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does eating lactose while lactose intolerant have cumulative negative effects? | does the intolerance have long term effects, if the immediate symptoms are ignored? | the lactose itself does nothing in people with lactose intolerance, they just can't digest it. the bacteria that feast on the undigested lactose that enters the intestine cause the problem. if you don't eat lactose for a longer period you'll have less lactose-consuming bacteria in your intestinal flora. if instead you eat lactose regularly your intestinal flora will contain more lactose-consuming bacteria. which will result in a stronger reaction. so no real permanent damage but eating lactose will worsen it. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why do mirrors reflect light? | i believe i learned once before in school but i seem to have forgotten. it has been boggling my mind for the past week or so. | every object reflects light; it is this reflected light that enters our eye and allows us to see the object. mirrors are special in that they reflect nearly all the wavelengths (colors), and the substance doing the reflecting is very smooth on a molecular scale, so you don't have tiny scatterings of the reflected light in different directions due to microscopic bumps in the material. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/QED-Strange-Princeton-Science-Library/dp/0691125759",
"http://lesswrong.com/lw/pk/feynman_paths/"
] | [
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is there definitive scientific evidence that the universe is, in fact, infinitely expanding? | hope it's not a dumb question. | there's clear evidence that the expansion is happening and that it's accelerating. if we assume this will keep going then eventually all galaxies become isolated from each other and something like a [heat death](_url_0_) occurs. but no one knows if the expansion will keep on going. we don't even have a good theory for the acceleration yet. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe"
] | [
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] |
do fish smell like the sea, or does the sea smell like fish? | the sea has a distinctive smell in different locations in the world, but fish have their own separate smell, not the same as the sea. speaking as a [circumnavigator](_url_0_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://arachnoid.com/sailbook"
] | [
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|
would the impact of a very big meteor like the one causing the dinosaurs extinction be noticeable around the world? | the impact that killed the dinosaurs was estimated to be around 100 *million megatons* tnt equivalent. by comparison, the tsar bomba was 50 megatons and the shock wave circled the world 2-3 times, detectable by standard instrumentation. the sheer amount of debris and the weather change would be quite noticeable to any naked-eye observer. such an impact would be 2 *million* tsar bombas. edit: i should have mentioned the tsar bomba is the most powerful nuclear bomb ever tested. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
so how do nuts have fat? i mean, fat is a somewhat complex molecule that animals use. what is a plant doing with them? | this is just something i've always wondered. it doesn't make sense to me. | plants have plenty of lipid molecules, just like like animals. they serve as a compact form of energy storage, in addition to parts of some essential cell components such as plasma membranes and the basis for some cell signaling molecules such as steroids. as a rule, most plant lipids are oils, which are liquid at room temperature, rather than fats, which are solid at room temperature. but in the functions they serve in the body and how the body processes them, the difference between fats and oils is mostly arbitrary - you body is not at room temperature anyways. and there are certainly examples of plant "fats", a good example being [cocoa butter](_url_0_). | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocoa_butter"
] | [
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] |
why is it that some craters, notably on the moon, have a small elevation in the centre/point of impact? | i've read that the central uplifts are due to gravity but i don't understand the role of gravity there. | i think [tycho](_url_2_), a young crater on the moon, is a good example of this. what is going on is that a large impact produces enormous pressure, well above the ultimate compressive strength of the rock. as a result, the rock behaves as a fluid, and you get dynamics similar to [droplets of water](_url_3_). the impact spreads the rock out, but after that the rock flows back into the depression. the momentum creates a spike in the middle. as the pressure dissipates the rock eventually freezes in place. the larger the impact is, the longer the rock will be able to flow. so a small impact produces a [simple crater](_url_1_) that looks like a bowl, because the rock never flows back to the center. a larger impact produces the [central peak](_url_0_) as we discussed. even larger impacts can produce a [central ring](_url_4_) if the peak has time to flow back out. again, all these intermediate stages appear in the water droplets. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/news/uploads/LROCiotw/bullialdus.png",
"http://cosmoquest.org/x/explore/files/2014/02/600px-Moon_SimpleCrater.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_(crater\\)#/media/File:Tycho_LRO.png",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NF8aQHwcKN0",
"http://www.impact-structures.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/rachmaninoff-peak-ring.png"
] | [
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if matter is never created or destroyed, that would mean that there is a set amount of matter, right? but the universe is infinite. how? | there is a fixed amount of mass-energy - matter can become energy and energy can become matter, but none can be created or destroyed. the observable universe is not infinite, and since we can't "see" anything past the edge of the observable universe (there has not been enough time in all of history for light to get from there to here), that doesn't really matter. just like the question of parallel universes or what happened before the big bang, it simply isn't in the domain of things that science has the ability to know about. we do know that the density of the observable universe, when you look at it from a large enough scale, seems to be uniform. we don't know and don't care if it continues to be uniform past that horizon - anything out there is far far away, and thanks to the expansion of the universe, it is getting farther away at a rate faster than the speed of light - it cannot possibly have any impact on us, so we simply will never know. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress%E2%80%93energy_tensor"
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|
does data stored on a computer or flash drive have weight? | i know we aren't going to be able to feel the difference between a tb and a kb, but is there a difference on a molecular level. or is it all energy and has no weight. | as i mentioned in another similar thread, imagine that you have two sets of eight coins. one of the sets is all heads (hhhhhhhh) while the other is (htththht), representing the number 105. do the two sets of coins weigh any differently? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are cold beverages generally preferred over regular beverages? (i.e. cold coke is better than warm coke) | this never dawned on me until yesterday. is there any reason to this? | this question has been asked [many times before.](_url_0_) from what i remember the consensus is that the preference for cold drinks is mostly just a peculiarity of western culture. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=cold+drink&restrict_sr=on"
] | [
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if looking at an angled galaxy, like andromeda, through a telescope, is the light from the far end of the galaxy 200,000 years or so older that the front end? | [andromeda galaxy](_url_0_) if so, is the shape of the actual galaxy different from what we see? | yes, but not by very much. the the closer part of the galaxy is a more recent image of what's going on in that particular region of andromeda, while the far side is an older one. this gives a slightly skewed or warped perception of the state of the galaxy as a whole, but it's minimal and doesn't cause anything that would significantly impact our perception of andromeda's shape, or its composition, distance, etc. despite the differences being potentially hundreds of thousands of light-years depending on what points you choose to look at, it needs to be remembered just how enormous galaxies are, how far away they are from earth, and how slowly they rotate from the perspective of a distant observer. combine these factors, and you realize that the distortion of the entire image of andromeda is negligible. | 10 | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Andromeda_Galaxy_%28with_h-alpha%29.jpg"
] | [] | [
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if our skin regenerates every 27 days, then how do tattoos last a lifetime? | tattoos only need to be 2-3 layers deep...only our top layer of skin really 'regenerates'. when a fresh tattoo heals, the top layer peels off like a sunburn, & the ink stays underneath. we can't get ink to stay in that thin top layer, because it sheds off. feet & hands have more layers & are replaced faster, which is why tattoos don't stay as well in feet/hands. if you have a tattoo & get a deep cut or scrape, the ink is taken out, & will heal with a 'hole' in the tattoo. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
wouldn't pesticides have to be non-water soluble to resist rain? if so, what is the point of washing fruit and vegetables before eating them? | pesticides used directly on food crops are not supposed to resist rain, at least not to the extent that they persist and poison people. pesticides are often washed away by rain which is often part of the guidelines for use - rain can shorten the preharvest interval that is needed before crops can be harvested. the pre harvest interval is needed to ensure that the pesticide levels are below maximum guidelines (maximum residue limit) required by regulatory agencies. normally the use directions will specify weather conditions suitable for spraying (such as avoiding spraying before a rain and during high winds). also, a pesticide that can't be mixed with water would be pretty hard to apply. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how is light pulled toward black holes if photons have no mass? | because gravity isn't an interaction between two masses. classically it is, but that's because newtonian gravity is a low energy approximation to general relativity. gravity is actually an interaction between various things (including mass) and *spacetime*; since light travels through spacetime, it can't avoid being affected by gravity. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
despite the both being governed by inverse square laws, why are planetary orbits elliptical but atomic orbits are circular (in the classical model)? | the people who developed the classical model didn't exactly know how the electrons were moving around. they just noticed that the electrons were moving around the nucleus *somehow*. the development of the classical model was an extrapolation that fit with the data at the time. that's why classical electrons orbit the nucleus, travel in circular paths, and have defined positions, even though modern electrons don't. it was the simplest explanation. the physics of planetary movement, on the other hand, are accurate models. that's why all the intricacies have been developed and standardized. they actually act like the model. electrons don't. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sommerfeld_ellipses.svg"
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|
can there be two planets close enough that they share a moon in a figure 8 pattern around both bodies? | sort of. it wouldn't exactly be a figure 8 pattern because the planets would be orbiting each other, so the moon could only switch orbits during certain alignments of the three bodies. more likely, you would have two stars with a planet that switches orbits between them. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if global warming ramps up c02 in the atmosphere, wouldn't that potentially cause plants to grow bigger and faster as it got worse? | i could be completely wrong in my understanding, but from what i assume we are really just worried about our liveable conditions in the environment. when plant life will, like they always have, thrive on warmer temperatures and increased c02 in the atmosphere. it could eventually pan out that we will find it difficult to live in new evolutions in climate change. but from what i gather this only means other organisms will have a better chance to thrive. kind of like mother natures way of forcing us to stay in-doors, because we couldn't play with the rest of the kids nicely. | one might *expect* plants to do better in higher co2 concentrations, but realistically only plants where co2 is the limiting nutrient will have any significant short-term improvement due to increasing co2 levels. and while this question is ongoing and still very much being studied, it looks like co2 is only rarely the limiting nutrient in plants. or, in other words, plants already tend to get all the co2 they need. as jamesj points out, the level of co2 necessary to see a response in plant growth in the short term is extremely high. now in the long run, higher co2 concentrations may very well make some mutations advantageous and plants may adapt to take advantage of it - but that would require co2 levels remain elevated for quite some time, when realistically the majority of co2 only stays in the atmosphere for less than a thousand years, and humans aren't going to be able to sustain modern co2 emissions without some major technological breakthroughs (which would probably involve removing co2 from the atmosphere in the first place). whether warmer temperatures helps plants depends. more than temperature, precipitation is the important factor here. which is why you can get incredibly high biomass in rainforests in relatively cool climates (temperate rainforests). if future climate change involves higher temperatures *and* higher precipitation in most areas, then one might expect plants to eventually do well (even if the plants that do well replace the native plants in a region). if future climate change involves higher temperatures and lower precipitation in most areas, then one might expect plants to do very poorly. but arguably, all this is still missing the most important point. *even if* human-caused climate change eventually turns the planet into something more suitable for plant and/or animal life, the process of shifting climates will still result in the pre-mature deaths of countless trillions of animals and plants. yes, the planet will go on supporting life after humans do whatever we are going to do with it, but that doesn't there won't be associated suffering and loss due to human activity. the human organism will be quite capable of surviving any projected degree of climate change, but the socioeconomic impacts of climate change will cause an unknowable amount of damage to the human species. so it's less like: and more like: > we're the schoolyard bully, and we killed 50% of the other school children in the playground, and injured ourselves in the process. we end up re-taking third grade while a new batch of students arrives and mother nature crosses her fingers that we don't do it all over again. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if our universe is expanding at certain rate which started at the time of the big bang approx 13.8 billion lightyears ago with current radius of 46.6 billion lightyears, what is causing this expansion? | consider this as a follow-up question to /r/askscience/comments/5omsce/if_we_cannot_receive_light_from_objects_more_than posted by /u/codereaper regarding expansion of the universe. best example that i've had so far are expansion of bread dough and expansion of the balloon w.r.t. how objects are moving away from each other. however, in all these scenarios there's constant energy applied i.e in case of bread dough the fermentation (or respective chemical reactions), in case of baloon some form of pump. what is this pump in case of universe which is facilitating the expansion? | good question. here's an analogy. imagine you throw a ball in the air - really, really hard. after the ball leaves your hand, it is moving up in the air. now, if someone looks over and sees this ball flying up in the air they might ask "how is that ball flying through the air on its own!?!?" of course, it is because you threw it! this is exactly what happened with the universe. based on our current understanding of cosmology, the big bang caused the universe to begin expanding very rapidly. why? that's a great question and still one of hot debate. so what happens next? well, in our ball analogy, the ball will slow down as it gets higher and higher due to the force of gravity of the earth. this is exactly the same for the universe. due to the gravity of all the stuff in the universe, the expansion of space slowed after the big bang. in fact, if the total mass density of the universe was above some critical value, the universe would eventually halt its expansion and begin contracting, just as the ball will eventually reach its highest point and start falling. perhaps the universe did not have enough mass density to cause it to recollapse? then what would happen? well, that would be like if we threw the ball so hard that the force of gravity of the earth could not stop it. the ball would slow down for a while, escape the earth's gravity, then coast along forever. these two ideas are summarized [in this figure](_url_0_). the x-axis is time, and the y-axis is called the "scale factor" which is a way of visualizing the size of the universe. in our first example, we would be in a "closed" universe where the universe eventually re-collapses and we get a "big crunch". the second example is like the "flat" or "negative curvature" lines where the ball just coasts on forever. you might have heard that the universe is accelerating. that was one of the greatest discoveries of our time. now we have a completely different scenario. imagine if you threw up your ball, it went up and slowed down a bit, but then suddenly it started speeding up and flying higher and higher, faster and faster. you would assume some magical force is pushing the ball up, and you would be right! this seems to be what is happening in our universe. we've given this mysterious force the name "dark energy", and it is causing the universe to accelerate! this is indicated by the "dark energy" curve on that graph. | 581 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nat.vu.nl/~wimu/Varying-Constants-Pictures/Time-Scale-Universe.jpg"
] | [
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how much carbon dioxide is stored in leaves, then released back into the atmosphere through decay each year? | you can see how much atmospheric carbon fluctuates seasonally by looking at monitoring station data, such as [these data from noaa](_url_1_). the red curve is the mean measurement from their obervation stations. as you can see, it peaks every year in spring followed by a 3-4 month draw down caused by the northern hemisphere growing season and associated photosynthesis. this is then followed by rising measurements again in fall and winter due to respiration of the senesced material. the average yearly swing between the minima and maxima of this atmospheric co2 cycle is about 6 ppm. according to the [conversion tables provided here](_url_0_), 1 ppm of co2 in the atmosphere is equivalent to about 7.80 gigatons of co2 or 2.13 gigatons if only considering the carbon. so the yearly fluctuation due to photosynthesis and respiration is apparently around 13,000,000,000 tons of carbon. this underestimates the total amount of carbon that is fixed and respired every year because the southern hemisphere cycle is 6 months offset, reducing the observed carbon flux. it also includes algal fixation, not just land plants. in general northern hemisphere grasslands, agriculture, and deciduous forests are considered to be the greatest contributors to the annual flux, though. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://cdiac.ess-dive.lbl.gov/pns/convert.html",
"https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/global.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_senescence"
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|
why does cyanide kill you so quickly? | hitler and many other german officials committed suicide near the end of wwii using cyanide pill which they administered to themselves by breaking the pill with their teeth and swallowing the cyanide. they died almost instantaneously. why? doesn't your stomach have to process it first? what about stomach acids? or am i looking in the wrong direction here? p.s. i asked r/askreddit and they sent me here. i knew i should have come here first. edit - thanks for the great responses! you guys shed the light on this. i had no idea it actually blocks oxygen and you are suffocated. thank you guys! | cyanide can be ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin. it acts by blocking the cytochrome c oxidase enzyme which is an essential part of intracellular oxygen utilisation. what this means is that the cells can no longer use oxygen at a tissue level, no matter that they are being supplied at adequate amounts. thus you are in effect suffocated. this explains why it acts so quickly - it is a small molecule that can be absorbed easily, and its mechanism of action is on oxygen utilisation. | 51 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_of_Adolf_Hitler"
] | [
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how does cyanide kill you? | i've been researching for a school paper but can't really find a reliable source. if you could explain it with sources that would be great. | cyanide ion mainly acts as a poison by inhibiting your cellular metabolism. the cellular metabolism for most cells in your body involves two main phases: an anaerobic portion called glycolysis that generates, from glucose - the starting precursor sugar for metabolism - pyruvic acid, a partially oxidized product, and a small amount of atp (a cellular energy currency) and nadh, which is a high-electron energy carrier in its reduced form. further, pyruvate crosses into the mitochondrion of the cell in the presence of oxygen and is converted to acetyl-coa, which is broken down in the krebs cycle, which also forms atp as well as nadh and fadh2 (another high-electron reduced energy carrier). the vast amount of atp, and hence energy, production in the cellular metabolism occurs in the electron transport chain, which occurs on the inner mitochondrial membrane. in this process, the high-energy electron-carrying reduced nadh and fadh2 produced in earlier steps react with four complexes where electrons are transferred first to complex 1, then to complex 2, and so on for nadh (it's a bit more complex for fadh2). as the electrons go "down the transport chain", their initial free energy is used to pump protons against a concentration gradient from the inner matrix into the space between inner mitochondrial and outer mitochondrial membranes. this maintains the inner matrix at a ph of 7.8, whereas the intermembrane space is at a lower ph of 5, signifying the abundancy of protons. the electron is finally transferred to oxygen, which reacts with h+ and 4e- to form two water molecules in the last step. lastly, atp synthase on the inner membrane is a molecular motor-type enzyme that uses the h+ concentration gradient free energy to drive forward the phosphorylation of adp into atp. possibly the most important complex in the electron transport chain on the inner mitochondrial membrane is the complex iv, which catalyzes the flow of electrons from complex iii to molecular oxygen, and also transfers one proton from the matrix to the intermembrane space (on average) per electron transferred to molecular oxygen. the most important enzyme in complex iv is cytochrome c oxidase, which contains a copper(ii) ion in the active site, as well as heme groups. copper(ii) affinity for cyanide ion is large, as well as fe(iii) affinity, and specifically it was shown that the cu(ii)-b binding site on cytochrome c oxidase was the binding site for cyanide. cyanide binds to this enzyme when it is in its reduced active form, and prevents electron transfer to molecular oxygen. if hcn is inhaled, this occurs first in the lungs, which causes lung tissue to be unable to contract and expand (necessary for breathing). it also binds strongly to hemoglobin in the blood. sources: wikipedia and _url_0_ | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.jbc.org/content/269/39/24114.full.pdf"
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why do lcd monitors have fixed refresh rates? | why wouldn't an lcd monitor just be able to draw at whatever rate the image data is coming in at? | this is an appropriate question for askscience. anyways, a fixed refresh rate makes sense for lcds. they hold their images between refreshes, so they don't "flicker" like crts do. you want the entire lcd screen to refresh at the same time, to eliminate "tearing" of the image, but you don't know exactly how fast the image will be coming it. so the solution was to create a maximum frame rate, and to always refresh at that rate. a variable refresh rate wouldn't have any real advantages, except for possibly very minor energy savings. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do modern lcd monitors stick to the refresh rate model of crts? | as far as i know, the only part that could induce flicker is the backlight, and that operates at a much higher rate (200hz according to wikipedia). | _url_0_ this is a decent source to read and answers your question. anyhow, crt frame rate was is better than your average lcd monitor now days. crt monitors were usually equivalent to 75hz - 85hz. lcds on average are 60hz. the source i posted stated that it has to do with the electrical standards of america. ignore what people say about the human eye and mind when it comes to refresh rate. there is a lot of false information out there in regards to this. the human eye sees way more than 60fps. the human eye can also perceive things to be smooth even with things at something much lower, like 24fps. this is explained in the article i linked as well. | 38 | [] | [] | [
"http://m.cnet.com/news/what-is-refresh-rate/57524894"
] | [
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