Management, European School of Management, Toulouse Business School, Institute National Des Telecommunications, ESC Bretagne Brest, European Business School, Leipzig School of Management, George Mason University, University of Connecticut, McMaster University, Brock University, Carleton University, Louvain Catholic University, Copenhagen Business School, ESADE Business School, Jonkoping International Business School, University of St. Gallen, Bocconi University, MIP Politecnico di Milano, Athens University of Economics and Business, National University of Singapore, Turku School of Economics, University of Amsterdam, Beijing Jiaotong University. The Dual Degree Program, offered in association with the ESCP Europe business school in France, awards degrees from both the institutes after students spend a year in each. About four or five students are selected each year for the program. Students, after completing two trimesters (July – September and October – December) at IIM Lucknow, spend two semesters (January – May and September – December) at ESCP Europe's Paris campus and return to IIM Lucknow to complete the final term from January to March. = = = = Methodology = = = = The courses are taught under eleven diverse disciplines of Business Environment, Communication, Decision Sciences, Finance and Accounting, Marketing, Human Resource Management, Operations Management, Information Technology and Systems, Strategic Management, Agribusiness Management and Legal Management. Students are trained in management using lectures, case studies, projects, workshops, management games and role plays under a rigorous syllabus. They are evaluated based on examinations, projects, quizzes, presentations and class participation under a relative grading system. The academic learning is supplemented by the various live projects, management competitions, guest lectures and interactions with alumni and industry leaders organised by the various committees. Students also get a chance to provide consultancy to various companies and get paid. = = = Post Graduate Programme for Executives = = = International Programme in Management for Executives (IPMX) is a one-year, full-time MBA programme for executives, offered at IIM Lucknow's Noida campus. The Programme admits only candidates with a minimum of five years professional experience. The course consists of four 10-week terms including a two to three-week stint at one of the partner universities of IIM Lucknow. The Working Managers' Programme (WMP), offered at the Noida campus, is a part-time programme designed for executives having a minimum of three years professional experience. It consists of nine terms that stretches for 27 months. Management Development Programmes (MDP) are tailor made programs to train executives in specific industry, government and non-governmental organisations. These programs, which typically last three to five days, are customised by subject or target group. Around 50 to 60 programs are conducted every year. A one-year General Management program is offered through virtual classroom. As a combined initiative with the Ministry of Defence, a six-month General Management Programme is conducted for Defence officers to assist their career transition to corporate sector. = = = Fellowship = = = Fellow Programme in Management (FPM) is a four-year Doctoral programme in Management started in 2000. Candidates with master's degrees or Engineering undergraduate degrees are eligible for admission. While the mandatory course work is undertaken in the first year and specialisation in the second year, the research thesis starts in the beginning of third year after a comprehensive examination. Students who have completed PGDM from any of the IIMs are admitted directly to the second year. The specialisations offered are Decision Sciences, Economics, Finance and Accounting, Human Resources Management, Information Technology and Systems, Marketing Management, Operations Management and Strategic Management. The institute does not charge tuition fees for fellowship program in addition to providing free hostel facility. = = = Rankings = = = IIM Lucknow was ranked No. 4 by CNBC-TV18's Top B-Schools in India in 2012 and by Hindustan Times in India's top 50 business schools of 2011. The institute was ranked No. 5 by the Business Today in the list of 50 best business schools of 2011 and ranked no. 6 by Careers360's Top Public B-Schools in India in 2016. = = = Admission = = = Admission to the post graduate programs and fellowship program is done through the Common Admission Test (CAT), which is jointly conducted by the IIMs in the month of November every year. Applications are shortlisted based on CAT scores, scholastic achievement and work experience. The weightage given for each of these components varies each year. The candidates are called for group discussions and personal interviews, conducted in various cities of India in the months of February and March. The final selection is based upon the performance in CAT, scholastic achievement, work experience and performance in group discussion and personal interview. Admissions to the IPMX program are done based on GMAT score, work profile and personal interview. = = Social responsibilities = = IIM Lucknow has been involved in many social initiatives in collaboration with NGOs. A separate committee "Bhavishya" was formed to carry out these initiatives. As a part of adult literacy campaign, all the workers and labourers in the campus were taught to read and write. Evening school and career guidance are provided for the underprivileged students of the neighbouring villages. A T20 cricket league tournament called as Harmony Cup is conducted every year with 30 teams involving 250 students. The fund raised from this event is utilised for various social initiatives such as infrastructure development at village schools and orphanages, medical camp, employee welfare and sponsor for education of underprivileged school children. The institute offers short term MDP programs on environmental management and carbon markets. The Centre of Excellence for Business Sustainability was set up in 2011 that conducts training programs and workshops on business sustainability. The competition Yajna is held in collaboration with many NGOs across India, where students present solutions for issues faced by the NGOs. = = Student life = = The school is referred to as' Hel (L) 'by the students in humour but enjoy every moment of their tenure to maximum. "The deadline are sacrosanct" in all the matters here and punctuality in any respect is maintained. Every class, meeting, submissions or examinations are noted in seconds. For example, instead of 2PM it will be 13.59.59. Synapse, a student committee, develops and maintains IT applications for the institute community Manfest is IIM Lucknow's annual management festival held in January. The three-day event hosts many management contests, leadership summits and other inter college quizzes and competitions. INDEX is an annual fair conducted by students at the Colvin Taluqdars' college grounds, attended by the general public of the city. Game stalls are set up at the fair to carry out disguised market research. Samvit, the annual leadership summit of IIM Lucknow witnesses some of the financial leaders and economists of the country with whom students get an opportunity to interact. "Just Tea" aka AMUl and "Gossip and Bite" are two restaurants in the campus which were started as student ventures and are sold to the next batch every year. The Entrepreneurship Cell conducts a competition called "Bizness", where all participants are given a seed capital of ₹2000 to run any business in the campus for two days and earn profits. The student committee "Credence Capital" runs a mutual fund, in which other students of the batch can invest. The Mess (Annapoorna) is entirely run and managed by students, with the infrastructure provided by the institute and is contiously ranked best mess among all IIM's. Varchasva, a three-day-long event held towards the end of September every year is the annual Cultural and Sports festival of IIM Lucknow. A classical cultural night "Aarohan" is organised by the IIM Lucknow chapter of SPIC MACAY in the month of August. It showcases live shows of classical arts including carnatic, hindustanic, folk, instrumental and various classical Indian dances. The institute's dance club "Random Walk" organises dance workshops regularly and performs stage shows during major festivals. The dramatics club "Abhivyakti" performs stage plays and street plays in Hindi and English. The Intracollege sports event called as Sikander is held throughout the year in a league format. The institute sports team participates in most of the popular college sports meets including the Inter-IIM Meet (Sangharsh) held during January every year. Udyam, an annual industry-academia interaction summit is held at the Noida campus of IIM Lucknow. This event provides a platform where eminent personalities from corporate world & academia can exchange ideas that are going to shape the future of India Inc. = = Notable alumni = = Shanmughan Manjunath, IOC Manager, who was murdered for opposing Corruption Ashutosh Gupta, Director, Marketing Solutions at LinkedIn, APAC, 2000 Amit Banati, President - Asia Pacific at Kellogg Company, 1990 Amit Garg, Executive Director-Digital at HT Media Limited, 1993 Kandarp Singh, Managing Director at Tetra Pak, 1991 Vaishali Bhat, Vice-President & CFO, Asia-Pacific Consumer Division, Johnson & Johnson, 1994 Mihir Vora, Chief Investment Officer at Max Life Insurance Company Limited, 1994 Vijay Shanbhag, Senior Vice President; Offshore Business Unit Leader- Apps NorthAmerica at Capgemini, 1993 Rajdeep Grewal Deepak Garg, CEO of Rivigo Gayatri Iyer, Playback singer Gaurav Agarwal, UPSC Civil Services Exam 2013 AIR 1 Maninder Singh Juneja, Retail Business Head ICICI Bank, 1991 Sriram Chandrasekaran, Founder & CEO, Broadvision Group, 1999 Amresh Acharya, Head of Private Wealth Distribution and Market Head - NRI and Expat Business, ANZ, 1992 Rakesh Parakkat, Corporate Senior Vice President, BFSI Operations at WNS Global, 1995 Rajesh Sood, Executive Vice President & Chief Distribution Officer at DHFL Pramerica Life, 1992 Ratnesh Mathur, Co-Learner (with children) at Aarohi Life Education, 1992 Anand Lunia, General Partner, IndiaQuotient, Venture Capital, 1998 Bharat Parmar, Partner at Eduvisors, 1999 Tarun Chugh, MD & CEO at PNB Metlife Life Insurance Ltd., 1994 Vivek Gaur, CEO – Yepme.com, 1993 Abhijit Bhave, CEO at Karvy Private Wealth, 1996 Radhakrishnan Anantha, CEO & MD at Infosys BPO, 1991 Kishor Gummaraju, Vice President & Managing Partner Infosys Consulting: Retail, CPG & Logistics, 1996 Vikas Mittal, Managing Director -India Sub Continent at McCain Foods India, 1991 Ramesh G, Managing Director, HDB Financial Services Limited, 1992 Manish Gupta, SVP / CIO (Dir) -Global Diageo Business Services, Asia Pacific Region, 1994 Anup Maheshwari, EVP at DSP BlackRock Investment Managers, 1993 Amitabh Chakraborty, Managing Director & Chief Investment Officer at Kitara Capital, 1994 Vijay Raghunathan, Managing Director at Stellr India, 1991 Rajiv Khosla, Managing Director at Lumileds India Limited (Founded By Philips), 1991 Ramkumar Akella, MD & CEO, Manipal Hospitals, ASEAN, 1990 Suresh Goyal, India Head - Macquarie Infrastructure and Real Assets

= Sri Temasek = Sri Temasek is a two-storey detached house built in 1869 which is sited within the grounds of the Istana in Singapore. During the island's colonial era, it served as the residence of the Colonial Secretary or Chief Secretary. Since the establishment of the State of Singapore in 1959, it has been the official residence of the Prime Minister of Singapore, though none of Singapore's Prime Ministers has ever lived there. Together with the Istana, it was gazetted a national monument on 14 February 1992. = = Name = = The name of the house, Sri Temasek, means "splendour of Temasek" in the Malay language. The Malay word seri or sri means "charm; quintessence; splendour; glory" or a "cynosure" (something that attracts attention by its brilliancy or beauty; a centre of attraction, interest, or admiration) Temasek, which means "sea town" in Javanese, was the name of an early city on the site of modern Singapore. Today, it is used as an epithet for Singapore. The house was originally merely known as the official residence of the Chief Secretary of Singapore (or the Colonial Secretary of Singapore / the Straits Settlements) and did not have its own name. The State of Singapore was proclaimed and the first Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew assumed office in June 1959, after which the house, which has become the official residence of the Prime Minister, has been officially named Sri Temasek, while the Government House has been officially renamed as the Istana, which means palace. = = Design = = The construction of the Istana Singapore (then called Government House) and Sri Temasek was ordered by the Governor of the Straits Settlements, Sir Harry St. George Ord, after the original governor's residence had to be demolished in 1859 to make way for Fort Canning on the hill that bears its name. Sri Temasek was designed by John Frederick Adolphus McNair (1829 – 1910), a civil engineer who was appointed Executive Engineer and Superintendent of Convicts of the Straits Settlements, and built largely using Indian convict labour from Bencoolen. It was completed in 1869. A 1,600-square-metre (17,000 sq ft) two-storey detached house – often called a bungalow in Singapore – with European and Asian features, Sri Temasek has a symmetrical layout consisting of deep verandahs surrounding central living spaces. Notable architectural features include arches on its upper level, an intricate timber arcade with a mixture of eastern and western decorative motifs, and a Chinese moon gate (a circular gateway) on the building's second floor. Although few records exist concerning the moon gate's construction and usage, it is known to have made its appearance in the house in the 1960s and to have been designed and built by William Swaffield, a pre-World War II Comptroller of Government House and a professional furniture designer. It is constructed of chengal, teak and meranti wood. In the middle of the driveway in front of the house, there is a brick pit that was originally used by horse-drawn carriages. The house was gazetted together with the Istana as a national monument on 14 February 1992. Sri Temasek was not used for a number of years and fell into disrepair. It then underwent restoration between 2006 and March 2008 by CPG Consultants under the supervision of architect Maureen Soh. As the original hand-crafted timber arches and railings on the first-storey verandah had been damaged by termites, replacements moulded from the originals made with an aluminium-cast alloy were used. Details on railings, doors and windows were restored, and several pintu pagar (traditional wooden half-doors) and wooden flooring reinstated. The former servants' quarters at the rear of the building were turned into a heritage gallery. The restoration works on Sri Temasek won the Urban Redevelopment Authority's Architectural Heritage Award in Category A (national monuments and fully conserved buildings) in 2008. = = Use = = When first built in 1869, Sri Temasek was the residence of the Colonial Secretary of the Straits Settlements (later Colonial Secretary / Chief Secretary of Singapore). All holders of the position had resided in Sri Temasek from 1869 to 1959. It is currently designated as the official residence of the Prime Minister of Singapore since 1959, though none of the past and present holders of the post, Lee Kuan Yew, Goh Chok Tong and Lee Hsien Loong, have lived in it as a family home. In the 1998 book Lee Kuan Yew: The Man and His Ideas, Lee Kuan Yew said that when he became Prime Minister in 1959 he and his wife Kwa Geok Choo decided not to move into Sri Temasek with their three children, who were then aged seven, five and two, because the couple "did not want them to grow up in such grand surroundings with butlers and orderlies to fuss over their needs". The family did stay there in 1965 for a short time for security reasons when Singapore separated from Malaysia. Apart from that, according to a 2000 Straits Times interview with Kwa, the Lee children often played in the grounds of the house in the evening while their father played golf or made use of the practice tee and putting green. Sri Temasek has been used mostly for official functions, particularly in the 1960s and 1970s. Prominent visitors included Tunku Abdul Rahman, the founding Prime Minister of Malaysia; Spiro Agnew, the Vice-President of the United States; Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi; Denis Healey, British Defence Secretary; and King Hussein of Jordan. Sri Temasek was the venue for a party hosted in 1962 by Lee Kuan Yew to thank trade unionists and civil servants for their help with the referendum on Singapore joining Malaysia, and in 1983 the body of the late Minister for Finance Hon Sui Sen lay in state there. On 8 August 2008, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong delivered his National Day message from Sri Temasek for the first time. The wake for Madam Kwa Geok Choo, mother of Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong and the wife of Singaporean statesman Lee Kuan Yew, was held at Sri Temasek in October 2010. In March 2015, a private family wake for Lee Kuan Yew was held there.

= St Nidan's Church, Llanidan = St Nidan's Church, Llanidan is a 19th-century parish church near the village of Brynsiencyn, in Anglesey, north Wales. Built between 1839 and 1843, it replaced the Old Church of St Nidan, Llanidan, which needed significant repair, providing a place of Anglican worship nearer to the village than the old church. Some items were moved here from the old church, including the 13th-century font, two bells from the 14th and 15th century, and a reliquary thought to hold the remains of St Nidan. The tower at the west end has been described as "top heavy" and looking like "a water tower". The church is still used for worship by the Church in Wales, one of five in a group of parishes in the south of Anglesey. It is a Grade II listed building, a national designation given to "buildings of special interest, which warrant every effort being made to preserve them", in particular because it is regarded as "a distinctive example of pre-archaeological gothic revival work." The 19th-century clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones said that it had been built in a "debased barbarous style, showing neither architectural science nor taste". = = History and location = = St Nidan's Church was built between 1839 and 1843, replacing its medieval predecessor. The architect was John Welch, who also designed St Ffinan's Church, Llanffinan, in central Anglesey, which was built in 1841. St Nidan's was originally intended to have a spire on the west tower, but this was not added. The chancel was built in 1882, and a vestry and organ chamber added later. The battlements on the tower were added in 1933, replacing the original gabling. St Nidan's is set within a walled churchyard on the north of the A4080 road, in the south of Anglesey, Wales. The village of Brynsiencyn is about 500 metres (about one-third of a mile) to the south-west, and the old church of St Nidan is about 750 metres (about half a mile) to the south-east. A new church was needed because the old church needed significant repair and also because the growth of Brynsiencyn meant that more people lived there than in Llanidan itself. Like its predecessor, it is dedicated to Nidan, a 7th-century Welsh saint who was the confessor of the monastery at Penmon, on the eastern tip of Anglesey. St Nidan's is still used for worship by the Church in Wales. It is one of five churches in the combined benefice (parishes combined under one priest) of Newborough with Llanidan with Llangeinwen and Llanfair-yn-y-Cymwd. The parish is within the deanery of Tindaethwy and Menai, the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor. As of 2012, the priest in charge is E. Roberts. = = Architecture and fittings = = St Nidan's is built mainly from red gritstone rubble, dressed with sandstone, with buttresses at the corners; the roof, which is made from slate, has stone copings with a cross at the east end. The church is built in a cross-shape, in Early English style. There is a tower at the west end, which has battlements at the top along with a clock on the east and west sides, a belfry in the middle, and an entrance porch with an arched doorway at the bottom. There are two transepts leading from the nave, one to the north and one to the south, and a chancel at the east end. There are four "equal and bold" arches at the crossing where nave, transepts and chancel meet. The quadrant-shaped organ room and vestry are built into the eastern external angles of the chancel and transepts, one on each side of the church. The gallery at the west end of the nave, supported by octagonal columns, is reached from the entrance porch; it has its pews set at an angle. A step leads up from the nave into the chancel, with a further two steps up from the chancel into the sanctuary. The floor of the chancel and the sanctuary are made from encaustic tiles. The internal walls have been plastered. The nave has two bays, each lit with a lancet window; the transepts have groups of three large lancent windows, as does the east end of the building. The chancel window depicts "Faith, Hope and Charity", by Heaton, Butler and Bayne (1877); it is dedicated to the 5th Lord Boston who died in 1897. One transept set of windows by Shrigley and Hunt depicts the Ascension, in memory of Anna Maria Evans (died 1929, wife of the vicar Richard Evans). A sandstone chest with a glass front was moved here from the old church; local tradition maintains that it holds the relics of St Nidan. It was discovered under the altar of the old church, and may date from the 16th century. The church also has pews made of pine, and a semi-octagonal pulpit with decorated panels. A survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire in 1937 noted which of the church's contents had come from the old church. The report listed the font, which has carved decoration and dates from the early 13th century; two bells, one from the first half of the 14th century (inscribed "+ E: D: A: N") and another from the latter part of the 15th century (inscribed "THOMAS AP MEREDITH"); and a carved oak chair from the time of Charles II. In 1906, a survey of church plate within the Bangor diocese recorded that St Nidan's had a silver chalice and alms dish. These were donated probably in 1701 and remade in 1871 – 72. It also had a silver paten and two cruets with silver handles, all marked with the date 1871 – 72. Records from the 19th century indicated that two tankards (one silver, one pewter) and a silver chalice had been lost. The churchyard contains the grave of Sir Ellis Ellis-Griffith, 1st Baronet, who was MP for Anglesey for 25 years. The grave, by the church's north wall, has a bust of the politician wearing a wing collar. Other people buried here include the Presbyterian minister and theologian J. E. Hughes, who died in 1959. There are four Commonwealth war graves, of a British Army soldier of World War I and three soldiers of World War II. = = Assessment = = The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing, designating "buildings of special interest, which warrant every effort being made to preserve them". It was given this status on 30 January 1968, and has been listed as "a small early 19th-century church". Cadw (the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists) describes the church as "a distinctive example of pre-archaeological gothic revival work." Writing in 1846, the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones condemned the treatment of the old church, which he said was "one of the largest and most important in the island of Anglesey", given its architecture, contents and traditions. He said that the new church had been built "in a debased barbarous style, showing neither architectural science nor taste, and without any example or analogy amongst the ecclesiastical edifices of any age, except the present." He also described it in 1863 as "that hideous pile... a painfully impressive example of architectural bad taste." He said that the font was "one of the most interesting as a work of art (not later than the thirteenth century) extent in Anglesey", and although he did not consider that its design or execution matched that of the font at St Ceinwen's Church, Llangeinwen, it was "a highly valuable specimen of medieval taste." The reliquary, he added, was "unique, so far as Wales is concerned". The 19th-century writer Samuel Lewis said that the new church was "apparently of substantial construction, but is much inferior in style to the old building." The historian and clergyman Edmund Tyrrell Green, writing a survey of Anglesey church architecture and contents in 1929, described the church as "hideous", although he said that the font was "remarkable" for its "very graceful patterns in relief showing influence of Greek classical design." A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey says that it is "of fairly unusual appearance, not at all typical of Anglesey churches in its stonework or the shape of the castelled tower". It comments that the organ and vestry were in "unusually-shaped rooms", and notes the "ornate stained glass" of the Ascension. A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region says that the church is "bolder" than John Welch's similarly designed church at Llandudno. It describes the tower as "top-heavy with battlements... like a water tower", and adds that the seating is "crowded".

= The Avengers (2012 film) = Marvel's The Avengers (classified under the name Marvel Avengers Assemble in the United Kingdom and Ireland), or simply The Avengers, is a 2012 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team of the same name, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures.1 It is the sixth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The film was written and directed by Joss Whedon and features an ensemble cast that includes Robert Downey Jr., Chris Evans, Mark Ruffalo, Chris Hemsworth, Scarlett Johansson, Jeremy Renner, Tom Hiddleston, Clark Gregg, Cobie Smulders, Stellan Skarsgård, and Samuel L. Jackson. In the film, Nick Fury, director of the peacekeeping organization S.H.I.E.L.D., recruits Iron Man, Captain America, the Hulk, and Thor to form a team that must stop Thor's brother Loki from subjugating Earth. The film's development began when Marvel Studios received a loan from Merrill Lynch in April 2005. After the success of the film Iron Man in May 2008, Marvel announced that The Avengers would be released in July 2011. With the signing of Johansson in March 2009, the film was pushed back for a 2012 release. Whedon was brought on board in April 2010 and rewrote the original screenplay by Zak Penn. Production began in April 2011 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, before moving to Cleveland, Ohio, in August and New York City in September. The film was converted to 3D in post-production. The Avengers premiered on April 11, 2012, at Hollywood's El Capitan Theatre and was released theatrically in the United States on May 4, 2012. The film garnered numerous critical awards and nominations, including Academy Award and BAFTA nominations for achievements in visual effects and has set or tied numerous box office records, including the biggest opening weekend in North America. The Avengers grossed over $1.5 billion worldwide, and became the third-highest-grossing film during its theatrical run — as well as the first Marvel production to generate $1 billion in ticket sales. The film was released on Blu-ray Disc and DVD on September 25, 2012. A sequel, titled Avengers: Age of Ultron, was released on May 1, 2015, while a two-part sequel, titled Avengers: Infinity War is currently in development, with Part 1 scheduled for a May 4, 2018 release date, and Part 2 scheduled to be released on May 3, 2019. = = Plot = = The Asgardian Loki encounters the Other, the leader of an extraterrestrial race known as the Chitauri. In exchange for retrieving the Tesseract, 2 a powerful energy source of unknown potential, the Other promises Loki an army with which he can subjugate Earth. Nick Fury, director of the espionage agency S.H.I.E.L.D., and his lieutenant Agent Maria Hill arrive at a remote research facility during an evacuation, where physicist Dr. Erik Selvig is leading a research team experimenting on the Tesseract. Agent Phil Coulson explains that the object has begun radiating an unusual form of energy. The Tesseract suddenly activates and opens a wormhole, allowing Loki to reach Earth. Loki takes the Tesseract and uses his scepter to enslave Selvig and a couple of agents, including Clint Barton, to aid him in his getaway. In response to the attack, Fury reactivates the "Avengers Initiative". Agent Natasha Romanoff is sent to Calcutta to recruit Dr. Bruce Banner to trace the Tesseract through its gamma radiation emissions. Coulson visits Tony Stark to have him review Selvig's research, and Fury approaches Steve Rogers with an assignment to retrieve the Tesseract. In Stuttgart, Barton steals iridium needed to stabilize the Tesseract's power while Loki causes a distraction, leading to a confrontation with Rogers, Stark, and Romanoff that ends with Loki's surrender. While Loki is being escorted to S.H.I.E.L.D., Thor, his adoptive brother, arrives and frees him, hoping to convince him to abandon his plan and return to Asgard. After a confrontation with Stark and Rogers, Thor agrees to take Loki to S.H.I.E.L.D. 's flying aircraft carrier, the Helicarrier. There Loki is imprisoned while Banner and Stark attempt to locate the Tesseract. The Avengers become divided, both over how to approach Loki and the revelation that S.H.I.E.L.D. plans to harness the Tesseract to develop weapons as a deterrent against hostile extraterrestrials. As the group argues, Barton and Loki's other possessed agents attack the Helicarrier, disabling its engines in flight and causing Banner to transform into the Hulk. Stark and Rogers try to restart the damaged engine, and Thor attempts to stop the Hulk's rampage. Romanoff fights Barton, and knocks him unconscious, breaking Loki's mind control. Loki escapes after killing Coulson and ejecting Thor from the airship, while the Hulk falls to the ground after attacking a S.H.I.E.L.D. fighter jet. Fury uses Coulson's death to motivate the Avengers into working as a team. Stark and Rogers realize that for Loki, simply defeating them will not be enough; he needs to overpower them publicly to validate himself as ruler of Earth. Loki uses the Tesseract, in conjunction with a device Selvig built, to open a wormhole above Stark Tower to the Chitauri fleet in space, launching his invasion. The Avengers rally in defense of New York City, the wormhole's location, but quickly realize they will be overwhelmed as wave after wave of Chitauri descend upon Earth. Banner arrives and transforms into the Hulk, and together he, Rogers, Stark, Thor, Barton, and Romanoff battle the Chitauri while evacuating civilians. The Hulk finds Loki and beats him into submission. Romanoff makes her way to the wormhole generator, where Selvig, freed of Loki's control, reveals that Loki's scepter can be used to shut down the generator. Meanwhile, Fury's superiors attempt to end the invasion by launching a nuclear missile at Midtown Manhattan. Stark intercepts the missile and takes it through the wormhole toward the Chitauri fleet. The missile detonates, destroying the Chitauri mothership and disabling their forces on Earth. Stark's suit runs out of power, and he falls back through the wormhole just as Romanoff closes it. Stark goes into freefall, but the Hulk saves him from crashing to the ground. In the aftermath, Thor returns Loki and the Tesseract to Asgard, while Fury expresses confidence that the Avengers will return if and when they are needed. In a mid-credits scene, the Other confers with his master3 about the failed attack on Earth. In a post-credits scene, the Avengers eat in silence at a shawarma restaurant. = = Cast = = Robert Downey Jr. as Tony Stark / Iron Man: A self-described genius, billionaire, playboy, and philanthropist with an electromechanical suit of armor of his own invention. Downey was cast as part of his four-picture deal with Marvel Studios, which includes Iron Man 2 and The Avengers. Downey said that he initially pushed Whedon to make Stark the lead: "Well, I said, 'I need to be in the opening sequence. I don't know what you're thinking, but Tony needs to drive this thing.' He was like, 'Okay, let's try that.' We tried it and it didn't work, because this is a different sort of thing, the story and the idea and the theme is the theme, and everybody is just an arm of the octopus." About the character's evolution from previous films, Downey said, "In Iron Man, which was an origin story, he was his own epiphany and redemption of sorts. Iron Man 2 is all about not being an island, dealing with legacy issues and making space for others... In The Avengers, he's throwing it down with the others". Chris Evans as Steve Rogers / Captain America: A World War II veteran who was enhanced to the peak of human physicality by an experimental serum and frozen in suspended animation before waking up in the modern world. Evans was cast as part of a deal to star in three Marvel films, in addition to The Avengers. Evans said that Steve Rogers is much darker in The Avengers: "It's just about him trying to come to terms with the modern world. You've got to imagine, it's enough of a shock to accept the fact that you're in a completely different time, but everybody you know is dead. Everybody you cared about... He was a soldier, obviously, everybody he went to battle with, all of his brothers in arms, they're all dead. He's just lonely. I think in the beginning it's a fish-out-of-water scene, and it's tough. It's a tough pill for him to swallow. Then comes trying to find a balance with the modern world." Regarding the dynamic between Rogers and Tony Stark, Evans said, "I think there's certainly a dichotomy — this kind of friction between myself and Tony Stark, they're polar opposites. One guy is flash and spotlight and smooth, and the other guy is selfless and in the shadows and kind of quiet and they have to get along. They explore that, and it's pretty fun." Mark Ruffalo as Bruce Banner / Hulk: A genius scientist who, because of exposure to gamma radiation, transforms into a monster when enraged or agitated. Ruffalo, who was considered to play Banner in The Incredible Hulk before Edward Norton took the role, was cast after negotiations between Marvel and Norton broke down. About replacing Norton, Ruffalo said, "I'm a friend of Ed's, and yeah, that wasn't a great way for all that to go down. But the way I see it is that Ed has bequeathed this part to me. I look at it as my generation's Hamlet." About the character, he said, "He's a guy struggling with two sides of himself — the dark and the light — and everything he does in his life is filtered through issues of control. I grew up on the Bill Bixby TV series, which I thought was a really nuanced and real human way to look at the Hulk. I like that the part has those qualities". Regarding the Hulk's place on the team, Ruffalo said, "He's like the teammate none of them are sure they want on their team. He's a loose cannon. It's like, 'Just throw a grenade in the middle of the group and let's hope it turns out well!" This is the first production in which the actor playing Banner also plays the Hulk. Ruffalo told New York magazine, "I'm really excited. No one's ever played the Hulk exactly; they've always done CGI. They're going to do the Avatar stop-action, stop-motion capture. So I'll actually play the Hulk. That'll be fun". The 3D model used to create the Hulk's body was modeled after Long Island bodybuilder and male stripper Steve Romm, while the Hulk's face was modeled after Ruffalo. To create the Hulk's voice, Ruffalo's voice was blended with those of Lou Ferrigno and others; however, the Hulk's only speaking line ("Puny god.") was provided solely by Ruffalo. Chris Hemsworth as Thor: The crown prince of Asgard, based on the Norse mythological deity of the same name. Hemsworth was cast as part of a multiple movie deal. He had previously worked with Joss Whedon on The Cabin in the Woods. Hemsworth said that he was able to maintain the strength he built up for Thor by increasing his food intake, consisting of chicken breasts, fish, steak, and eggs every day. When asked exactly how much, Hemsworth said, "My body weight in protein pretty much!" He remarked that Thor's motivation "is much more of a personal one, in the sense that it's his brother that is stirring things up. Whereas everyone else, it's some bad guy who they've gotta take down. It's a different approach for me, or for Thor. He's constantly having to battle the greater good and what he should do vs. it's his little brother there... I've been frustrated with my brothers at times, or family, but I'm the only one who is allowed to be angry at them. There's a bit of that." Scarlett Johansson as Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow: A highly trained spy working for S.H.I.E.L.D. About the character and her relationship with Hawkeye, Johansson said, "Our characters have a long history. They've fought together for a long time in a lot of battles in many different countries. We're the two members of this avenging group who are skilled warriors – we have no superpowers. Black Widow is definitely one of the team, though. She's not in the cast simply to be a romantic foil or eye candy. She's there to fight, so I never felt like I was the only girl. We all have our various skills and it feels equal". Regarding her training, Johansson said, "Even though Iron Man 2 was' one-for-them, 'I'd never done anything like that before. I'd never been physically driven in something, or a part of something so big. For The Avengers, I've spent so many months training with our stunt team, and fighting all the other actors, it's crazy. I do nothing but fight — all the time." Jeremy Renner as Clint Barton / Hawkeye: A master archer working as an agent for S.H.I.E.L.D. Renner said it was a very physical role and that he trained physically and practiced archery as much as possible in preparation. About the role, Renner said, "When I saw Iron Man, I thought that was a really kick-ass approach to superheroes. Then they told me about this Hawkeye character, and I liked how he wasn't really a superhero; he's just a guy with a high skill set. I could connect to that." Regarding Hawkeye's sniper mentality, Renner said, "It's a lonely game. He's an outcast. His only connection is to Scarlett's character, Natasha. It's like a left hand / right hand thing. They coexist, and you need them both, especially when it comes to a physical mission." Renner said Hawkeye is not insecure about his humanity. "Quite the opposite, he's the only one who can really take down the Hulk with his [tranquilizer-tipped] arrows. He knows his limitations. But when it comes down to it, there has to be a sense of confidence in any superhero." Tom Hiddleston as Loki: Thor's adoptive brother and nemesis, based on the Norse mythological deity of the same name. About his character's evolution from the film Thor, Hiddleston said, "I think the Loki we see in The Avengers is further advanced. You have to ask yourself the question: How pleasant an experience is it disappearing into a wormhole that has been created by some kind of super nuclear explosion of his own making? So I think by the time Loki shows up in The Avengers, he's seen a few things." About Loki's motivations, Hiddleston said, "At the beginning of The Avengers, he comes to Earth to subjugate it and his idea is to rule the human race as their king. And like all the delusional autocrats of human history, he thinks this is a great idea because if everyone is busy worshipping him, there will be no wars so he will create some kind of world peace by ruling them as a tyrant. But he is also kind of deluded in the fact that he thinks unlimited power will give him self-respect, so I haven't let go of the fact that he is still motivated by this terrible jealousy and kind of spiritual desolation." Clark Gregg as Phil Coulson: An agent with S.H.I.E.L.D. who oversees many of the division's field operations. Gregg was cast as part of a multi-picture deal with Marvel. Gregg said his role was expanded in The Avengers: "[What] Agent Coulson had become in terms of the import of this particular story, and how important his job is in bringing the Avengers together, it kind of felt a little surreal, like somebody was playing a prank and that wasn't the real script. But it wasn't, it was the real thing, I got to show up and do that stuff, and it felt like such an amazing payoff to what the journey had been and the fact I had been doing it for five years." Gregg said Whedon provided insight into his character's backstory, particularly about Coulson being a fan of Captain America. Cobie Smulders as Maria Hill: A high-ranking agent with S.H.I.E.L.D. who works closely with Jackson's Nick Fury. Smulders, whom Joss Whedon once considered for his unproduced live-action Wonder Woman film, was selected from a short list of potential actresses including Morena Baccarin. Smulders' deal would integrate her into nine films. Regarding her preparation, Smulders said, "I hired this amazing black-ops trainer to teach me how to hold a gun, take me to a shooting range, how to hit, how to hold myself, how to walk and basically how to look. I don't do a ton of fighting in the movie, which is why I wasn't offered a trainer, but I wanted to look like I had the ability to." On relating to the character, Smulders said, "I can relate to her being a mom and being a businesswoman and trying to work full-time and raising a family and having a career. We're asked to do a lot of things these days. I feel she is just all about her job and keeping things going." Stellan Skarsgård as Erik Selvig: An astrophysicist and a friend of Thor under Loki's control, who is studying the Tesseract's power. Regarding Loki's control over Selvig, Skarsgård said, "Well with the scene we did in Thor, it was like Loki, one way or the other, entered Erik's mind. And in Avengers, you will see more clarity in how Loki is using Erik's mind." About his role, he said, "[My character] is of importance but the size of the role is not big." Samuel L. Jackson as Nick Fury: The director of S.H.I.E.L.D., who was revealed in previous films to be coordinating the "Avengers Initiative". Jackson was brought to the project with a deal containing an option to play the character in up to nine Marvel films. Jackson said he does more in The Avengers than in any of the previous films: "You don't have to wait until the end of the movie to see me". About the role, Jackson said, "It's always good to play somebody [who] is a positive in society as opposed to somebody who is a negative... I tried to make him as honest to the story and as honest to what real-life would seem." Jackson compared the character to Ordell in Jackie Brown, calling him "a nice guy to hang out with. You just don't want to cross him". Gwyneth Paltrow and Maximiliano Hernández reprise their roles from previous films as Pepper Potts and Jasper Sitwell, respectively. Paul Bettany returns to voice J.A.R.V.I.S. Frequent Whedon collaborator Alexis Denisof portrays the Other, and Damion Poitier portrays his master, Thanos (unnamed in the film), in a post-credit scene. Powers Boothe and Jenny Agutter appear as members of the World Security Council. Avengers co-creator Stan Lee has a cameo appearance in a news report. Harry Dean Stanton cameos as a security guard, and Polish film director Jerzy Skolimowski appears as Georgi Luchkov, Romanoff's interrogator. Enver Gjokaj, who later went on to play Agent Daniel Sousa in the series Agent Carter, appears as a police officer. = = Production = = = = = Development = = = Avi Arad, the CEO of Marvel Studios, first announced plans to develop the film in April 2005, after Marvel Enterprises declared independence by allying with Merrill Lynch to produce a slate of films that would be distributed by Paramount Pictures. Marvel discussed their plans in a brief presentation to Wall Street analysts; the studio's intention was to release individual films for the main characters — to establish their identities and familiarize audiences with them — before merging the characters together in a crossover film. Screenwriter Zak Penn, who wrote The Incredible Hulk (2008), was hired by Marvel Studios to write the film in June 2007. In the wake of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike, Marvel negotiated with the Writers Guild of America to ensure that it could create films based on its comic book counterparts, including Captain America, Ant-Man and The Avengers. After the successful release of Iron Man (2008) in May, the company set a July 2011 release date for The Avengers. In September 2008, Marvel Studios reached an agreement with Paramount — an extension of a previous partnership — which gave the company distribution rights for five future Marvel films. Casting began in October 2008 with Downey's signing. Though Don Cheadle was also reported to be reprising his Iron Man 2 role of War Machine for The Avengers, he later stated that he did not think the character would appear in the film. At the same time, two major prospects occurred for Marvel: Jon Favreau was brought in as an executive producer for the film, and the company signed a long-term lease with Raleigh Studios to produce three other big-budget films — Iron Man 2, Thor (2011), and Captain America: The First Avenger (2011) — at their Manhattan Beach, California complex. Lou Ferrigno, who voiced Hulk in The Incredible Hulk, stated that he would be involved in the film. In February 2009, Samuel L. Jackson signed a nine-picture deal with Marvel Entertainment to play Nick Fury in Iron Man 2 and other films. In September 2009, Edward Norton, who played Bruce Banner in The Incredible Hulk stated that he was open to returning in the film. The next month, executive producer Jon Favreau stated that he would not direct the film, but would "definitely have input and a say". Favreau also expressed concerns, stating, "It's going to be hard, because I was so involved in creating the world of Iron Man, and Iron Man is very much a tech-based hero, and then with Avengers you're going to be introducing some supernatural aspects because of Thor... [Mixing] the two of those works very well in the comic books, but it's going to take a lot of thoughtfulness to make that all work and not blow the reality that we've created". In March 2009, actress Scarlett Johansson replaced Emily Blunt in portraying Natasha Romanoff in Iron Man 2, a deal that subsequently attached her to The Avengers. The female superhero Wasp was included in an earlier draft of the script written before Johansson's involvement. The following day, Marvel announced that the film's release date had been pushed back to May 4, 2012, almost a full year later. Chris Hemsworth and Tom Hiddleston joined the film's cast in June, returning as Thor and Loki, respectively. In July 2009, Penn talked about the crossover process, stating, "My job is to kind of shuttle between the different movies and make sure that finally we're mimicking that comic book structure where all of these movies are connected... There's just a board that tracks' Here's where everything that happens in this movie overlaps with that movie '... I'm pushing them to do as many animatics as possible to animate the movie, to draw boards so that we're all working off the same visual ideas. But the exigencies of production take first priority". In January 2010, Marvel Studios chief Kevin Feige was asked if it would be difficult to meld the fantasy of Thor with the high-tech science fiction in Iron Man and The Avengers. "No," he said, "because we're doing the Jack Kirby / Stan Lee / Walt Simonson / J. Michael Straczynski Thor. We're not doing the blow-the-dust-off-of-the-old-Norse-book-in-your-library Thor. And in the Thor of the Marvel Universe, there's a race called the Asgardians. And we're linked through this Tree of Life that we're unaware of. It's real science, but we don't know about it yet. The 'Thor' movie is about teaching people that". In March, it was reported that Penn had completed the first draft of the script, and that Marvel editor-in-chief Joe Quesada and Avengers comic-book writer Brian Michael Bendis had received copies. Also in March, Chris Evans accepted an offer to play Captain America in three films including The Avengers. = = = Pre-production = = = By April 2010, Joss Whedon was close to completing a deal to direct the film and to rework Penn's script, and was officially announced in July 2010. When Whedon received Penn's draft, he told Feige he felt the studio did not "have anything" and they should "pretend this draft never happened". Whedon went on to write a five page treatment of his plan for the film, and created the tagline "Avengers: Some Assembly Required", riffing on the "Avengers Assemble" slogan from the comic books. Marvel quickly began working to sign Whedon to write and direct, only stipulating that he include the Avengers against Loki, a battle among the heroes in the middle, a battle against the villains at the end, and he get the movie done for its May 2012 release. On the hiring, Arad stated: "My personal opinion is that Joss will do a fantastic job. He loves these characters and is a fantastic writer... It's part of his life so you know he is going to protect it... I expect someone like him is going to make the script even better". Feige added, "I've known Joss for many years. We were looking for the right thing and he came in and met on it... we want [ed] to find a director that ’ s on the verge of doing something great, as we think Joss is." Whedon stated at the 2010 San Diego Comic-Con International, that what drew him to the film is that he loves how "these people shouldn't be in the same room let alone on the same team — and that is the definition of family". The casting process continued into much of 2010, with the additions of Jeremy Renner, Mark Ruffalo, and Clark Gregg. Ruffalo replaced Edward Norton, who Marvel declined to have back. "We have made the decision to not bring Ed Norton back to portray the title role of Bruce Banner in The Avengers," stated Feige. "Our decision is definitely not one based on monetary factors, but instead rooted in the need for an actor who embodies the creativity and collaborative spirit of our other talented cast members. The Avengers demands players who thrive working as part of an ensemble, as evidenced by Robert, Chris H, Chris E, Samuel, Scarlett, and all of our talented casts. We are looking to announce a name actor who fulfills these requirements, and is passionate about the iconic role in the coming weeks." In response, Norton's agent Brian Swardstrom decried Feige's statement, calling it "purposefully misleading" and an "inappropriate attempt to paint our client in a negative light". In October 2014, Norton claimed it was his own decision never to play Hulk again because he "wanted more diversity" with his career, and did not want to be associated with only one character. In August 2010, it was reported that Paramount Pictures and Marvel Studios were planning to start shooting in February. Simultaneously, it was declared that the film would be shot in 3D, although Mark Ruffalo later tweeted that this was not the case. In October 2010, Grumman Studios in Bethpage, New York and the Steiner Studios in Brooklyn, New York City, were announced as filming locations, with set construction slated to begin in November, but as Whedon later explained, "Originally we were supposed to be in Los Angeles, then for a short period we were supposed to be in New York, and then somehow we ended up in Albuquerque." Also that October, Walt Disney Studios agreed to pay Paramount at least $115 million for the worldwide distribution rights to Iron Man 3 and The Avengers. The deal also allowed Paramount to continue to collect the 8 percent box office fee it would have earned for distributing the film and a marquee credit — placement of the company's production logo on marketing materials and the film's opening titles. As a result, the onscreen production credit reads "Marvel Studios presents in association with Paramount Pictures" though the film is solely owned, distributed, financed, and marketed by Disney. Paramount's Epix retained pay TV rights. In December 2010, Governor of New Mexico Bill Richardson and Marvel Studios Co-president Louis D'Esposito announced The Avengers would film primarily in Albuquerque, New Mexico, with principal photography scheduled for April through September 2011. Parts of the film were also scheduled to be shot in Michigan, but a plan to film in Detroit ended after Governor Rick Snyder issued a budget proposal that would eliminate a film tax incentive. Three months later in March, Governor of Ohio John Kasich announced before Mayor Frank G. Jackson's State of the City address that The Avengers would film in Cleveland. Concept illustrator and designer of Iron Man's Mark VII armor Phil Saunders stated that "Joss Whedon was looking for something that had the 'cool' factor of the suitcase suit [from Iron Man 2], while still being a fully armored, heavy duty suit that could take on an army in the final battle." To that end, Saunders borrowed ideas that had been proposed in Iron Man 2 as well as some ideas that had been abandoned in Iron Man and merged them together in a modular suit that has big ammo packets on the arms and a backpack. The Science & Entertainment Exchange also provided science consultation for the film. Casting reached its final stages the following year. In February 2011, Cobie Smulders acquired the role of Maria Hill, after participating in screen tests conducted by Marvel for the role of a key S.H.I.E.L.D. member, who Samuel L. Jackson described as Nick Fury's sidekick. Over the successive months, the film's cast expanded to include Stellan Skarsgård, Paul Bettany, and Gwyneth Paltrow. Paltrow was cast at Downey's insistence; prior to this, Whedon had not intended the film to include supporting characters from the heroes' individual films, commenting, "You need to separate the characters from their support systems in order to create the isolation you need for a team." = = = Filming = = = Principal photography began on April 25, 2011, in Albuquerque, New Mexico. In June 2011, stuntman Jeremy Fitzgerald injured his head while attempting a stunt involving a 30-foot fall from a building after getting hit by an arrow. A Marvel spokesperson later told TMZ.com that despite the injury, Fitzgerald recovered and continued working on set. The following month, secondary filming took place about an hour outside Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in the Butler area. A chase sequence was also shot in Worthington, Pennsylvania at Creekside Mushroom Farms, the world's largest single-site mushroom farm, which provided 150 miles of abandoned limestone tunnels 300 feet below the ground for filming. Production relocated to Cleveland, Ohio in August 2011, where filming transpired over a period of four weeks. The city's East 9th Street was chosen as a double for New York City's 42nd Street to be used in climactic battle scenes. Army Reserve soldiers assigned to the Columbus, Ohio-based 391st Military Police Battalion provided background action during the battle scenes in Cleveland. Staff Sergeant Michael T. Landis stated the use of real soldiers made the scenes more realistic and helped portray the military in a more positive light, explaining that, "It's easy for us to make on-the-spot corrections to tactics and uniforms, the director actually took our recommendation on one scene and let us all engage the enemy as opposed to only the gunners in the trucks engaging". Filming also took place in the large vacuum chamber at the NASA Plum Brook Station near Sandusky, Ohio. The station's Space Power Facility was used to portray a S.H.I.E.L.D. research facility. A series of explosions were filmed at the Chevrolet powertrain plant in Parma, Ohio as part of the battle sequence that began in Cleveland. Scenes from the film were also shot on Public Square and the Detroit – Superior Bridge. Public Square's southwest quadrant was turned into Stuttgart, Germany, for filming. Principal photography concluded in New York City, where filming occurred over two days. Filming locations in New York City included Park Avenue and Central Park. For scenes taking place in Manhattan, visual effects supervisor Jake Morrison shot aerial footage for over three days to use as background plates, elaborating that his main objective was to "get as much aerial work in as possible for the audience to see the big expanses, the wide establishing shots, while also making sure that the effects work doesn't look too computer generated". "We're getting much better at making entirely computer-generated environments," Morrison explained, "but there is no substitute for starting with a real image and adding what you need." Cinematographer Seamus McGarvey stated that he composed the frame with a 1.85: 1 aspect ratio to cope with the varying heights of the main characters, explaining that "shooting 1.85: 1 is kind of unusual for an epic film like this, but we needed the height in the screen to be able to frame in all the characters like Hulk, Captain America and Black Widow, who is much smaller. We had to give them all precedence and width within the frame. Also, Joss [Whedon] knew the final battle sequence was going to be this extravaganza in Manhattan, so the height and vertical scale of the buildings was going to be really important." The film was McGarvey's first venture shooting with a digital camera, the Arri Alexa. The Canon EOS 5D Mark II and Canon EOS 7D digital SLR cameras were used for some shots, and high-speed shots were captured on 35 mm film with the Arriflex 435. About his visual approach, McGarvey remarked, "Joss and I were keen on having a very visceral and naturalistic quality to the image. We wanted this to feel immersive and did not want a 'comic book look' that might distance an audience with the engagement of the film. We moved the camera a lot on Steadicam, cranes and on dollies to create kinetic images; and we chose angles that were dramatic, like low angles for heroic imagery." = = = Post-production = = = In December 2011, Disney announced that the film would be converted to 3D. Said Whedon, "I'm not a big fan of extreme long lens, talky movies – I like to see the space I'm in and relate to it, so 3D kinda fits my aesthetic anyway. And the technology has advanced so far in the past couple years." Whedon also said that "there definitely are movies that shouldn't be in 3D" but "The Avengers isn't obnoxiously 3D. There's no, 'Oh look, we're going to spend 20 minutes going through this tunnel because it's in 3D!' And no one is pointing at the screen the entire time. But it's an action movie. Things tend to hurtle toward the screen anyway". In January 2012, it was reported that the film would be digitally remastered for IMAX 3D and open in IMAX theaters on May 4, 2012, the same day it opens in regular theaters. The film's IMAX release follows Marvel's IMAX releases of Iron Man 2 and Thor. In a May 2012 interview, Whedon said that it was his decision to include Thanos in a post-credits scene, although the character is not identified in the film. "He for me is the most powerful and fascinating Marvel villain. He's the great grand daddy of the badasses and he's in love with Death and I just think that's so cute. For me, the greatest Avengers [comic book] was Avengers Annual # 7 (1977) that Jim Starlin did followed by Marvel Two-in-One Annual # 2 (1977) that contained the death of Adam Warlock. Those were some of the most important texts and I think underrated milestones in Marvel history and Thanos is all over that, so somebody had to be in control and had to be behind Loki's work and I was like 'It's got to be Thanos.' And they said 'Okay' and I'm like 'Oh my God!'" An additional coda involving the Avengers eating shawarma was shot on April 12, 2012, a day after the world premiere. Shawarma sales in Los Angeles, St. Louis, and Boston reportedly skyrocketed in the days following the film's release. The film contains more than 2,200 visual effects shots completed by 14 companies: Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), Weta Digital, Scanline VFX, Hydraulx, Fuel VFX, Evil Eye Pictures, Luma Pictures, Cantina Creative, Trixter, Modus FX, Whiskytree, Digital Domain, The Third Floor and Method Design. ILM was the lead vendor and shared responsibility for creating many of the film's key effects, including the Helicarrier, the New York cityscape, digital body doubles, Iron Man and the Hulk. To create the on-screen Hulk, Ruffalo performed in a motion-capture suit on set with the other actors while four motion-capture HD cameras (two full body, two focused on his face) captured his face and body movements. Jeff White, ILM's visual effects supervisor, said, "We really wanted to utilize everything we've developed the last 10 years and make it a pretty spectacular Hulk. One of the great design decisions was to incorporate Mark Ruffalo into the look of him. So, much of Hulk is based on Ruffalo and his performance, not only in motion capture and on set, but down to his eyes, his teeth, and his tongue." ILM digitally recreated the vast majority of the New York cityscape used in the film. In total, ILM artists rendered an area of about ten city blocks by about four city blocks. To do this, ILM sent out a team of four photographers to take pictures of the area in a shoot that lasted 8 weeks. Disney and Sony Pictures agreed for OsCorp Tower from The Amazing Spider-Man to be included in the film, but the idea was dropped because much of the skyline had already been completed. Weta Digital took over duties for animating Iron Man during the forest duel from ILM. Guy Williams, Weta's visual effects supervisor, said, "We shared assets back and forth with ILM, but our pipelines are unique and it's hard for other assets to plug into it. But in this case, we got their models and we had to redo the texture spaces because the way we texture maps is different." Williams said the most difficult part was re-creating Iron Man's reflective metal surfaces. Scanline VFX completed the reveal shots of the Helicarrier, from the moment Black Widow and Captain America arrive on the carrier deck to the point where it lifts off. Evil Eye Pictures composited digital backgrounds into shots filmed against a greenscreen for scenes taking place inside the Helicarrier. Colin Strause of Hydraulx said, "We did the opening ten minutes of the movie, other than the opening set-up in space" including Loki's arrival on Earth and subsequent escape from the S.H.I.E.L.D. base. Luma Pictures worked on shots featuring the Helicarrier's bridge and incorporated the graphic monitor displays that were developed by Cantina Creative. Fuel VFX completed shots taking place in and around Tony Stark's penthouse at Stark Tower. Digital Domain created the asteroid environment, where Loki encounters The Other. Method Design in Los Angeles created the film's closing credits. Steve Viola, creative director at Method Design, said, "This piece was a two-minute, self-contained main on end sequence created entirely in CG. For each of the shots in the sequence, we designed, modeled, textured, and lit all of the environments and many of the foreground objects. We received assets from Marvel to include in the piece, then heavily re-modeled and re-surfaced them to create a post-battle macro sequence. We also designed a custom typeface for the Main Title of The Avengers as well as 30 credits set in-scene." = = Music = = In November 2011, Marvel announced that Alan Silvestri, who scored Captain America: The First Avenger, would write and compose the score for The Avengers. Silvestri said, "I've worked on films where there have been a number of stars and certainly worked on films where there have been characters of equal weight in terms of their level of importance and profile in the film, but this one is somewhat extreme in that regard because each of these characters has their own world and it's a very different situation. It's very challenging to look for a way to give everyone the weight and consideration they need, but at the same time the film is really about the coming together of these characters, which implies that there is this entity called the Avengers which really has to be representative of all of them together." Silvestri developed the score with the London Symphony Orchestra at Abbey Road Studios in London, England. Whedon said, "The score is very old-fashioned, which is why [Silvestri] was letter-perfect for this movie because he can give you the heightened emotion, the [Hans Zimmer] school of 'I'm just feeling a lot right now!' but he can also be extraordinarily cue and character specific, which I love." In March 2012, American alternative rock band Soundgarden announced through its Facebook page that its song "Live to Rise" would be included on the film's soundtrack. Additionally, the Indian rock band Agnee released a music video for its single "Hello Andheron", which serves as the theme song for the film's Indian release. Hollywood Records released the soundtrack concept album inspired by the film, Avengers Assemble, on May 1, 2012, the same day as the score. = = Release = = In February 2012, Disney announced that the film's title would be changed in the United Kingdom to avoid confusion with the British TV series of the same name, as well as its 1998 film adaptation. This led to confusion over the film's actual title. Empire magazine reported that the film would be titled Marvel Avengers Assemble while The Hollywood Reporter said that it would be called simply Avengers Assemble. Marvel's UK website refers to the film as Marvel's Avengers Assemble, although David Cox of The Guardian, in arguing that it was one of the worst film titles ever, considered this to be an error in the production notes, albeit grammatically clearer. According to the British Board of Film Classification and the Irish Film Classification Office, the title is Marvel Avengers Assemble. Frank Lovece in FilmFestivalTraveler.com addressed the discrepancy, writing, "The Avengers — formally titled Marvel's The Avengers onscreen, though no apostrophe-s appears on the posters..." Producer Kevin Feige said there are only two words in the UK title, one more than in the U.S. title, and stated that "decisions like that aren't made lightly and there are lots of marketing research, lawyers and things that get into the mix on it". The film's world premiere was April 11, 2012, at Hollywood's El Capitan Theatre. The Avengers closed the 11th Annual Tribeca Film Festival with a screening on April 28, 2012. The film received an expanded one-week theatrical push for the 2012 U.S. Labor Day weekend, increasing the number of theaters from 123 to 1,700. = = = Marketing = = = The film was promoted at the 2010 San Diego Comic-Con International, during which a teaser trailer narrated by Samuel L. Jackson was shown followed by an introduction of the cast. In June 2011, Marvel Studios announced that it would not hold a panel at the 2011 San Diego Comic-Con International after studio executives decided it was not prepared to compete with its own past and fan expectations with filming still in production. In July 2011, a teaser trailer that was meant to be the post-credits scene of Captain America: The First Avenger was briefly leaked online. Entertainment Weekly speculated it came from a preview screening and described the footage as "shaky, fuzzy, flickering and obviously filmed on a cell phone". In August 2011, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios and Marvel Studios presented a look at Walt Disney Studios' upcoming film slate, which included The Avengers, at the D23 Expo in Anaheim, California. The presentation featured footage from the film and appearances by the cast members. Later in August, Disney dismissed Marvel's executive vice president of worldwide marketing, vice president of worldwide marketing and manager of worldwide marketing to bring their functions in-house. In October 2011, Marvel Studios held a presentation at the New York Comic Con that featured new footage and a panel discussion including producer Kevin Feige and several cast members. The first full-length trailer was also released in October. Comic Book Resources said, "The two-minute teaser handily establishes the movie's premise" and is "heavy on the assembling, but fans are also treated to plenty of action, as well glimpses [sic] of Iron Man's new armor and, best of all, the new take on the Incredible Hulk. Naturally, Robert Downey Jr. 's Tony Stark gets the best lines". However, The Hollywood Reporter called it, "Awesome. Or it would be if we hadn't seen all of this before and expected every single thing that we saw in the trailer". The trailer, which debuted exclusively on iTunes Movie Trailers, was downloaded over 10 million times in its first 24 hours, breaking the website's record for the most-viewed trailer. This record was surpassed by the trailer for The Dark Knight Rises, which was downloaded more than 12.5 million times in its first 24 hours. The trailer received 20.4 million views in the 24 hours after it debuted. A second full-length trailer was released on iTunes in February 2012, reaching a record 13.7 million downloads in 24 hours. The theatrical trailers of The Avengers appeared with many films, including Mission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol, 21 Jump Street and The Hunger Games. In January 2012, Marvel Studios held a global Twitter chat. The 30-minute live tweeting event featured writer / director Joss Whedon, cast members Samuel L. Jackson, Tom Hiddleston and Clark Gregg and a 10-second tease of the 30-second Super Bowl commercial that would air during Super Bowl XLVI in February. According to the Los Angeles Times, Disney paid an estimated $4 million for the 30-second spot. On May 1, 2012, executives from Marvel Studios, along with actors Tom Hiddleston and Clark Gregg, rang the opening bell of the New York Stock Exchange in honor of the film's theatrical release. = = = = Tie-in comics = = = = In December 2011, Marvel announced that an eight-issue comic-book prelude to the film, written by Christopher Yost and Eric Pearson with art by Luke Ross and Daniel HDR, would be released in March 2012. In February 2012, Marvel announced the release of a second limited series comic book tie-in, Black Widow Strikes written by Fred Van Lente, who wrote Captain America: First Vengeance, the comic-book prequel to Captain America: The First Avenger. The story is set between Iron Man 2 and The Avengers and follows Black Widow as she runs down some loose ends from Iron Man 2. Additionally, the title Avengers Assemble was launched in March 2012, written by Brian Michael Bendis with art by Mark Bagley and features the same Avengers line-up as the film battling a new incarnation of the supervillain team Zodiac. = = = = Promotional partners = = = = Paul Gitter, Marvel Entertainment's president of consumer products, commented that the build-up to the film helped strengthen retail partnerships: "Retailers have been less tolerant with [intellectual property] films, so we decided that if we started on this coordinated strategy several years ago, retailers would give us shelf space throughout the years and we would have a more sustainable position in the marketplace". In September 2011, set photos of Robert Downey Jr. driving a new model Acura were published online. An Acura spokesperson later released a statement confirming the company's involvement with the film, "As you may know, Acura has been in the Marvel Comics Universe films as the official car of their fictional law enforcement agency called S.H.I.E.L.D. That relationship continues for The Avengers. The open-top sports car that was photographed yesterday is a one-off, fictional car that was made just for the movie and will not be produced. That said, as you may also know, our CEO has said publicly that we are studying the development of a new sportscar, but we can't say any more about it at this time." In December 2011, Acura announced that a new NSX styled along the lines of the concept built for The Avengers would be unveiled at the 2012 North American International Auto Show. A series of 10 S.H.I.E.L.D. SUVs, based on the Acura MDX with modifications by Cinema Vehicle Services, were also made for the film. In February 2012, it was announced that Marvel has partnered with fragrance company JADS to promote The Avengers with character-based fragrances. The announcement was just ahead of the Toy Industry Association's annual February exhibition, where representatives held a sampling booth of the products. Other promotional partners include bracelet-maker Colantotte, Dr Pepper, Farmers Insurance, Harley-Davidson, Hershey, Land O'Frost lunchmeats, Oracle, Red Baron pizza, Symantec, Visa and Wyndham Hotels & Resorts. In total, Marvel and its parent-company Disney secured an estimated $100 million in worldwide marketing support for the film. Notable exclusions include Baskin-Robbins, Burger King and Dunkin 'Donuts, who had partnered with Marvel in the past when their films were distributed by Paramount. Disney does not generally promote through fast food outlets. = = = = Video game = = = = A video game based on the film was planned for concurrent release. The game was to be a first-person shooter / brawler for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Wii U, and Microsoft Windows and published by THQ, with THQ Studio Australia developing the console versions and Blue Tongue Entertainment the PC version. After THQ closed both studios, the game was cancelled. Intellectual property rights for an Avengers video game reverted to Marvel, which said it was exploring potential publishing and licensing opportunities. In May 2012, Ubisoft and Marvel Entertainment announced that they were partnering to develop a motion-controlled game titled Marvel Avengers: Battle for Earth for the Wii U and Xbox 360 Kinect. The game was inspired by the "Secret Invasion" storyline and features 20 different characters. Marvel also announced a four-chapter mobile game titled Avengers Initiative, with one chapter focusing on each of Hulk, Captain America, Thor and Iron Man. = = = Home media = = = The film was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu-ray Disc, Blu-ray 3D, DVD and digital download on September 25, 2012 in the United States and as early as August 29, 2012 in various international markets. Producer Kevin Feige said the Blu-ray features a new Marvel One-Shot titled Item 47 and "a number of deleted scenes and a few storylines that fell by the wayside during the editing process" including "a few more scenes with the S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Maria Hill, played by Cobie Smulders" and "some slightly different versions of Maria Hill and Nick Fury's interaction with the World Security Council". The film was also collected in a 10-disc box set titled "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase One – Avengers Assembled" which includes all of the Phase One films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. It was released on April 2, 2013. Some fans have criticized the UK DVD and Blu-ray release for omitting Joss Whedon's audio commentary, and for altering the scene involving Phil Coulson's death from the film's theatrical version. Disney's UK division said the "less graphic depiction of Agent Coulson's confrontation with Loki" occurred because "[e] ach country has its own compliance issues relative to depictions of violence. Unfortunately, another region's elements were inadvertently used to create the UK in-home release". Upon its first week of release on home media in the U.S., the film topped the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert chart, which tracks overall disc sales, as well as the dedicated Blu-ray Disc sales chart with 72% of unit sales coming from Blu-ray, a record for a new release in which both the DVD and Blu-ray formats were released simultaneously. = = Reception = = = = = Box office = = = The Avengers grossed $623.4 million in North America and $895.2 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $1.518 billion. It became the third highest-grossing film worldwide as well as highest-grossing 2012 film. It is the highest-grossing comic-book adaptation, the highest grossing superhero film and the second highest-grossing film ever released by Walt Disney Studios. The film's worldwide opening of $392.5 million is the fourth largest. The Avengers also became the fifth film distributed by Disney and the twelfth film overall to earn more than $1 billion. It reached this milestone in 19 days, matching the record for speed previously set by Avatar and Deathly Hallows – Part 2. Its grosses exceeded its estimated $220 million production cost 12 days after its release. It was the first Marvel production to generate $1 billion in ticket sales. = = = = North America = = = = The film became the third highest-grossing film, the highest-grossing 2012 film, the highest grossing film distributed by Disney, the highest-grossing superhero film and the highest-grossing film based on comics. It opened Friday, May 4, 2012, on around 11,800 screens across 4,349 theaters, and earned $80.8 million, marking the second-biggest opening and second-biggest single-day gross. The film's Friday gross included an $18.7 million midnight run, a record for a superhero film Without midnight grosses, the film earned the largest opening-day gross ($62.1 million). It also set a Saturday- and Sunday-gross record ($69.6 million and $57.1 million respectively). In total, it earned a total of $207,438,708 for its debut weekend, setting an opening-weekend record, including an IMAX opening-weekend record of $15.3 million and a record for opening-weekend grosses originating from 3D showings ($108 million). The opening-weekend audience was evenly split among those under and over the age of 25, with 60% of the audience male, 55% couples, 24% families and 21% teenagers. Earning $103.1 million on its second weekend, the film set a record for the largest second-weekend gross. Other records set by the film include the biggest weekend per-theater average for a wide release ($47,698 per theater), the fastest film to reach $100 million and each additional $50 million through $550 million, and the largest cumulative gross through every day of release until, and including, its forty-third day (with the exception of its first day). It was in first place at the North American box office for three consecutive weekends. The film set a record for the highest monthly share, with its $532.5 million total (through May 31, 2012) accounting for 52% of the total earnings at the North American box office during May. = = = = = Records = = = = = The following are records set by the film upon its theatrical release. = = = = Outside North America = = = = The film became the third-highest grossing film, the highest-grossing Disney-distributed film, the highest-grossing 2012 film, and the highest-grossing superhero film. It opened Wednesday, April 25, 2012, in 10 countries, earning $17.1 million. It opened in 29 more countries on April 26 and 27, earning $73.1 million in three days. Through Sunday, April 29, it earned an opening-weekend total of $185.1 million from 39 countries. It was in first place at the box office outside North America for four consecutive weekends. The film set opening-day records in New Zealand, Malaysia and Iceland, a single-day record in the Philippines, as well as both single- and opening-day records in Singapore and in Thailand. It also earned the second highest-grossing opening day in Australia ($6.2 million), behind Deathly Hallows – Part 2, in Mexico, in the Philippines and in Vietnam. It set opening-weekend records in many territories, including Mexico, Brazil, Ecuador, Bolivia, Taiwan, the Philippines, Hong Kong, the United Arab Emirates, Argentina, Peru and Central America. It also earned the second largest five-day opening in Australia ($20.2 million). In the UK, Ireland and Malta, the film earned £2.5 million ($4.1 million) on its opening day and £15.8 million ($25.7 million) during the weekend, setting an opening-weekend record for a superhero film. It became the market's highest-grossing superhero film. In Latin America, it became the highest-grossing film ($207 million) and the first film to earn more than $200 million. It also became the highest-grossing film in the Philippines, in Singapore and in Indonesia. = = = Critical response = = = The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 92% approval rating with an average rating of 8 / 10 based on 315 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "Thanks to a script that emphasizes its heroes' humanity and a wealth of superpowered set pieces, The Avengers lives up to its hype and raises the bar for Marvel at the movies." On Metacritic, the film achieved an average score of 69 out of 100 based on 43 reviews, signifying "generally favorable reviews". CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare "A +" grade. Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave a positive review of the film, remarking, "It's clamorous, the save-the-world story is one everyone's seen time and again, and the characters have been around for more than half a century in 500 comic book issues. But Whedon and his cohorts have managed to stir all the personalities and ingredients together so that the resulting dish, however familiar, is irresistibly tasty again." To Rolling Stone journalist Peter Travers, the film epitomized an exceptional blockbuster. "It's also the blockbuster," Travers said, "I saw in my head when I imagined a movie that brought together the idols of the Marvel world in one shiny, stupendously exciting package. It's Transformers with a brain, a heart and a working sense of humor." Justin Chang of Variety wrote, "Like a superior, state-of-the-art model built from reconstituted parts, Joss Whedon's buoyant, witty and robustly entertaining superhero smash-up is escapism of a sophisticated order, boasting a tonal assurance and rich reserves of humor that offset the potentially lumbering and unavoidably formulaic aspects of this 143-minute team-origin story." Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times complimented the film's frenetic pace, while Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times commented that it "provides its fans with exactly what they desire. Whether it is exactly what they deserve is arguable". Conversely, A. O. Scott of The New York Times believed that "while The Avengers is hardly worth raging about, its failures are significant and dispiriting. The light, amusing bits cannot overcome the grinding, hectic emptiness, the bloated cynicism that is less a shortcoming of this particular film than a feature of the genre." The performances of several cast members was a frequent topic in the critiques. In particular, Mark Ruffalo's portrayal of Dr. Bruce Banner / the Hulk was well-received by commentators. Joe Neumaier opined that his performance was superior to the rest of the cast; "Ruffalo is the revelation, turning Banner into a wry reservoir of calm ready to become a volcano." Similarly, The New Yorker's Anthony Lane proclaimed Ruffalo's acting to be one of the film's highlights — alongside Downey. The Village Voice's Karina Longworth concluded: "Ruffalo successfully refreshes the Hulk myth, playing Banner as an adorably bashful nerd-genius who, in contrast to the preening hunks on the team, knows better than to draw attention to himself." Travers asserted that the actor resonated a "scruffy warmth and humor" vibe, while Turan felt that he surpassed predecessors Edward Norton and Eric Bana in playing the character. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that "the smartest thing the filmmakers did was to get Mark Ruffalo to play Bruce Banner as a man so sensitive that he's at war, every moment, with himself. (The film finally solves the Hulk problem: He's a lot more fun in small doses.)" Referring to Downey, Joe Morgenstein of The Wall Street Journal — despite complimenting Downey's performance — favored his work in Iron Man over his acting in The Avengers: "His Iron Man is certainly a team player, but Mr. Downey comes to the party with two insuperable superpowers: a character of established sophistication — the industrialist / inventor Tony Stark, a sharp-tongued man of the world — and his own quicksilver presence that finds its finest expression in self-irony." Neumaier praised Evans, stating that he accurately conveyed his character's internal conflicts. Commentators appreciated the character development and dialogue. Associated Press reviewer Christy Lemire wrote that the script "sparkles as brightly as the special effects; these people may be wearing ridiculous costumes but they're well fleshed-out underneath." Scott suggested that certain parts of the film permeated a charm that he felt was similar to the western film Rio Bravo (1959). Longworth felt that while Whedon's script demonstrated the backstory of the characters, the film does not explore it "in a substantive way". = = = Accolades = = = The Avengers has garnered numerous awards and nominations, including an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects and a British Academy Film Award nomination for Best Special Visual Effects. The film has also been nominated for three Critics' Choice Movie Awards, thirteen People's Choice Awards (winning three), eleven Teen Choice Awards (winning two), six Saturn Awards (winning four), and six VES Awards (winning two), as well as the 2013 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation Long Form. = = Sequels = = = = = Avengers: Age of Ultron = = = A sequel, titled Avengers: Age of Ultron, written and directed by Whedon, was released on May 1, 2015. Much of the cast returns, with the addition of Elizabeth Olsen as Scarlet Witch, Aaron Taylor-Johnson as Quicksilver, Paul Bettany as Vision, and James Spader as Ultron. = = = Avengers: Infinity War = = = The two-part Avengers: Infinity War will be directed by Anthony and Joe Russo, from a script by Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely. Part 1 is scheduled to be released on May 4, 2018 with Part 2 scheduled for May 3, 2019.

= Secrets of a Successful Marriage = "Secrets of a Successful Marriage" is the twenty-second and final episode of The Simpsons' fifth season. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 19, 1994. In the episode, Homer fears he may be a little slow, so he goes to the adult education center. While there, he decides to teach a class of his own on the secrets of a successful marriage, since that is the only class he is qualified to teach. However, to keep his students interested, he is forced to tell personal secrets about his wife Marge, which she dislikes, leading up to Homer getting kicked out of the house. The episode was written by Greg Daniels and directed by Carlos Baeza. It features cultural references to the plays Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and A Streetcar Named Desire, and the films... And Justice for All, A Few Good Men, Patton, and Chinatown. The episode has been analyzed in books such as Leaving Springfield and Education in Popular Culture. Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 9.8, and was the second highest-rated show on the Fox network the week it aired. = = Plot = = After Homer realizes that he is "slow", Marge recommends that he take an adult education course at the annex center. Down at the center, however, Homer changes his mind and decides to become a teacher. He talks to the administrator and accepts an opening to teach a class on having a successful marriage. Despite being confident that he can pull it off, he is frightened on his first day and is unable to help his pupils with their relationship problems. The class collectively gets up to leave, but when Homer mentions his conversation with Marge in bed, the class decides to stay, eager to hear gossip. Marge soon discovers that everyone in town knows her personal secrets, reacting by confronting Homer about it and he promises to stop. He instead continues telling her secrets anyway. Homer then takes the night off teaching class by having his class observe the family over dinner. Marge finally loses her temper and sends Homer and the class out of the house. When Homer tries to get back in, Marge stops him, saying she can no longer trust him, and refuses to let him back in. Homeless, Homer stays in Bart's tree house. Marge tries to reassure Bart and Lisa that she and Homer love the children, despite their current situation, but Lisa and Bart are worried their parents will get divorced. Marge tries to get advice from Reverend Lovejoy, who tells her to get a divorce. While Homer longs for his wife, Moe comes by the Simpsons' house to declare his interest in Marge, who turns him down. When Homer comes into the house with flowers he picked for Marge, Moe sees him and jumps out the window. Standing before her in rags, Homer professes his total and utter dependency on Marge, and she tells him that that is not a good thing, but Homer then makes his winning argument: he loves her, he needs her to love him, and can not afford to ever lose her trust again or he will end up dead. Marge is won over and allows Homer to return to the house. The family is glad that he has returned, although Moe is less than thrilled. = = Production = = The episode was written by Greg Daniels and directed by Carlos Baeza. It was the second script Daniels wrote for the show. He thought the staff had previously done many episodes where Homer "wasn't good at anything", so he tried to figure out something Homer was really good at, and he came up with the idea of Homer being a good husband. While Bart had been the star of the show during the early years, by Season 5, the focus had clearly shifted to Homer. Writer / showrunner Al Jean stated that because Homer is an adult character, he has more depth to him and thus storyline possibilities. Showrunner David Mirkin commented: "Bart, to write him accurately as a child, he can only have so much depth at a certain age. With Homer, we try to explore all levels of adulthood. There are just more places to go. Writing Homer properly is the trick, he's our main rock of the whole series. Homer's IQ is fairly flexible, he won't necessarily understand how to open a door at some point, but he can name the Supreme Court justices. Finding that balance is key to making the show work and making it surprising and making it believable and emotionally grounded." Mirkin was very fond of the fact that Homer and Marge have the biggest fight they have ever had on the show in the episode, and he thought it was a "really great" exploration of their marriage. He noticed that because Homer is thrown out of the house, the audience really worry about their relationship. Mirkin had been asked many times why Marge and Homer are still together, to which he replied that all people stay together even if they argue, "there's some sort of connection". = = Cultural references = = Homer sings the end of the theme song to Family Ties while talking to an administrator at the annex center. Smithers's recollection of his marriage parodies the two plays Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and A Streetcar Named Desire, both written by American playwright Tennessee Williams. Homer's bedroom rant to Marge is a parody mishmash of four popular films:... And Justice for All (1979), A Few Good Men (1992), Patton (1970), and Chinatown (1974). He says: "Look Marge, you don't know what it's like. I'm the one out there every day putting his ass on the line. And I'm not out of order! You're out of order. The whole freaking system is out of order. You want the truth? You want the truth?! You can't handle the truth! 'Cause when you reach over and put your hand into a pile of goo that was your best friend's face, you'll know what to do! Forget it, Marge, it's Chinatown," all of which are lines from those films. = = Analysis = = It was revealed in a flashback in the episode that Smithers was briefly married to a woman, but the two split up when he devoted too much time to his boss Mr. Burns. Smithers's relationship with Mr. Burns has long been a running joke on The Simpsons. His sexual orientation has often come into question, with some fans claiming he is a "Burns-sexual" and only attracted to his boss, while others maintain that he is, without a doubt, gay. Matthew Henry wrote in the book Leaving Springfield that this episode is "perhaps the best" example of an attempt to portray an actual gay lifestyle on the show. Henry added that the flashback is a "wonderfully rendered parody of scenes from two of Tennessee Williams's most famous plays, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and A Streetcar Named Desire. To fully appreciate it, one must know something of not only the two plays cited but also of Williams himself, of his own struggles with both heterosexual and homosexual desires and the way in which these struggles were incorporated into his art. The creators of The Simpsons offer what I think is a perfect parallel for the relationship between Smithers and Mr. Burns by combining Williams's two most notable male characters and their defining characteristics: the suppressed homosexual desire of Brick and desperate dependence of Stanley." In their book Education in Popular Culture, Alma Harris, Roy Fisher, Ann Harris, and Christine Jarvis analyzes the adult education aspects of this episode that portrays adult learners as "stupid and lazy". After Homer is appointed as a teacher, he feels immensely proud and boasts to all his acquaintances about it, initially making it seem like if the show is indicating that adult education tutors have a relatively high status in society. "However," the authors added, "Homer's pride is undercut for the audience by the awareness of how he came to be appointed and by the subsequent representation of the adult education center. It seems that anyone can become a tutor. [...] Homer's fellow tutors are drunks, incompetents and down-and-outs, adult education is therefore presented as an amateur business staffed by the dregs of society." The writers of the book thought the whole idea of storytelling and building on experience that Homer uses, and that many adult education tutors uses in real life, is represented in the episode "simply as an excuse for gossip and prurient curiosity". They also thought that statements like "I can't believe I paid ten thousand dollars for this course. What the heck was the lab fee for?" imply that adult education is "exploitative and poor value for money, and that the students themselves contribute to this by demanding an essentially recreational service." The authors concluded that the episode "certainly sustains a popular view of adult education as pointless and recreational. Similarly, no value whatsoever is attributed to the extensively researched, proven through practice and well-argued perspective that adult learners do best when the curriculum builds on and values their experience." = = Reception = = In its original American broadcast, "Secrets of a Successful Marriage" finished forty-third in the ratings for the week of May 16 to May 22, 1994, with a Nielsen rating of 9.8. The episode was the second highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following Melrose Place. Since airing, the episode has received positive reviews from television critics. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, thought it was a "confident finale" to the fifth season, which "had seen the series become progressively more surreal and self-aware." DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson wrote that he thought the episode ended the season with a "high note", and that Homer ’ s insensitive gossiping about his relationship "presents lots of good bits. It completes this excellent year well." Jacobson's favorite line of the episode was "This is a place of learning, not a house of hearing about things!", which Homer tells his class after they demand him to reveal more secrets about him and Marge. Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict gave the episode a grade of A −, and commented that episodes focusing on the relationship between Homer and Marge can "never fail", and there are "numerous opportunities for some classic Homer-isms" in the episode. Bill Gibron of DVD Talk gave the episode a score of 4 out of 5. One-time Simpsons writer and comedian Ricky Gervais named "Secrets of a Successful Marriage" his fifth favorite episode of the show, and commented that Homer's line to Marge, "I know now what I can offer you that no one else can. Complete and utter dependence," is "so sweet, because he's right!" It was placed at number seven on MSNBC's top ten The Simpsons episodes list. They felt the episode embodied Homer's qualities of being "stupid, good-natured and mildly pathetic, [...] from his conversations with his brain [...] to his final proclamation that the one thing he can give Marge that no one else can is' complete and utter dependence '."

= The Boat Race 1877 = The 34th Boat Race took place on 24 March 1877. The Boat Race is an annual side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. The race ended in a dead heat, the first and only time the event has ended in such a fashion. Despite the formal declaration of a tie, Oxford believed that they were the victors. The controversy surrounding the result led to significant changes to the way in which the race was conducted including the introduction of finishing posts and former Blues as umpires. = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). The race was first held in 1829, and since 1845 has taken place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and, as of 2014, broadcast worldwide. Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions, having beaten Oxford "easily" in the previous year's race. However Oxford held the overall lead, with 17 victories to Cambridge's 16. Oxford were coached by Reverend William Sherwood (who rowed for Oxford in the 1873 and 1874 races) and Edmund Warre (who represented the Dark Blues in the 1857 and the 1858 races). Cambridge's coach was James Brooks Close (who rowed for the Light Blues in the 1872, 1873 and 1874 races). Cambridge had practised at Putney a fortnight before the race and were initially the bookmaker's clear favourites. Oxford's practice rows a week later impressed and brought them back into contention. The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 (in the March and December races) and the 1852 race, while the starter was Edward Searle. Chitty was assisted by "Honest" John Phelps who acted as the finishing judge. Phelps, a professional waterman, was over 70 years old and reportedly blind in one eye. = = Crews = = The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 3.875 lb (77.8 kg), 4.125 pounds (1.9 kg) more than their opponents. The Cambridge crew featured seven former Blues, including the cox George Latham Davies and number four William Brooks Close, both of whom were participating in their third Boat Races. Oxford saw four Blues return: J. M. Boustead, Tom Cottingham Edwards-Moss and H. J. Stayner and H. P. Marriott, all of whom had rowed in the previous two races. = = Race = = The race started on Saturday 24 March 1877 at 8: 27 a.m. Oxford had won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station, handing the Surrey side of the river to Cambridge. The Dark Blues took an early lead and were ahead at the Mile Post, but by the Crab Tree pub, the crews were level. Cambridge pulled ahead and held a quarter-of-a-length lead by Hammersmith Bridge which they extended until the crews arrived at Chiswick Reach where Oxford re-took the lead. At Chiswick Steps the Dark Blues were leading by half-a-length, and by Barnes Bridge they were clear. Experiencing strong head winds and rough water, Cowles, the Oxford bow man, suffered serious damage to his oar, nullifying further contribution to the race. Described by an Oxford undergraduate watching the race: "suddenly Oxford staggered and stood still in a mass of foam: the bow-oar, Cowles, had struck the top of a big wave in feathering and broken his blade clean off." Almost immediately, Cambridge took the advantage, but were held off by a determined Oxford crew who "spurted magnificently and drew up steadily inch by inch, so that it was a near thing as they passed the post". = = Reaction = = In the Official Centenary History it was noted that "it is too perhaps too much to expect, even from the stoical discipline of old Blues, a unanimous acquiescence in a verdict of" dead-heat, "for no conclusion could be more unsatisfactory to the competitors themselves." Oxford firmly believed that they had won the race by feet, but following a subsequent meeting in a law court with representatives of both universities and the umpire Chitty, the official result was declared as "Dead Heat". Punch declared "Oxford won, Cambridge too." W. W. Rouse Ball, a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, writing in A History of The First Trinity Boat Club suggested that the broken oar was the deciding factor: "... but for this Oxford would have won." A correspondent writing in The Sydney Mail said both teams should "consider themselves lucky" that they did not lose, and speculated that the race would be looked back as "the great gooseberry" year. = = Legacy = = This was the last year that the result was judged by a professional waterman and the controversy resulted in the introduction of the finishing posts. They remain, as of 2014, 113 metres (371 ft) downstream of Chiswick Bridge and are engraved with "UBR" for University Boat Race. The controversy also led to the selection of a former Blue as the umpire, selected by one university from a shortlist drawn up from the other, and alternating each year. Phelps himself was replaced as finishing judge by E. H. Fairre. Phelps died on 5 December 1890. His great-great-great-great-nephew Richard Phelps umpired the 2014 race which also ended controversially: Cambridge lost five strokes after a clash of oars, Oxford won by 11 lengths (the biggest margin for more than 40 years) and Phelps declined an appeal from the Light Blues for a re-row.

= Mycena cinerella = Mycena cinerella, commonly known as the mealy bonnet, is an inedible species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae. It is found in Europe and the United States, where it grows in groups on fallen leaves and needles under pine and Douglas fir. The small grayish mushrooms have caps that are up to 1.5 cm (0.6 in) wide atop stipes that are 5 cm (2.0 in) long and 2.5 mm (0.10 in) thick. Its gills are grayish-white and adnate, with a "tooth" that runs slightly down the stipe. The fungus has both two- and four-spored basidia. As its common name suggests, it smells mealy. = = Taxonomy = = First called Agaricus cinerellus by Finnish mycologist Petter Karsten in 1879, he transferred it to the genus Mycena that same year. In his 1936 Flora Agaricina Danica (Agaric flora of Denmark) Jakob Emanuel Lange referred it to the genus Omphalia; Omphalia cinerea (P. Karst.) J.E. Lange is now a synonym. Mycena cineroides was named and described as a new species distinct from M. cinerella by Hintikka in 1963, who thought it to be unique due to its narrowly acute cap that lacked brownish or yellowish tones, decurrent gills, and two-spored basidia. However, intermediate forms of it have been found, and some authorities, like Dutch Mycena specialist Maas Geesteranus, believe it should be treated as a synonym of M. cinerella. The mushroom is commonly known as the "mealy bonnet". The specific epithet cinerella means "somewhat ashy color". = = Description = = The cap of M. cinerella is white and small, with a diameter typically ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 cm (0.2 to 0.6 in). Initially hemispherical, obtusely conic, and then convex, it expands during maturity, developing visible grooves on the surface that correspond to the gills underneath the cap. The cap has a broad, flattened umbo. The cap surface is smooth and moist, with a slimy margin that is initially pressed against the stipe; with age the margin becomes notched and sometimes scalloped, turning translucent. The cap color is dark gray to pale gray, somewhat hygrophanous, fading to ashy white or brown when dry. The flesh is thin, gray, cartilaginous and tough, with a strongly farinaceous (mealy, similar to raw potatoes) odor and taste if crushed or chewed. The whitish to grayish gills are moderately broad (2 – 3 mm) with a spacing that is close to subdistant, and 18 – 26 reach the stipe, interspersed with two or three tiers of lamellae (short gills that do not extend fully from the cap margin to the stipe). The stipe attachment is adnate or arcuate, but later develops a pronounced decurrent tooth. The decurrent tooth occasionally separates from the stipe and forms a collar around it. The stipe is 2 – 5 cm (0.8 – 2.0 in) long, 1 – 2.5 mm (0.04 – 0.10 in) thick, equal in width throughout, hollow, cartilaginous, and brittle. The stipe surface is smooth or polished, with the apex initially faintly pruinose (as if covered with a fine whitish powder). The base of the stipe is sparsely covered with sharp, straight, stiff hairs, and is the same color as the cap or paler. The mushroom is inedible. = = = Microscopic characteristics = = = The spores are 7 – 9 by 4 – 5 μm, ellipsoid, smooth, amyloid (reaction very weak in some collections). The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored, or occasionally a combination of two- and four-spored. The four-spored forms have clamp connections that are absent in the two-spored forms. The pleurocystidia (cystidia found on the face of the gills) are not differentiated. The cheilocystidia (cystidia found on the edges of the gills) are embedded in the hymenium and inconspicuous, measuring 22 – 36 by 5 – 11 μm. They are roughly filiform (like thin filaments), with numerous contorted branches or protuberances, and club-shaped with finger-like prolongations. The flesh of the gills is homogenous, and turns vinaceous-brown when stained in iodine. The flesh of the cap has a well-differentiated pellicle, with a differentiated but not very well-developed hypoderm, and hyphae that are 10 – 20 μm wide. = = Habitat and distribution = = Mycena cinerella is a saprobic fungus, and derives nutrients by decomposing leaf litter and similar detritus, converting it to humus and mineralizing organic matter in the soil. The fruit bodies grow in groups on needles under pine and Douglas fir, typically in the late summer and autumn. In the United States, it has been collected from Michigan, Washington, Oregon, and California. In Europe, it has also been collected from the Great Britain, Norway, Poland, and Sweden.

= The Beverly Hills Hotel = The Beverly Hills Hotel, also called The Beverly Hills Hotel and Bungalows, is located on Sunset Boulevard in Beverly Hills, California. One of the world's most iconic and best-known hotels, it is closely associated with Hollywood film stars, rock stars and celebrities. The hotel has 208 guest rooms and suites, and 23 bungalows, each designed in the peachy pink and green colors which are a trademark of the hotel. The Beverly Hills Hotel was established in May 1912, before the city's existence. The original owners were Margaret J. Anderson, a wealthy widow, and her son, Stanley S. Anderson, who had been managing the Hollywood Hotel. The original hotel was designed by Pasadena architect Elmer Grey, in the Mediterranean Revival style. From 1928 to 1932, the hotel was owned by the Van Noy Railway News and Hotel Company. In 1941, Hernando Courtright, the vice president of the Bank of America, purchased the hotel with friends including Irene Dunne, Loretta Young and Harry Warner. Courtright established the Polo Lounge, which was for many years the premier dining spot in Los Angeles, hosting luminaries such as the Rat Pack, Humphrey Bogart and Marlene Dietrich. Courtright paid for a significant renovation in the late forties, during which the hotel was first painted its famous pink color in 1948, to match that period's country club style. The following year, architect Paul Williams added the Crescent Wing. The strict resident owner of The Beverly Hills Hotel from 1954 until his death in 1979 was former Detroit real estate magnate Ben L. Silberstein. In 1986, Marvin Davis bought the Hotel from Silberstein's sons-in-law Burt Slatkin and Ivan F. Boesky. On December 30, 1992, the hotel closed for a complete restoration, reopening in 1995. Since 1996 it has been run as part of the prestigious Dorchester Collection. In 2012 the hotel was named the first historic landmark in Beverly Hills, and two new Presidential Bungalows were added. = = History = = = = = Early history = = = In early 1911, Margaret J. Anderson, a wealthy widow, and her son, Stanley S. Anderson, who had been managing the Hollywood Hotel, ordered the construction of the Beverly Hills Hotel, in close proximity to the Burton Green mansion. Burton Green, an oil tycoon and real estate developer, President of the Rodeo Land and Water Company, had purchased land in the foothills of the Santa Monica Mountains, which had once been owned by the Mexican government. He had begun building mansions on the land, including his own residence, investing some $500,000, but was having difficulty selling them. He hired Anderson to build a hotel, which he named Beverly Farms, after his home in Massachusetts, believing that it would attract people to the area, billing it as "halfway between Los Angeles and the sea". The Hollywood film industry was taking off at the time and investors were looking to develop the area. A May 11, 1911 edition of The Los Angeles Times announced the news that a "huge Mission-style hotel" was to be built by Anderson, with the motto that "her guests were entitled to the best of everything regardless of cost". The hotel opened May 12, 1912, before the city's existence. Margaret and Stanley took up residence within the hotel grounds. By 1914, Hollywood directors, actors and actresses such as Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks, Charlie Chaplin, Gloria Swanson, Buster Keaton, Rudolph Valentino and Will Rogers had purchased homes in the area, "transforming bean fields surrounding The Beverly Hills Hotel into prime real estate". The city of Beverly Hills was established. The first five bungalows of the hotel were built in 1915. In 1919, Douglas Fairbanks bought a lodge above the hotel, and expanded it with his wife Mary Pickford, which became known as "Pickfair." According to one publication, a star would know they would finally "made it" when they received a dinner invitation from "Pickfair". Gloria Swanson resided in one of the bungalows of the hotel during her divorce. In 1915, the Andersons donated a portion of the hotel's original grounds to the community of Beverly Hills. It was used to create the community's first public park. Originally known as Sunset Park, it is now Will Rogers Memorial Park. An early tradition was the annual Easter Egg hunt, put on for the children of the guests and employees. Silent film star Harold Lloyd was an early hotel patron, and in 1921 he decided to film a scene at the hotel for A Sailor-Made Man. From 1928 to 1932, the hotel was owned by the Van Noy Railway News and Hotel Company. Van Noy had to close the hotel during the Great Depression years, although he leased the bungalows out as properties. With Bank of America funding, the hotel reopened in 1932. = = = The glamour years = = = During the 1930s, The Beverly Hills Hotel became increasingly popular with Hollywood film stars. Fred Astaire took a shine to the hotel, and enjoyed reading the Daily Variety and the Hollywood Reporter by the pool. Cesar Romero and Carole Lombard were pictured together at the hotel in 1937. In 1938, the Sand and Pool Club was established at the hotel. It proved extremely popular, with white sand imported from Arizona, which made the pool area look like a beach. The following year, it began hosting fashion shows sponsored by local department stores such as Bullock's Wilshire. In 1940, one of the hotel's long-time patrons, Marlene Dietrich, was instrumental in bringing about a change in policy in the Polo Lounge, which had made it compulsory for women to don skirts which she refused to wear. In 1941, Hernando Courtright, the vice president of the Bank of America, purchased the hotel with friends. Irene Dunne, Loretta Young and Harry Warner also became owners of the hotel as a result of their investment with Courtright. Courtright established the Polo Lounge "in honor of a celebrity band of polo players who toasted victories at the restaurant after matches in the bean fields". In 1942, Howard Hughes bought up half a dozen of the bungalows and lived there on several occasions throughout the decades. The hotel accommodated his eccentricities, including his request for "roast beef sandwiches delivered to a nook in a tree". The Beverly Hills Hotel underwent significant renovation in the late forties when the porte cochere was expanded and painted in stripes. In 1947 Courtright opened the Crystal Room and the Lanai Restaurant, later called The Coterie. The building was first painted its famous pink color in 1948 to match the country club style of the period, and it became known as "The Pink Palace". The following year, architect Paul Williams added the Crescent Wing. The Fountain Coffee Shop also opened at this time. In 1954, Detroit real estate magnate Ben L. Silberstein bought the hotel for $5.5 million. Courtright later became hotelier at the Beverly Wilshire Hotel. The reputation of the Beverly Hills Hotel, as a leading luxury hotel with glamorous patrons, took off during the 1950s and attracted eminent guests such as the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, Princess Margaret and Lord Snowdon, King Albert of Belgium, the Crown Prince of Monaco and Grace Kelly, John Wayne and Henry Fonda. Elizabeth Taylor, one of the hotel's best known guests, would stay with her numerous husbands in the bungalows, and spent six of her eight honeymoons there. Her father owned an art gallery on the ground floor of the hotel. The Polo Lounge became associated with Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin and the Rat Pack, where they held heavy drinking bouts. In 1956, the pool of the hotel and cabana club was a filming location for Designing Women, starring Gregory Peck and Lauren Bacall. Marilyn Monroe and Yves Montand stayed at the hotel during the production of George Cukor's Let's Make Love. Monroe's favorite bungalow was No. 7. George Hamilton and Rex Harrison enjoyed sunbathing at the hotel; Harrison would sunbathe in the nude in Cabana One, and answer the door wearing "just a handkerchief over his private parts". In 1963, the comedy picture Who's Been Sleeping in My Bed?, starring Dean Martin, Elizabeth Montgomery, Jill St. John and Carol Burnett, was shot at the hotel. In the 1970s, John Lennon and Yoko Ono hid out in one of the bungalows for a week. Richard M. Nixon's chief of staff, H.R. Haldeman, and presidential aide John Ehrlichman were eating breakfast in the Polo Lounge when they were informed of the Watergate in 1972. In January, 1976, Peter Finch died of a sudden heart attack while sitting in the hotel lobby. Two months later, he was posthumously awarded the Academy Award for Best Actor for his role as Howard Beale in the film Network. His co-star Faye Dunaway stayed at the hotel after winning the Academy Award for Best Actress for the same film; in one memorable photograph she was seated by the hotel pool lounging back in a chair surrounded by newspapers and her Oscar trophy. The exterior of the hotel was featured on the album cover art of The Eagles's LP "Hotel California" that same year. Two years later, California Suite was filmed at the hotel. = = = Later history = = = Owner Ben Silberstein died in 1979, and passed the hotel to his two daughters, Muriel Slatkin and Seema Boesky, wife of stock trader Ivan Boesky. In 1986, Marvin Davis bought the hotel from Silberstein's sons-in-law Burt Slatkin and Ivan Boesky. Boesky had bought the outstanding 5% of stock for a reported fortune and decided to sell, despite Slatkin's desire to keep the hotel. Less than a year later, Davis sold the hotel to the Sultan of Brunei, Hassanal Bolkiah, for $110 million. On December 30, 1992, the hotel closed for a complete restoration, said to be in the region of $100 – 125 million. The project lasted two and a half years with the hotel reopening on June 3, 1995, with upgrades to furniture and fittings. The hotel is now managed and owned by the Dorchester Collection, organized in 1996 to manage the hotel interests of the Brunei Investment Agency. The west coast regional director for the Dorchester Collection oversees The Beverly Hills Hotel as well as the Hotel Bel-Air. In 2012, the hotel celebrated its 100-year anniversary and began to remodel its lobby, with the Polo Lounge, pool cabanas and Cabana Cafe, and guest-rooms and suites to be renovated by 2014. The hotel was also named the first historic landmark in Beverly Hills in September 2012. = = = Controversy and boycott = = = The Sultan of Brunei's stake in the ownership of the hotel drew controversy in April 2014 when he initiated the first phase of a three-phase plan to adapt Brunei's legal system to include aspects of Sharia law implicating his approval of the persecution of homosexuals in the complex legal system there (a two part system involving separate courts and legislation for Islamic and non-Islamic citizens). In protest, a United States national LGBT advocacy organization, the Gill Action Fund, canceled its reservation to hold a conference of major donors at the Beverly Hills Hotel and demanded a refund of its deposit. The hotel management responded by issuing a statement asserting that it does not discriminate on the basis of sexual orientation. Fashion designers Brian Atwood and Peter Som subsequently called for wider protests, urging the fashion industry to boycott all of the hotels owned by the Dorchester Collection. Meanwhile, the boycott had attracted support from Sir Richard Branson of Virgin Group, as well as numerous Hollywood executives and stars, including Jay Leno and Ellen DeGeneres. In addition, a string of organizations joined the boycott, cancelling reservations to hold conferences and other high-profile events at the establishment; travel industry firms likewise signed on to a boycott of all Dorchester Collection hotels. Others, including Russell Crowe and Kim Kardashian, have spoken out against the boycott. Crowe stated that despite his disapproval of the new laws in Brunei, it is unfair to punish the hardworking employees of the hotel. Similarly, Kardashian published a blog post voicing her criticism of the boycott and expressing her sympathies for the hotel workers. HR Magazine said that the protests are "misguided" and will not affect the government policy of Brunei when the Dorchester Collection's annual revenue is $300 million while the BIA has over $30 billion in assets from oil and gas. By May 2014, the Beverly Hills City Council passed a resolution urging the Sultan of Brunei to sell the Beverly Hills Hotel. Lili Bosse, the mayor of Beverly Hills at the time, welcomed the resolution and added that she had made a "personal decision" not to return to the hotel until the situation had been solved. The decision was lauded by Rabbi Laura Geller of Temple Emanuel, where Bosse is a congregant. By then the Jewish Journal reported that "more than $2 million worth of events have been canceled at the Beverly Hills Hotel by dozens of groups." Dorchester Collection Chief Executive Officer Christopher Cowdray then responded to the controversy by asking the public to consider the issue at hand in a broader perspective, citing the fact that many brands are backed by foreign investors. Sharia law exists alongside other normative systems and has been adopted by many other Muslim countries, including Saudi Arabia which has major investments in the American hospitality industry, including the Four Seasons and Fairmont hotel chains. Adweek declared that "the bad press and protests have tarnished the glamorous image of the Beverly Hills Hotel, one of the most famous hotels in the world" and added that "such extreme brand damage will be difficult to repair". = = Architecture = = = = = Exterior = = = Judith Kirkwood of Orange Coast Magazine has stated that "The Beverly Hills Hotel is such an icon that my friend, Gretchen, and I wondered if it was a mirage when the taxi pulled up in the porte cochere and deposited us on a red carpet, but realized that it was" more like a peachy pink dream dusted with gold — and green and white striped accents ". The original main building of The Beverly Hills Hotel was designed by Pasadena architect Elmer Grey, in the Mediterranean Revival style. Built on a prominence above the main road below, it resembled a white colonial palatial mansion or mission, with verandas and arches fitted with wicker furniture, and at the time was set in the countryside. High above the main entrance are three domes; two flanking the center which are smaller and lower in height, with flags hoisted on them. A trolley-stop pavilion was situated on the western side. The iconic signage and the addition were designed by architect Paul Williams. The extensive gardens, covering 12 acres (4.9 ha), were designed by landscape architect Wilbur David Cook. They contain bougainvillea, banana plants, hibiscus and other tropical flora. Svend Petersen, the Danish-American pool manager at the hotel for forty-two years, became a Hotel Ambassador in 2002. He had notably opened up the pool after hours for The Beatles and taught Faye Dunaway to swim a 1940s freestyle crawl for her appearance in the film Mommie Dearest. = = = Interior = = = The Sunroom of the hotel, containing Californian craftsman furniture, provides vistas of the Pacific Ocean. A room, known as the Crystal Room, was allocated for small private dinner parties. The principal dining room could accommodate up to 500 people. The Children's dining room, which became the El Jardin Restaurant, is now the iconic Polo Lounge. The Polo Lounge was seen as the premier power dining spot in all of Los Angeles. The lounge was renovated in 1974, and given a softer design with table lamps and flowers. It is fashioned in peachy pink with dark green booths, each featuring a plug-in phone. The photograph behind the bar depicts Will Rogers and Darryl F. Zanuck, two lounge regulars, playing polo. The menu offers a classic Neil McCarthy salad, named after the polo-playing millionaire. The hotel has its own bakery and herb garden, makes its own vinegar and smokes meats. The chef in 2003 was Katsuo Sugiura, who cooked "oak-grilled food with an Asian flair". In 2007, one large suite was converted into the Bar Nineteen12. The fireplace in the hotel's lobby has a fire going every day of the year. A new wing was added to the east side of the main building in the late 1940s. The "Crescent Wing," as it became known, features mature plantings on the balconies. = = = = Rooms and bungalows = = = = As of 2012, rooms cost from $550 up to $15,380 for a night in one of the presidential bungalows. A typical room as of August 2015 is $1,045 a night. Each of the rooms has their own balcony and is designed in the Beverly Hills Hotel colors of peachy pinks and greens, apricots and yellows. Several of the more expensive rooms have private patios, Jacuzzis and their own kitchens. Five bungalows were originally added to the gardens in 1915 to provide for families who could return each year with their own staff. As of 2015, the hotel has 23 bungalows set out across the gardens. Bungalows 14-21 are known as "Bachelor's Row", due to their association with film stars and their affairs, including Warren Beatty and Orson Welles. In 1990, a private pool and Jacuzzi were added to Bungalow No. 5 to accommodate businessman Walter Annenberg. No.5 had been a favorite of Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton who had "a standing room service order for two bottles of vodka at breakfast, and two more at lunch". Taylor also liked No.3, where she stayed during her marriage to Eddie Fisher. Marilyn Monroe favored No. 1 and No. 7. No.1, the most secluded of the bungalows, features an interior described by CNN as "creamy, lush and traditional, decorated in the manner of one's wealthy grandparents". No. 7 has become known as "the" Norma Jean ". Dietrich ordered a 7 feet (2.1 m) by 8 feet (2.4 m) bed added to No. 10, the bungalow where John Lennon and Yoko Ono stayed in the 1970s. In 2011 two Presidential Bungalows were established, replacing the tennis courts, with each containing three bedrooms and a private swimming pool and shower. Howard Hughes permanently kept a bungalow at the hotel, however it was a secret whether he was on the premises or not. Often the only person who knew Hughes was at the Beverly Hills was the hotel's chef. Hughes would awaken him in the middle of the night to prepare food for him. It has been alleged that several of the bungalows are haunted. Guests have reported hearing what is believed to be Harpo Marx playing the harp, and seeing an apparition of Sergei Rachmaninoff. = = Gallery = =

= The Boat Race 1992 = The 138th Boat Race took place on 4 April 1992. Held annually, the Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. Oxford's cox Andrew Probert was the oldest competitor in Boat Race history at the age of 38 years and 86 days. Oxford won by one-and-a-quarter lengths, the closest margin of victory for twenty years. The race also featured the first German competitor in the history of the event in Dirk Bangert. Umpired by former Cambridge rower Roger Stephens, Mike Rosewell writing in The Times described the race as "one of the greatest races since 1829". In the reserve race, Cambridge's Goldie defeated Oxford's Isis, while Cambridge won the Women's Boat Race. = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). First held in 1829, the race takes place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a "hotly contested point of honour" between the two universities, followed throughout the United Kingdom, and broadcast on several international television networks. Oxford went into the race as reigning champions, having won the 1991 race by four-and-a-quarter lengths, with Cambridge leading overall with 69 victories to Oxford's 67 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877). The first Women's Boat Race took place in 1927, but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s. Up until 2014, the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races, but as of the 2015 race, it is held on the River Thames, on the same day as the men's main and reserve races. The reserve race, contested between Oxford's Isis boat and Cambridge's Goldie boat has been held since 1965. It usually takes place on the Tideway, prior to the main Boat Race. President of the Cambridge University Boat Club, Max Justicz, said of the previous year's race: "We were burned on that day. Badly burned. It was worse than other defeats because we thought we could win... Oxford just rowed through us; with every stroke they took they destroyed our belief in ourselves." His crew mate, Nick Clarry, focused on the approach to this year's race: "This year it's heads down and get on with the job. We know that if we don't cross the line first on the day, nobody could care less who we are." Beefeater Gin sponsored the event; prior to this year's race they had announced a £1 million deal to continue their close involvement for a further three years. = = Crews = = Aged 38 years and 3 months, Cambridge's cox, Andrew Probert, was the oldest competitor in the history of the Boat Race. Oxford's crew featured four returning Blues and two former Isis crew members, while Cambridge saw three old Blues participate. The Oxford boat was made up from five Britons, an Australian, an American and a Yugoslav; Cambridge was represented by seven Britons, an American and Dirk Bangert, the first German to participate in the event. Oxford's crew were coached by Steve Royle and Patrick Sweeney, and assisted by the former East Germany Olympic coach Jürgen Gröbler, while Cambridge were guided Oxford's successful coach of 1991, John Wilson. Watermen Bert Green and Jim Cobb provided advice to the Oxford and Cambridge coxes respectively. = = Race = = The race commenced at 2.35 pm. Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station. The boats raced side-by-side for the first three-and-a-half miles of the race, for fourteen minutes neither crew held a lead of more than half-a-length over the other, and umpire Roger Stephens was forced to issue warnings to both coxes for steering too close to one another. The Dark Blues held a slight early advantage but Cambridge pulled ahead at Hammersmith Bridge. Oxford edged ahead at Barnes Bridge, and passed the finishing post in a time of 17 minutes 44 seconds, one-and-a-quarter lengths ahead of Cambridge, the closest finish in the last 20 years. Oxford's Yugoslav rower Boris Mavra had to be lifted from the boat at the end of the race. The Beefeater Gin Trophy was presented to the winning boat club president by Raymond Seitz. In the reserve race, Cambridge's Goldie won by three-and-a-quarter lengths over Isis, their fifth victory in six years. Cambridge won the 47th Women's Boat Race by one-third-of-a-length in a time of 6 minutes and 20 seconds, their third victory in four years. = = Reaction = = Mike Rosewell, writing in The Times complimented all of the race participants: "the 18 individuals involved produced one of the greatest races since 1829." Former Oxford coach Daniel Topolski, writing for The Observer, described the Oxford's win as "scintillating" and noted that the crews were "locked in combat for fully three and a half miles." Christopher Dodd, writing in The Guardian suggested that "the promise was delivered; a rare race". Oxford's number five and Great Britain international Peter Bridge noted Gröbler's impact: "We really felt the strength that we had built up over six months under Jürgen's methods." He continued: "[Cambridge] were slower off the start than we expected which was nice." Referring to Cambridge's lead at Hammersmith Bridge, their number seven Steve Fowler said "we were feeling good but we should have closed the door there and then. We should have killed them on the bend." Cambridge cox Probert conceded to his counterpart Liz Chick: "she steered very well." Oxford coach Gröbler stated: "It was wonderful. Both crews... were very good — and so disciplined. I like these university students." Cambridge coach Wilson lamented: "we failed to capitalise at Hammersmith and they grew in confidence thereafter."

= MNM (professional wrestling) = MNM (Mercury, Nitro, and Melina) was a villainous professional wrestling stable in World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW) that consisted of Joey Mercury (previously Joey Matthews), Johnny Nitro, and their manager Melina Perez. Mercury and Nitro first began teaming together in 2004 in OVW, WWE's developmental territory in Louisville, Kentucky. Melina, who at the time was Nitro's actual girlfriend, joined them as their manager in February 2005. While working in OVW, Mercury and Nitro captured the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship on one occasion. MNM were called up to the SmackDown! roster in April 2005, in which Mercury and Nitro went on to win the WWE Tag Team Championship. While in WWE, their ring personas was that of a trio of Hollywood celebrities, complete with a red carpet ring entrance, that had them accompanied by "paparazzi". The duo lost the title in July 2005. After their third and final reign ended in May 2006, Nitro and Melina blamed Mercury for the loss and attacked him, splitting the team. Nitro and Melina were let go from the SmackDown! roster and debuted on the Raw brand. In November 2006, MNM reunited for a brief period, before Mercury was released from his contract in March 2007. = = Concept = = Partly inspired by Paris Hilton, the concept behind the group was that they were Hollywood celebrities. Upon their debut on SmackDown!, they claimed to be the "hot new team on the scene", because of their good looks and celebrity status. As part of their in-ring personas, MNM had a distinctive ring entrance. They walked to the ring on a red carpet, while members of the "paparazzi" took photos of them. The male members of MNM usually wore fur coats to the ring. As they took them off, Melina suggestively rubbed their abs while removing the title belts from their pants, where they hung in an exaggerated phallic fashion. Melina has a signature entrance which involves her doing a split on the ring apron — from the floor — then bending forward and crawling under the bottom rope. = = History = = = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling (2004 – 2005) = = = MNM was formed in the former World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) "farm territory" Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW). Melina Perez, Johnny Nitro's real-life girlfriend, was introduced into the company in 2004 as his ex-girlfriend, an ally of Matt Cappotelli with whom Nitro was engaged in a scripted rivalry. Almost immediately, however, Perez betrayed Cappotelli and sided with Nitro. Together they introduced Joey Matthews to become MNM. While in OVW, Nitro and Matthews won the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship once, holding it for over two months. = = = SmackDown and dissolution (2005 – 2006) = = = MNM was called up to WWE's SmackDown! roster in April 2005, with Matthews undergoing a name change to "Joey Mercury". They made their debut during Carlito's interview segment Carlito's Cabana, where they interrupted an interview between Carlito and Rey Mysterio, and attacked Mysterio. This provoked a feud between MNM and Mysterio and his partner, Eddie Guerrero, over the WWE Tag Team Championship. Two weeks later, in their debut match on the SmackDown! brand, they defeated Mysterio and Guerrero to win the WWE Tag Team Championship after Guerrero refused to tag into the match. While Nitro and Mercury held the championship, Melina was placed in an angle with Heidenreich. She publicly mocked him and was the impetus for an attack on him by Nitro and Mercury. In July, MNM were scheduled to face Heidenreich in a two-on-one handicap match, but attacked him before the match started. Road Warrior Animal saved Heidenreich from the attack and as a result, Heidenreich and Road Warrior Animal challenged Mercury and Nitro for the tag team title at The Great American Bash. MNM lost the match and the championship. The loss of the tag team championship was seen as "bad publicity" by Melina so she introduced Jillian Hall, a storyline spin doctor to repair their image. Hall got them a cover article in SmackDown! magazine, and began to introduce the team before and aid them during matches. In September 2005, Hall left the group to join John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL), who had lost a match to Rey Mysterio. On the October 28 episode of SmackDown!, Mercury and Nitro were placed into a tag team title fatal four-way match against the teams of the Mexicools (Super Crazy and Psicosis), William Regal and Paul Burchall, and the WWE Tag Team Champions Legion of Doom 2005 (Heidenreich and Road Warrior Animal). During the match, Mercury and Nitro were able to perform the Snapshot on Heidenreich, to win the championship for a second time. MNM successfully defended the championship against Eddie Guerrero and Batista. In December, they began a feud with the Mexicools, who earned the right to face MNM at Armageddon for the WWE Tag Team Championship. Before Armageddon however, on the December 16 episode of SmackDown!, MNM lost the tag team championship to Batista and Rey Mysterio. A storyline was begun before the match, where Melina attempted to seduce Batista into forfeiting the match. The storyline played over to the next episode of SmackDown! when, before MNM invoked their rematch clause, Melina held a press conference in the ring where she claimed that Batista had sexually harassed her. During the tag team match, Mark Henry aided MNM in winning back the WWE Tag Team Championship. The following week, MNM defeated Batista and Mysterio in a steel cage match to retain the championship, Henry's aid. Henry was only with the group a short time before his contract was sold to Daivari in storyline. They went on to successfully defend the championship against The Mexicools and the team of Matt Hardy and Tatanka in early 2006. In April 2006, MNM were placed in an angle in which they found themselves in a losing streak against the team of Paul London and Brian Kendrick. In non-title tag team matches, singles matches, and even a six-man tag match, London and Kendrick defeated the duo every time. At the Judgment Day pay-per-view in May 2006, MNM lost the tag team championship to London and Kendrick. After the match, Nitro and Mercury started brawling, disbanding the group. Later that night, Melina lost a singles match against Jillian Hall and after slapping General Manager Theodore Long in anger, she and Nitro were fired from the SmackDown! brand in storyline. Off-screen, Nitro and Mercury did not get along, and WWE management decided to split the tag team and send Nitro and Melina to the Raw brand. In addition, Mercury was about to begin serving a suspension for violating the WWE Wellness program. = = = Reunion (2006 – 2007) = = = After serving his suspension and a brief stint back in OVW, Mercury returned to WWE, reuniting MNM, in late November 2006 to answer an open challenge put out by The Hardys (Matt and Jeff) for the December to Dismember pay-per-view. At the event, MNM lost to the Hardys. MNM and the Hardys met again at Armageddon as part of a four-way ladder match, which also included the teams of Dave Taylor and William Regal and Paul London and Brian Kendrick. During the match, which saw London and Kendrick retain the WWE Tag Team Championship, Mercury was legitimately injured when he was struck in the face with a ladder, necessitating a trip to the emergency room where his broken nose received 15 stitches. The facial injury was worked into the angle, and when Mercury returned wearing a protective covering on his face, the rivalry between the teams intensified with MNM actively seeking to injure one or both of the Hardys, even going so far as to attack and perform a Snapshot on Matt on exposed concrete following a match. MNM lost to The Hardys at the Royal Rumble, and again at the No Way Out pay-per-view in February, which concluded the feud. = = = Post-breakup = = = After their feud with the Hardys was over, Nitro and Melina continued to team on Raw, while Mercury wrestled in singles competition on SmackDown!. On March 26, 2007, through WWE's official website, it was announced that Mercury had been released from his contract. Mercury returned in 2010, first as a member of CM Punk's Straight Edge Society, and later began working as a trainer in Florida Championship Wrestling (later renamed NXT Wrestling) He most recently worked alongside The Authority and as part of J & J Security, former WWE World Heavyweight Champion Seth Rollins's "personal security". Melina and Nitro's association began to fizzle out when Melina became the WWE Women's Champion and began garnering attention as a singles performer. Melina was released from her contract in 2011. During the 2007 supplemental draft, Nitro moved to the ECW brand, renamed John Morrison in the ECW brand, & would go on to capture the ECW World Championship. Morrison formed a partnership with The Miz, capturing both the WWE Tag Team Championship and the World Tag Team Championship. He also gained his third WWE Intercontinental Championship shortly after his alliance with The Miz. Morrison departed from WWE in 2011 and signed with Lucha Underground in 2014 as Johnny Mundo. Currently under his Mundo character, Nitro and Melina had a brief reunion when Melina debuted in Lucha Underground at Ultima Lucha, attacking Alberto El Patron during his match with Mundo, allowing Mundo to pick up the win. She departed from Lucha Underground shortly after her debut. = = In wrestling = = Double-team finishing moves Snapshot (Delayed flapjack (Mercury) / Elevated DDT (Nitro) combination) Double-team signature moves Double baseball slide Simultaneous leg drops to the throat and leg Entrance theme "Paparazzi" by Jim Johnston = = Championships and accomplishments = = Ohio Valley Wrestling OVW Southern Tag Team Championship (1 time) Pro Wrestling Illustrated Tag Team of the Year (2005) World Wrestling Entertainment WWE Tag Team Championship (3 times) WWE Women's Championship (1 time) – Melina

= New York State Route 9N = New York State Route 9N (NY 9N) is a north – south state highway in northeastern New York in the United States. It extends from an intersection with U.S. Route 9 (US 9), NY 29, and NY 50 in the city of Saratoga Springs to a junction with US 9 and NY 22 in the Clinton County village of Keeseville. At 143.49 miles (230.92 km) in total length, NY 9N is the longest letter-suffixed route in the state. It is concurrent with its parent route for 1 mile (1.6 km) in the village of Lake George and for three blocks in the hamlet of Elizabethtown. Much of NY 9N runs alongside either a river or a lake. It follows the Hudson River through northern Saratoga County and southern Warren County, the entirety of Lake George's western shoreline, the west edge of Lake Champlain between Ticonderoga and Westport, and the Ausable River from Keene to Keeseville. The other portions of NY 9N pass through predominantly rural and mountainous regions of the Adirondack Mountains. The NY 9N designation was originally created as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to replace New York State Route 9W, a route assigned to an alternate routing of US 9 from Elizabethtown to Keeseville. NY 9N was extended southward to Lake George c. 1936 and to Saratoga Springs in the early 1950s, supplanting several other routes (including New York State Route 9K) in the process. = = Route description = = NY 9N is the longest suffixed route in the state, extending for 143.5 miles (230.9 km) from Saratoga Springs to Keeseville. The route stretches through four counties — Saratoga, Warren, Essex and Clinton — and serves several villages and hamlets, including Lake George, Ticonderoga, and Elizabethtown. It overlaps its parent route, US 9, in Lake George and Elizabethtown and meets Interstate 87 (I-87) four times. = = = Saratoga County = = = NY 9N begins at the intersection of Church Street, Broadway (US 9, NY 29 westbound, and NY 50) and Lake Avenue (NY 29 eastbound) in the city of Saratoga Springs. Situated on the northwestern corner of the junction is the city's post office. The route heads west, following Church Street out of the city's center. At Bensonhurst Avenue, ownership and maintenance of NY 9N shifts from the city of Saratoga Springs to the New York State Department of Transportation. As NY 9N exits the city limits and enters the town of Greenfield, it turns to follow a more northerly routing. It meets County Route 21 (CR 21) just north of the town line, where the Church Street name ends, and CR 36 (Wilton Road) 2.5 miles (4.0 km) to the north in the hamlet of Greenfield Center. The route continues on into the town of Corinth, where it crosses the Blue Line into Adirondack Park. Not far to the north, NY 9N enters the village of Corinth, situated on the west bank of the Hudson River. The highway follows Saratoga Avenue and Maple Streets into the village center, where it turns north and exits the village on Main Street. NY 9N follows the western edge of the river north for roughly 4 miles (6 km) through the towns of Corinth and Hadley before crossing over it and passing from Saratoga County to Warren County. = = = Warren County = = = Across the county line in Lake Luzerne, NY 9N begins to deviate from the Hudson River, gradually curving to the northeast as it passes through the hamlets of Lake Luzerne, Fourth Lake, and Lake Vanare, all of which are named for small lakes bearing those names near the center of the communities. Just northeast of Lake Vanare, NY 9N enters the town of Lake George, where it connects to I-87 (the Adirondack Northway) at exit 21 and meets US 9. Here, it joins its parent route northward toward the village of Lake George. The conjoined routes intersect the northern end of NY 9L just south of the village line before becoming Canada Street and entering the village limits upon crossing over West Brook. US 9 and NY 9N serve as the primary north – south thoroughfare through the village before splitting at the north end of the village. While US 9 continues to the north, NY 9N heads northeast along the western edge of Lake George. The portion of NY 9N between Lake George village and Hague is relatively isolated, with mountains lining the western edge of the highway and the lakeshore located to the immediate east. Along this stretch, NY 9N serves numerous lakeside hamlets, the southernmost of which is Diamond Point, a community just south of the Lake George – Bolton town line. The route continues on, passing through the hamlets of Bolton and Bolton Landing, the latter of which is home to The Sagamore, a resort situated on an island in Lake George. North of Bolton Landing, the route leaves the main lake and instead follows the edge of Northwest Bay, an inlet separated from Lake George itself by a large, mountainous peninsula. The bay abruptly ends about 2 miles (3.2 km) to the north, at which point NY 9N curves to the east and proceeds through a pass in the mountains to rejoin the western edge of Lake George at Sabbath Day Point in the town of Hague. Here, the route turns back to the north and follows Lake George to the hamlet of Hague, where it meets the northern (signed as the eastern) terminus of NY 8. NY 9N continues to serve as the lakeside roadway for another 3 miles (5 km) before curving away from the lake and entering Essex County. = = = Essex and Clinton counties = = = Now in the town of Ticonderoga, NY 9N passes through a valley before curving to the east and entering the hamlet of Ticonderoga. For the most part, NY 9N bypasses the community as it turns north onto Wicker Street, the westernmost north – south through street in the hamlet. Northwest of the former village's center, NY 9N meets NY 22 and NY 74, the latter of which serves as a northerly bypass of Ticonderoga. NY 22 joins NY 9N here, following the route out of the hamlet. NY 9N and NY 22 head generally northward through an area of lowlands, which eventually give way to Lake Champlain as the conjoined routes pass into the town of Crown Point. Once again, NY 9N serves as the lakeside highway as it follows the western edge of the lake through the hamlet of Crown Point to the peninsula that gives the town its name. While NY 9N and NY 22 pass by Crown Point to the west, NY 185 directly serves the peninsula and the Crown Point State Historic Site, located at its tip. The routes continue northward along the lakeshore through the town of Moriah and the village of Port Henry to the town of Westport, where NY 9N and NY 22 split in the hamlet of Westport. While NY 22 continues north towards Essex, NY 9N heads west to follow a more inland routing through a series of narrow valleys. NY 9N intersects I-87 once again at exit 31 just before entering the town of Elizabethtown. The route continues west, passing over the Bouquet River and entering the hamlet of Elizabethtown, where it rejoins US 9 in the former village's center. Unlike the overlap in Lake George, this concurrency lasts for only three blocks before the two routes split. NY 9N continues to the west for 12 miles (19 km) through deep, narrow valleys to Keene, where it meets NY 73 north of Keene Valley. Here, NY 9N turns north, joining NY 73 for 2 miles (3.2 km) to the hamlet of Keene, located on the east branch of the Ausable River. NY 73 heads off to the west from this point toward Lake Placid; however, NY 9N follows the river northward into the town of Jay, where it intersects the east end of NY 86. The highway continues alongside the western bank of the river branch to the hamlet of Au Sable Forks, situated on the Essex – Clinton County line and at the point where the Ausable River's east and west branches come together. The highway enters Au Sable Forks from the south on South Main Street and becomes North Main Street upon crossing the west branch of the river and entering Clinton County and the town of Black Brook. NY 9N immediately turns east upon crossing the river, following Ausable Street out of the hamlet and along the northern edge of the Ausable River into the town of Au Sable. Here, NY 9N meets I-87 one final time at exit 34 just southwest of the village of Keeseville. NY 9N continues on into Keeseville, where it meets NY 22 once again at an intersection across the river from the village center. NY 22 and NY 9N come together once more, overlapping for 0.25 miles (0.40 km) to an intersection with US 9 a short distance downstream from the center of Keeseville. NY 9N comes to an end here while NY 22 turns south onto US 9. = = History = = In 1908, the New York State Legislature created Route 22, an unsigned legislative route that was initially split into two segments. The northern half of the route ran from Riparius to Rouses Point and mostly followed what is now US 9 between the two locations. From Elizabethtown to Keeseville, however, Route 22 followed a more westerly alignment via Keene, Jay, and Au Sable Forks. When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924, all of legislative Route 22 north of Riparius became part of NY 6, which continued south toward Glens Falls on what is now US 9. At the same time, the section of modern NY 9N between Saratoga Springs and Lake George was designated as part of NY 10. The portion between Ticonderoga and Westport became part of a realigned NY 30 by the following year. By 1926, the piece of current NY 9N from Hague to Ticonderoga was designated as the easternmost leg of NY 47, which continued west to Chestertown on modern NY 8. In 1927, most of NY 6 north of Round Lake was replaced by US 9 when U.S. Highways were first signed in New York. The lone exception was between Elizabethtown and Keeseville, where US 9 followed a previously unnumbered highway to the east instead. The bypassed section of NY 6 between the two locations was redesignated as NY 9W at this time. NY 9W was renumbered to NY 9N as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, eliminating the alphanumerical duplication between itself and US 9W. NY 47, meanwhile, became part of the new NY 8 in the 1930 renumbering, allowing the NY 47 designation to be reassigned to a previously unnumbered roadway along the western shore of Lake George between NY 8 in Hague and US 9 in Lake George village. At the same time, NY 10 was realigned south of Long Lake and replaced with NY 9K from Saratoga Springs to Lake George while the roadway connecting Ticonderoga to Westport became part of NY 22 after NY 30 was reassigned elsewhere in the state. The segment of modern NY 9N from Westport to Elizabethtown, previously unnumbered, was designated NY 195. NY 9N was extended south to Lake George c. 1936, supplanting both NY 47 and NY 195. From Westport to Hague, NY 9N overlapped with NY 22 (from Westport to Ticonderoga) and NY 8 (from Crown Point to Hague). The route was extended once more in the early 1950s to its current southern terminus in Saratoga Springs, replacing NY 9K and creating a short overlap with US 9 through Lake George village in the process. The overlap with NY 8 was eliminated in the mid-1960s when that route was truncated to end at its junction with NY 9N in Hague. = = Major intersections = =

= The Fires of Pompeii = "The Fires of Pompeii" is the second episode of the fourth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. It was broadcast on BBC One on 12 April 2008. Set shortly before and during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, this episode depicts alien time traveller the Doctor (David Tennant) and his new companion Donna Noble (Catherine Tate) on a trip to Pompeii, where they uncover an alien invasion. Their clashing worldviews present an ethical dilemma for the Doctor. The episode was filmed in Rome's Cinecittà studios, and was the first time the Doctor Who production team took its cast abroad for filming since its revival. The production of the episode was impeded by a fire near the sets several weeks before filming and by problems for the production team crossing into Europe. Critics' opinions regarding the episode were generally mixed. The premise of the episode — the moral dilemma the Doctor faces, and Donna's insistence that he save a family from Pompeii — were widely praised. However, the episode's writing was criticised, in particular, for the characterisation of the supporting cast: The dialogue was described as "one-dimensional" and Peter Capaldi and Phil Davis's dialogue as "whimpering and scowling". = = Plot = = The Doctor and Donna arrive in what the Doctor believes to be Rome in the first century AD. After an earthquake and witnessing a nearby mountain begin to smoulder, he realises he has in fact materialised in Pompeii one day before the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. When he and Donna return to where the TARDIS landed, he discovers that a local merchant sold it to sculptor Lobus Caecilius. The Doctor and Donna go to Caecilius's house to retrieve it. Unknown to them, they have been followed by a soothsayer who reports to the Sibylline Sisterhood that the prophesised man in the blue box has arrived, and the Sisters fear the prediction that his arrival brings fire and death. At the house, the Doctor is surprised by Caecilius's daughter Evelina, who seems to have extrasensory perception (ESP) and knows personal details about the Doctor and Donna. They are interrupted by the local augur, Lucius Petrus Dextrus, who has arrived to collect a sculpture he commissioned. The Doctor is intrigued by the sculpture, which resembles a segment of an oversized circuit board. Lucius Petrus reveals that he also has powerful ESP and calls out the name of the Doctor's home planet, Gallifrey. The Doctor wishes to learn more about the sculptures and enlists Caecilius's son Quintus to help him break into Lucius Petrus' house. Inside, the Doctor deduces that the circuits will make an energy converter, but he is caught by Lucius Petrus. The two escape, but Lucius Petrus beckons a large stone creature to attack and kill them. The stone creature appears in Caecilius's house and attacks them, but Quintus saves them by dousing the creature in water and killing it. In the confusion, the Sisterhood kidnap Donna, and the Doctor sets off to rescue her. He meets the high priestess of the Sisterhood, who is revealed to be transforming into a stone creature. The Doctor discovers that they are being controlled by the Pyroviles, volcanic creatures whose home planet of Pyrovilia was lost (see Story arcs in Doctor Who # Medusa Cascade). The Doctor is attacked by the Sisterhood, but he escapes with Donna into an underground tunnel that leads into the heart of Mount Vesuvius. The Doctor discovers that the volcano is being used by the Pyroviles to convert the human race and conquer Earth. The Doctor realises the volcano will not erupt if the energy converter is running, and tells Donna that the volcanic eruption is a fixed point in time and must always happen. The Doctor and Donna get into an escape pod and together press a lever which overloads the converter and triggers the eruption, killing the Pyroviles and launching the pod clear of the blast. The Doctor and Donna run for the TARDIS and the Doctor coldly leaves Caecilius and his family cowering in their home and dematerialises. Donna tearfully begs him to go back and at least save one person. The Doctor finally relents and goes back for Caecilius and his family. He leaves them on a hill overlooking the destruction, and together with Donna slips out quietly as the family mourns Pompeii. The Doctor comments to Donna that she was right - he does need someone to stop him. Six months later in Rome, Caecilius's family are shown to be successful. He is running a profitable business, Evelina has a social life in comparison to her seclusion in Pompeii, and his son Quintus is studying to become a doctor. Before Quintus leaves, he pays tribute to the family's household gods (in marked contrast to his disrespectful attitude towards them at the start of the episode), a bas relief depiction of which are in the form of the Doctor, Donna and the TARDIS. = = = Cultural references = = = The Doctor identifies himself as "Spartacus", to which Donna replies "So am I." This is a reference to a scene in the film Spartacus, where all the slaves shield Spartacus by each shouting "I'm Spartacus!" = = Production = = = = = Writing = = = Executive producer Russell T Davies originally planned to include a serial set in Pompeii in the first new series of Doctor Who, after seeing the documentary Pompeii: The Last Day. That episode's position was given to "Boom Town" and the idea was shelved for three years. The episode was written by James Moran, who previously wrote the film Severance and the Torchwood episode "Sleeper"; Moran was requested to write the episode as a consequence of the latter. Moran had difficulty writing the episode, and had to rewrite the Doctor's opening line over twenty times. The Pyrovile were also edited during writing: they were previously called Pyrovillaxians and Pyrovellians. Moran worked closely with Davies because of the constraints imposed by filming. Davies encouraged Moran to insert linguistic jokes similar to those in the comic book series Asterix, such as Lucius Petrus Dextrus ("Lucius Stone Right Arm"), TK Maxximus, and Spartacus; the use of the phrase "I'm Spartacus!" refers to the 1960 film. Moran based the ancillary characters of Metella (Tracey Childs) and Quintus from Caecilius's family in the Cambridge Latin Course; the character of Evelina was the only member of the family created by Moran. At the end of Book I of the Cambridge Latin Course, Caecilius and Metella perish in Pompeii on the day of the eruption, but Quintus survives. This episode creates an alternate ending to their story, where they are all rescued by the Doctor and move to Rome. The line "You must excuse my friend, she's from Barcelona" was a reference to an apologetic catchphrase from Fawlty Towers, attributed by the production team to Sybil Fawlty (and forming a meta-pun on the Sibylline Sisterhood), but also harks back to previous mentions of Barcelona by the ninth and tenth Doctors. The episode was heavily based on a moral question posed to the Doctor by Donna: whether to warn the population of Pompeii, or to recuse themselves from the situation. Moran also had to deal with the intensity and sensitivity required when writing about the eruption. Davies and Moran both appreciated Catherine Tate's performance, and cited Donna's ability to humanise the Doctor and help him deal with "lose-lose situations" as the reason the Doctor travels with companions. The series' story arc was hinted at by the Doctor's invocation of the Shadow Proclamation, an intergalactic code previously invoked in "Rose", "The Christmas Invasion", "Fear Her" and "Partners in Crime", and referencing the "Medusa Cascade", which executive producer Russell T Davies stated in Doctor Who Magazine would "come back to haunt us" later in the series. Moran also added continuity links independent of the story arc: as a "fun continuity thing", the script includes a scene in which the Doctor admits partial responsibility for the Great Fire of Rome, as depicted at the end of the 1965 serial The Romans; and the sale of the TARDIS as modern art refers to the 1979 serial City of Death, which includes a scene in which the TARDIS is appraised in a similar fashion. Additionally, Lucius Petrus, while under prophetic influence, informs Donna that "there is something on your back" — a foreshadowing of the story development in the season's later episode "Turn Left". = = = Filming = = = The episode was filmed at the Cinecittà studios in Rome in September 2007. The filming reused some of the sets from the show Rome. Other locations suggested were in Malta and Wales, but the size of the project, the biggest since the show's revival, resulted in production taking place in Italy. This was the first time the majority of an episode was filmed abroad and the first time the cast had filmed abroad since 1996; the television movie was filmed in Vancouver and pick-up shots had previously been made in New York City for "Daleks in Manhattan". Cinecittà had accepted the BBC's request in order to promote the studios, despite the show's small budget. Filming an episode abroad had been suggested in 2004, but the episode was the first such occasion. Planning began in April 2007, before Moran had written the script, and continued until the production team travelled to Italy. Several weeks before filming started, a fire disrupted the production. Moving to Rome caused problems for the production team: the equipment truck was delayed for several hours at the Swiss border; the special effects team were delayed for twenty-four hours at Customs in Calais. The production team only had 48 hours to film on location. The aftermath of the eruption was filmed on the same night as the location shots. To create the falling ash, the special effects team used a large mass of cork, with a "constant supply of debris raining down". Scenes set at the Temple of Sibyl were filmed at the Temple of Peace, Cardiff on 18 and 19 September 2007. = = = Cast notes = = = Two of the cast members of "The Fires of Pompeii" were later cast in starring roles for Doctor Who. Karen Gillan returned in the fifth series to play Amy Pond, full-time companion of Matt Smith's Eleventh Doctor. Casting director Andy Pryor suggested her to new executive producer Steven Moffat based on her performance in this episode as one of the soothsayers. Peter Capaldi was cast as the Twelfth Doctor in 2013, and made his first appearance in the 2013 Christmas special "The Time of the Doctor" (with an uncredited cameo appearance in the anniversary special "The Day of the Doctor") Capaldi also played John Frobisher throughout Children of Earth, the third series in the Doctor Who spin-off Torchwood. Tracey Childs and Phil Davis have also performed on Doctor Who audio productions for Big Finish. = = Broadcast = = Overnight figures estimated the episode was watched by 8.1 million viewers, with a peak of 8.5 million viewers. The consolidated figure was 9.04 million. The episode was the second most watched programme on 12 April; Britain's Got Talent was viewed by 9.44 million people. The episode was the tenth most-watched programme of the week and received an Appreciation Index score of 87 (considered Excellent). = = = Critical reception = = = The episode received generally mixed reviews. Ian Hyland, writing for News of the World, said that Tate "was almost bearable this week". He also complimented the "TK Maxximus" joke. He was ambivalent to Donna's reaction to the Doctor leaving Caecilius's family to die: he criticised her acting, comparing her to The Catherine Tate Show character Joannie "Nan" Taylor, but said "top again if that was intentional". He closed saying "this week was a hundred times better than that lame opening episode. Scarier aliens, stronger guest stars and a proper adult-friendly storyline involving sisterhoods and soothsayers." Scott Matthewman of The Stage said that Donna's insistence to change the past "formed the emotional backbone of this episode, producing some truly heartbreaking performances". He liked the joke about the TARDIS's translating the Doctor's and Donna's Latin phrases to Celtic, saying it was "subtly played throughout the episode [...] in a way that builds the joke without trampling it into the ground". His favourite part was Donna's attempts to divert the population of Pompeii away from the beach; the scene was "the emotional highpoint of a series of heart rending scenes". However, he criticised Moran's writing, specifically, Quintus's and Metella's dialogue, saying the former "remained pretty much one-dimensional throughout". Alan Stanley Blair of SyFy Portal also gave a positive review. He was highly appreciative of Tate, saying "[she] moved even further away from her" Runaway "character that initially joined the show." The phrase "TK Maxximus" and the Doctor's use of a water pistol to subdue the Pyrovile were complimented, as were the special effects used to animate the Pyrovile. However, he disapproved of the use of Cockney colloquialisms in the episode, most notably the Stallholder (Phil Cornwell) saying "lovely jubbly". Ben Rawson-Jones of Digital Spy gave the episode three stars out of five. His opening said "Fantastic effects and a well developed moral dilemma bolster 'The Fires Of Pompeii', although the episode fails to erupt." Rawson-Jones felt that Moran's script took "too long to actively engage the viewer and tap into the compelling premise of the time travellers arriving in the doomed city shortly before 'volcano day'." and that "the subplots are unsatisfyingly muddled for the majority of the narrative." He also complained about the characterisation of the supporting cast, saying that "Peter Capaldi and Phil Davis [deserved] better". However, he said the moral dilemma the Doctor faced was "compelling" and the Doctor's use of the water pistol "adds a pleasing sense of fun to counterbalance the impending stench of death and harks nicely back to the Tom Baker era of the show." Overall, he appreciated the premise of the episode, but thought the episode "deserved better writing". = = = Reviews = = = "The Fires of Pompeii" reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide

= Zennor Head = Zennor Head / ˈzɛnʊər hɛd / is a 750-metre (2,460 ft) long promontory on the Cornish coast of England, between Pendour Cove and Porthzennor Cove. Facing the Atlantic Ocean, it lies 1 kilometre north-west of the village of Zennor and 1.6 kilometres east of the next promontory, Gurnard's Head. The granite (Killas) cliffs rise over 200 feet (60 m) from the sea and the highest point of the headland is 314 feet (96 m) above sea level, with an Ordnance Survey triangulation station. Zennor Head is on the South West Coast Path, which follows the cliff edge closely, skirting the entire perimeter of the headland. The promontory is part of the Penwith Heritage Coast, and is the largest coastal feature in the United Kingdom that begins with the letter "Z". It gets its name from a local saint, Senara. Zennor Head was mined for copper and tin in the Victorian Era. There is no longer any residential or commercial occupancy on the headland, but it is occupied by a variety of coastal animals and plants, such as kestrels and gorse. = = Etymology = = The name "Zennor Head" originates from the name of a local saint, Senara. According to local legend, Senara was thrown off a headland in Brittany in a barrel after being falsely accused of adultery by her husband and washed up on the Cornish coast, founding Zennor and giving her name to the eponymous village (and subsequently Zennor Head, Zennor Quoit and Porthzennor Cove), before continuing to Ireland. The "s" changed to a "z", an occurrence common in the West Country but rare elsewhere, and as such is the largest coastal feature in the United Kingdom to begin with the letter "Z". = = History = = The headland is bordered by Cornish granite hedges, and the farming system dates from about 4000 BC, the time of the Bronze Age in Cornwall. The surrounding area and village of Zennor has been continually occupied for over 4,000 years. Zennor Head was mined extensively for copper and tin in the 19th century, and drainage adits remain visible on the eastern side. The promontory was donated to the National Trust in December 1953. The Southwest Coast Path was created in 1978, and runs along the top of Zennor Head as part of its 630 miles (1,010 km), following the edge of the cliffs closely. Zennor in Darkness, the 1994 McKitterick Prize-winning novel by Helen Dunmore, was partly set around Zennor Head. In 2009 the headland suffered flooding which affected the cliff-top footpath. The promontory has been designated as part of the Penwith Heritage Coast. = = Geography and geology = = Zennor Head is located on the north coast of Cornwall, England, facing the Atlantic Ocean. A headland extending some 750 metres (2,460 ft), it is surrounded by steep cliffs plunging into the sea below. It is west of the town of St Ives, and north-east of the town of Penzance. The nearest human settlement is the village of Zennor, and the headland is flanked by two coves, Pendour and Porthzennor. The nearest headland is Gurnard's Head, 1.6 kilometres to the west. Access is from the South West Coast Path, or the B3306 road (West Cornwall coast road). There is a deep inlet known as Horseback Zawn on the western side, where seabirds nest. The headland is topped by an Ordnance Survey "Trig Point". The Killas strata, which is exposed over the majority of Zennor Head, is a sedimentary rock formation laid down in the Devonian period, between approximately 415 and 375 million years ago (myr). Zennor Head is on the surface boundary of the so-called "Land's End Granite", part of the Cornubian batholith which dates from 279 to 274 myr. However, the intrusion of the granite into the Killas strata altered it metamorphically into a shale-type rock. = = Fauna and Flora = = Zennor Head is home to a variety of wildlife, including the re-introduced Cornish choughs (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax). Grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) have been sighted off the coast. Many seabirds nest on the cliffs, especially around Horseback Zawn, including herring gulls (Larus argentatus) and fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis). Kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) hunt inland of the shoreline. The headland is primarily covered with grass, as well as heather (Calluna vulgaris), bracken (Pteridium aquilinum), thyme (Thymus mongolicus) and western gorse (Ulex gallii). In 1962, specimens of the comparatively rare western clover (Trifolium occidentale) were found on Zennor Head. The lichen Dirina massiliensis has also been found high on the acid schist cliffs on the north-, seaward-side of the headland. The parasitic plant dodder (Cuscuta x.) is also found amongst the other plants. There are also typical coastal flowering plants such as kidney vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria), sea campion (Silene uniflora), and thrift (Armeria maritima). = = Gallery = =

= Emily Ratajkowski = Emily O'Hara Ratajkowski (/ ˌrɑːtaɪˈkɒfski /; born June 7, 1991) is an American model and actress. Born to American parents in London and raised primarily in California, she rose to prominence in 2013 after appearing in the music video for Robin Thicke's "Blurred Lines", which became the number one song of the year in several countries and attracted controversy over its purported sexist content. Ratajkowski's modeling career has progressed from retail ad work to art house erotica and high fashion. She appeared on the cover of the March 2012 issue of the erotic magazine treats!, which led to her being asked to appear in two music videos – "Blurred Lines" and Maroon 5's "Love Somebody". She appeared in the 2014 and 2015 Sports Illustrated swimsuit issues. Ratajkowski made her professional runway modeling debut for Marc Jacobs at New York Fashion Week in 2015 and has since walked on the Paris Fashion Week runway for Miu Miu. She appeared in a Buick Super Bowl commercial during Super Bowl 50. Ratajkowski began acting as a child in the San Diego area before she gained a recurring role on iCarly and later roles in major films. Her feature film debut was as the mistress of Ben Affleck's character in the 2014 film Gone Girl. Ratajkowski's 2015 roles included the films Entourage and We Are Your Friends (her first leading role) as well as the miniseries The Spoils Before Dying. Ratajkowski is an advocate for women's health issues as a spokesperson for Planned Parenthood and supports the right of women to express their sexuality. Her claim to being a feminist has been both supported and disputed. She is known for her sex appeal and fashion sense. = = Early life = = Ratajkowski was born in Westminster, London, the only child of Kathleen Balgley and John David "J. D." Ratajkowski, both American. Balgley, a professor of English, was teaching under the Fulbright Program, when she met J. D., a painter and art teacher, while they were both teaching at San Dieguito Academy. At the time of their daughter's birth, they were aged 39 and 45, respectively, and unmarried. Ratajkowski describes her mother as a "feminist and intellectual". The family lived in West Kensington and Bloomsbury before they settled in the United States in San Diego, California, when Ratajkowski was five. She was raised primarily in nearby Encinitas in a small house near the ocean. Balgley formerly taught at California Polytechnic State University. Ratajkowski is of Polish, Irish, and Polish Jewish descent. Her father was raised Catholic, while her mother was raised Jewish. Ratajkowski describes her heritage as "Polish Israeli". She lived in, and traveled to, many parts of Europe as a youth, including long periods in the Irish town of Bantry and on the Spanish island of Mallorca. She spent her young adult summers in Ireland until she became a full-time model. Before Ratajkowski left London at the age of five, she was obsessed with theater. She began acting as a child, staging shows for her family. Ratajkowski's first formal role was as Elsa in an adaptation of The Little Match Girl at the North Coast Repertory Theatre School in Solana Beach, California. Later, in 2004, she played Harriet in the interactive Lyceum Theatre production of Harriet Potter and the Throne of Applewort. Ratajkowski grew up without television; she tried soccer, acting, and ballet before modeling. Ratajkowski visited nude beaches in Europe with her family during her youth. Exposure to the nude female figure in photography and art during her formative years, including the work of her father, as well as the photography of Helmut Newton and Herb Ritts, prepared Ratajkowski for nude work. She is comfortable with the naked body, and states, "We have this culture of men, especially, watching pornography, but then [they are] offended by a classic nude portrait or photograph, and I've never felt that way." Ratajkowski was also influenced by third-wave feminism and works such as The Beauty Myth and Promiscuities by Naomi Wolf. She was a physically mature young teenager who endured pressure to limit expressing her sexuality and how she presented herself. = = Career = = With encouragement from an acting coach, Ratajkowski met and signed with a talent agent who contacted Ford Models. That same day, she signed with Ford at age 14 and went on to do teen print catalog modeling for Kohl's and Nordstrom. At 15, Ratajkowski began auditioning for Disney and iCarly roles, but as she pursued acting she was often cast as a "bitchy girl", cheerleader, or other limited role. She attended San Dieguito Academy high school in San Diego, while modeling and acting in Los Angeles. After two nondescript movie roles, she appeared as Gibby's girlfriend, Tasha, in two episodes of the third season of Nickelodeon's iCarly (2009 – 2010). Her manager discouraged her from pursuing many acting engagements until she could be more selective. Ratajkowski attended the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) for one year in 2009, then decided to model full-time. She found the fine art education at the UCLA School of the Arts and Architecture arbitrary and in conflict with her artistic concepts. She did not enjoy socializing with fellow students. After campaigns and editorials with photographer Tony Duran, Ratajkowski began shooting more fashion editorials and posed for several early issues of the artistic erotica magazine treats!, including the cover of its third issue, in March 2012. She credits that cover for bringing her the two unsolicited, high-profile, music video roles. Ratajkowski later filmed commercials for Nikon and Carl's Jr., including multiple versions of a 2012 Carl's Jr. commercial with Sara Jean Underwood. She also did nude and clothed art magazine modeling, as well as work for Frederick's of Hollywood; a 2012 holiday video and a 2011 Valentine's video in which Ratajkowski appeared for the company are among the most popular videos on the company's YouTube channel. Ratajkowski worked with photographer Tony Kelly for the March 2013 GQ Turkey cover. = = = Music video performances = = = Ratajkowski appeared in Robin Thicke, T.I., and Pharrell Williams's 2013 video, "Blurred Lines". Previously, Ratajkowski had been cast in two other music videos: "Fast Car" by Taio Cruz, which was released on November 5, 2012, and Maroon 5's "Love Somebody", which was released two months after "Blurred Lines". "Love Somebody", shot on January 13, and "Blurred Lines" were both produced in 2013. The video for "Love Somebody" was released on May 21, 2013. Directed by Rich Lee, it shows bare-chested Adam Levine using inverse green screen technology to rub paint onto Ratajkowski with his hands. As they touch, they reveal each other. Thicke had seen Ratajkowski's treats! cover that The New York Times's Bee Shapiro described as "an artfully composed black-and-white photograph of Ms. Ratajkowski sitting completely nude with her knees tucked to her chest" and convinced director Diane Martel to cast her in the "Blurred Lines" music video. Martel felt that "she looked smart and stunningly beautiful" in the photo. Ratajkowski initially declined the role, fearing being classified as a music video model, but Martel persuaded her. The video was released on March 20, 2013. On March 28, Thicke posted an explicit version, with a topless Ratajkowski. "Blurred Lines" was controversial: its video was called sexist for its perceived degradation of women, and some felt its lyrics promoted rape. Others disagreed, asserting that the lyrics supported female power and sexual freedom. Martel defended Ratajkowski's performance, saying: "it's very, very funny and subtly ridiculing." Ratajkowski did not think of the video as sexist and claimed that the producers, through the use of humor and sarcasm, "took something that on paper sounded really sexist and misogynistic and made it more interesting". She said that the song "gave me an opportunity to say the things that I felt about feminism today and about women in general in pop culture." Ratajkowski did not feel objectified and enjoyed performing in a sexual manner: the attention given to the nudity in the video, she said, shows that America has not advanced as far as it should have, and, she believes, society represses sexuality, which is bad for both sexes. "Blurred Lines", and Ratajkowski's associated video performance, was prominent beyond the sociopolitical controversies. The song became the number one song of 2013 on music charts in many countries, including Canada, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. Although second on the year-end US Billboard Hot 100 chart, the song's twelve consecutive weeks at number one made it the longest-running number one song of the decade until "Uptown Funk" spent fourteen consecutive weeks at number one in 2015. The song also remained in the news due to a copyright infringement lawsuit and appeal. = = = Breakthrough = = = The "Blurred Lines" video garnered Ratajkowski notoriety, especially as a sex symbol. In October 2013, Esquire magazine named Ratajkowski "Woman of the Year", over online fan vote finalist Jennifer Lawrence. That December, Rolling Stone magazine listed her among its twenty hottest sex symbols. In February 2014, Sports Illustrated magazine named Ratajkowski as one of twelve 50th anniversary swimsuit issue rookies. In April, FHM ranked her the fourth sexiest woman in the world. Maxim magazine included Ratajkowski at number 62 on its 2014 Hot 100 list. AskMen ranked her the third most desirable woman of 2014. Ratajkowski was on the July 2013 cover of CR Fashion Book, which included erotic scenes with Karlie Kloss and male models, photographed by Bruce Weber. On June 24, she appeared topless in the July 2014 American GQ cover story, photographed by Michael Thompson. A controversy ensued at retailer Lands' End, some of whose customers received the issue for free. Some customers objected to the racy images, forcing Lands' End CEO Edgar Huber to apologize. Ratajkowski leveraged her sudden prominence into supporting roles in major films. Ratajkowski played Andie Hardy, the mistress of Ben Affleck's character, in David Fincher's 2014 adaptation of Gillian Flynn's novel Gone Girl. Affleck encouraged Fincher to consider Ratajkowski after seeing the "Blurred Lines" video. U-T San Diego described Ratajkowski's performance as "nuanced", while Andrew O'Hehir of Salon and Wesley Morris of Grantland wrote that her small role as a "duplicitous and manipulative former student" was critical. Reflecting on the performance in 2016, Wolf described Ratajkowski's portrayal as sympathetic and compassionate. Days after Gone Girl's September 26, 2014, New York Film Festival premiere, Ratajkowski became the cover model for the November 2014 issue of Cosmopolitan. On October 30, 2014, she appeared with Taylor Kitsch in the Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare live-action trailer. Ratajkowski appeared on the February 2015 FHM cover, but she tweeted that her picture was used without her consent. FHM responded that "we liked the pictures so much we stuck one on our front cover". Ratajkowski co-starred in the 2015 film Entourage as a fictionalized version of herself, playing the love interest of Adrian Grenier's character, Vincent Chase. Her performance received critical commentary ranging from "less than compelling", by the The Hollywood Reporter's Sheri Linden, to "uncanny realism", by The Philadelphia Inquirer's Steven Rea. Grantland's Morris described her role and performance with scathing sarcasm. She was also cast in the 2015 miniseries The Spoils Before Dying as Agent Day, appearing late in the series. Her performance was favorably reviewed by Emily L. Stephens of The A.V. Club, while other critics commented that she was part of a solid supporting cast. Ratajkowski earmed her first leading role, opposite Zac Efron, in We Are Your Friends, a musical drama released in August 2015, and was part of the film's promotional tour to Europe and North America. Starting with the August 11 London premiere, this tour marked her ascension as a style icon as she earned multiple best dressed citations from various sources. She played Stanford University dropout Sophie, the love interest of Efron's character and girlfriend / personal assistant of Wes Bentley's character. Her performance received mixed reviews. Alonso Duralde of TheWrap described the role as thin, as did Ty Burr of The Boston Globe. Burr said that Ratajkowski's performance was "surpassingly dull", while Nell Minow of Beliefnet stated that she "does more posing than acting". Kyle Smith of the New York Post described her performance as "quietly entrancing", and Jordan Hoffman of the Daily News described Ratajkowski's performance as "stunning and sweet". Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph and Grantland's Morris noted Ratajkowski's rhythmic dancing skills and sex appeal, as previously seen in "Blurred Lines". Around the time of the release of We Are Your Friends, Ratajkowski appeared on the covers of Grazia France, British GQ, harper by Harper's Bazaar, InStyle UK, and InStyle Australia, as well as a role as a 2015 MTV Video Music Awards presenter. The British GQ cover story was photographed by Mario Testino, who produced a short film featuring Ratajkowski for the magazine's website. Soon after, on September 17, 2015, she made her runway debut for Marc Jacobs at the spring / summer 2016 New York Fashion Week finale. This appearance contributed to her number one listing among Vogue's 12 Breakout Beauty Stars of 2015. For fall / winter 2016 fashions, Ratajkowski walked the Paris Fashion Week runway for Miu Miu on March 9, 2016. She has expressed the desire to break barriers for shorter and more curvaceous models, commenting: "You don ’ t have to be 5 '9" and an A-cup to be a successful model. " A Buick Super Bowl ad for its Cascada convertible during Super Bowl 50 on February 7, 2016, featured Ratajkowski and Odell Beckham, Jr. The ad, in which she made a wedding bouquet catch reminiscent of Beckham's famous catch from 2014, received average ratings, according to USA Today's admeter. The ad was filmed with a stunt double making the catch. Los Angeles-based jewelry designer Jacquie Aiche featured Ratajkowski in a spring 2016 campaign wearing almost nothing but body chains, rings, bracelets, pendants, and chokers. In May, Ratajkowski appeared in the Russian-language music video "Inseparable" (sometimes translated as "Indivisible") with Russian entertainer Dima Bilan as a photographer and Ratajkowski as his muse. As of June 2016, Ratajkowski has a variety of upcoming roles. She will play Jessica Weintraub, the female lead opposite Spencer Boldman in the film Cruise, which is written and directed by Robert Siegel. Ratajkowski was hired as part of the cast of the film In Darkness, alongside Natalie Dormer, Ed Skrein, and Stacy Martin. She will also be involved in Joe Swanberg's Netflix series, Easy. In June 2016, she stated she was filming for Project Runway. Ratajkowski was one of five models to appear on the August 2016 Vogue Germany alternate covers along with Stella Maxwell, irIrina Shayk, Lily Aldridge and Rosie Huntington-Whiteley. = = Personal life = = In February 2014, Ratajkowski broke up with her boyfriend Andrew Dryden, a creative director and menswear buyer. In September 2014, Ratajkowski was a victim in a female celebrity hacking and internet posting wave of stolen nude iCloud photographs. In December 2014, Us Weekly confirmed she had begun dating musician Jeff Magid. Ratajkowski has raised funds, done public service announcements, and committed to a short film promoting reproductive and sexual health for Planned Parenthood (PPFA). She describes PPFA as her main charity because of its role in women's health. Ratajkowski's involvement has drawn ire from right to life advocates such as the National Right to Life Committee. Ratajkowski says that she enjoys freedom of sexual expression "while still being a feminist", and is outspoken about using her celebrity to support the empowerment of women and women's sexuality. Amanda Hess of Slate questioned whether she is a feminist or an opportunist exploiting feminism. In The New York Times, Ratajkowski expressed her frustration that "society somehow feels that women can't manage to be political, feminist and a sex symbol". She has called society's reaction to the naked female form "weird". As a woman who enjoys expressions of the body ranging from ballet to pornography, Ratajkowski feels that she can be nude in her professional work and also support equality for women. British GQ's Charlie Burton stated that she is a feminist with more to say than others. He said that her message is one of sexual empowerment, because sex should not feel like a service and should be beneficial to all involved parties. Wolf said Ratajkowski is a modern feminist in a Harper's Bazaar interview of Ratajkowski, in which Ratajkowski defended her form of feminism. On the eve of the February 2016 New Hampshire Democratic primary, Ratajkowski spoke at a Bernie Sanders rally in New Hampshire to endorse his campaign. One of the main points of her speech, and her social media activity surrounding it, was to counter Gloria Steinem's statement that young female Sanders supporters were involved in the campaign (rather than supporting fellow female Hillary Clinton) to meet potential male romantic partners. = = Media image = = Ratajkowski has been frequently named in lists and polls that rank beauty or fashion in the media. She was ranked in Maxim's Hot 100 list in both 2014 (No. 62) and 2015 (No. 2). AskMen ranked her among its most desirable women of 2014 (No. 3) and 2016 (No. 14); while FHM ranked her among the sexiest in 2014 (No. 4), and 2015 (No. 18). She is also praised for her fashion sense: Ratajkowski made Vogue Italia's Best Dressed List of 2015, and Harper's Bazaar placed her atop its best dressed list at the February 2016 New York Fashion Week. Ratajkowski's acting career had a slow start. After a minor acting role in Gone Girl, she played herself in Entourage. In their respective reviews of We Are Your Friends, Richard Roeper and Wesley Morris said that Ratajkowski, again playing the attractive object of affection, again failed to demonstrate acting prowess. Ratajkowski described the pressure that she endured as a youth around her sexuality and her thoughts on female sexual empowerment, in Lena Dunham's Lenny Letter newsletter on February 16, 2016. Elle magazine, Esquire magazine, and Harper's Bazaar republished her letter. Critics, including Glamour magazine's Hayley Spencer, The Huffington Post's Jenavieve Hatch, and Rachael Moon of the Daily Mirror, praised it. According to Cosmopolitan magazine's Nikki Kinstlinger and Georgia Simmonds of Marie Claire, Ratajkowski finds self-empowerment in defining and owning the expression of her sexuality and body. Salon's Erin Coulehan described the essay's identification of a societal catch-22, in which showcasing female sexuality that may "offend, excite, or create envy" leads to criticism and body shaming. InStyle's Isabella Silvers concurred that "female sexuality isn't always for the benefit of someone else". Charlotte Gill of The Independent admitted that she was in the minority in finding the letter "rambling" and "dull". Ratajkowski defended Kim Kardashian from criticism when Kardashian posted a controversial naked selfie on Instagram in March, saying that women have the right to "express their sexuality and share their bodies however they choose". Then, Kardashian and Ratajkowski jointly advocated via social media for female sexual empowerment and against body shaming; nearly one million social media followers responded positively, and prominent global media outlets took notice. Following her letter and social media statement, the controversy about her feminism heightened. Piers Morgan stated that Ratajkowski's form of feminism was a misguided affront to true feminism, labeling it pseudo-feminist gibberish. After Morgan wrote that "feminism as it was intended is dead", the Chicago Tribune's Heidi Stevens, as well as The Daily Telegraph's Helen Pankhurst (Emmeline Pankhurst's great-granddaughter) said that Ratajkowski neither killed nor bolstered feminism. Women's Wear Daily's Taylor Harris questioned the impact of Ratajkowski's feminism. The Independent's Gill questioned Ratajkowski's feminism, saying that her professional activities "continued to advocate industries that treat us as pieces of meat". Heather Saul of The Independent wrote in support of Ratajkowski in an article subtitled "Ratajkowski is becoming an important feminist voice in the debate over female censorship and sexuality". New York's Allie Jones called Ratajkowski "the best feminist celeb". = = Filmography = = = = = Film = = = = = = Television = = = = = = Music videos = = = = = Magazine cover history = =

= Spafford Farm massacre = The Spafford Farm massacre, also referred to as the Wayne massacre, was an attack upon U.S. militia and civilians that occurred as part of the Black Hawk War near present-day South Wayne, Wisconsin. Spafford Farm was settled in 1830 by Omri Spafford and his partner Francis Spencer. Before the war started they made numerous improvements to the parcel of land. On June 14, 1832 five men were attacked by a Kickapoo war party, three whites were killed instantly, including Spafford. In total at least one Native and four white settlers were killed in the action. Two men managed to escape, though one was fooled into thinking Fort Hamilton had been overtaken by a group of friendly Menominee for days before he finally sought refuge there. The incident at Spafford Farm eventually led to the Battle of Horseshoe Bend (also known as the Battle of Pecatonica). = = Background = = As a consequence of an 1804 treaty between the Governor of Indiana Territory and a group of Sauk and Fox leaders regarding land settlement, in 1828 the Sauk and Fox tribes vacated their lands in Illinois and moved west of the Mississippi River. However, Sauk Black Hawk and others disputed the treaty, claiming that the full tribal councils had not been consulted, nor did those representing the tribes have authorization to cede land. Angered by the loss of his birthplace, Black Hawk led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River beginning in 1830. Each time, he was persuaded without bloodshed to return west. In April 1832, encouraged by promises of alliance with other tribes and the British, he again moved his so-called "British Band" of around 1,000 warriors and civilians into Illinois. Finding no allies, he attempted to return to Iowa, but events overtook him and led to the Battle of Stillman's Run. A number of other engagements followed, and the state militias of Wisconsin and Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk's band. The ensuing conflict became known as the Black Hawk War. On May 19, a group of militia volunteers were ambushed at Buffalo Grove and the same day as the raid at Plum River, May 21, a more famous war event, the Indian Creek massacre, occurred. The Indian Creek event, believed to mostly a peripheral event to the Black Hawk War was followed on by more violence preceding the attack at Spafford Farm. = = Prelude = = The Spafford Farm massacre, also known as the Wayne massacre, occurred in LaFayette County, Wisconsin, near present-day South Wayne, Wisconsin during the course of the Black Hawk War. The first land claim in Lafayette County was made in tandem by Omri Spafford and Francis Spencer in 1830. The location that become known as Spafford Farm, was located near the junction of the Spafford's Branch and the Pecatonica River. The pair made many improvements on the land prior to the onset of the war in 1832. Present at Spafford Farm the day of the massacre besides Spafford was Spencer, Bennett Million, Abraham Searles, James McIllwaine, and an Englishman identified only by the moniker "John Bull", but probably being John Compton. = = Massacre = = On June 14, 1832 the six men were sent from Fort Hamilton to work on Spafford Farm. The group had just commenced working when they were attacked by a band of Kickapoo warriors. The warriors had concealed themselves in some trees near the farmstead and opened fire in a surprise attack. The men dropped their tools and broke for the Pecatonica River, reaching the river and making a hasty crossing. Having crossed the river, four of the men were shot as they clambered up the opposite bank. Spafford, Searles and McIllwaine were killed instantly in the melee; also killed was "Bull" (probably John Compton). Spencer and 17-year-old Million were able to escape the attackers. Million escaped by jumping into the Pecatonica River, hiding in brush and making his way to Fort Hamilton. Spencer's escape was a longer process. He did not jump into the river, but hid along the banks. One of the attackers pursued him but Spencer killed the warrior before he could be overtaken. He wandered the woods for several days before reaching Fort Hamilton. Spencer reached Fort Hamilton around the same time that Colonel William S. Hamilton arrived with a large group of Menominee who had volunteered against the Sauk and Fox. Afraid that the fort had also been attacked, Spencer retreated back into the woods. He avoided the fort for between six and nine days, when hunger finally drove him into the open where he realized his mistake. = = Aftermath = = Word of the attack at Spafford's farm spread quickly to Fort Defiance, about five miles southeast of Mineral Point. A small volunteer force of 13 men was assembled at Fort Defiance and they set off to hunt down the band of Native Americans responsible for the massacre. The group reached Fort Hamilton at around midnight on June 15. On the morning of June 15 survivor, Bennett Million guided the militia volunteers back to the site of the massacre; one of the volunteers was Alexander Higgenbotham, a survivor of the St. Vrain massacre. The bodies of the dead were badly mutilated and Spafford's corpse was headless; his head was found scalped and tossed into the grass along the river bank. The volunteers buried the mangled bodies of the fallen and searched in vain for Spencer, whom they also assumed dead. Colonel Henry Dodge was at Gratiot's Grove when the war descended upon Spafford Farm, having just sent his volunteers to their forts to resupply and recuperate. Shortly after he arrived back at his home fort, he received word of the Aubrey murder at Fort Blue Mounds and the incident at Spafford Farm. Dodge ordered militia detachments from Fort Defiance, Fort Jackson, and Fort Hamilton to the scene of the massacre. After the massacre, General Henry Atkinson was informed that Dodge was to take over General Alexander Posey's brigade at Fort Hamilton. While Dodge was on his way to visit the brigade, he heard a rifle shot from a group of Native Americans. Dodge quickly returned to his command post and gathered as many men as he could to pursue the enemy. With Dodge in quick pursuit, a group of approximately 25 Native warriors criss-crossed the Pecatonica River until, finding flight hopeless, they prepared to make a stand at the Battle of Pecatonica.

= I Miss You (Miley Cyrus song) = "I Miss You" is a song by American recording artist, Miley Cyrus. It was co-written by Cyrus (credited under her birth name Destiny Hope Cyrus), Brian Green, Wendy Foy Green, and produced by Brian Green. "I Miss You" is a homage to Cyrus' late grandfather, Ron Cyrus, who died in February 28, 2006. He was diagnosed with mesothelioma, and, seeing her grandfather nearing death, Cyrus wanted to write him a song prior to his decease. It was released to Radio Disney mid-year 2007 as promotion for the dual disc Hannah Montana 2: Meet Miley Cyrus. The song is a ballad with rock and country influences. The song received generally positive reviews from music critics; some commented on how it deviated from her usual material at the time and how effective the message was. "I Miss You" appeared on two United States charts: it peaked at number nine on Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles, an extension of the Billboard Hot 100 chart, and at number ninety-two on the defunct Pop 100. Cyrus performed the song on acoustic guitar as an encore at several stops on her first headlining concert tour, the Best of Both Worlds Tour (2007 – 08). = = Background = = The singer had a very close relationship with her paternal grandfather, Ron Cyrus, a Democratic legislator in the state of Kentucky and public servant, whom she referred to as "Pappy". He was diagnosed with mesothelioma, a rare form of cancer that develops from the protective lining that covers many of the body's internal organs, and struggled with the illness for several years as result of exposure to asbestos. Cyrus then relocated from Franklin, Tennessee to Los Angeles, California to commence work on the Disney Channel original series Hannah Montana. At the sight of her grandfather ailing from afar, Cyrus was inspired to compose "I Miss You". In her autobiography Miles to Go (2009), she explained, "That's how I ended up writing the song 'I Miss You' for Pappy. He was so sick. I knew he was dying, and slowly so did my heart. I couldn't imagine life without him." She co-wrote the song with her mother's dear friends Wendy Foy Green and Brian Green, and described it as the most difficult song for her write because of the subject matter. Cyrus attempted to halt writing "I Miss You", telling her co-writers she could not bear anymore. However, Cyrus later desired to resume writing, saying she "knew what [her] heart wanted to say, and whatever is in [her] heart finds its way to [her] fingertips." Moreover, she desired for her grandfather to listen to the song before passing away. Although Cyrus was never able to sing it for him, her father played a quick cut of "I Miss You" for Ron towards the end of his life. The singer said she liked to believe that the song gave her grandfather hope, in a similar fashion which he gave and continues to give hope to her. At the age of 70, Ron Cyrus died on February 28, 2006, two days prior the red carpet premiere of Hannah Montana. In the episode "She's a Supersneak", Cyrus sang a part of the song as Miley Stewart, in memory of the character's late mother. Cyrus then recorded the song for her debut album, Meet Miley Cyrus. The singer believed that, despite having personal significance to her, "I Miss You" could have a variety of meanings for distinct people in divergent situations, including moving away from home, the loss of a parent, or a breakup in a romantic relationship. = = Composition = = "I Miss You" is a pop music song with a length of three minutes and fifty-eight seconds. It is a ballad that maintains low-key with an acoustic styling. "I Miss You" is influenced by elements of the country music genre; nevertheless, it has a rock music-based musical arrangement, relying prominently on a gentle strumming guitar for instrumentation. Written in the key of B ♭ major but will transpose at the key of C major at the end of the bridge, "I Miss You" is set in common time with a tempo of 85 beats per minute. Cyrus' low and throaty vocals span a one octave, ranging from G3 to B ♭ 4. The song has the following chord progression, B ♭ – Gm7 – F – F – Fsus. = = Reception = = = = = Critical reception = = = "I Miss You" has received generally positive reviews from music critics. Heather Phares of Allmusic complimented "I Miss You", and categorized it as one of the tracks on Meet Miley Cyrus that bared much resemblance to Hannah Montana songs. Andy Webster of The New York Times wrote that "I Miss You" is "as doleful as it gets". Andy Spletzer of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer believed the track had a level a sincerity that was void from the remainder of Cyrus' repertoire at the time. He added, "The songs are more guitar-driven, the outfits more adult, and the lyrics imply a string of bad boyfriends -- but it feels like imaginary drama taken from high school poetry, as if she's pretending to be older than she is." In a similar note, Elysa Gardner of USA Today stated the song was the exception to the "heavy on flash and fantasy" that characterized Cyrus at the time. Joseph P. Kahn of the Boston Globe mentioned the song while remarking that Cyrus' songs surpass much of the music played on Radio Disney. Maitland McDonagh of TV Guide believed the track a was a clear demonstration of how affectionate Cyrus was with her grandfather. Kelly Jane Torrance of The Washington Times said "I Miss You" was an unpredictable effort, which, according to her, was both empathetic and executed properly, from Cyrus. = = = Chart performance = = = On the week ending July 14, 2007, "I Miss You" debuted on two US Billboard charts. It entered at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100 extension, the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, and at number ninety-two in its only week on the discontinued Pop 100 chart. The following week, the song fell to number twenty-five in its second and final appearance on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart. = = Live performances = = Cyrus performed "I Miss You" as an encore on sporadic dates of her first headlining tour, the Best of Both Worlds Tour, which extended from October 2007 to January 2008. The tour's concert film uses the performance within the set, although it was not performed as such. The performance had Cyrus dressed in a white tank top, blue cardigan, and denim pants, and sole on the stage. She sat on a stool that placed towards the end of the runaway, performing with an acoustic guitar, as images and home footage of Ron Cyrus appeared on the screens. Chris William of Entertainment Weekly attended the November 8, 2007 concert at the San Diego Sports Arena in San Diego, California, and wrote, "So it was especially sweet when, for the encore, she ditched the dancers and enhancers and strummed an acoustic guitar on 'I Miss You,' vulnerably serenading her late grandpappy — and, for once, really looking and sounding 14. Not everyone noticed because, when she finished, half the seats were empty." Alison Bonaguro Dressed of the Chicago Tribune stated that, despite its simplicity, the performance on December 8, 2007 at the Allstate Arena in Rosemont, Illinois felt like as though it was the largest production of all. In a gray shirt and black pants, Cyrus performed the song, along with "Ready, Set, Don't Go" and "The Best of Both Worlds", on The Oprah Winfrey Show on December 20, 2007, as a screen displayed a light-blue background. On October 5, 2013, as part of a Saturday Night Live skit, Cyrus performed an excerpt from "I Miss You" with actress Vanessa Bayer. = = Charts = =

= 55 Cancri b = 55 Cancri b (abbreviated 55 Cnc b), occasionally designated 55 Cancri Ab (to distinguish it from the star 55 Cancri B), also named Galileo, is an extrasolar planet orbiting the Sun-like star 55 Cancri A every 14.65 days. It is the second planet in order of distance from its star, and is an example of a hot Jupiter, or possibly rather "warm Jupiter". In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars. The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names. In December 2015, the IAU announced the winning name was Galileo for this planet. The winning name was submitted by the Royal Netherlands Association for Meteorology and Astronomy of the Netherlands. It honors early-17th century astronomer and physicist Galileo Galilei. = = Discovery = = 55 Cancri b was discovered in 1996 by Geoffrey Marcy and R. Paul Butler. It was the fourth known extrasolar planet, excluding pulsar planets. Like the majority of known extrasolar planets, it was discovered by detecting variations in its star's radial velocity caused by the planet's gravity. By making sensitive measurements of the Doppler shift of the spectrum of 55 Cancri A, a 15-day periodicity was detected. The planet was announced in 1996, together with the planet of Tau Boötis and the innermost planet of Upsilon Andromedae. Even when this inner planet, with a mass at least 78% times that of Jupiter was accounted for, the star still showed a drift in its radial velocity. This eventually led to the discovery of the outer planet 55 Cancri d in 2002. = = Orbit and mass = = 55 Cancri b is in a short-period orbit, though not so extreme as that of the previously detected hot Jupiter 51 Pegasi b. The orbital period indicates that the planet is located close to a 1: 3 mean motion resonance with 55 Cancri c, however investigations of the planetary parameters in a Newtonian simulation indicate that while the orbital periods are close to this ratio, the planets are not actually in the resonance. In 2012, b's upper atmosphere was observed transiting the star; so its inclination is about 85 degrees, coplanar with 55 Cancri e. This helped to constrain the mass of the planet but the inclination was too low to constrain its radius. The mass is about .85 that of Jupiter. = = Characteristics = = 55 Cancri b is a gas giant with no solid surface. The atmospheric transit has demonstrated hydrogen in the upper atmosphere. That transit is so tangential, that properties such as its radius, density, and temperature are unknown. Assuming a composition similar to that of Jupiter and that its environment is close to chemical equilibrium, 55 Cancri b's upper atmosphere is predicted to be cloudless with a spectrum dominated by alkali metal absorption. The atmosphere's transit indicates that it is slowly evaporating under the sun's heat. The evaporation is slower than that for previously studied (hotter) hot Jupiters. The planet is unlikely to have large moons, since tidal forces would either eject them from orbit or destroy them on short timescales relative to the age of the system.

= Ridge Racer (video game) = Ridge Racer (リッジレーサー, Rijji Rēsā) is a 1993 racing video game developed and published by Namco. It was initially released on the Namco System 22 arcade system board, and later ported to the PlayStation console in 1994. It is the first title in the Ridge Racer series released for arcades and home consoles. The objective is to finish in first place in a series of races. Ridge Racer was among the first racing games to use polygon graphics to its full potential. The PlayStation version supports Namco's NeGcon controller. The first home version of Ridge Racer was released in Japan in 1994 as a launch title for the PlayStation; the versions for North America and Europe were released in 1995. It was re-released in Japan for the PlayStation The Best range in July 1997, and for the Greatest Hits and Platinum ranges in North America and PAL regions respectively the same year. The game played a major role in establishing the new system and giving it an early edge over its nearest competitor, the Sega Saturn, and was considered a rival to Sega's Daytona USA. Ridge Racer received a highly positive reception. Reviewers praised the graphics, audio, drifting mechanics, and arcade-like gameplay, although some were critical of the lack of strong artificial intelligence and multiplayer mode. The arcade version was followed by a sequel, Ridge Racer 2, in 1994, whereas the PlayStation sequel, Ridge Racer Revolution, was released in December 1995 in Japan, and in 1996 in North America and PAL regions. The soundtrack was remixed and released on the Namco Game Sound Express Vol. 11 album. = = Gameplay = = In the PlayStation version, a mini-game of Galaxian can be played as the game loads. If won, eight additional cars become available. The cars are varied in their specifications; some feature a high top speed, others excelling at acceleration or turning, and others being more balanced. Certain cars are named after other Namco games such as Solvalou, Mappy, Bosconian, Nebulasray, and Xevious. Once the game has loaded, all the CD is needed for is to play six music tracks. The disc can be replaced at any time during gameplay, although the game does not update; regardless of what disc is inserted, there will always be six tracks, corresponding the starting points of the tracks on the game disc. A course, transmission (automatic or six-speed manual), car, and song are chosen. The racetrack can be observed from the first-person perspective (or from the third-person perspective for the PlayStation version). Namco's NeGcon controller can be used to play. Being an arcade racer, collisions do no damage, and merely slow the player down. There is a time limit, which ends the game if counted down to zero. A single course is featured, although it consists of four configurations of increasing difficulty; Novice, Intermediate, Advanced and Time Trial (the latter two are extended). The player races eleven opponents except in Time Trial, where there is only one. The higher the difficulty, the faster the cars run, with Time Trial being the fastest. Each race consists of three laps (two on the beginner course). Checkpoints that grant additional time when passed through are present throughout. In the PlayStation version, after every race is won, reversed ones become available, and an additional opponent is encountered in Time Trial; the 13th Racing "Devil", the fastest car. On winning, the car is unlocked. In the arcade version, the winning player's score is saved in action-replay highlights after finishing the game. The PlayStation version features hidden "mirror" version of the tracks. It becomes a "mirror image" of itself; left turns become right turns and vice-versa, and the surroundings switch sides of the road. = = Development and release = = At JAMMA's 1992 Amusement Machine Show in Japan, held during 27 – 19 August 1992, Namco debuted a racing game called Sim Drive, for the Namco System 22 arcade system board. It was a sequel to Eunos Roadster Driving Simulator, a Mazda MX-5 driving simulation arcade game that Namco developed with Mazda and released in 1990. Its 3D polygon graphics stood out for its use of Gouraud shading and texture mapping. After a location test at the show, where it was previewed by the November 1992 issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly, Sim Drive had a limited Japanese release in December 1992, but did not get a mass-market release. It served as a prototype for Ridge Racer. Ridge Racer had a development cycle of eight months. The development team was under pressure to complete it before their rivals, and designer Fumihiro Tanaka commented that "the other company" was in the same position. Ridge Racer was originally planned to be an F1 racing game, but the concept was replaced with one based on a trend among Japanese car enthusiasts at the time. Namco Bandai's general manager Yozo Sakagami explained that they liked racing on mountain roads and did not want to slow down around corners, so drifted around them instead. The team therefore decided to create a game which lets the player test his driving skills and experience the car's manipulation at high speeds while mastering drifting. Development for the PlayStation version began in April 1994. Because of the radical differences, that version essentially had to be done from scratch, and took nearly as long to develop, being completed in November 1994. The PlayStation port was developed by the same team. Due to technical limitations, the PlayStation port was difficult to program and runs at a lower resolution, lower framerate (30 frames per second for NTSC, 25 for PAL), and was less detailed. Specialised graphics libraries had to be developed because it was felt the standard ones provided by Sony were too limited. Visual director Yozo Sakagami remarked that the hardest element to port was the experience of driving a car. It was felt that the NeGcon controller would provide a more analogue feel than the standard PlayStation controller. Sakagami was concerned about loading times due to the CD-ROM format; the team countered this by having all the data loaded into memory by the time the title screen appeared, and having the player play a mini-game of Galaxian while waiting. Sakagami chose Galaxian because he was part of its arcade team, and wanted to honour his former boss. Due to CDs being cheaper to produce, the retail price was cheaper than cartridge games despite an increase in development costs. Ridge Racer sold for under ¥6000 (£37) in Japan. During release for arcade system board, Ridge Racer was called by Namco "the most realistic driving game ever". It featured three-dimensional polygon graphics with texture mapping. The PlayStation version was shown at the 1995 Electronic Entertainment Expo event, and was an innovation in the use of three-dimensional polygons. Ridge Racer was released in Japan on 3 December 1994, in North America on 9 September 1995, and in Europe on 29 September as a launch title for the PlayStation. = = = Music = = = The soundtrack was produced alongside the game by Shinji Hosoe, with contributions from Nobuyoshi Sano and Ayako Saso, as the development team didn't have enough time to produce them separately. The team did not initially plan to have music, but ended up producing techno, which Tanaka believed helped players to enjoy a fun feeling while playing. Hiroshi Okubo believed techno would give a feeling of energy, journey, and speed, and commented that the genre was chosen because it embodied the game's "unrealistic speed and tension". This was commemorated by the release of Namco Game Sound Express Vol. 11, which featured remixed versions, on 21 January 1994 in Japan. = = Reception = = Ridge Racer received critical acclaim. The graphics and sound in particular were praised. In the April 1994 issue of the UK magazine Computer and Video Games, Paul Rand gave high marks, remarking that it was "far and away the most realistic arcade game ever seen" on reviewing the arcade machine (based on the full-scale unit). In a review of its Japanese console release, GamePro called the PlayStation version "a near carbon copy of the original" and praised the graphics, soundtrack, and the entire game being loaded into the PlayStation's RAM, eliminating mid-game loading and giving the option of removing the game disc and using the PlayStation as a music CD player during gameplay. Although they criticised the graphical glitches and slowdown, the game was recommended. Next Generation applauded the conversion's faithful recreation of the arcade version, smooth graphics, and additional cars. Although they noted the lack of variety in the different cars' performance and the absence of a multiplayer mode as downsides, they found the game overall remarkable and commented that the fact that Ridge Racer was an early game for the PlayStation, and a rushed project at that, made it "an excellent harbinger of what's to come". GamePro's review of the later North American release judged that the game surpassed competitor Daytona USA in graphics, audio, and control responsiveness, and called it "The best racing game to date for home systems". Commenting on the realism, Game Informer remarked that Ridge Racer "does a better job of capturing the feel of high performance car racing than any existing driving game". The two sports reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly praised the gameplay and music. Maximum commented that "Ridge Racer isn't without its bad points - basically, there is only one track and the game lacks the awesome crash sequences of Daytona USA, but everything else in the title is sheer class". They commented positively on the "feeling of smoothness and speed", the "distinctly European" dance music, the engine sounds, and the unrealistically exaggerated driving manoeuvres. In 1996, IGN commented that despite two years of release the game "has definitely stood the test of time", but complained that "there is no two-player mode" and that "the cars don't really vary in performance that much". AllGame's Shawn Sackenheim praised the game, particularly the graphics and audio, and concluded that it "is a fun title that racing fans will love". Coming Soon Magazine praised its "ultra fluid and very realistic" graphics, but criticised the game for being too short. The Electric Playground's Victor Lucas gave top marks, remarking "The experience of playing RR supersedes the thrills generally attributed to playing other racing video games", and further commented "I really can't stress enough how deserving of your video game dollars Ridge Racer is". Edge praised the "dazzling" graphics and "arcade-perfect" music. Despite positive reviews, the game was criticised by 1UP.com for the arcade style of gameplay. The lack of artificial intelligence has received criticism — the movement of the computer-controlled cars is restricted to predetermined waypoints. The game was reviewed in 1995 in Dragon No. 221 by Jay & Dee in the "Eye of the Monitor" column, where Dee called it "just another racing game". Ridge Racer was awarded Best Driving Game of 1995 by Electronic Gaming Monthly. It was listed as one of the best games of all time by Game Informer in 2001, Yahoo in 2005, Electronic Gaming Monthly in 2006, Guinness World Records in 2008 and 2009, NowGamer in 2010, and FHM in 2012. = = = Legacy = = = Ridge Racer has been followed by many sequels and helped establish the position of the PlayStation console. IGN stated that Ridge Racer had been "one of PlayStation's first big system pushers" and "an excellent port of the arcade version that showed the true potential of Sony's 32-bit wonder". UGO Networks's Michael Hess and Chris Plante said that it had "set the stage for Gran Turismo by adding an option to choose between automatic and manual transmission". John Davison of 1UP.com said that Ridge Racer was an "unbelievable demonstration of what the PlayStation could do". Ridge Racer is mentioned in the song My Console (1999) from the Italian electronic dance group Eiffel 65. = = Other releases = = The PlayStation version was re-released for The Best, Greatest Hits, and Platinum ranges in 1997. Ridge Racer received a number of ports and spin-offs: = = = Ridge Racer Full Scale = = = A Full Scale arcade version was released alongside the standard arcade version in 1993. This version was designed to give the player a more realistic driving experience. Players (a passenger could sit in the car next to the driver) sat inside an adapted red Eunos Roadster, the Japanese right-hand-drive version of the Mazda MX-5 Miata, and controlled the same car on-screen. The game was played in front of a 10 feet (3.0 m) wide, front-projected triple screen (which benefited from dimmed ambient lighting), with the wheel, gear stick and pedals functioning as the controls. The ignition key was used to start, the speed and RPM gauges were functional, and fans blew wind on the player from inside the air vents. Speakers concealed inside the car provided realistic engine and tyre sounds; overhead speakers provided surround music. The P.C.B. was located under the bonnet of the car. = = = Ridge Racer: 3 Screen Edition = = = A version with three screens was released in arcades to give a peripheral vision effect. The machine used multiple System 22 arcade boards to drive the additional monitors and was only available in the sit down version. = = = Pocket Racer = = = Pocket Racer (ポケットレーサー, Poketto Rēsā) is a super deformed version with cars resembling Choro-Q models, and aimed towards children. It was released in 1996 in Japan. It was only available in upright cabinet version, and uses Namco System 11 hardware. A similar game is included in Ridge Racer Revolution using the same cars under the name Pretty Racer (also known as buggy mode), the inspiration for this game. = = = Ridge Racer Turbo = = = R4: Ridge Racer Type 4 (released on 3 December 1998 in Japan, 1 May 1999 in North America, and on 1 September 1999 in Europe) includes a bonus disc containing a new version of the original Ridge Racer, called Ridge Racer Turbo in North America, Ridge Racer Hi-Spec Demo in Europe, and Ridge Racer Hi Spec Version (リッジレーサーハイスペックバージョン, Rijji Rēsā Hai Supekku Bājon) in Japan. It featured improved graphics, runs at 60 frames per second (50 for PAL), as opposed to the original 30, and supports vibration feedback and the Jogcon controller. There is only one opponent (two in time trial boss races), and the White Angel from Ridge Racer Revolution appears in addition to the 13th Racing as a boss and unlockable car. A Time Attack mode is added, in which the player attempts to beat the time record without any opponent cars. This is distinct from Time Trial, where there are opponent cars. = = = Mobile versions = = = On 31 December 2005, a version for mobile phones was released. It received mixed reviews. GameSpot's Jeff Gerstmann gave the game 6.1 / 10. He praised graphics as "somewhat impressive for a mobile game", but criticised the steering, saying that "it doesn't take long to master the game." Levi Buchanan of IGN gave Ridge Racer 6.2 / 10, complaining about the problematic controls and saying that the game without the analogue control "feels really lacking". In 2005, a version of Ridge Racer was released for mobile phones under the name Ridge Racer 3D (not to be confused with the later Ridge Racer 3D for the Nintendo 3DS). On 11 August 2009, this version was ported to Zeebo.

= Peterborough (UK Parliament constituency) = Peterborough is a borough constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, sharing the name of a smaller constituency represented in the Parliament of England until 1707 and then in that of Great Britain until 1800. It elects one Member of Parliament by the first past the post system of election. The serving Member is Conservative Stewart Jackson. He defeated Labour's Helen Clark in 2005, and was re-elected in 2010 with an increased majority. In 2015, he held the seat with a reduced majority. = = Boundaries = = 1918-1950: The administrative county of the Soke of Peterborough, the Urban District of Oundle, the Rural Districts of Easton-on-the-Hill and Gretton, and parts of the Rural Districts of Oundle and Thrapston. 1950-1974: The Municipal Borough of Peterborough, the Urban District of Oundle, the Rural Districts of Barnack and Peterborough, and part of the Rural District of Oundle and Thrapston. 1974-1983: The Municipal Borough of Peterborough, and the Rural Districts of Barnack, Peterborough, and Thorney. 1983-1997: The City of Peterborough wards of Bretton, Central, Dogsthorpe, East, Fletton, North, Orton Longueville, Orton Waterville, Park, Paston, Ravensthorpe, Stanground, Walton, and West. 1997-2010: The City of Peterborough wards of Bretton, Central, Dogsthorpe, East, North, Park, Paston, Ravensthorpe, Walton, Werrington, and West. 2010-present: The City of Peterborough wards of Bretton North, Bretton South, Central, Dogsthorpe, East, Eye and Thorney, Newborough, North, Park, Paston, Ravensthorpe, Walton, Werrington North, Werrington South, and West. The City of Peterborough formed a parliamentary borough returning two Members in 1541. The rest of the Soke of Peterborough was part of the Northamptonshire parliamentary county, except the area south of the River Nene in the historic county of Huntingdonshire and Thorney, which was considered part of Cambridgeshire. Until 1832 when the whole of the parish of Saint John the Baptist was encompassed, the boundary, as far as is known, excluded the villages of Longthorpe, Dogsthorpe and Newark with Eastfield. The Great Reform Act did not affect the borough, while the rural portion of the Soke was included in the northern division of Northamptonshire. New Fletton was transferred from Huntingdonshire in 1868 and in 1918 the parliamentary borough was abolished and replaced with a new division of the parliamentary county of Northampton with the Soke of Peterborough, including the whole of the Soke and neighbouring parts of the administrative county of Northamptonshire, extending down to and beyond Thrapston and Corby. This became a county constituency under the 1948 revisions, when the boundaries of the constituency were adjusted to correspond to those of the Soke and they remained much the same until 1970. Peterborough became a county constituency in 1974. Following their review of parliamentary representation in Cambridgeshire in 2005, the Boundary Commission for England made minor alterations to the existing constituencies to deal with population changes. The electoral wards used to create the modified Peterborough constituency fought at the 2010 general election are: Bretton North, Bretton South, Central, Dogsthorpe, East, Eye and Thorney, Newborough, North, Park, Paston, Ravensthorpe, Walton, Werrington North, Werrington South, and West. These changes increased the electorate from 64,893 to 70,640. On the enumeration date of 17 February 2000, the electoral quota for England was 69,934 voters per constituency. The Peterborough wards of Barnack, Fletton, Glinton and Wittering, Northborough, Orton Longueville, Orton Waterville, Orton with Hampton, Stanground Central, and Stanground East form part of the North West Cambridgeshire constituency created in 1997 from parts of Peterborough and Huntingdon constituencies. The serving member for North West Cambridgeshire is the Conservative, Shailesh Vara MP, who succeeded Sir Brian Mawhinney, former Secretary of State for Transport and Chairman of the Conservative Party, in 2005. Mawhinney, who had previously served as Member of Parliament for Peterborough from 1979, was created Baron Mawhinney, of Peterborough in the county of Cambridgeshire in 2005. Eye and Thorney was previously included in the North East Cambridgeshire (prior to 1983 Isle of Ely) constituency. = = Franchise = = In the unreformed House of Commons to be either a candidate or an elector for a county seat, a man had to own (not rent) freehold property valued for the land tax at two pounds a year (women could neither vote nor stand for election). This was known as the 40 / - freehold. The franchise for borough seats varied enormously. Originally in Peterborough the dean and chapter had claimed the franchise and held that only residents of Minster Precincts were burgesses. By the interregnum, the city was one of 37 boroughs in which suffrage was restricted to those paying scot and lot, a form of municipal taxation. In 1800 there were 2,000 registered voters in Northamptonshire and 400 in Peterborough. By 1835 this was 576, or about one per cent of the population. Bribery was general until the introduction of the secret ballot under the Ballot Act 1872. Votes were cast by spoken declaration, in public, at the hustings, erected on the Market Place (now Cathedral Square). In 1832 the Great Reform Act enfranchised those who owned or leased land worth £10 or more and the Second Reform Act extended this to all householders paying £10 or more in rent per annum, effectively enfranchising the skilled working class, so by 1868 the percentage of voters in Peterborough had risen to about 20% of the population. The Third Reform Act extended the provisions of the previous act to the counties and the Fourth Reform Act widened suffrage further by abolishing practically all property qualifications for men and by enfranchising women over 30 who met minimum property qualifications. This system, known as universal manhood suffrage, was first used in the 1918 general election. However, full electoral equality wouldn't occur until the Fifth Reform Act ten years later. According to the 2001 census, the population count of Peterborough constituency is 95,103 persons, comprising 46,131 males and 48,972 females. 67.56% of those aged 16 – 74 are economically active, including 5.92% umemployed; a further 12.26% are retired and 3.08% students. Of a total 39,760 households, 63.80% are owner occupied, fewer than the regional (72.71%) and national (68.72%) averages. Turnout at the 2005 general election was 41,194 or 61.0% of those eligible to vote, below the regional (63.6%) and national (61.3%) figures. = = Members of Parliament = = Peterborough sent two members to parliament for the first time in 1547. Before the civil war, many were relatives of the clergy; then for two hundred years after the restoration there was always a Fitzwilliam, or a Fitzwilliam nominee, sitting as member for Peterborough, making it a Whig stronghold. Representation was reduced to one member under the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885. From the formal merger of the breakaway Liberal Unionists with the Conservatives in 1912 and the absorption of rural North Northamptonshire in 1918, Peterborough has been predominantly Conservative. The growth in the New Town from 1967 may in part account for Labour's victory here in 1974. Since its formation in 1997, North West Cambridgeshire has been one of the safest Conservative seats in the country. At the election which followed, Peterborough was ranked 93rd in the Conservatives's one hundred most vulnerable seats (the ones which the other parties must take if there is to be a change of government) and 73rd on Labour's target list. In 1966, the closest poll in UK history, Sir Harmar Nicholls held the seat by three votes after seven recounts. Nicholls was the Conservative member from 1950 to 1974, when he lost in the October election of that year to Labour's Michael Ward, having held on by just 22 votes after four recounts in the election eight months earlier. After he lost his seat he was created Baron Harmar-Nicholls, of Peterborough in the county of Cambridgeshire and served, from 1979 to 1984, as Member of the European Parliament for Greater Manchester South. David Cecil, 6th Marquess of Exeter, winner of 400m hurdles at the 1928 Summer Olympics, member of the International Olympic Committee for 48 years and chairman of the organising committee of the 1948 Summer Olympics, was the Conservative member from 1931 to 1943. Lord Burghley, as he then was, succeeded the socialist writer and illustrator, Frank Horrabin, who was born in the city and elected under the leadership of Ramsay MacDonald in 1929. The most recent Labour MP for Peterborough, Helen Clark (née Brinton), won the seat in 1997. She was defeated at the 2005 general election, following which it was widely reported that Clark was planning to defect to the Conservative Party, an announcement which was not popular locally. However, by early June it emerged that while she had left the Labour Party, she had not in fact joined the Conservatives and did not intend to. One of the earliest incumbents, Sir Walter Mildmay, member for Peterborough from 1553 to 1554, subsequently became Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1559 to 1589. Later, in the nineteenth century, William Elliot, Whig member from 1802 until his death in 1819, was Chief Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland between 1806 and 1807; the Hon. William Lamb (later the 2nd Viscount Melbourne), Whig member from 1816 to 1819, became Home Secretary in 1830 then Prime Minister from 1834 to 1841; and Sir James Scarlett (later the 1st Baron Abinger), Whig member from 1819 to 1830, was, from 1827, Attorney General for England and Wales. = = = Parliamentary Borough 1547 – 1918 = = = = = = = MPs 1542 – 1660 = = = = = = = = MPs 1660 – 1883 = = = = The Tories (or Abhorrers) and Whigs (or Petitioners) originated in the Court and Country parties that emerged in the aftermath of the civil war, although it is more accurate to describe them as loose tendencies, both of which might be regarded as conservative in modern terms. Modern party politics did not really begin to coalesce in Great Britain until at least 1784. = = = = MPs 1885 – 1918 = = = = In 1832 the Tory Party evolved into the Conservative Party and in 1859 the Whig Party evolved, with Radicals and Peelites, into the Liberal Party. In opposition to Irish home rule, the Liberal Unionists ceded from the Liberals in 1886, aligning themselves with the Conservatives. The Labour Party was later founded, as the Labour Representation Committee, in 1900. = = = Division and County Constituency = = = The parliamentary borough of Peterborough was abolished under the Representation of the People Act 1918, and the name was transferred to a division of the new parliamentary county of Northampton with the Soke of Peterborough. The Peterborough division became a county constituency in 1950. = = = = MPs 1918 – 1974 = = = = = = = Borough Constituency = = = Peterborough was redefined as a borough constituency with effect from the February 1974 general election. Successors of the historic parliamentary boroughs, the spending limits for election campaigns are slightly lower than in county constituencies. = = = = MPs since 1974 = = = = = = Election results = = = = = Elections in the 2010s = = = = = = Elections in the 2000s = = = = = = Elections in the 1990s = = = = = = Elections in the 1980s = = = = = = Elections in the 1970s = = = = = = Elections in the 1960s = = = = = = Elections in the 1950s = = = = = = Elections in the 1940s = = = General Election 1939 / 40 Another general election was required to take place before the end of 1940. The political parties had been making preparations for an election to take place from 1939 and by the end of this year, the following candidates had been selected: Conservative: David George Brownlow Cecil, Lord Burghley Labour: Samuel Bennett = = = Elections in the 1930s = = = = = = Elections in the 1920s = = = = = = Elections in the 1910s = = = † denotes a candidate endorsed by the Coalition Government

= Bart's Girlfriend = "Bart's Girlfriend" is the seventh television episode of The Simpsons' sixth season. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 6, 1994. The plot of the episode follows the secret romance of Bart and Jessica Lovejoy, Reverend Lovejoy's daughter. Bart tries to end the romance when he discovers that, behind her innocent façade as a preacher's kid, she is an even bigger troublemaker than he is. Jessica then steals the money from the collection plate, leaving Bart to take the blame until Lisa exposes the truth. The episode was written by Jonathan Collier, and directed by Susie Dietter. Former The Simpsons' show runner David Mirkin originally came up with the idea of Bart having a girlfriend that was more evil than he was. Meryl Streep guest stars in the episode as Jessica Lovejoy. It features cultural references to films such as Planet of the Apes and The Silence of the Lambs. Since airing, the episode has received acclaim from both critics and fans, and Entertainment Weekly named Meryl Streep's role as one of the best guest appearances on The Simpsons. = = Plot = = Bart falls in love with Reverend Lovejoy's daughter, Jessica. However, when he approaches her, she ignores him. The next Sunday, Bart decides to attend Sunday school to try to convince Jessica that he is a good person, but she still ignores him. Frustrated, Bart goes to the park to play a prank on Groundskeeper Willie, and is punished with detention. Jessica approaches him to express sympathy and invites him to her house for dinner with her family. During a formal dinner with the Lovejoys, Bart's crude mannerisms and foul language cause Reverend Lovejoy to forbid him from ever seeing Jessica again. However, Jessica realizes that Bart is a bad boy and tells Bart that she likes him. They begin secretly dating and causing mischief through the town. Bart quickly realizes that Jessica (an example of the preacher's kid stereotype) is even more badly behaved than he is, so at the next Sunday service he tries to make her see the error of her ways. Although she seems to agree, Jessica immediately steals from the collection plate before forcing it back upon the hapless Bart. The congregation mistakenly believes that Bart took the money when they see him with the empty plate. Bart attempts to explain, but they refuse to listen. Although Homer assumes Bart is guilty, Marge is willing to hear him out, but Bart claims he does not know who did it. The following day, Bart visits Jessica at her house, and admits that he does not like her after Jessica refuses to own up to the crime. Upon finding out the truth, Lisa is determined not to allow her brother to take blame for something he did not do, and she tells their congregation that Jessica is the guilty party. The townspeople then search Jessica's room, where the money is found under her bed. Rev. Lovejoy refuses to believe that his daughter is guilty until Jessica admits to him she did it to gain attention. She is punished by being forced to scrub the church steps, and Bart receives an apology from the congregation at Marge's insistence. Later, Bart approaches Jessica at church and tells her what he has learned, to which Jessica responds that she has learned that she can make boys do whatever she wants. Bart then agrees to finish Jessica's chores as she runs off with another boyfriend. However, as soon as she leaves, he snickers about how bad a job he is going to do on the steps to get back at her. = = Production = = "Bart's Girlfriend" was written by Jonathan Collier and directed by Susie Dietter. David Mirkin, who was show runner at the time, originally had the idea of Bart having a girlfriend that was more evil than he was. Mirkin gave the idea to Collier to write it with the help of the show's executive producer, James L. Brooks. Collier said later that he thought it was a case of Brooks coming up with good ideas and him "giggling insequentially". The idea for the ending of the episode was to have none of the characters learn anything from the experience. Matt Groening, the creator of The Simpsons, felt that Jessica Lovejoy was hard to draw in his own style but at the same time make her attractive. Julie Kavner, who provides the voice of Marge Simpson on the show, was particularly impressed by the eyes. Jessica was made the Reverend's daughter to give the impression that she was good at first and then to show that she was rebelling against the righteousness of her family. In the scene where Bart talks to Jessica outside her house, her baton playing was in the script but the exact choreography was not. Dietter liked its incorporation because it gave Jessica something else, other than Bart, to pay attention to. This was also done in the final scene when Jessica scrubs the church steps and plays with the scrub brush. Academy Award winning actress Meryl Streep was called in to do the voice of Jessica. Nancy Cartwright, who provides the voice of Bart Simpson on the show, was a huge fan of Streep and she assumed that Streep would record her lines individually, but all of their recordings were done together. Streep showed up alone with no entourage at the Village Recorder in West Los Angeles at 2: 30 P.M., where she recorded her parts with Cartwright. Streep was continually doing many different versions of her lines. Mirkin felt she was easy to work with because she was versatile and keen to do a lot of different things, and as Mirkin expressed it, "easily evil". Cartwright said in an interview with The Pantagraph that she really wanted Streep's autograph, but was afraid to ask for it. After the recording session, Streep tapped Cartwright on the shoulder, and said her kids were big The Simpsons fans and that she would be in "big trouble" if she did not get Cartwright's autograph. In a take off of John Travolta in the 1983 film Staying Alive, Bart struts down a street in Springfield after he is invited to dinner at the Lovejoys, just as Travolta strutted through Times Square to the same tune, in a joke written by Jace Richdale, who was the co-executive producer of The Simpsons at the time. When Homer is musing over Bart's first date, he begins to sing "Sunrise, Sunset" from Fiddler on the Roof, before moving on to "Cat's in the Cradle", and then "Yes, We Have No Bananas". He then begins to weep due to the people in the song having no bananas. The joke was reportedly very expensive for the writers to put in because they had to pay thousands of dollars for the rights to use the songs on the show. "Bart's Girlfriend" originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 6, 1994. The episode was selected for release in a 2001 video collection of selected episodes titled: The Simpsons – Love, Springfield Style. Other episodes included in the collection set were "It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad Marge", "The Two Mrs. Nahasapeemapetilons", and "I'm with Cupid". The episode was included in The Simpsons season 6 DVD set, which was released on August 16, 2005, as The Simpsons – The Complete Sixth Season. = = Cultural references = = In the beginning of the episode, the parents chase the children in a cornfield to eventually round them up for church, which parodies a similar scene from the 1968 film Planet of the Apes, where the humans are rounded up by apes. After Bart is accused of stealing from the church collection plate, he is forced to wear a straitjacket in church, which is a reference to Hannibal Lecter's straight-jacket in The Silence of the Lambs. "Misirlou", the theme song of the 1994 film Pulp Fiction, plays during Bart and Jessica's date. Bart calls Jessica "smart, beautiful and a liar..." and then claims she is "... so much better than that Sarah, plain and tall". The scene then cuts to a shot of a plain and tall girl named Sarah that overhears Bart and begins to cry. The Lovejoy family has a replica of Leonardo da Vinci's painting The Last Supper hanging on the wall in their dining room. The sign on the Springfield Church marquee reads: "Evil Women in History: From Jezebel to Janet Reno". = = Reception = = In its original American broadcast, "Bart's Girlfriend" finished 53rd in the ratings for the week of October 31 to November 6, 1994, with a Nielsen rating of 9.6. The episode was the third highest rated show on the Fox network that week, beaten only by Beverly Hills, 90210, and Married... with Children. Since airing, the episode has received many positive reviews from fans and television critics. Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, the authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, said: "Poor Bart gets picked on very cruelly by Jessica in a cleverly drawn study of pre-pubescent love. We're very fond of the scene in which Bart leaps out of the window at the church, after which Homer cries: He's heading for the window!" Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review of the sixth season DVD: "We don ’ t often see Bart in a sympathetic light, so shows like this one are fun." Girlfriend "reminds me of Season Four ’ s" New Kid on the Block "since it also featured Bart in love, though the programs differ since here the girl reciprocates. Streep does nicely as the bad kid and we get many fine moments in this memorable program." TV Squad's Adam Finley said: "Homer and Marge remained in the background for most of this episode, with Bart and Lisa becoming the main focus. Earlier episodes seemed to focus more on the dynamics between the two siblings, and it's always a nice change of pace when the show examines their love for one another as opposed to constant rivalries. Lisa really wants to help Bart in this episode, and it's actually quite touching." In a 2008 article, Entertainment Weekly named Meryl Streep's role as Jessica Lovejoy as one of the sixteen best guest appearances on The Simpsons. Total Film's Nathan Ditum ranked Streep's performance as the fifth best guest appearance in the show's history, commenting that she is "the perfect mix of beguiling and devilish as Reverend Lovejoy ’ s rebellious daughter." David Mirkin told the Daily News of Los Angeles that "Bart's Girlfriend" and "Homer the Great" are his favorite episodes of the season. Mirkin liked the scene where Bart is punched by Nelson at the playground because Bart takes a while to recover, which made the scene more realistic. Nancy Cartwright told the Chicago Tribune that this episode, and "Lisa's Substitute" from season two, are her two favorite The Simpsons episodes.

= Delhi Metro = The Delhi Metro is a metro system serving Delhi and its satellite cities of Faridabad, Gurgaon, Noida and Ghaziabad in National Capital Region in India. Delhi Metro is the world's 12th largest metro system in terms of both length and number of stations., the network consists of five colour-coded regular lines and the faster Airport Express line, with a total length of 213 kilometres (132 mi) serving 160 stations (including 6 on Airport Express line). The system has a mix of underground, at-grade, and elevated stations using both broad-gauge and standard-gauge. The metro has an average daily ridership of 2.4 million passengers, and, as of August 2010, had already carried over 1.25 billion passengers since its inception.DMRC named second best metro in world Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Limited (DMRC), a state-owned company with equal equity participation from Government of India and Government of Delhi, built and operates the Delhi Metro. The Delhi Metro Rail Corporation has been certified by the United Nations as the first metro rail and rail-based system in the world to get "carbon credits for reducing greenhouse gas emissions" and helping in reducing pollution levels in the city by 630,000 tonnes every year. DMRC operates around 2000 trips daily between 05: 30 till 00: 00 running with a headway varying between 1 – 2 minutes and 4 – 10 minutes. The trains are usually of four, six and eight-coach. The power output is supplied by 25-kilovolt, 50-hertz alternating current through overhead catenary. Planning for the metro started in 1984, when the Delhi Development Authority and the Urban Arts Commission came up with a proposal for developing a multi-modal transport system for the city. Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) was incorporated in May 1995, construction started in 1998, and the first section, on the Red Line, opened in 2002. The development of network was divided into phases, Phase I containing 3 lines was completed by 2006 and Phase II in 2011. Phase III is scheduled for completion by 2016. Phase IV has been approved by the Delhi government, awaiting cabinet approval, to be completed by 2020. Rapid MetroRail Gurgaon which opened in 2013, whilst linked to Delhi Metro by the Yellow Line is a separate metro system (with a different owner / operator than the Delhi Metro), although tokens and cards from the Delhi Metro can be used in its network. = = History = = = = = Background = = = The concept of a mass rapid transit for New Delhi first emerged from a traffic and travel characteristics study which was carried out in the city in 1969. Over the next several years, many official committees by a variety of government departments were commissioned to examine issues related to technology, route alignment, and governmental jurisdiction. In 1984, the Delhi Development Authority and the Urban Arts Commission came up with a proposal for developing a multi-modal transport system, which would consist of constructing three underground mass rapid transit corridors as well augmenting the city's existing suburban railway and road transport networks. While extensive technical studies and the raising of finance for the project were in progress, the city expanded significantly resulting in a twofold rise in population and a fivefold rise in the number of vehicles between 1981 and 1998. Consequently, traffic congestion and pollution soared, as an increasing number of commuters took to private vehicles with the existing bus system unable to bear the load. An attempt at privatising the bus transport system in 1992 merely compounded the problem, with inexperienced operators plying poorly maintained, noisy and polluting buses on lengthy routes, resulting in long waiting times, unreliable service, extreme overcrowding, unqualified drivers, speeding and reckless driving. To rectify the situation, the Government of India and the Government of Delhi jointly set up a company called the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) on 3 May 1995, with E. Sreedharan as the managing director. = = = Construction = = = Physical construction work on the Delhi Metro started on 1 October 1998. After the previous problems experienced by the Kolkata Metro, which was badly delayed and 12 times over budget due to "political meddling, technical problems and bureaucratic delays", DMRC is a special purpose organisation vested with great autonomy and powers to execute this gigantic project involving many technical complexities, under a difficult urban environment and within a very limited time frame. DMRC was given full powers to hire people, decide on tenders and control funds. The DMRC then consulted the Hong Kong MTRC on rapid transit operation and construction techniques. As a result, construction proceeded smoothly, except for one major disagreement in 2000, where the Ministry of Railways forced the system to use broad gauge despite the DMRC's preference for standard gauge. The first elevated line of the Delhi Metro was inaugurated by Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the Prime Minister of India, on 24 December 2002 & the first underground line was inaugurated by Dr Manmohan Singh on 20 December 2004, and thus, it became the second underground rapid transit system in India, after the Kolkata Metro. The first underground section of Delhi Metro was Vishwa Vidyalaya - Kashmere Gate section which included 4.5 km tunnel & 4 stations namely Vishwa Vidyalaya, Vidhan Sabha, Civil Lines & Kashmere Gate station. This project was constructed by Kumagai-Skanska-HCC-Itochu JV or KSHI-JV, a joint venture between Kumagai Gumi, Skanska, Hindustan Construction Company & Itochu. The first phase of the project was completed in 2006, on budget and almost three years ahead of schedule, an achievement described by Business Week as "nothing short of a miracle". = = = Construction accidents = = = On 19 October 2008, a girder launcher and a part of the overhead Blue Line extension under construction in Laxmi Nagar, East Delhi collapsed and fell on passing vehicles underneath. Workers were using a crane to lift a 400-tonne concrete span of the bridge when the launcher collapsed along with a 34-metre (112 ft) long span of the bridge on top of a Blueline bus killing the driver and a labourer. On 12 July 2009, a section of bridge collapsed while it was being erected at Zamrudpur, near East of Kailash, on the Central Secretariat – Badarpur corridor. Six people died and 15 were injured. The following day, on 13 July 2009, a crane that was removing the debris collapsed, and with a bowling pin effect collapsed two other nearby cranes, injuring six. On 22 July 2009, worker at Ashok Park Metro station was killed when a steel beam fell on him. Over a hundred people, including 93 workers, have died since work on the metro began in 1998. = = Network = = The Delhi Metro is being built in phases. Phase I completed 58 stations and 65.0 km (40.4 mi) of route length, of which 13.0 km (8.1 mi) is underground and 52.1 km (32.4 mi) surface or elevated. The inauguration of the Dwarka – Barakhamba Road corridor of the Blue Line marked the completion of Phase I on October 2006. Phase II of the network comprises 124.6 km (77.4 mi) of route length and 85 stations, and is fully completed, with the first section opened in June 2008 and the last line opened in August 2011. Phase III (140 km, 69 stations) and Phase IV (106 km, 51 stations) are planned to be completed by 2016 and 2020 respectively, with the network spanning 436 km (271 mi) by then. = = = Current routes = = = As of November 2015, with the completion of Phase I, Phase II and the beginning of operations on Phase III, the Delhi Metro network comprises five coloured lines (plus the Airport Express line), serving 154 metro stations (with 6 more stations on the Airport Express line, for a total of 160), and operating on a total route length of 213 kilometres (132 mi). = = = = Red Line = = = = The Red Line was first line of the Metro to be opened and connects Rithala in the west to Dilshad Garden in the east, covering a distance of 25.09 kilometres (15.59 mi). It is partly elevated and partly at grade, and crosses the Yamuna River between Kashmere Gate and Shastri Park stations. The inauguration of the first stretch between Shahdara and Tis Hazari on 24 December 2002 caused the ticketing system to collapse due to the line being crowded to four times its capacity by citizens eager to have a ride. Subsequent sections were inaugurated from Tis Hazari – Trinagar (later renamed Inderlok) on 4 October 2003, Inderlok – Rithala on 31 March 2004, and Shahdara – Dilshad Garden on 4 June 2008. The red line has two interchange stations, the first Kashmere Gate with the yellow line and the second Inderlok with the green line.Starting from 24 November 2013 six coach trains will be inducted in a phased manner in red line. = = = = Yellow Line = = = = The Yellow Line was the second line of the Metro and was the first underground line to be opened. It runs for 49 kilometres (30 mi) from north to south and connects Samaypur Badli with HUDA City Centre in Gurgaon. The northern and southern parts of the line are elevated, while the central section passes through some of the most congested parts of Delhi is underground. The first section between Vishwa Vidyalaya and Kashmere Gate (built by Kumagai-Skanska-HCC-Itochu Joint Venture) opened on 20 December 2004, and the subsequent sections of Kashmere Gate – Central Secretariat opened on 3 July 2005, and Vishwa Vidyalaya – Jahangirpuri on 4 February 2009. This line also possesses the country's deepest Metro station (the second deepest metro station in the world) at Chawri Bazaar, situated 30 metres (98 ft) below ground level. On 21 June 2010, an additional stretch from Qutub Minar to HUDA City Centre was opened, initially operating separately from the main line. However, Chhatarpur station on this line opened on 26 August 2010. Due to delay in acquiring the land for constructing the station, it was constructed using pre-fabricated structures in a record time of nine months and is the only station in the Delhi metro network to be made completely of steel. The connecting link between Central Secretariat and Qutub Minar opened on 3 September 2010.re on 10 November 2015, the line was further extended between Jahangirpuri and Samaypur Badli in Outer Delhi. Interchanges are available with the Red Line and Kashmere Gate ISBT at Kashmere Gate station, Blue Line at Rajiv Chowk Station, Violet Line at Central Secretariat, Airport Express (Orange) Line at New Delhi, Rapid MetroRail Gurgaon at Sikandarpur and with the Indian Railways network at Chandni chowk Delhi Junction Railway station and New Delhi New Delhi railway stations. Yellow line is the first line of Delhi Metro which has phased out all four coach trains with six and eight coach configuration. The Metro Museum at Patel Chowk Metro station is a collection of display panels, historical photographs and exhibits, tracing the genesis of the Delhi Metro. The museum was opened on 1 January 2009. = = = = Blue Line = = = = The Blue Line was the third line of the Metro to be opened, and the first to connect areas outside Delhi. Mainly elevated and partly underground, it connects Dwarka Sub City in the west with the satellite city of Noida in the east, covering a distance of 47.4 kilometres (29.5 mi). The first section of this line between Dwarka and Barakhamba Road was inaugurated on 1 January 2006, and subsequent sections opened between Dwarka – Dwarka Sector 9 on 1 April 2006, Barakhamba Road – Indraprastha on 11 November 2006, Indraprastha – Yamuna Bank on 10 May 2009, Yamuna Bank – Noida City Centre on 12 November 2009, and Dwarka Sector 9 – Dwarka Sector 21 on 30 October 2010. This line crosses the Yamuna River between Indraprastha and Yamuna Bank stations, and has India's second extradosed bridge across the Northern Railways mainlines near Pragati Maidan. A branch of the Blue line, inaugurated on 8 January 2010, takes off from Yamuna Bank station and runs for 6.25 kilometres (3.88 mi) up to Anand Vihar in east Delhi. It was further extended up to Vaishali which was opened to public on 14 July 2011. A small stretch of 2.76 kilometres (1.71 mi) from Dwarka Sector 9 to Dwarka Sector 21 was inaugurated on 30 October 2010. Interchanges are available with the Yellow Line at Rajiv Chowk station, Green line at Kirti Nagar, Violet line at Mandi House, Airport Express (Orange) line at Dwarka Sector 21 and with the Indian Railways network and Interstate Bus Station (ISBT) at Anand Vihar station, which connects with Anand Vihar Railway Terminal and Anand Vihar ISBT. = = = = Green Line = = = = Opened in 2010, Green Line (Line 4) is the fifth line of the Delhi Metro network and the first line on standard gauge, as opposed to previous broad gauge lines. It runs between Inderlok (station on the Red Line) and Mundka with a branch line connecting the line's Ashok Park Main station with Kirti Nagar station on the Blue Line. The completely elevated line, built as part of the Phase-II of Delhi Metro runs mostly along the busy NH 10 route in West Delhi. The line consists of 17 stations including an interchange station covering a total length of 18.46 km.This line also has the country's first standard-gauge maintenance depot at Mundka. The line was opened in two stages, with the 15.1 km Inderlok – Mundka section opening on 3 April 2010 [1] and the 3.5 km Kirti Nagar – Ashok Park Main branch line on 27 August 2011. On 6 August 2012, in a step that will improve commuting in National Capital Region, the Union government has approved extension of Delhi Metro from Mundka to Bahadurgarh in Haryana. The 11.18 km metro stretch will have seven stations at Mundka Industrial Area, Ghevra, Tikri Kalan, Tikri Border, Modern Industrial Estate, Bahadurgarh Bus Stand and City Park between Mundka and Bahadurgarh. = = = = Violet Line = = = = The Violet Line is the most recent line of the Metro to be opened, and the second standard-gauge corridor after the Green Line. The 37 km (23 mi) long line connects Escorts Mujesar in Faridabad to ITO, with 22.8 km (14.2 mi) being overhead and the rest underground. The first section between Central Secretariat and Sarita Vihar was inaugurated on 3 October 2010, just hours before the inaugural ceremony of the 2010 Commonwealth Games, and connects the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, which was the venue for the opening and closing ceremonies of the event. Completed in just 41 months, it includes a 100 m (330 ft) long bridge over the Indian Railways mainlines and a 167.5 m (550 ft) long cable-stayed bridge across an operational road flyover, and connects several hospitals, tourist attractions, and a major industrial estate along its route. Services are provided at intervals of 5 min. An interchange with the Yellow Line is available at Central Secretariat through an integrated concourse. On 14 January 2011, the remaining portion from Sarita Vihar to Badarpur was opened for commercial service, adding three new stations to the network and marking the completion of the line. The section between Mandi House and Central Secretariat, was opened on 26 June 2014. After that a 971-metre section between ITO and Mandi House was opened on 8 June 2015. The latest addition to the line, an 14 km (8.7 mi) extension southwards till Escorts Mujesar in Faridabad was inaugurated by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 6 September 2015. All the nine Metro stations of the Badarpur – Escorts Mujesar (Faridabad) section of Delhi Metro's Phase 3, have been awarded the highest possible rating (platinum) for adherence to green building norms, by the Indian Green Building Council (IGBC), which has devised a rating mechanism for Metro stations and buildings on a scale of platinum, gold, silver etc. for following the green building specifications. The awards for these stations were given to DMRC's managing director, Dr. Mangu Singh by Dr. P C Jain, Chairperson, IGBC in the presence of DMRC's directors and senior officials on 10 September 2015. Currently the Faridabad corridor of Delhi Metro Violet Line is the longest metro corridor outside of Delhi, consisting of 9 stations and the total length of corridor being 14 km. = = = = Airport Express = = = = The Airport Express line runs for 22.7 km (14.1 mi) from New Delhi Railway Station to Dwarka Sector 21, linking the Indira Gandhi International Airport. The line was operated by Delhi Airport Metro Express Pvt. Limited (DAMEL), a subsidiary of Reliance Infrastructure, the concessionaire of the line till 30 June 2013 and is now being operated by DMRC. The line was constructed at a cost of ₹57 billion (US $850 million), of which Reliance Infrastructure invested ₹28.85 billion (US $430 million) and will pay fees on a revenue-share model. The line has six stations (Dhaula Kuan and Delhi Aerocity became operational on 15 August 2011), with some featuring check-in facilities, parking, and eateries. Rolling stock consists of six-coach trains operating at intervals of ten minutes and having a maximum speed of 135 km / h (84 mph). Originally scheduled to open before the 2010 Commonwealth Games, the line failed to obtain the mandatory safety clearance, and was opened on 24 February 2011, after a delay of around 5 months. After 16 months of commencement of operations, the line was shut down for repairs of the viaducts on 8 July 2012. The line reopened on 22 January 2013. On 27 June 2013 Reliance Infrastructure Ltd intimated DMRC that they are unable to operate the line beyond 30 June 2013. Following this DMRC took over operations of Airport Express line from 1 July 2013 with an Operations and Maintenance team of 100 officials to handle the line. In Jan 2015, DMRC reported that Airport Metro has recorded about 30 per cent rise in its ridership following the fare reduction of up to 40 per cent in July last year On 14 September 2015 DMRC announced to reduce fares even further to improve the ridership of the line, the new fare structure will have maximum fare of Rs 60 and minimum of Rs 10 instead of Rs 100 and Rs 20 charged earlier, a reduction of about 40%. DMRC has stated that this was done to reduce the crowding on Blue line, diverting some of the Dwarka-bound passengers to Airport Express Line, which is underutilised and faster compared to the Blue Line. = = = Planned extensions = = = Delhi Metro was planned to be built in phases spread over around 20 years as with each phase having a target of five years and end of one phase marking the beginning of another. Phase I (65 km) and Phase II (125 km) were completed in 2006 and 2011, respectively, and Phase III and Phase IV are scheduled for completion in 2016 and 2021, respectively. Work on Phase III started in 2011 while planning for Phase IV has begun. Ex-chief of DMRC hinted that by the time Phase IV is completed, the city will need Phase V to cope with rising population and transport needs. = = = = Phase III = = = = The deadline for completion of Phase 3 is 2016. Out of 2 new lines and 11 route extensions proposed for Phase III, cabinet approvals have been obtained for 2 new lines and 10 route extensions totalling 167.27 km, with an estimated cost of ₹350 billion (US $5.2 billion). Construction has already begun on many of these. In April 2014 the Delhi Lt. Governor gave approval for two further extensions. All the approved lines are:. Phase III will have 28 underground stations covering 41 km. More than 20 tunnel boring machines are expected to be simultaneously used during construction of Phase III. Delhi Metro is expecting a ridership of 4 million after completion of Phase III. DMRC has decided to use communication based train control (CBTC) for signalling which will allow trains to run at a short headway of 90 seconds. Keeping this in mind and other constraints, DMRC changed its decision to build 9 car long stations for new lines and instead opting for shorter stations which can accommodate 6 car trains. For the first time Delhi Metro will construct ring lines in Phase III. Till Phase II, Delhi Metro focused on expanding the reach of metro and thus built long radial lines. However, in Phase III, Delhi Metro is aiming to interconnect existing lines by ring lines to improve connectivity. This will not only help in reducing distances but will also relieve radial lines of some congestion. = = = = Phase IV = = = = Phase IV has a 2021 deadline, and tentatively includes further extensions to Sonia Vihar, Burari, Mukundpur, Reola Khanpur, Palam, Najafgarh, Narela, Ghazipur, Noida sector 62, extensions of Violet line, Green line, Line 8, having a total length of over 100 km. There might be some changes in plan before actual construction starts on these lines. Delhi metro phase 4 got delhi government approval awaiting union cabinet approval. The proposed corridors: Rithala Narela (21.73 km) Inderlok Indraprastha (12.57 km) Tughlakabad Terminal 1 (22.20 km) Lajpat Nagar Saket G-Block (7.96 km) Janakpuri (west) RK Ashram (28.92 km) Mukundpur Maujpur (12.54 km) Along with that the haryana government planning a metro corridor between gurgaon and faridabad. As well as gurgaon will soon see a multiple extension of rapid metro and delhi metro. Some of are a metro corridor between dwarka to iffco chowk line, A new mutiple lines covering old and new gurgaon region like gurgaon railway station and bus stand and various sectors like sector 10, basai chowk, farrukhnagar connecting dwarka expressway metro line etc, yellow line extension from huda city centre to manesar via rajiv chowk (gurgaon) interchanging with old gurgaon metro line, connecting with delhi regional rapid rail system (delhi gurgaon alwar corridor), pod taxi system. Dwarka expressway metro line. As well as plans have been mooted to construct a new line from Noida Sector 62 to Greater Noida which will intersect Indraprastha – Noida Sector 32 line. The Ghaziabad Development Authority is planning to extend Delhi Metro lines deeper into Ghaziabad through extension of the Blue Line from Vaishali to Mehrauli via Indirapuram. The independently operated Gurgaon Metro, opened in November 2013, will also interchange with the Delhi Metro at Sikandarpur station on Yellow line. For the year 2012 – 13, Noida development Authority has allocated Rs 5 billion for Metro extension, with City Centre Metro line being extended till the crossing of Sector 71 and 72. After phase 4, delhi metro will focus on phase 5 covering outer region of delhi. And phase 6, 7 and many more plan according it. = = Finances = = = = = Summary financials = = = The table below is based on the 2014 – 15 Annual Report. EBITDA stands for "Earnings before Interest Taxes Depreciation & Amortization" EBT stands for "Earnings Before Tax" Of note, Delhi Metro has been operating with a loss on an EBT basis for the past few years. EBITDA margin declined from 73% in Fiscal 2007 to 35% in Fiscal 2015. That said, Debt to Equity improved from 1.43 in FY07 to 1.15 in FY15. = = = Funding and capitalisation = = = DMRC is owned equally by the Delhi government and the Government of India. As of March 2015, total debt stood at ₹246 billion (US $3.7 billion), while equity capital was ₹214 billion (US $3.2 billion). Cost of the debt is 0% for Govt of India and Delhi government loans, and between 0.01% and 2.3% for Japan International Cooperation Agency loans. Of the equity capital, ₹163 billion (US $2.4 billion) is paid-up capital and rest is reserves and surplus. = = Operations = = Trains operate at a frequency of one to two minutes to five to ten minutes between 05: 00 and 00: 00, depending upon the peak and off-peak hours. Trains operating within the network typically travel at speed up to 50 km / h (31 mph), and stop for about 20 seconds at each station. Automated station announcements are recorded in Hindi and English. Many stations have services such as ATMs, food outlets, cafés, convenience stores and mobile recharge. Eating, drinking, smoking and chewing of gum are prohibited in the entire system. The Metro also has a sophisticated fire alarm system for advance warning in emergencies, and fire retardant material is used in trains as well as on the premises of stations. Navigation information is available on Google Transit. Since October 2010, the first coach of every train is reserved for women. However, last coaches are also reserved when the train changes tracks at the terminal stations in the Red, Green and Violet Lines. To make travelling by metro a smoother experience, Delhi Metro has launched its own official app for smartphone users, (iPhone and Android) that will provide information on various facilities like nearest metro station, fare, parking availability, tourist spots near metro stations, security and emergency helpline numbers. = = = Security = = = Security on the Delhi Metro is handled by the Central Industrial Security Force (CISF), who have been guarding the system ever since they took over from the Delhi Police in 2007. Closed-circuit cameras are used to monitor trains and stations, and feed from these is monitored by both the CISF and Delhi Metro authorities at their respective control rooms. Over 3500 CISF personnel have been deployed to deal with law and order issues in the system, in addition to metal detectors, X-ray baggage inspection systems, and dog squads which are used to secure the system. About 5,200 CCTV cameras have been installed, which cover every nook and corner of each Metro station. Each of the underground stations has about 45 to 50 cameras installed while the elevated stations have about 16 to 20 cameras each. The monitoring of these cameras is done by the CISF, which is in charge of security of the Metro, as well as the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation. Intercoms are provided in each train car for emergency communication between the passengers and the train operator. Periodic security drills are carried out at stations and on trains to ensure preparedness of security agencies in emergency situations. DMRC is also looking at raising the station walls and railings for the safety of passengers. = = = Ticketing and recharge = = = For the convenience of customers, Delhi Metro commuters have three choices for ticket purchase. The RFID tokens are valid only for a single journey on the day of purchase and the value depends on the distance travelled, with fares for a single journey ranging from ₹8 (12 ¢US) to ₹30 (45 ¢US). Fares are calculated based on the origin and destination stations using a fare chart. A common ticketing facility for commuters travelling on Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC) buses and the Metro was introduced in 2011. Travel cards are available for longer durations and are most convenient for frequent commuters. They are valid for one year from the date of purchase or the date of last recharge, and are available in denominations of ₹200 (US $3.00) to ₹1,000 (US $14.90). A 10% discount is given on all travel made on it. A deposit of ₹50 (74 ¢US) needs to be made to buy a new card which is refundable on the return of the card any time before its expiry if the card is not physically damaged. Tourist cards can be used for unlimited travel on the Delhi Metro network over short periods of time. There are two kinds of tourist cards valid for one and three days respectively. The cost of a one-day card is ₹150 (US $2.20) and that of a three-day card is ₹300 (US $4.50), besides a refundable deposit of ₹50 (74 ¢US) that must be paid at the time of purchasing the card. According to new regime, the maximum permissible time limit for stay within the Metro system – 170 minutes at present – will now be 180 minutes for those buying tickets of Rs. 23 or above, 100 minutes for tickets costing Rs. 19 – 23, and 65 minutes for tickets up to Rs. 18. = = = Problems = = = As the network has expanded, high ridership in new trains have led to increasing instances of overcrowding and delays on the Delhi Metro. To alleviate the problem, 8 coach trains have been introduced in Yellow line and Blue line and an increase in the frequency of trains has been proposed. Infrequent, overcrowded and erratic feeder bus services connecting stations to nearby localities have also been reported as an area of concern. = = = Ridership = = = Delhi Metro has been registering a continuous increase in ridership since its inception. When Metro services were introduced in 2002, the average ridership was 80,000 passengers per day. As of 2015, daily ridership has risen to 2.6 million, with the latest ridership record set on 28 August 2015. On 4 August 2014 daily ridership crossed the 2.7 million figure. Since then the highest ridership has kept on surpassing the previous best, compelling metro authorities to keep increasing the services on busy routes. Most recent Delhi Metro daily ridership record of 3.175 million passengers was reached on the eve of the Rakshabandhan (28 August 2015), when commuters poured in large numbers throughout the day. On 25 December 2014, it was reported that the ridership of the Airport Express had almost doubled in the past year to almost 600,000 passengers per month now, as compared to just above 300,000 at the beginning of the calendar year. Currently, Delhi Metro has about 220 trains of four, six and eight coaches totalling 1,290 coaches. It is further planning to add 421 more coaches on the existing route before the completion of phase 3. During the financial year 2015, DMRC on an average pressed 1,083 coaches in an hour (during peak hour), in 2012 – 13, the number was 819. On an average trains make 2,880 trips per day. = = Infrastructure = = = = = Rolling Stock = = = The Metro uses rolling stock of two different gauges. Phase I lines use 1,676 mm (5.499 ft) broad gauge rolling stock, while three Phase II lines use 1,435 mm (4.708 ft) standard gauge rolling stock. Trains are maintained at seven depots at Khyber Pass and Sultanpur for the Yellow Line, Mundka for the Green Line, Najafgarh and Yamuna Bank for the Blue Line, Shastri Park for the Red Line, and Sarita Vihar for the Violet Line. Maglev trains were initially considered for some lines of Phase 3, but DMRC decided to continue with conventional rail in August 2012. = = = = Broad gauge = = = = The rolling stock is manufactured by two major suppliers. For the Phase I, the rolling stock was supplied by a consortium of companies comprising Hyundai Rotem, Mitsubishi Corporation, and MELCO.The coaches have a very similar look to MTR Rotem EMU, except with only 4 doors and use sliding doors. The coaches were initially built in South Korea by ROTEM, then in Bangalore by BEML through a technology transfer arrangement. These trains consist of four 3.2-metre (10 ft) wide stainless steel lightweight coaches with vestibules permitting movement throughout their length and can carry up to 1500 passengers, with 50 seated and 330 standing passengers per coach. The coaches are fully air conditioned, equipped with automatic doors, microprocessor-controlled brakes and secondary air suspension, and are capable of maintaining an average speed of 32 km / h (20 mph) over a distance of 1.1 km (0.68 mi). The system is extensible up to eight coaches, and platforms have been designed accordingly. The rolling stock for Phase II is being supplied by Bombardier Transportation, which has received an order for 614 cars worth approximately US $1.1 billion. While initial trains were made in Görlitz, Germany and Sweden, the remainder will be built at Bombardier's factory in Savli, near Vadodara. These trains are a mix of four-car and six-car consists, capable of accommodating 1178 and 1792 commuters per train respectively. The coaches possess several improved features like Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) cameras with eight-hour backup for added security, charging points in all coaches for cell phones and laptops, improved air conditioning to provide a temperature of 25 degrees Celsius even in packed conditions and heaters for winter. = = = = Standard gauge = = = = The standard gauge rolling stock is manufactured by BEML at its factory in Bangalore. The trains are four-car consists with a capacity of 1506 commuters per train, accommodating 50 seated and 292 standing passengers in each coach. These trains will have CCTV cameras in and outside the coaches, power supply connections inside coaches to charge mobiles and laptops, better humidity control, microprocessor-controlled disc brakes, and will be capable of maintaining an average speed of 34 km / h (21 mph) over a distance of 1.1 km (0.68 mi). = = = = Airport Express = = = = Eight 6-car trains supplied by CAF Beasain were imported from Spain. CAF held 5% equity in the DAME project, and Reliance Infrastructure held the remaining 95% before DMRC took over the operations. The trains on this line are of a premium standard compared to the existing metro trains and have in-built noise reduction and padded fabric seats. The coaches are equipped with LCD screens for entertainment of the passengers and also provide flight information for convenience of air travellers. The trains are fitted with an event recorder which can withstand high levels of temperature and impact and the wheels have flange lubrication system for less noise and better riding comfort. = = = Signalling and Telecommunication = = = The Delhi Metro uses cab signalling along with a centralised automatic train control system consisting of automatic train operation, Automatic Train Protection and automatic train signalling modules. A 380 MHz digital trunked TETRA radio communication system from Motorola is used on all lines to carry both voice and data information. For Blue Line Siemens Transportation Systems has supplied the electronic interlocking Sicas, the operation control system Vicos OC 500 and the automation control system LZB 700 M. An integrated system comprising optical fibre cable, on-train radio, CCTV, and a centralised clock and public address system is used for telecommunication during train operations as well as emergencies. For Red and Yellow lines ALSTOM has supplied signalling system and for line Green and Voilet Bombardier Transportation has supplied CITYFLO 350 signalling system. The Airport Express line has introduced WiFi services at all stations along the route on 13 January 2012. Connectivity inside metro trains travelling on the route is expected in the future. The WiFi service is provided by You Broadband. A fully automated, operatorless train system has been offered to Delhi Metro by the French defence and civilian technologies major Thales. = = Environmental Impact = = The Delhi Metro has won awards from vipul environmentally friendly practices from organisations including the United Nations, RINA, and the International Organization for Standardization, becoming the second metro in the world, after the New York City Subway, to be ISO 14001 certified for environmentally friendly construction. Most of the Metro stations on the Blue Line conduct rainwater harvesting as an environmental protection measure. It is also the first railway project in the world to earn carbon credits after being registered with the United Nations under the Clean Development Mechanism, and has so far earned 400,000 carbon credits by saving energy through the use of regenerative braking systems on its trains. To reduce its dependence on non-renewable sources of energy, DMRC is looking forward to harness solar energy and install solar panels at the Karkardooma, Noida Sector-21, Anand Vihar and Pragati Maidan Metro stations and DMRC's residential complex at Pushp Vihar. The Metro has been promoted as an integral part of community infrastructure, and community artwork depicting the local way of life has been put on display at stations. Students of local art colleges have also designed decorative murals at Metro stations, while pillars of the viaduct on some elevated sections have been decorated with mosaic murals created by local schoolchildren. The Metro station at INA Colony has a gallery showcasing artwork and handicrafts from across India, while all stations on the Central Secretariat – Qutub Minar section of the Yellow Line have panels installed on the monumental architectural heritage of Delhi. The Nobel Memorial Wall at Rajiv Chowk has portraits of the seven Nobel Laureates from India: Rabindranath Tagore, CV Raman, Hargobind Khorana, Mother Teresa, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Amartya Sen and Venkatraman Ramakrishnan and provide details about their contribution to society and a panel each on Alfred Nobel and the Nobel Prizes.

= Time Enough at Last = "Time Enough at Last" is episode 8 of the American television anthology series The Twilight Zone. The episode was adapted from a short story written by Lynn Venable (pen name of Marilyn Venable). The short story appeared in the January 1953 edition of the science fiction magazine If: Worlds of Science Fiction about seven years before the television episode first aired. "Time Enough at Last" became one of the most famous episodes of the original Twilight Zone and has been frequently parodied since. It is "the story of a man who seeks salvation in the rubble of a ruined world" and tells of Henry Bemis / ˈbiːmɪs /, played by Burgess Meredith, who loves books, yet is surrounded by those who would prevent him from reading them. The episode follows Bemis through the post apocalyptic world, touching on such social issues as anti-intellectualism, the dangers of reliance upon technology, and the difference between aloneness (solitude) and loneliness. = = Opening narration = = = = Plot summary = = Henpecked, far sighted bank teller and avid bookworm Henry Bemis (Meredith) works at his window in a bank, while reading David Copperfield, which causes him to shortchange an annoyed customer. Bemis's angry boss (Taylor), and later his nagging wife (deWit), both complain to him that he wastes far too much time reading "doggerel". As a cruel joke, his wife asks him to read poetry from one of his books to her; he eagerly obliges, only to find that she has inked over the text on every page, obscuring the words. Seconds later, she destroys the book by ripping the pages from it much to Henry's dismay. The next day, as usual, Henry takes his lunch break in the bank's vault, where his reading will not be disturbed. Moments after he sees a newspaper headline, which reads "H-Bomb Capable of Total Destruction", an enormous explosion outside the bank violently shakes the vault, knocking Bemis unconscious. After regaining consciousness and recovering the thick glasses required for him to see, Bemis emerges from the vault to find the bank demolished and everyone in it dead. Leaving the bank, he sees that the entire city has been destroyed, and realizes that a nuclear war has devastated the Earth, but that his being in the vault has saved him. Finding himself totally alone in a shattered world with food to last him a lifetime but no one to share it with, Bemis succumbs to despair. As he prepares to commit suicide using a revolver he has found, Bemis sees the ruins of the public library in the distance. Investigating, he finds that the books are still intact and readable; all the books he could ever hope for are his for the reading, and (as he gazes upon a huge fallen face of a clock) learns that he has all the time in the world to read them without interruption. His despair gone, Bemis contentedly sorts the books he looks forward to reading for years to come. Just as he bends down to pick up the first book, he stumbles, and his glasses fall off and shatter. In shock, he picks up the broken remains of the glasses he is virtually blind without, and says, "That's not fair. That's not fair at all. There was time now. There was — was all the time I needed …! It's not fair! It's not fair!" and bursts into tears, surrounded by books he now can never read. = = Closing narration = = = = Production = = "Time Enough at Last" was one of the first episodes written for The Twilight Zone. It introduced Burgess Meredith to the series; he went on to star in three more episodes, being introduced as "no stranger to The Twilight Zone" in promotional spots for season two's "The Obsolete Man". He also narrated for the 1983 film Twilight Zone: The Movie, which made reference to "Time Enough at Last" during its opening sequence, with the characters discussing the episode in detail. Footage of the exterior steps of the library was filmed several months after production had been completed. These steps can also be seen on the exterior of an Eloi public building in MGM's 1960 version of The Time Machine. John Brahm was nominated for a Directors Guild award for his work on the episode. The book that Bemis was reading in the vault and that flips open when the bomb explodes is A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus by Washington Irving. = = Themes = = Although the overriding message may seem to be "careful what you wish for", there are other themes throughout the episode as well. Paramount among these is the question of solitude versus loneliness, as embodied by Bemis' moment of near-suicide. Additionally, the portrayal of societal attitudes towards books speaks to the contemporary decline of traditional literature and how, given enough time, reading may become a relic of the past. At the same time, the ending "punishes Bemis for his antisocial behavior, and his greatest desire is thwarted." Rod Serling's concluding statement in the episode - that Bemis has become "just a fragment of what man has deeded to himself" - alludes to Robert Burns' Scots language poem "To a Mouse" (1785, for which John Steinbeck's book, Of Mice and Men (1938), was also named). The poem concludes: "The best-laid schemes o 'mice an men / Gang aft agley" (translation: "Often go awry"). Although "Time Enough at Last" implies that nuclear warfare has destroyed humanity, film critic Andrew Sarris notes that the episode's necessarily unrealistic format may have been what allowed its production to commence: In the era of the Internet and eBooks, the irony depicted in "Time Enough at Last" has an information age counterpart, according to Weston Ochse of Storytellers Unplugged. As Ochse points out, when Bemis becomes the last person on Earth, he finally has time to read, with all his books at his fingertips and the only impediment is technology when his medium for accessing them — his glasses — breaks. In a hypothetical world where all books are published electronically, Ochse observes, readers would be "only a lightning strike, a faulty switch, a sleepy workman or a natural disaster away from becoming Henry Bemis at the end of the world" — that is, a power outage has the potential to give them time to read, yet like Bemis, they too would lose their medium for accessing their books — namely the computer. This analogy has been taken further by those who suggest that today's technology-dependent world, where books have become passé (cf. Bradbury's "The Pedestrian"), could render an outage both a liberator and an executioner: As the gateway to both work and entertainment (be it a computer, video games or television), removing electricity from the equation presents Henry Bemis' heaven but modern society's hell. = = = Similar episodes = = = The Twilight Zone often explored similar themes throughout its run. "Time Enough at Last" has strong thematic ties to a number of other episodes in the series, starting with that of isolation, first explored in the series pilot, "Where Is Everybody?". It is also a prominent theme in the previous episode "The Lonely". Additionally, in a plot very similar to that of "Time", "The Mind and the Matter" tells of a man who uses his mind to erase humanity, only to find that existence without other people is unbearable. The notion of being an outsider, lost in a sea of conformity, was one of the most common themes of the series. Other thematic elements in this episode can be found throughout the series, as well. "The Obsolete Man" takes the episode's literary subtext — the notion that reading may eventually be considered "obsolete" — to an extreme: The state has declared books obsolete and a librarian (also played by Meredith) finds himself on trial for his own obsolescence. This notion, akin to Ray Bradbury's short story "The Pedestrian" (1951), is also alluded to in the episode "Number 12 Looks Just Like You", in which a perfect and equal world contradictorily considers works like those of Shakespeare "smut". = = Impact = = = = = Critical and fan favorite = = = "Time Enough at Last" was a ratings success in its initial airing and "became an instant classic". It "remains one of the best-remembered and best-loved episodes of The Twilight Zone" according to Marc Zicree, author of The Twilight Zone Companion. When a poll asked readers of Twilight Zone Magazine which episode of the series they remembered the most, "Time Enough at Last" was the most frequent response, with "To Serve Man" coming in a distant second. In TV Land's presentation of TV Guide's "100 Most Memorable Moments in Television", "Time Enough at Last" was ranked at # 25. In an interview years after this episode aired, Serling cited "Time Enough at Last" as one of his two favorites from the entire series. (The other episode was "The Invaders", with Agnes Moorehead.) = = = In popular culture = = = Many elements of American popular culture frequently pay homage to "Time Enough at Last". = = = = Amusement park attractions = = = = The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror, a theme park ride at Disney's Hollywood Studios and Disney California Adventure Park, displays a replica of Henry Bemis' broken glasses in the lobby. It is noted that, while they are indeed reading glasses, Burgess Meredith wears them the entire episode to make Bemis look more bookish. = = = Comics = = = The comic book version of The Simpsons, Simpsons Comics, published a story called "The Last Fat Man", based partially on "Time Enough at Last", and includes a short scene where Homer Simpson shoos a bespectacled man who is reading a book out of a nuclear bunker so he can eat in it, unintentionally taking shelter in it. = = = Film = = = In Twilight Zone: The Movie (1983), Albert Brooks recounts the episode to Dan Aykroyd as they drive along an empty stretch of highway. "This thing freaked me out when I was 7 years old," says Brooks' character, adding: "I bought another pair of glasses just in case that would happen." The episode's title was borrowed by a 2004 independent film about a man who tries to escape an office building. The film's official website listed the webmaster's e-mail alias as "rodserling". The Pixar movie WALL-E (2008), which takes place in a desolate future, also contains a scene in which a pair of broken glasses can be seen in the foreground. = = = Games = = = The PC game Fallout Tactics (2001) includes a librarian in a desolate world who wants the player to find his missing glasses so he can read his books. = = = Music = = = The episode's title was borrowed by a song on The Fall's 1992 album Code: Selfish (1992) = = = Television = = = There are numerous, notable television spoofs of the episode. Examples include: Stephen Colbert's A Colbert Christmas: The Greatest Gift of All! (in the DVD's second alternative ending) Family Guy (at the end of the season 2 episode "Wasted Talent") Futurama (during an episode of "The Scary Door" [a Twilight Zone-style TV show that airs in the year 3000] on "A Head in the Polls") SpongeBob SquarePants The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius ("Return of the Nanobots") The Drew Carey Show ("Y2K You're OK") Episodes of other television shows that refer to "Time Enough at Last" include: The Modern Family episode "Airport 2010" references "Time" when the screen on Jay's electronic reader gets broken. Jay pours the broken glass to the floor while saying "Not fair. It's not fair". Episode 12 of Revolution, titled "Ghosts", has Jim Hudson's character who goes by the name of Henry Bemis. Henry (Jim) has become the town librarian, until Miles convinces him to help the rebels and go back to his real name. The line, "Seconds, minutes, hours, they crawl by on hands and knees" was referenced to in The Powerpuff Girls Season 2 episode, "Speed Demon", where the villain, HIM, torments the Powerpuff Girls before revealing that they have unknowingly arrived 50 years into the future, landing in a Townsville that HIM now controls. "The HΩmega Man" segment of The Simpsons episode "Treehouse of Horror VIII" features Homer, who accidentally survives by hiding in a nuclear bunker and comes out to discover that he is apparently the last person alive. In the season 14 episode of The Simpsons, "Strong Arms of the Ma," a postman is accidentally trapped under a car in front of the Simpson house. He intends to read The Twilight Zone Magazine but discovers that his glasses were broken in the accident and says, "That's not fair!", while the Twilight Zone main-theme music is heard in the background. The sitcom Two and a Half Men made references to it when the character Alan has a nervous breakdown in a bookstore. This episode was mentioned in the CBS drama series, Under the Dome's third season. = = Adaptations = = "Time Enough at Last" has been released in numerous formats over the years. In 1988 it was available on VHS as part of a Twilight Zone collector's edition. Two releases were made in 1998 and 1999, as part of a more widely available two-episodes-per-tape release scheme. Although similar individual multi-episode DVDs were released, it is now exclusively available as part of The Twilight Zone – The Definitive Edition, the first volume of which was released December 24, 2004. Included is an audio-only interview with Burgess Meredith as well as the clip of The Drew Carey Show's parody of the episode. The story which inspired it has been released in eBook and MP3 form, capitalizing on the success of the episode. In 2003, the Falcon Picture Group produced a series of radio dramas based on the series — stating, "In the 1950s many radio series were turned into television series – so why not the reverse?" — which were broadcast on about 200 stations through the USA; "Time" was included in volume six. In 2005, "Time" became one of the first Twilight Zone episodes offered for download via Google Video and later on sites such as Amazon.com.

= Dead Head Fred = Dead Head Fred (Japanese: デッドヘッドフレッド ～ 首なし探偵の悪夢 ～, Hepburn: Deddo Heddo Fureddo ~ Kubinashi Tantei no Akumu ~) is a horror-themed action-adventure video game for the PlayStation Portable, developed by Vicious Cycle Software and published by D3 Publisher. It was released in North America on August 28, 2007 and is powered by Vicious Cycle's proprietary Vicious Engine. It features a premise that is a combination of 1940s-style noir and contemporary horror, dubbed "twisted noir" by the design team. The game is a single-player experience whose title character, Fred Neuman, is a private investigator with the ability to switch heads. Fred has recently been murdered and decapitated, and has few memories of the events leading to his death. The plot follows Fred as he pieces together the clues of his murder and tries to get revenge on the man who killed him. Unlike many action game heroes, Fred has no conventional weapons — he relies solely on the powers available to him from the severed heads of fallen enemies. The game received generally positive reviews, with reviewers mentioning its dark humor and noir-inspired motif as high points. It received criticism for its controls and lack of combat depth. In 2008, it won the Writers Guild of America's first-ever award for video game writing. = = Gameplay = = Dead Head Fred is a third-person action-adventure game that incorporates a variety of gameplay styles, including combat, platforming, and puzzles. The core gameplay of Dead Head Fred revolves around Fred's missing head and his ability to "switch" heads by defeating certain enemies, decapitating them, and collecting their heads (referred to as "headhunting"). As Fred explores the city of Hope Falls, he can collect an assortment of heads, each of which has unique abilities. Examples include the Stone Idol head, which Fred can use as a battering ram, and the Corpse head, which can be used to suck up and spit out water, gasoline, and other materials. Fred uses these heads to navigate the city of Hope Falls, and certain parts of the city are not accessible until certain heads are found. The high level of radiation in Hope Falls has led to a proliferation of grossly mutated worms, which the player can collect and use to upgrade Fred's heads and temporarily increase his fighting abilities, among other benefits. Also collectible are money and special items, which can be earned by defeating enemies or completing various side-missions. There are several minigames unrelated to the plot, such as pinball and fishing, scattered around the city. In combat, players have several attacks at their disposal, depending on the head Fred is equipped with. These attacks include combos, head-specific counterattacks, and ranged attacks. During a counterattack, the player can complete a Quick Time Event to instantly kill an enemy by removing its head, which gives Fred "Rage" points. Rage energy builds up over time, and the player can use it to unleash powerful attacks on multiple foes. Dealing a large amount of damage to an opponent will stun them, during which time Fred can remove their head. Collected heads can be traded at "Head Shops" for a usable version. There are several types of environmental puzzles that the player has to solve in order to progress through the game. Each one requires a specific head — the Bone head gives Fred sharp claws which allow him to climb on the sides of buildings, while the Shrunken head decreases his size dramatically and lets him navigate platforming levels, such as a saw mill. There is also a mannequin head that Fred must use to socialize with the residents of Hope Falls, because they are terrified of his other heads. There are nine available heads, seven of which are suitable for combat. = = Plot = = = = = Setting = = = Dead Head Fred takes place in Hope Falls, New Jersey, a once-prosperous area based on American cities in the 1940s. The city has steadily fallen from grace since a business mogul named Ulysses Pitt began accumulating power. Pitt has a background of petty crime, and there are allegations that he was somehow responsible for the disappearance of Vinni Rossini, an influential Hope Falls businessman. Pitt's new "Nukular Plant" has recently finished construction and has caused a high level of radiation in the city, leading to strange phenomena like mutated wildlife and undead monsters. Hope Falls is composed of several areas. The first that Fred has access to is Dr. Steiner's castle, the ancestral home of the Steiner family where Fred has been resurrected. Outside of the castle is a large cemetery that borders the forested area of Creepy Hollow. In Hope Falls proper are the urban areas of Downtown, Uptown, Old Hope Falls and Zombietown. Downtown is the home of Pitt's headquarters, and Fred's office is found in Old Hope Falls. Zombietown, as its name suggests, is overrun with zombies and most of its residents have fled the neighborhood or barricaded themselves in their homes. Two other rural areas border the city: Freak Farms, where Fred owns a small cabin, and the Boonies, a highly irradiated area where the Nukular Reactor has been built. Each area contains several teleporters in the form of sewer manholes, which Fred can use to quickly move from one area of Hope Falls to another. = = = Characters = = = The protagonist of Dead Head Fred is Fred Neuman (voiced by John C. McGinley), a private detective. Fred is the only playable character, but since each head gives him a different set of animations, he could be considered nine separate characters. As he does not have a proper face, Fred's mood is portrayed by the tone of his voice and by face-like expressions formed by his eyes and frontal lobes. Fred has a wisecracking, sarcastic personality and occasionally breaks the fourth wall, such as heckling the player when he dies. Ulysses Pitt (Jon Polito), the game's primary antagonist, is a small-time hoodlum turned racketeer. Pitt employs many henchmen throughout Hope Falls, the most prominent of which is his lieutenant Lefty, whose right leg has been amputated and replaced with a tommygun. Fred makes several allies throughout the game, including Dr. Steiner, who resurrected him, his girlfriend Jeanne Rossini (Kari Wahlgren), and his former partner Benny Salazar. Fred's enemies are generally employees of Pitt, like the skeletal "bone thugs", or creatures created by Hope Falls' radiation, like zombies and animated scarecrows. = = = Story = = = The game begins with Fred waking up in the castle of a Dr. Freidrich Steiner, an employee of Ulysses Pitt. Fred soon learns that he has been murdered and subsequently resurrected, and his head is missing. In its place is a liquid-filled jar that contains his brain and eyes. Steiner explains that Fred is a private detective who had been investigating Pitt, but Pitt had discovered that Fred was on to him and had him murdered. Many of Fred's memories are missing as a result of the trauma to his brain, and before Steiner can explain further, Pitt and several of his henchmen arrive. As Fred hides in Steiner's lab, Pitt's thugs apprehend Steiner and announce that he is to be taken to the Horseman, a minion of Pitt's who resides in Creepy Hollow. Fred leaves Steiner's castle and meets a blue-skinned hunchback in the cemetery outside. The hunchback introduces himself as Sam Spade, a gravedigger and "head merchant" who can help Fred by providing him with quality interchangeable heads. Fred continues to Creepy Hollow, where he defeats the Horseman and rescues Dr. Steiner. Steiner, however, has little information regarding Fred's investigation and suggests that he question the residents of Hope Falls to learn more about his demise. Fred begins exploring Hope Falls, meeting many strange personalities along the way. He reconnects with his old girlfriend Jeanne, who is the daughter of a prominent Hope Falls citizen, Vinni Rossini. Fred learns that Mr. Rossini had been reported missing by Jeanne, and Jeanne had subsequently hired Fred to find him. Fred had eventually followed the trail to Pitt, who had bribed Fred's partner, Benny Salazar, into betraying him. Fred was promptly caught by Pitt's henchmen and shot to death by his right-hand man, Lefty. Armed with the knowledge of his death and the events leading up to it, Fred continues his investigation and recovers a videotape of Vinni Rossini's murder that incriminates Pitt. Pitt learns that Fred is still "alive" and kidnaps Jeanne to use as leverage against him. Fred confronts the mobster at his headquarters after shutting down the centerpiece of the his criminal enterprise, the Pitt Nukular Plant, and defeating Lefty. Lefty, however, was exposed to nuclear waste during the fight and subsequently mutated into a huge beast who comes to Pitt's aid in the game's final battle. Fred ultimately defeats both Pitt and Lefty atop the Pitt Building. Pitt is killed during the battle, but Lefty manages to escape and retreats to the remains of the Nukular Plant. After the battle, Fred's head, which, along with Jeanne, had been held hostage by Pitt, is shown tumbling into an open manhole near the Pitt Building, unbeknownst to Fred. The final scene of the game shows Fred and Jeanne having dinner at a restaurant to celebrate, with Fred lamenting the loss of his head. = = Development = = = = = Geo = = = Dead Head Fred uses the Vicious Engine, a game engine created and maintained by game design company Vicious Cycle Software. Considered "middleware" in the video game industry, the engine was designed as a simple set of creation tools that could be used across multiple consoles. The game was originally conceived as a platform game based on the character "Geo." Vicious Cycle's president, Eric Peterson, and some of his staff developed a conceptual world called "Prime" where Geo lived. Geo had the ability to switch his head between several different shapes (a cube, sphere, cylinder, and pyramid) that would help him solve puzzles, fight, and move around Prime in his quest to stop the evil King Rhombus, who was trying to destroy Prime. Each of Geo's shaped heads had unique properties that gave him different abilities — the sphere head allowed him to roll around very quickly, for example. The Geo concept was described by the development team as similar to other platform games like Rayman or Spyro, and skewed towards a younger audience. When the concept was complete, the development team presented it to several publishers, who stated that they liked the idea but its geometry-based core too strongly resembled "edutainment", and that they were interested in developing a more edgy, adult premise. The Nintendo GameCube had been an early choice for hosting the game before the PSP was chosen. = = = Noir setting = = = Vicious Cycle went back to the drawing board and produced a new concept that they felt was darker and better suited to an older audience. The "head-switching" game mechanic had been praised by the potential publishers and was kept, but this time the cartoonish, childlike Geo was replaced by an angry, vengeful private detective named Fred Neuman. The world of Prime was replaced with the bleak, film noir-esque city of Hope Falls, where Fred would seek revenge against those who had wronged him. Vicious Cycle presented the new project to Sony, who promptly approved the game for the PSP, despite it not having secured a publisher. Shortly afterwards, the project was picked up by D3Publisher. Vicious Cycle then submitted the concept to art company Massive Black Studios to develop initial character sketches. Massive Black's artists were allowed to use their imagination while developing Fred, but the one stipulation Vicious Cycle made from the beginning was Fred's head — the developers wanted it to be a liquid-filled jar with the detective's brain and eyes floating around inside. Massive Black came up with several different versions of Fred, including some with guns, which lead designer Adam Cogan had already decided the game would not include. After receiving the sketches, Vicious Cycle chose several that portrayed Fred with a squat, childlike appearance that retained some of the youthful focus of the scrapped Geo project. The publisher, D3, decided to present all of the concept art to a test group. To the developers' surprise, the test group was much more interested in a darker, more intimidating portrayal of Fred than the cartoonish, playful look they had chosen. The developers decided to flesh out the concept and took the chosen sketches back to Massive Black. This time the art came back darker, with similarities to Dirty Harry and The Matrix and The Evil Dead, and a Norman Rockwell-inspired look that would influence the game's art style towards a more violent theme. = = = Further testing = = = D3 provided the development team with more focus groups, and as a result, the game slowly incorporated more combat and less platforming and puzzles. Fred's combat capabilities were revamped to give him more attacks, counterattacks and combinations. D3 also gave Vicious Cycle more time to develop the game, with the hope of receiving better reviews and potentially turning Dead Head Fred into a franchise. The delay pushed back the game's release from January to August 2007. D3Publisher bought Vicious Cycle two months before the game's release, but the company's headquarters remained in North Carolina and the staff was retained. = = Audio = = = = = Soundtrack = = = The music of Dead Head Fred was composed by Rod Abernethy and Jason Graves and recorded at Abernethy's studio, Rednote Audio. Abernethy and Graves had worked on previous games by Vicious Cycle, like Curious George. The composers were interested in developing a sound for Dead Head Fred that was retro-futuristic, and borrowed from other death-themed pieces like Stubbs the Zombie and Beetlejuice. The development team did not have any substantial ideas for the game's music beyond the theme and mood of Hope Falls, giving the composers free rein on the soundtrack's direction. = = = Voice work = = = A crucial area of development was the formation of the game's mood, theme, and story to give it a dark, yet humorous quality. Hiring a Hollywood screenwriter to create the script was proposed, but ultimately Vicious Cycle designer Dave Ellis was given the task of writing the game's cutscenes and voiceover script, while Cogan focused on the in-game dialog. Ellis referred to several noir films for inspiration, especially Miller's Crossing and Who Framed Roger Rabbit During this time, Eric Peterson cast several voice actors, including John C. McGinley from the TV show Scrubs and Jon Polito from the aforementioned Miller's Crossing. McGinley was cast as Fred because of his Scrubs character's sarcasm and wit, while Polito was cast in the role of mob boss Ulysses Pitt, which was very similar to his role of Johnny Caspar in Miller's Crossing. The development team then set about recording the game's dialog, which proved to be challenging because of Vicious Cycle's location on the East Coast. All of the recordings were done over the phone at a studio in Hollywood. Despite this, and the fact that Fred alone had over 1000 lines of in-game dialog, the recording went smoothly, with the exception of one unidentified actor who walked out in the middle of a session. The original script had only one instance of the word "fuck", but several recording sessions with McGinley resulted in a great deal of colorful improvisation. The design team liked the recordings and the script was modified to permit McGinley and other actors to curse more. McGinley focused on portraying Fred as "pissed off" and "having a chip on his shoulder" because his head was missing. "No, this guy was unique because, well … his head was gone! With him, you could really just open up your imagination and roll out a cavalcade of eccentricities and see what makes sense to you. It was pretty much unlike anything I ’ ve ever done before." = = Promotion and release = = Dead Head Fred was first announced at the Electronics Entertainment Expo (E3) video game convention in May 2006, where a trailer was shown to the public. Following this, little was heard about the game until Cogan started a developer diary on Vicious Cycle's website in March 2007. Three diary entries were written by Cogan and Ellis, which provided details about the game's pre-production conceptualization and voice work. In May 2007, D3 announced that John C. McGinley would be voicing Fred, and the next month the company issued a press release stating that the game was finished and ready for mass production. However, the game was delayed, allowing D3 Publisher to show it at E3 2007. It was eventually released on August 28, 2007 in North America after nearly two years of development. It was released on October 26 in Europe, November 2 in Australia, and March 19, 2008 in Japan. In December 2007, D3 reduced the price of the game, and in October 2008 it was made available for download on Sony's PlayStation Network. The soundtrack was released on iTunes by Lakeshore Records on September 18, 2007. = = = Future = = = Dead Head Fred was designed specifically for the PSP, and Vicious Cycle intended it to be their "flagship" title for the system. However, the game's designers have hinted that the game could potentially be ported to the PlayStation Network or Xbox Live Arcade with a few months' work. As of March 2009, D3Publisher has announced a sequel, but the designers have stated that subsequent titles were discussed during the game's development. John C. McGinley has expressed interest in reprising Fred. Namco Bandai Games (the parent of D3) were impressed with the game and wanted to publish the sequel because they 'wanted' to test out Vicious Cycle's Gameplay on the PSP. = = Reception = = Dead Head Fred received generally favorable reviews from critics. The game's writing and dialogue were considered the main strengths of the game, with GameSpy's reviewer stating that "In the vast sea of PSP titles, Dead Head Fred stands' head and shoulders' above the rest." IGN said "The tale of revenge in a dark world is twisted [and] unapologetically humorous". Other publications were not as impressed, however, with one reviewer stating "... the overused profanity just makes it feel like it's been designed by teenagers desperately trying to be edgy." The game's supernatural themes elicited comparisons to The Darkness and Grim Fandango. GamesRadar included it in their list of the 100 most overlooked games of its generation. Editor Jason Fanelli felt that PSP games often lacked creativity and that Dead Head Fred was the exception. Many reviewers were pleased with the game's premise and setting, variously describing it as "weird", "wacky" and "silly". Hope Falls, especially the area of Creepy Hollow, was compared to the work of Tim Burton. Dead Head Fred's graphics were warmly received, with GameSpy noting "The game looks simply phenomenal on the PSP screen." Pocket Gamer UK said "graphically the game won't blow your head off but it is undeniably stylish." Pocket Gamer also felt that the game's level design, with its emphasis on changing heads to solve environmental puzzles, made up for the "mediocre combat system". The character design was praised; GameSpy said "Fred is one of the most interesting and entertaining characters to ever hit gaming," and GameZone said "Fred ’ s freakish form is like looking at a car crash … you really don ’ t want to stare but you just can ’ t help it." The voice acting, in particular John C. McGinley's portrayal of Fred, was widely praised, as was the rest of the game's audio. GameZone's Natalie Romano said "There ’ s also some great music in the game and the sound effects are... wonderfully detailed". "The sound for the title, however, is fantastic. The majority of it is centered around the voice acting, which is anchored by John C. McGinley of Scrubs and Office Space fame. McGinley expertly brings his dry, sarcastic delivery to Fred's lines and consistently delivers humorous lines across the entire game." The focal point of reviewers' criticism was Dead Head Fred's gameplay, specifically the combat. It was generally considered tedious and repetitive. Australia's PAL Gaming Network described the combat as "one of the poorest elements of the game", and Game Informer called the combat mechanics "awful". The performance of the camera was also criticized, with IGN noting "Considering that the camera will sometimes choose some horrible angles for you in battle or during puzzles, it's annoying to have to fight it as well as mutants that want you dead." GameZone said "I just wish the camera wouldn ’ t be such a hindrance sometimes." Reviewers were also unhappy with Dead Head Fred's loading times; Eurogamer considered them "excessively high", and IGN said "The only downside that crops up when it comes to the visuals are the continual loading times on just about every single area." = = = Awards = = = Dead Head Fred was nominated for several awards, including the Writers Guild of America's first award for video game writing, which it won. During E3 2007, the game was nominated for the Best of E3 2007: Best Handheld Game award by the Game Critics Awards, a group of prominent media journalists. Dead Head Fred lost to The Legend of Zelda: Phantom Hourglass for the Nintendo DS, but was notable for being the only new intellectual property nominated in the handheld category. The audio was nominated for two awards at the Game Audio Network Guild's 6th annual ceremony, Best Soundtrack of the Year and Best Handheld Audio. Dead Head Fred lost to BioShock and Syphon Filter: Logan's Shadow, respectively.

= Al Wistert = Albert Alexander "Ox" Wistert (December 28, 1920 – March 5, 2016) was an All-Pro American football tackle in the National Football League (NFL) for the Philadelphia Eagles. He played his entire nine-year NFL career for the Eagles and became their team captain. He was named to play in the NFL's first Pro Bowl as an Eagle. During most of Wistert's career there were no football All-star games, although he was named to the league All-Pro team eight times. Wistert played college football at the University of Michigan. He is one of the three brothers — along with Whitey and Alvin — who were named All-American tackles at Michigan and later inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. He was the first Michigan alumnus to be selected to the National Football League Pro Bowl. The Wistert brothers all wore jersey No. 11 at Michigan and are among the seven players who have had their numbers retired by the Michigan Wolverines football program. Their number will be put back into circulation starting on November 10, 2012 before a Michigan home game against Northwestern as part of the Michigan Football Legend program. = = Early life = = Wistert, who was born in Chicago, Illinois, was from a Lithuanian family. His father, Kazimer Wistert, was a Spanish – American War veteran who was later killed in the line of duty while working for the Chicago Police Department. The story of the Wistert brothers at Michigan began when Whitey's Carl Schurz High School classmate John Kowalik was invited to visit the University of Michigan. At the time, Whitey Wistert had a factory job where he was involved with building Majestic radios. Kowalik took Whitey with him on his visit to Ann Arbor, and according to Alvin, "that's how it started: the Wisterts of Michigan." = = College football = = After graduating from Foreman High School, Wistert became the second of the Wistert brothers to play for Michigan where he wore number 11 like his brothers and played from 1940 to 1942. He was a consensus All-American and team MVP in 1942. He played in the 1943 East – West Shrine Game. He is well remembered, among other things, for his exploits in a 1942 game against the Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team, and he was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1968, one year after his brother Francis. In 1981, he was named to the University of Michigan Hall of Honor in the fourth class of inductees alongside his brothers. Only five Michigan football players earned this honor before him. Michigan posted a 20 – 5 – 1 record during Wistert's three years on the team. In 1940, the team's only loss in its eight-game season was to the eventual national champion Minnesota Golden Gophers football. The Wolverines followed that season with 6 – 1 – 1 and 7 – 3 marks in the next two years. Wistert served as captain of the College All-star team that beat the Sammy Baugh-led National Football League champion Washington Redskins, 27 – 7, in Chicago. He was the only one of the three brothers not to play on a national championship squad at Michigan. = = Professional football = = After being drafted in the fifth round by the Philadelphia Eagles and signing for $3800 ($51,965 today), he encountered animosity from veteran players for having signed such a large contract (though they thought he signed for $4500). He earned All-Pro honors in eight (five by consensus) of his nine seasons. As a two-way player, he played his entire nine-year career for the Philadelphia Eagles (who operated as a merged team with the Pittsburgh Steelers for one season during World War II.) The National Football League had no All-Star games between 1943 and 1950. Thus, although Wistert was a perennial All-Pro selection, it is difficult to compare him to more modern players who are often measured by Pro Bowl invitations. He served as Eagles captain for five consecutive seasons, from 1946 to 1950, and was named All-Pro in each season. In Wistert's next to last season he was selected to the first Pro Bowl. In his final season, he recovered three fumbles. The Eagles won the 1948 and 1949 National Football League Championships with Wistert. These were the only consecutive National Football League champions to win by shutout. His number 70 was retired by the Eagles in 1952. According to his College Football Hall of Fame biography, during his career he started every game the Eagles played except for the 1950 season opener against the Cleveland Browns. However, according to other statistical databases he only started about 2 / 3 of his career games. His is one of only seven retired Eagles Jerseys. Wistert lamented not having been enshrined in the Professional Football Hall of Fame and on Philadelphia Eagles Honor Roll: Wistert was inducted into the Philadelphia Eagles Honor Roll on September 29, 2009 along with Randall Cunningham. In 2003, he was named to the Pro Football Researchers Association Hall of Very Good in the association's inaugural HOVG class. = = Later life and family = = After football Wistert became a successful life insurance salesman. He sold insurance for 40 years. Among the places he has lived since retirement are California and Grants Pass, Oregon. He was married to his late wife Ellie for 61 years and has three daughters (Pam, Dianna and Kathy) and three grandchildren. At one point he was both coaching football at Riverside High School in Riverside Township, New Jersey and playing professionally. According to brother Alvin, their father "was born Casmir Vistertus and he Anglicized it when he came to America to Wistert." Wistert died on March 5, 2016 in Grants Pass, Oregon at the age of 95.

= Si Una Vez = "Si Una Vez" (English: If I Once) is a song recorded by American recording artist Selena for her fourth studio album, Amor Prohibido (1994). It was written by Pete Astudillo and produced by Selena's brother-producer A.B. Quintanilla. "Si Una Vez" is a mariachi fusion song and draws influence from cumbia and Latin dance music. Lyrically, Selena questions why she ever fell in love with an abusive partner, saying she will never repeat her mistakes. The lyrics suggest unrequited love and female empowerment. "Si Una Vez" received positive reviews from music critics who found the song to have showcase the singer's vocal abilities. The Broadcast Music Inc. recognized it as the Single of the Year at the 1996 BMI Pop Awards. Many musicians have since recorded the song and released it on their respective albums including Mexican mariachi singer Alicia Villareal, American reggaeton performer Ivy Queen, American indie rock band Girl in a Coma, and American salsa singer Manny Manuel. The latter's version peaked at number one on the United States Billboard Tropical Songs chart, and ended 1995 as the fourteenth most successful U.S. tropical song. = = Background and composition = = "Si Una Vez" was written by Selena y Los Dinos backup dancer and vocalist Pete Astudillo. The song was co-written by Selena's brother-producer A.B. Quintanilla who, along with Argentine musician Bebu Silvetti, served as producers. Keyboardist of the group, Ricky Vela retold in a 2002 interview how the band hired a professional trumpist to record parts of the song. "Si Una Vez" is a Spanish-language mariachi fusion track with influences of cumbia and Latin dance music. Author Deborah Paredez called "Si Una Vez" as having punk music undertones. In 2002, A.B. spoke on how Amor Prohibido was experimental music-heavy and commented on how "Si Una Vez" was an example of his ideas of keeping the band's image modern. The song makes use of the Guitarrón guitar under a cumbia beat. "Si Una Vez" is written in the key of D minor and is played in a moderate groove of 84 beats per minute. It incorporates music from several musical instruments, including the piano and guitar. Lyrically, Selena reminiscences her failed relationship and wonders why she ever fell in love with an abusive partner who betrayed and left her, vowing to never allow a man like that back into her life. The lyrics suggest unrequited love and female empowerment. = = Critical reception and legacy = = "Si Una Vez" was named by the Latin Times as one of the top-ten best karaoke songs sung in Spanish. Writing for the Latin Times, Maria Valdez called the song "fun" especially when running into your former partner at a karaoke party and found the track to showcases a singer's vocal abilities. Texas Public Radio's Nathan Cone, said "the song" resonates best "with South Texas". Entertainment Weekly contributor David Browne, commented on Selena's vocals as being "full-throated, warbling" and that it "recalls Lydia Mendoza, conjunto's leading lady." A New University writer found the recording to have "showcase [the singer's] passion with her vocals." Selena performed the song on her final performance on March 19, 1995 during the Calle Ocho Festival in Miami, which attracted over 100,000 fans. Selena was shot and killed by Yolanda Saldívar, her friend and former manager of the singer's Selena Etc. clothing boutiques, on March 31, 1995. Selena's performance of the song during her Houston Astrodome concert on February 26, 1995, was emulated by Jennifer Lopez as her role as the singer for the 1997 biopic film about Selena. "Si Una Vez" is considered by Billboard magazine to be one of Selena's signature songs. Terra named "Si Una Vez" as one of Selena's "most famous works" along with her other songs "El Chico del Apartamento 512", "Amor Prohibido" and "Fotos y Recuerdos". The Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) recognized "Si Una Vez" at the BMI Pop Music Awards as Single of the Year in 1996. = = Covers = = Mexican singer Mary Boquitas recorded the song for the tribute album Mexico Recuerda a Selena (2005). Mexican mariachi singer Alicia Villareal performed and recorded "Si Una Vez" for the live televised tribute concert Selena ¡VIVE! in April 2005. American reggaeton singer Ivy Queen covered "Si Una Vez" for her fifth studio album Flashback (2005). She said in an interview how she felt "honored to be able to cover one of Selena's songs". Ivy Queen chose to cover "Si Una Vez" finding it to be identifiable to her and because of the song's message which the singer stood for. Jonathan Widran of AllMusic called her versions a "reggaetón-ed up twist". In 2010, indie rock group Girl in a Coma recorded a punk cover of "Si Una Vez". The group decided to record the song because it was their favorite recordings of Selena. Girl in a Coma performed the song live during the 2010 Tejano Music Awards as a homage to Selena. In April 2011, A.B. 's band Kumbia All-Starz performed their version of the song during their tour for La Vida De Un Genio (2010) in Bolivia. Colombian singer Kali Uchis performed "Si Una Vez" at the 2015 SXSW festival. Vibe magazine found Uchis' performance to have given them "shivers". = = = Manny Manuel version = = = American merengue musician Manny Manuel covered the song on his debut album, El Rey de Corazones (1995). Out of the five singles released from the album, "Si Una Vez" was Manuel's most successful single off of the El Rey de Corazones album. The song debuted at number 29 on the United States Billboard Hot Latin Tracks and number three on the U.S. Tropical Songs chart. The following week, "Si Una Vez" rose to numbers 22 and two on the Hot Latin Songs and Tropical Songs chart, respectively. On October 14, 1995, the track climbed to number 21 on the Hot Latin Songs chart, while it fell to number four on the Tropical Songs chart. In its fourth week, "Si Una Vez" jumped to number 18 on the Hot Latin Songs chart, while over at the Tropical Songs chart the song rose to number three. Despite increased airplay spins, "Si Una Vez" fell to number 20 on the Hot Latin Songs chart. On November 11, 1995, "Si Una Vez" peaked at number one on the Tropical Songs chart for one week, reeciving airplay honors that week. = = = = Chart performance = = = = = = Credits and personnel = = All credits were taken from the album's liner notes.

= Sicklefin lemon shark = The sicklefin lemon shark, or sharptooth lemon shark (Negaprion acutidens), is a species of requiem shark belonging to the family Carcharhinidae, widely distributed in the tropical waters of the Indo-Pacific. It is closely related to the better-known lemon shark (N. brevirostris) of the Americas; the two species are almost identical in appearance, both being stout-bodied sharks with broad heads, two dorsal fins of nearly equal size, and a plain yellow-tinged coloration. As its common name suggests, the sicklefin lemon shark differs from its American counterpart in having more falcate (sickle-shaped) fins. This large species grows up to 3.8 m (12 ft) long. It generally inhabits water less than 92 m (302 ft) deep in a variety of habitats, from mangrove estuaries to coral reefs. A slow-moving predator feeding mainly on bony fishes, the sicklefin lemon shark seldom travels long distances and many individuals can be found year-round at certain locations. Like other members of its family, this species is viviparous, with females giving birth to no more than 13 pups every other year, following a gestation period of 10 – 11 months. Although they are potentially dangerous to humans and known to respond vigorously to any provocation, under normal circumstances, sicklefin lemon sharks are cautious and tend to retreat if approached. The IUCN has assessed this species as Vulnerable; its low reproductive productivity and rate of movement limits the capacity of depleted stocks to recover. Off India and Southeast Asia, this species has been severely depleted or extirpated by unregulated exploitation for its meat, fins, and liver oil. = = Taxonomy and phylogeny = = The sicklefin lemon shark was first described as Carcharias acutidens by German naturalist Eduard Rüppell, in the 1837 Fische des Rothen Meeres (Fishes of the Red Sea). In 1940, Australian ichthyologist Gilbert Percy Whitley moved this species to his newly formed genus Negaprion. The type specimen, designated in 1960, is a 68-cm-long individual caught in the Red Sea off Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The specific epithet acutidens is derived from the Latin acutus meaning "sharp", and dens meaning "teeth". The sicklefin lemon shark may also be referred to as broadfin shark, Indian lemon shark, Indo-Pacific lemon shark, or simply lemon shark. Based on microsatellite DNA evidence, the sicklefin lemon shark is thought to have diverged from its sister species N. brevirostris 10 – 14 million years ago, when the closure of the Tethys Sea separated lemon sharks in the Indian Ocean from those in the Atlantic. The ancestral lemon shark species may have been N. eurybathrodon, the fossilized teeth of which occur in both the United States and Pakistan. Morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses suggest that Negaprion is grouped with the whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon) and the sliteye shark (Loxodon) in occupying an intermediate position on the carcharhinid evolutionary tree, between the most basal genera (Galeocerdo, Rhizoprionodon, and Scoliodon) and the most derived (Carcharhinus and Sphyrna). = = Distribution and habitat = = The range of the sicklefin lemon shark extends from South Africa to the Red Sea (including Mauritius, the Seychelles, and Madagascar), continuing eastward along the coast of the Indian subcontinent to Southeast Asia, extending as far north as Taiwan and the Philippines, and as far south as New Guinea and northern Australia. This species is also found around numerous Pacific islands, including New Caledonia, Palau, the Marshall Islands, the Solomon Islands, Fiji, Vanuatu, and French Polynesia. This species likely colonized the central Pacific by infrequently "hopping" from one island to the next. Significant levels of genetic differentiation between sicklefin lemon sharks in Australia and French Polynesia, 750 km (470 mi) apart, suggest that little intermingling occurs between regional subpopulations. An inhabitant of coastal continental and insular shelves, the sicklefin lemon shark occurs from the intertidal zone to a depth of 92 m (302 ft). This species favors still, murky waters and is most common in bays, estuaries, and lagoons, and over sandy flats and outer reefs. Sometimes, an individual may venture into open water; one was filmed in the 1971 documentary Blue Water, White Death, in the vicinity of a sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) carcass. Juvenile sicklefin lemon sharks are often found on reef flats or around mangroves, in water so shallow that their dorsal fins are exposed. In Herald Bight off Western Australia, a known nursery, juvenile sicklefin lemon sharks frequent open areas and mangroves in water under 3 m (9.8 ft) deep, but not areas covered by the seagrass Posidonia australis. = = Description = = The sicklefin lemon shark has a robust, stocky body and a short, broad head. The snout is rounded or almost wedge-shaped, with small nostrils bearing triangular flaps of skin in front. The eyes are small, with no spiracles. Short furrows are present at the corners of the mouth. Thirteen to 16 (usually 14) tooth rows occur on either side of both jaws, not including the tiny teeth at the symphysis (the jaw midline). The upper teeth have a large cusp rising from a broad base, with a notch on each side; these teeth become increasingly angled towards the corners of the mouth. The lower teeth resemble the upper teeth, but are narrower and more erect. The teeth of sharks over 1.4 m (4.6 ft) long are finely serrated. The fins (especially the dorsal, pectoral, and pelvics) of the sicklefin lemon shark are more falcate (sickle-shaped) than those of the otherwise very similar American lemon shark. The first dorsal fin is positioned closer to the pelvic than the pectoral fins. The second dorsal fin, nearly equal to the first in size, is located over or slightly forward of the anal fin. No ridge is seen between the dorsal fins. The pectoral fins are long and broad, originating below the space between the third and fourth gill slits. The anal fin has a strong notch in the rear margin. The precaudal pit (a cavity just forward of the caudal fin) is oriented longitudinally. The large dermal denticles are overlapping and bear three to five horizontal ridges each. The coloration is a plain yellowish brown or gray above and lighter below, with more yellow on the fins. This species attains a maximum known length of 3.8 m (12 ft), though it typically does not exceed 3.1 m (10 ft). = = Biology and ecology = = A sluggish species, the sicklefin lemon shark is usually seen cruising sedately just above the sea bottom or lying still on it, as unlike most requiem sharks, it is capable of actively pumping water over its gills. However, it will approach the surface in pursuit of food. This shark seldom undertakes long-distance movements. A study at Aldabra Atoll in the Seychelles found, of the tagged sharks that were later recaptured, over 90% were still within 2 km (1.2 mi) of their initial tagging location. Another study at Moorea in French Polynesia found that some of the local sharks were year-round residents of the island, while others were more transitory and visited only occasionally. Over 90% of the sicklefin lemon shark's diet consists of bottom- and shore-dwelling teleosts, including herring, mullets, mackerel, silversides, needlefish, smelt-whitings, porgies, sea catfish, triggerfish, parrotfish, and porcupinefish. Occasionally, they may also take cephalopods and crustaceans, and older individuals have been known to consume stingrays and guitarfish. This species may be preyed upon by larger sharks. Known parasites include the tapeworms Paraorygmatobothrium arnoldi, Pseudogrillotia spratti, Phoreiobothrium perilocrocodilus, and Platybothrium jondoeorum. Sicklefin lemon sharks have been documented resting on the bottom and eliciting cleanings by bluestreak cleaner wrasses (Labroides dimidiatus), during which they may open their mouths and stop respiring for as long as 150 seconds to give the wrasses access to their mouths and gills. As with other members of its family, the sicklefin lemon shark is viviparous; the developing embryos are sustained by a placental connection formed from their depleted yolk sacs. Females give birth to one to 13 (usually six to 12) pups every other year in shallow nursery areas, following a gestation period of 10 – 11 months. Unlike in the American lemon shark, cant evidence indicates this species is philopatric (returns to the site of their birth to reproduce). Parturition occurs in October or November at Madagascar and Aldabra, and in January at French Polynesia; ovulation and mating for nonpregnant females takes place at around the same time. The embryos develop a placenta after around four months of gestation, when they still possess vestiges of external gills. The young are born at a length of 45 – 80 cm (18 – 31 in). Juvenile sharks grow slowly, at a rate of 12.5 – 15.5 cm (4.9 – 6.1 in) per year. Both sexes attain sexual maturity at a length of 2.2 – 2.4 m (7.2 – 7.9 ft). = = Human interactions = = Several apparently unprovoked attacks on humans have been attributed to the sicklefin lemon shark. Due to its formidable size and teeth, it is regarded as potentially dangerous, and certainly this species has been known to defend itself quickly and vigorously if touched, speared, or otherwise provoked or alarmed. Once agitated, this shark can be a persistent adversary; in one case, a shark forced a swimmer to seek refuge atop a coral head, and circled for hours before giving up. However, observations by divers show that normally this shark is shy and hesitant to approach, even when presented with bait. Often, the shark will move away when a diver enters visual range. Young sharks are reportedly more aggressive and inquisitive than the adults. At Moorea, sicklefin lemon sharks are the main attraction of daily shark-feeding ecotourism dives. This shark adapts well to captivity and is displayed in public aquariums. The IUCN has assessed the sicklefin lemon shark globally as Vulnerable; it is harvested using anchored and floating gillnets, beach nets, and longlines. The meat is sold fresh or dried and salted for human consumption, the fins used for shark fin soup, and the liver oil is processed for vitamins. The sicklefin lemon shark is highly susceptible to local overfishing, due to its slow reproductive rate and limited movements. Off Southeast Asia, this shark has become scarce under the pressure of expanding, unmonitored, and unregulated fisheries, and has been assessed there as Endangered by the IUCN. Widespread habitat degradation, including pollution and blast fishing on coral reefs and deforestation in mangroves, poses an additional threat to the survival of this species in the region. Already, the sicklefin lemon shark has been extirpated in parts of India and Thailand, and has not been reported from Indonesian markets in recent years despite being historically abundant there. Off Australia, the sicklefin lemon shark is taken in only small numbers intentionally and as bycatch, and has been listed under Least Concern.

= Flammulated flycatcher = The flammulated flycatcher (Deltarhynchus flammulatus) is a species of bird in the Tyrannidae family and is the only species in the monotypic genus Deltarhynchus, although it is closely related to the birds of the genus Myiarchus. It is endemic to the dry deciduous forest, arid thorn forest, and scrubby woodland of Mexico ’ s Pacific coast. The flycatcher is an olive to gray-brown bird with a streaked, pale gray chest, white throat, black bill, dark gray feet, and dark brown wings. It is a skulking bird that typically remains hidden in the underbrush. It feeds by gleaning insects off of leaves and twigs that it spots from an exposed perch. The female lays approximately three eggs in a nest made in a shallow tree cavity. = = Taxonomy = = The species was first described in 1875 by ornithologist George Newbold Lawrence, who placed this species in the genus Myiarchus. However, in 1893 it was split from Myiarchus into the new, monotypic genus Deltarhynchus by Robert Ridgway because of its shorter and broader bill, more rounded wings, and partially streaked underparts. This change was upheld in 1901 by Richard Bowdler Sharpe and by subsequent authors. However, in 1977 ornithologist Melvin Alvah Traylor Jr., while upholding its status as a monotypic genus, said that the species should be lumped back into Myiarchus if its nesting habits were similar to those of that genus. These doubts were put to rest by Wesley Lanyon's research of the flycatcher in 1979, which confirmed the bird's placement in a monotypic genus. Deltarhynchus is similar to the genus Myiarchus, but is distinguished from it by a broader and shorter bill, more rounded wings, a different face pattern, pale cinnamon wing and tail edgings, voice, streaking on the chest, and the bird's skulking habits. The flammulated flycatcher's generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek words delta, which means "delta-shaped" or, in this case, "wedge", and rhynchos, which means "beak". Its specific epithet is derived from the Latin word flammula, which means "little flame". The flycatcher has no subspecies. = = Description = = The flammulated flycatcher is approximately 6 to 6.5 inches (15-16.5 cm) in length and has a chunky body. Adult males and females are similar in plumage, with each possessing olive to a worn gray-brown upperparts and head. A whitish supraloral stripe and crescent are behind the bird's eyes. It also has a dusky lore. The throat is whitish and the chest is a pale gray with inconspicuous dusky streaking, while the belly and undertail coverts are a pale yellow. Additionally, this species has dark brown, well-rounded wings with pale cinnamon-edged coverts and remiges. The wings are about 3 inches (76 mm) long. The tail is also a dark brown edged with a narrow band of pale cinnamon. It is barely shorter than the wing and slightly rounded. The bird's bill is black, broad, and triangular with a slightly paler base and about half the length of the its head. The legs are a dark gray and end with large, curved, and sharp claws. It has an orange mouth and a brown eye. The juvenile is similar to the adult, although the tail has a broad band of pale cinnamon. = = = Vocalization = = = The flammulated flycatcher mostly sings from April to August, which includes its breeding season, and tends to remain hidden while singing. The song of the flycatcher is a plaintive whistle followed by a short but quick roll. It can also give a plaintive and slurred chew call, which is often sung three to five times in a descending series, as well as a squeaky chatter. Calls are the same for males and females and are given throughout the day to give a location, identify an individual, sound an alarm, and mark the limits of a territory, among other functions. During the breeding season, males give what is known as a dawn song every morning, which includes the calls chee-bee beet and churr-r-r-bee bee in alternation. = = Distribution and habitat = = This flycatcher is endemic to the Pacific lowlands of Mexico's western coast from Sinaloa to western Chiapas, while possibly extending into Guatemala, although this has not been confirmed. The total area that it lives in is estimated to be 66,000 km2 (25,482.7 sq mi). Its range is discontinuous and it is found in low densities when present. It lives in dry deciduous forest, arid and semi-arid thorn forest, and scrubby woodland at about 1000 – 1400 meters (3280 – 4593 ft) above sea level. This species is non-migratory. = = = Status = = = The flammulated flycatcher is listed as being of least concern on the IUCN Red List due to its large range and the belief that the total population numbers over 10,000 individuals; however, no precise estimate on the bird's population exists. While the species is known to be uncommon in parts of its range, its population is not believed to be declining enough to pass the threshold of 30% in ten years or three generations necessary to be listed as near threatened, although the exact population trends also have not been quantified. = = Ecology and behavior = = This flycatcher is a sluggish and skulking species that usually remains in the underbrush. When excited either by an intruder or when attempting to attract a mate, this species raises the feathers on its crown to form what appears to be a crest; however, unlike the closely related genus Myiarchus, it does not bob its head while displaying the crest. = = = Feeding = = = The flammulated flycatcher forages by perching on an open branch and looking outward and downward for prey, which primarily consists of insects. Once it spots a potential meal, the flycatcher rapidly and directly flies at the insect, which is normally on the exposed upper surface of a leaf or twig. It hovers briefly before the insect before grabbing it in its beak and flying away to typically a new perch. = = = Reproduction = = = The flycatcher breeds around June of each year. It nests in shallow tree cavities that are surprisingly close to the ground, at approximately 90 centimeters above it. The nest is shaped like a cup and is composed of fine vegetable fibers, dried leaves, and shredded bark. Unlike the similar Myiarchus flycatchers, it does not use snakeskin or other materials to build its nest. The female lays three eggs that are creamy to pinkish in color and are decorated with brown and gray splotches.

= Ontario Highway 89 = King's Highway 89, commonly referred to as Highway 89, is an east – west provincially maintained highway in the southwestern portion of the Canadian province of Ontario, stretching 107 kilometres (66 mi) from the junction of Highway 9 and Highway 23 in Harriston in the west, to Highway 400 just east of Cookstown in the east. The principal urban centres along the highway include Alliston, Shelburne and Mount Forest. Outside of these towns, the highway travels through rural farmland across a large part of southwestern Ontario. Highway 89 was established in 1937 as a result of the rerouting of Highway 9 between Orangeville and Highway 27. In 1963, the route was extended west to Palmerston and east to Highway 400. Plans were conceived during the late 1970s to push the highway further east to Highway 12 via Ravenshoe Road, resulting in a brief extension to Highway 11. However, environmental protest over the chosen route through the Holland Marsh resulted in the cancellation of plans in 1986. In 1997, the section between Highway 400 and Highway 11 was decommissioned. The most recent change to the route took place in 2003, when the section of Highway 89 between Palmerston and Harriston was renumbered as part of Highway 23, creating a shared terminus at a junction with Highway 9. = = Route description = = The route forms the main streets of several of the small towns that dot the highway east to west, namely Cookstown, Alliston and Shelburne. The highway also forms the backbone of many small villages and hamlets between the larger centres, such as Conn, Keldon, Primrose, Violet Hill, Rosemont and Nicolston. The highway formerly continued past its current eastern terminus at Highway 400 to Yonge Street, formerly Highway 11, in the hamlet of Fennell. This section is now numbered as Simcoe County Route 3 and known locally as Shore Acres Drive. The highway also continued past its current western terminus in Harriston, taking the route to Palmerston that is now numbered as Highway 23. The highway mostly runs through farmland and small communities, although the route does pass by Earl Rowe Provincial Park and the Honda car manufacturing plant in the Alliston area. Other parks and natural areas that are close to the route are Boyne Valley Provincial Park and Mono Cliffs Provincial Park, both of which are located on the Niagara Escarpment. Further west is the Luther Marsh Conservation Area, a vast wilderness area that surrounds Luther Lake. = = History = = Highway 89 was created out of a highway rerouting in the late 1930s. Originally, it formed the routing of Highway 9, which until then turned north at Orangeville, travelling concurrently with Highway 10, then turning east to Cookstown. On February 10, 1937, Highway 9 was rerouted along its present course east of Orangeville. By 1938, Highway 89 was designated along the former route of Highway 9. Highway 89 remained as-is until the early 1960s, when it was extended west to Palmerston and east to Highway 400. On April 1, 1963, the highway was assumed through the counties of Dufferin, Grey and Wellington. The section between Highway 27 and Highway 400 was assumed the following day. During the mid-1970s, Highway 89 was extended east to Highway 11 at Fennell. This section was eventually returned to the jurisdiction of Simcoe County on April 1, 1997. During the spring of 2003, the MTO renumbered several highways to improve route continuity. Among these was the renumbering of a section of Highway 89 between Harriston and Palmerston. The result of this renumbering was a shared terminus between Highway 89 and Highway 23 at an intersection with Highway 9. = = = Extension to Highway 12 = = = During the late 1970s, plans arose to create a new highway link on the south side of Lake Simcoe to connect Highway 400 and Highway 12. The route for this extension was announced on June 30, 1978. It was to follow 11th Line from Highway 400 east to the Holland Marsh, where it would cross towards the northeast onto the alignment of Ravenshoe Road (York Road 32). The extension would traverse the length of Ravenshoe Road to Lakeridge Road (Durham Road 23), where it would zig-zag onto Concession Road 7 to end immediately north of Sunderland. However, heavy environmental protests ensued over the chosen route through the marsh. Consequently, then Transportation Minister Ed Fulton officially cancelled the extension on April 21, 1986. The proposal has since been reborn as the Bradford Bypass. = = Major intersections = = The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 89, as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario.

= Luke Smith (writer) = Luke Michael Smith is an American writer. He is a staff member at Bungie, a video game development company, and is a former video games journalist. Smith wrote for a college newspaper and weekly papers in Michigan before being hired as one of the first new freelance writers for Kotaku. At Kotaku, Smith developed his writing style but soon left the site for a staff position as 1UP.com's news editor. Smith made a name for himself at 1UP, particularly through an article he wrote focusing on problems with the game Halo 2. Smith was known for his direct approach to game journalism and scathing criticism of the video game industry. During his time at 1UP the site developed a greater profile and stepped out of its sister publication's shadow, but Smith grew frustrated with the contemporary state of gaming news and what he considered manipulation of journalists and readers into accepting promotional material as news. In April 2007 he left 1UP to become a Bungie writer and co-host of the developer's podcast. = = Early career = = Smith gradually entered into game journalism while working on an English Literature degree at the University of Michigan, writing about media in the college newspaper. After graduation, he worked for weekly papers in Dearborn and Detroit, Michigan, including Real Detroit Weekly. Clive Thompson, a games writer with Slate, interacted with Smith over AOL Instant Messenger and the two began to bounce ideas off of each other for their respective writing projects; when games blog Kotaku started to expand from one writer (founder Brian Crecente), Thompson recommended Smith. Smith credits his time at Kotaku for helping him come into his own, develop his style and learn about attribution and citing sources, but he left after a short period of time. "At the time stories (on Kotaku) were unsigned. Kotaku was like the Brian Crecente vision. If I posted something or [fellow writer Brian Ashcraft] did people thought [Crecente] did. Also, there was no health insurance, it was just full-time freelance." = = 1UP.com journalism = = Smith served as the news editor for 1UP.com, the sister site to the now-defunct magazine Electronic Gaming Monthly. During his tenure at 1UP, Smith wrote extensively about the Halo video game franchise, as was considered a leading fan voice; in one article, he declared Halo was the only game series he cared about. Smith wrote a feature story for 1UP in 2005 called "Broken Halo", in which he explained how developer Bungie could fix problems he perceived with the game; Crecente said the article put Smith "on the map". Smith also became one of the panelists of the 1UP Yours show, a weekly video games podcast featuring gaming editors and experts. In 2006, Edge named him one of gaming's top 50 journalists. Play.d magazine credited Smith with inspiring gamers to learn more about the game industry and not accept company promotion, as well as turning 1UP from "the bastard child of EGM" to an important part of the Ziff Davis Internet company's gaming network. His style has been described as a "robust, direct approach" to journalism and is known for his scathing attacks on the industry. Smith, however, felt disheartened by the state of game journalism. "Video game journalism is just weird. You have guys married to women in marketing for the games they cover. Video game journalism is still very young, very early, still trying to find out what it is," he said. In an interview with Michael Zenke of The Escapist, Smith said he felt game journalists were treated by developers as another part of the PR plan, with developers sending out information and the journalists "regurgitating" it. Worse, Smith felt that gamers had become used to this sort of information; "We have to be responsible for our actions and held accountable when we manipulate the expectations of gamers," he told Zenke. While he was becoming more frustrated with the field at 1UP, game developer Bungie contacted Smith about employment. After sending the company his resume, Smith stopped writing about Bungie and Microsoft to avoid a conflict of interest. Smith accepted a job offer a month later. = = Bungie = = In April 2007, Smith announced on a 1UP podcast he was leaving the site to work for Bungie. Reaction to Smith's announcement varied; some were happy or sad to see him leave, while others felt he had "sold out." Smith joined the ranks of other former game journalists who left to work for game companies, including 1UP expatriate Che Chou, who joined Microsoft Game Studios, and former GameSpot chief Greg Kasavin, who became an associate producer for Electronic Arts. Bungie staff hinted in a weekly update that Smith might play a role in the developer's podcast. Smith officially began work on May 7, 2007, as content editor, providing fans and the Bungie readership with information about Bungie's game and staff. Smith believed that there was a special opportunity for game developers, "for someone to come in and tell the stories that people want to know [...] Right now you have four bridges between developer and reader: Developer to PR, to journalist to reader. [This position] could get rid of those middle two bridges." While Bungie had historically been good at letting fans interact via forums and provided updates and artwork via their site, Bungie.net, the company's releases had a "corporate and muted tone to it," and made less effort and been less successful historically at providing access to the inner workings of the game studio. As part of a change to become more transparent, Bungie took steps repeated throughout the industry to allow fans more say and recruiting respected voices from the community — namely, Smith. Robertson credited Smith's tenure as aiding Bungie's greater focus on, "building, supporting and learning from the Halo 3 community." He is credited as a writer on Halo 3. Smith also hosted Bungie's podcast show along with co-host Brian Jarrard; in an interview with his former coworkers at 1UP, Smith said of the Bungie podcast, "we [Bungie] are focusing on getting our listeners and fans familiar with a bunch of the different faces at Bungie studios." Brought back after close to a year-long hiatus, the podcast now features Bungie news and interviews with staff members about their jobs and working at the studio. Smith had the title of "Bungie Community Manager" at Bungie, and has given interviews with the press about the company's recent products, including Halo 3: ODST. Smith was among other writers-turned-game developers who held a discussion on the topic at the 2009 Game Developers Conference. Smith worked on player investment for Halo: Reach. He worked as design lead on Bungie's 2014 video game Destiny.